International Journal of Innovative Research and Knowledge Volume-4 Issue-4, April 2019

INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF INNOVATIVE RESEARCH AND KNOWLEDGE ISSN-2213-1356 www.ijirk.com

Types of assistive technology devices used for reading and writing by persons with visual impairments

NSAGHA Sarah MBOSHI Department of Educational Psychology, Faculty of Education, University of Buea, Box 63, Buea, Cameroon

ABSTRACT Background: People who are visually impaired or partially sighted are unable to read printed text, or have great difficulty seeing various sizes of text material. Writing materials must be enlarged or transcribed into a tactile or auditory media. For people who have visual impairments, as well as those sighted peers, producing written materials is essential for communicating with teachers, family and friends.Assistive technology is greatly changing the modern-day society because these devices help persons with visual impairments to improve on their various skills and function better. Aim: Appraise the various types of assistive technology devices for braille reading and writing by persons with visual impairments. Methods: A traditional structured literature review to identify publications on the types of assistive technology devices for Braille reading and writing for people with visual impairments was carried out on google scholar, special education citations, and social sciences citations using the keywords: assistive technology, braille reading and writing and . We also reviewed text books on the major themes, publications by foundations and institutions, technical and workshop reports, and conference proceedings. We equally accessed and retrieved data from websites. Reference lists for important citations on the types of assistive technology for Braille reading and writing by the visually impaired were also scanned. Results: Assistive technology devices include old Braille technological devices such as the Perkins Brailler, the Stand by Braille Writer, , The Tele-Touch, The Cubarithm, Spur Wheels, The Thermoform Machine, The Optacon, Digicassette Braillex and the Braillex. Modern Braille Technological Devices such as the Braille Note, Keyboards, Textile Text Access, Potable Note taking Devices, Computer Access,

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and Versa Braille can assist the visually impaired through Braille and printed text, and accessing computerised information. Some computer devices used for Braille reading and writing include the Tack-Tiles Braille Systems, Speak Easy Media System, Braille Computer Keyboard, Ovation, Refreshable Braille Display and JAWS. Conclusion: Most modern assistive technology devices are not available to the visually from the developing world.

Keywords: Assistive technology, Braille, reading, writing, visual impairment

INTRODUCTION Assistive technology is greatly changing the modern-day society. There are technological devices that help persons with disabilities to improve on their various skills. Braille language which is the medium of communication for people with visual impairment is very difficult to learn. Both young and old people find it difficult to learn Braille due to many problems such as psychological problems of self adjustment, difficulties in developing the sense of touch and feeling, delay in feedback on what they can read and write as they use the local way of writing more especially when they are using the slate and stylus. In the course of removing the paper or sheet before getting the information, there is always a delay which makes learning more difficult. With these difficulties, there is need for the use of assistive technology for Braille reading and writing skills for persons with visual impairments. Braille poses a lot of difficulties for many persons with visual impairment. This has hindered them from contributing to the development of modern day society both economically, socially and the educationally (Ebnet, 2001; Carroll Centre for Braille, 2009; Nsagha, 2011).

Assistive technology is redefining what is possible for people with a wide range of cognitive and physical disabilities. In the home, classroom, workplace and community, assistive technology is enabling individuals with disabilities to be more independent, self confident, productive and better integrated into the mainstream society (Nsagha, 2011). In line with this field of thought, the 1997 reauthorization of IDEA (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act) explicitly requires that assistive technology consideration be conducted for all students or children with disabilities. In effect, this mandate added that all children with special needs who are within school age should have access to assistive technology (Edyburn, 2000; Freedom to learn; 2000).

Assistive technology as new as it is in the field of special education has grown considerably even though there is still much to do as far as research is concerned. Persons with visual impairments, whose access to education is through the Braille system of writing and reading, still face difficulties in getting the various assistive technology devices needed for their educational endeavors (Nsagha, 2011).

