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Modelling and Communicating the Ecological Characteristics of Peat Swamp Forest Communities in Brunei

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MODELLING AND COMMUNICATING THE ECOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PEAT SWAMP FOREST COMMUNITIES IN BRUNEI Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy at the University of Leicester by Pg Nor Zamzam Pg Hassan (MSc. Perth) Department of Geography University of Leicester 2016 Modelling and Communicating the Ecological Characteristics of Peat Swamp Forest Communities in Brunei Pg Nor Zamzam Pg Hassan ABSTRACT An ecosystem approach to sustainable forest management aims to enhance ecological understanding at the level of the plant community. This thesis demonstrates a novel approach to the study of vegetation ecology in a tropical peat swamp forest (PSF) ecosystem which integrates ecology, visualisation and 3D visualisation in GIS (Geographic Information Systems). The thesis presents some of the first detailed floristic information on the tree species diversity of the Badas PSF, Brunei. The study adds to the knowledge that intact PSF shows considerable variation even at the small, single site level. Three phasic communities (PC) were identified in a 2.25 ha study area namely PC 2, PC 4 Dipterocarpaceae, PC 4 Sapotaceae, in addition to a heath forest. Shannon-Weiner diversity index values of 1.70 to 2.99 are among the highest in Borneo. Each community is unique in both species pool and ecological characteristics. The ecologically dominant species which are characterised by tree diameter of more than 80 cm dbh as well as the 11-20 cm tree diameter distribution class patterns in combination are both distinctive from other PSFs in Southeast Asia and lowland dipterocarp forest