People who are visually impaired or partially sighted are unable to read printed text, or have great difficulty seeing various sizes of text material. Writing materials must be enlarged or transcribed into a tactile or auditory media. For people who have visual impairments, as well as those sighted peers, producing written materials is essential for communicating with teachers, family and friends. The written ideas must be presented in a form that is understood by every individual (Abang, 1992; Heinich, Molenda & Smaldino, 1999).The study was carried out to appraise the various types of assistive technological devices used for Braille reading and writing.

Methods used for the study A traditional literature review using a structured search to identify publications on the types of assistive technology devices for Braille reading and writing for persons with visual impairments was carried out. The review was conducted on Google scholar, special education and social sciences citations using the keywords:

www.ijirk.com Page 79 International Journal of Innovative Research and Knowledge Volume-4 Issue-4, April 2019 assistive technology, Braille reading and writing and visual impairment. The key documents reviewed were: Handbook of Special Education for Education in Developing Countries, American Foundation for the blind publications, Journal of Special Education Technology, Report of the visual impairment and its rehabilitation panel, university theses,teaching blind and low vision children, Tech BridgeWorld Adaptive Braille Writing Tutor and Braille Program Helps Local Student.We also reviewed text books on the major themes, publications by foundations and institutions, technical and workshop reports, and conference proceedings. We equally accessed and retrieved data from websites. Reference lists for important citation son the use of assistive technology for Braille reading and writing by the visually impaired were also scanned. This study took place from 2007 to 2011.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Assistive technology devices used for Braille reading and writing are classified into two categories as described below.

Old Braille technological devices The old technological devices used for Braille reading and writing skills include the following:

The Perkins Brailler The Perkins brailler is an analogue of a typewriter, which is activated by using six keys with a space bar (Abang, 1992). By depressing the appropriate key combinations of these dots, the user can form 63 combinations that go to make letters of , numbers and operational signs. The Perkins brailler has three models (Abang, 1992) as described below.

The Standard Model: It is an upward Braille writer used for writing Braille only on one side of the Braille paper. The Braille is read as written.

The Jumbo Cell model: It is designed for people who cannot read the standard size Braille. The model produces larger size dots than the standard model. It is recommended for older people who go visually impaired. This is because their sense of touch is no longer sensitive and hence they find it difficult to discriminate between dots of regular sizes (Abang, 1992).

The Unimanual Model: Similar to the standard size model, it is particularly designed for individuals with some physical disabilities who use only one hand. The key for the dots 1, 2 and 3 remain depressed until the remaining key or space bar is used (Abang, 1992).

A Stand by Braille Writer This model is designed to produce normal Braille characters. It consists of an aluminium board on which the machine comprising of a moveable bed plate with sliding carriage and key mechanism is placed. The carriage moves from left to right when the keys are pressed to write the Braille. There is a bell that gives warning before the end of the line. The visually impaired can make use of the sound of the bell to determine when to stop while the deaf visually impaired is supplied with a special stop in the place of the bell (Abang, 1992; Sykes & Ozoji, 1992).

Slate and Stylus The slate is a hinged frame into which Braille paper is clamped. The front section of the slate has openings in rows. These are shaped like the Braille cells. The tip of the stylus is pointed as the spoke of a bicycle though short with a base. With the stylus, the user places the paper down into the depressions and thus forming the

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combination of the dots he wishes to make. The writing is done up side down and it’s written from right to left. It is only after the writing is complete that the paper is turned over. The reading is then done from right to left (Sykes & Ozoji, 1992).

The Tele-Touch This equipment is generally used by the deaf visually impaired. The device has only one Braille cell in which six pins are moved up and down. The user places one finger on the cell, the person communicating type messages on the typewriter. The keyboard is similar to that of a regular typewriter keyboard. By an intricate mechanism system, the appropriate pins in the cell are moved up and down to compare words to the deaf person. This is done letter by letter. The main disadvantage of this device is that it is slow and information cannot be stored, hence information for future reference cannot be available (Abang, 1992).

The Cubarithm It’s a mathematical aid device with a large plastic board consisting of 15 rows of 20 sockets with a lighter plastic cube. Braille characters are written on the cubes. With this devise, the visually impaired can perform arithmetic calculations with speed and accuracy (Anne & Iris, 1988; Abang, 1992).

Spur Wheels There are three types of spur wheels namely: ordinary, cantles and upper embracing types. The Ordinary Spur Wheel is a serrated wheel revolving in a plate metal handle. It is used for making continuous or straight embossed lines on the reverse side of the paper. The Cantles Spur Wheel is specially recommended for making embossed diagrams on the reverse side of the Braille paper. The Upward Embossing Type is used for making embossed lines. The lines so produced are easily identified without one having to reverse the paper.

The Thermoform Machine This is an analogue of a duplicating machine used for duplicating Braille materials and embossed diagrams or tactile diagrams for persons with visual impairments (Abang, 1992).

The Optacon The optacon is a reading device for the visually impaired. It is used for both optical and tactile connections. The user holds a small camera in one hand to read printed material and converts them into impulses. With the index finger of his hand, the user can feel the impulses and numbers through a one inch by one-half inch tactile array of 144 small vibrating rods contained in a portable cassette tape recorder. For example, the letter ‘H’ operates like this: as the camera moves across the letter, the user of the device feels two vertical lines and one horizontal line moving beneath his fingers. In this way, he can identify the letters and combine them to form words. In the same process, he reads pages from printed materials (Abang, 1992).

Digicassette Braillex This device was first produced by a couple, Oleg and Andre Tretiakoff. It is the world’s first portable Braille recorder. It is the size of a portable cassette record/ player. It has a reading board on which it displays Braille, one line at a time with 12 cells per line with six pins within each cell which are used to form Braille characters (Abang, 1992).The storage and pin control aspects are handled by encoding the information as to which pins should be up or down at any given time. In reading, the visually impaired runs his fingers across cells as done in the regular Braille reading. At the end of each line, he presses buttons which automatically change the arrangement of the pins to display the next line stored in the cassette. A single cassette can hold the equivalent of 300 sheets of 11 “11 ½” Braille paper (Abang, 1992).

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Braillex This device was first manufactured in Germany. It has a line of 32 braille cells and is capable of storing the equivalent of 520 pages of Braille on the audio cassette tape. It can also be operated as the regular cassette/recorder and thus could be used in listening to talking books with special code that makes it easy to locate any specific page, chapter or subject. It can be used as a dictionary (Abang, 1992).

Modern Braille technological devices Sophisticated assistive technological devices provide powerful tools to help persons who have visual impairments accomplish their tasks. Special devices can assist students with reading independently, communicating through Braille and printed text, and accessing computerised information (http://www.rnib.org.uk,2011); Mendelssohn, 2000). Some of these devices include the following:

Braille Note The Braille Note assistive technology allows visually impaired individuals to read the text written on the computer screen in Braille format. It translates the text from differed application browsed by the user of written Braille. This tool is useful for visually-impaired people who are familiar with reading Braille and prefer reading to using screen reader software (Mendelssohn, 2000).

Keyboards The visually impaired are taught to use a standard keyboard from grade one since it is the main tool that they can use to navigate between different applications on the computer. Visually impaired individuals can’t use the mouse easily between browsing different applications on a computer (such as the arrows, shift, caps lock and control keys). These keys are essential for students to work easily and choose between different commands shown on the computer screen (Chamot, 2006; Mendelssohn, 2000).

Another way of using the keyboard is to make use of only six keys. These keys represent the Braille cell. Specifically the keys F, D and S on the keyboard represent the dots, 1, 2 and 3 respectively and the keys. J, K and L represent the dots 4, 5 and 6 respectively. This technique is practical for users who are not familiar with the configuration of keys on the keyboard. They can use those six keys to type different letters in Braille and those letters are translated to print text on the computer. Then the printed text can be translated back into Braille note (Mendelssohn, 2000).

Textile Text Access Braille has been used by persons with visual impairments for many decades. This system of various combinations of six raised dots is the only media for producing written material for those individuals who are unable to read printed text. Two levels of Braille, Grade I and Grade II, are used most often. Grade I Braille is similar to ink print, in that every word is written out letter-for-letter. This form of Braille is rarely used as it is very bulky and slows down the reader. Grade II Braille is much like shorthand. Symbols or signs are used to represent frequently used words and combinations of letters. Despite this compact format of Braille, it is still very bulky and requires much storage space (Noura, 2008).

There are a number of Braille codes which meet the needs of various types of written notation. These include nemoth code (used in mathematics), code, and computer Braille codes. Each code uses the same combination of dots, but assigns different meanings to each sign/symbol (Chamot, 2006; Noura, 2008).

Braille is very useful for individuals with visual impairments, but very few sighted individuals know how to read it. The students who have visual impairments have a way of producing information. In the past, this has been done www.ijirk.com Page 82 International Journal of Innovative Research and Knowledge ISSN-2213-1356 with traditional typewriters. A problem arises from this approach when the student must continually transfer his or her hands back and forth from their Braille copy to the typewriter keyboard. Another inherent problem is the visually impaired student’s inability to proofread his or her work (Noura, 2008).

There are now devices available which interface the Perkins Brailler with a computer printer. These devices attached to the Brailler, convert the Braille characters to letters which can be printed out. An internal memory allows the user to edit the written material before printing it (Chamot, 2006; Noura, 2008).

Potable Note taking devices Until recently, students with visual impairments had very few options for taking notes during class. Braille is slow, tape recoding requires time outside class to re-listen to the tape and transcribe it into a hardcopy, and having other classmates take notes is not always reliable. This has changed with the development of portable note taking devices. These devices utilise speech output and/or refreshable Braille display in combination with standard keyboards or a 9-key Perkins Brailler keyboard. These devices are usually lightweight and run on a rechargeable battery or an AC adapter. Information can be stored, retrieved, and edited as well as printed out (Mendelssohn, 2000).

Computer Access The increasing use of computers in the classroom was originally thought to be a major problem for students with visual impairments. Instead, computer technology has given them the advantage they have been waiting for. One computer with the appropriate adaptive equipment can meet the many needs of the individual and the varying needs of people with visual impairments (Mendelssohn, 2000; Noura, 2008; Zabala, 2004).

Information on a computer screen can be enlarged through the use of screen magnifiers, and adaptive hardware installed inside the computer and/or software programs (Noura, 2008). The most popular computer access method for a person with visual impairment is the use of speech-synthesised voice output. This can be achieved by installing a voice synthesiser unit into an external part on the computer. Before a speech synthesiser can produce voice output, a special software program must be run that will interface with both the speech synthesiser and the software program to which you want to gain auditory output (Noura, 2008).

The third method of accessing the computer is through a tactile display, or refreshable Braille display. These devices use 20 sets of six pins each, to represent 20 Braille cells. At the touch of a key, the next or previous 20 characters can be displayed. Computer users who prefer Braille to auditory output find refreshable Braille displays to be irreplaceable. At the present time there are no refreshable Braille display devices capable of displaying graphics.

The computer can also be used for producing hard copy of Braille through the use of Braille embossers. Additional soft wares such as BEX or hardware such as the Ramsley must also be used. These products, as well as others, take printed text and translate it into Grade I or Grade II Braille before it is sent to an embosser. This process is not dependent on the user knowing Braille. Therefore, students with visual impairments can produce hard copy Braille and teachers can use the same products to create handouts in print as well as in Braille at the touch of a key (Mendelssohn, 2000; Noura, 2008; Perkin, 2006).

Versa Braille This is a self-contained Braille and audio-information system. It is an American device. It has a 20 cell electronic tactile display. There is a sophisticated micro computer in the Braille information processor, which enables the device to record automatically, information in separate chapters and pages for single logical organisation of

www.ijirk.com Page 83 International Journal of Innovative Research and Knowledge Volume-4 Issue-4, April 2019 materials. The user can without difficulty locate a page. It can record and playback as a multiple-track audio cassette unit (Abang, 1992; Noura, 2008).

Computers for Braille reading and writing Technology, given proper perspective, can be a major boost for independence and productivity for someone who is visually impaired. More importantly, electronic technology can in many cases provide a measure of equality for productivity in the workplace for individuals who are visually impaired. For decades, the visually impaired learned to read Braille using paper sheets and Braille books. Nowadays, several computer-based devices are available to use for the education of Braille for the visually impaired (Henk & Eric, 2005).

There is a high priority for the development of effective devices and techniques to maximize residual vision and /or substitute for visual information to enhance the performance of everyday tasks by the visually impaired. These devices take a variety of forms, including software technology and computer design, optical and electro-optical devices. The fundamental rationale underlying these devices is to enable the visually impaired to function despite their impairment, to be more independent and productive, and to be able to fully participate and enjoy all aspects of society (http://http://www.qiat.org, 2011; NEI, 1997). Some of the computer devices use for Braille reading and writing include the following:

Tack-Tiles Braille Systems All symbolic languages are, by their very nature, fascinating to explore. From fascination and exploration, we learn. Tack- Tiles probe the fascination surrounding ’s ingenious contribution to literacy. Tack-Tiles are a unique bridge to , designed to provide a new route to learning, a path kind enough to include many who are presently deemed ineligible to be taught to read or write. To those whose eligibility to acquire Braille skills is unquestioned, Tack-Tiles present a smoother, shorter, more interesting path to literacy. To those whose cognitive limits render them truly ineligible to acquire skills of reading and writing per se, Tack-Tiles offer a means of manipulating and exploring symbolic language to whatever level they ultimately show themselves capable - perhaps only to recognize initials or spelling of names (http://www.tack-tiles.com, 2011).

Tack-Tiles Braille systems are extremely tolerant of a student’s unexpected movements. Tack-Tiles remain fixed to the slates in proper order after a fall to the floor or series of jarring movements. Conversely, Tack-Tiles can be instantly and endlessly rearranged in the course of a lesson. Research has proved the efficacy of using Tack-Tiles in tandem with Braille- embossed paper in the context of a single lesson. In most cases, however, pre-lesson preparation of printed Braille materials is greatly reduced (http://www.tack-tiles.com, 2011).

Speak Easy Media System This is one of the devices used for Braille reading and writing. What makes the Speak Easy so easy to use is its unique design approach. It is a typical computer for the visually impaired which is limited to the capabilities of a screen reader. These screen readers use applications designed for sighted individuals, with added vocalization. While this option does provide access to the computer system, it is often very time consuming to learn, difficult to use, not integrative, and generally more expensive. The Speak Easy Media System, however, is designed specifically for the visually impaired user. Navigation through the system is menu driven, consistent, and easy. The media system enables its users to read typed documents, news, e-mail, audio books, encyclopaedia, dictionary, weather forecasts, and much more. The system comes preconfigured with an e-mail account, many news publication sources, and radio shows. All of these features are part of an integrated solution that the visually impaired users will find remarkably easy to use (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refreshable, 2011).

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Braille Computer Keyboard This is a perfect solution for the visually impaired in the computer age. It comes in Hooleon’s Braille ready keyboard. The transparent Braille labels allow both the visually impaired and the sighted users, access to the keyboard. The benefit of this device is that, it allows one to convert existing computers for use by the visually impaired. Also, it enables those losing their sight to learn Braille (http://hooleon.com/miva/merchant.mvc, 2011).

Ovation This device accesses print information easily for the visually impaired. With the ovation, one can accurately and easily scan and store text of any kind and convert it to adjustable audio output. The sleek light - weight designs make it easy to transport, so you can access information in a variety of settings. The flatbed - scanner accommodates newspapers, books, magazines and more. The ovation has many sophisticated yet easy-to-use features to access the information you want without wasting time. It has adjustable volume, speed and voice tone making audio playback truly personal. You easily move through your document page by page, paragraph or sentence name. It can store chapters of up to 20 pages each with a name you give it in your own voice (http://hooleon.com/miva/merchant.mvc, 2011).

Refreshable Braille Display This device provides tactile output of information represented on the computer screen. A Braille “cell” is composed of a series of dots. The pattern of the dots and various combinations of the cell are used in place of letters. Refreshable Braille display mechanically lift small rounded plastic or metal pins as needed to form Braille characters. The user reads the Braille letters with his or her fingers, and then, after a line is read, can refresh the display to read the next line (Noura, 2008).

JAWS (Job Access With Speech) This screen reader programme created by Freedom Scientific (www.fredomscientific.com, 2011) allows the visually impaired to gain access to information on computers. JAWS provide access in two ways: speech and Braille. JAWS uses an internal speech software programme called Eloquence, along with the computer’s sound card. JAWS also provided support for refreshable Braille display as seen above and additional speech software options such as the AT & T natural voices.

Improving the capability of persons with visual impairments to read and write Braille using assistive technology devices Assistive technology devices can help and improve on the reading and writing skills of persons with visual impairment. The Adaptive Braille Writing Tutor is a tool designed by Carnegie Mellon University’s Tech Bridge World Program to assist visually impaired persons to learn the art of writing Braille (www.techbridgeworld.org/brailletutor/,2010). It consists of an electronic slate and stylus known as the E-slate which monitors the student’s writing and transmits data in real time to the computer. The tutor’s software runs on an external PC and translates the data from the E-slate to provide immediately audio feedback to the user. This was field tested in the Mathru School for Blind Children in Bangalore, India (Tech Bridge World, 2006). This yielded some fruits and the second version of the tutor was designed and implemented by several Carnegie Mellon University Students and faculty.

The second version of the tutor provides the guided practice for learning to write Braille using a slate and stylus, on six buttons that represent the six dots of the Braille cell. The E-slate monitors the student’s writing and transmits the data in real time cable. The transmitted data is then interpreted to provide immediate audio feedback to the user via text- to speech synthesis or the teacher’s recorded voice. The second version of the Adaptive www.ijirk.com Page 85 International Journal of Innovative Research and Knowledge Volume-4 Issue-4, April 2019

Braille Writing Tutor consists of two rows of 16 Braille cells and six buttons placed over the top of the two rows to work as an input area on the E-slate. The stylus is a standard Braille stylus that connects to the E-slate by its metal tip. Moreover, students can press on one of the two additional control buttons placed on the E-slate to indicate the completion of a character or a word (Noura, 2008).

The Quantum Technology (a for-profit company) also developed a device known as Jot-a-Dot which was closer to slate and stylus in size for the visually impaired persons in 2006 (SNL, 2006). The aim of developing this device was to bridge the gap of lack of choice for early braille-writing options which was a worry challenge for the visually persons. Research confirms that the area of greatest need was in developing countries, where options for braille writing were limited or nonexistent. The Jot-a-Dot has created impact in the education of the visually impaired and Uganda, Tanzania has benefited from it through a funded project by the Australian government which was implemented by Sight Savers International (AAHD, 2006; SNL, 2006).

Conclusion Most modern assistive technology devices are not available to the visually impaired in the developing world. It is important to make these devices available to persons with visual impairments in order to improve on their quality of life in this world of modern technology. They need to explore, play with, and use assistive technology options, both high tech and low tech, as soon as they can crawl. And they need choices—lots of them.

Projections for further studies Further studies should be conducted to determine the use of assistive technology for the enhancement of Braille reading and writing skills for persons with visual impairment in different settings especially in the developing world where these devices are not easy to come by.

Contribution of authors Dr. Nsagha SM designed the study, conducted the search, draft the manuscript and substantially revised it. Professor Ihenacho IJ supervised the work, oversaw its design, implementation, write-up and substantially revised the manuscript for academic content.

Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Mr. Tanyimor for secretariat duties in typing the manuscript. We thank Dr. Denis Zofou of the University of Buea for editing, proofreading and useful comments. This is part of a PhD programme that was successfully defended at the University of Buea in Cameroon by the lead author. The author is grateful to Dr. Nsagha Dickson Shey for editing the manuscript and funding the work.

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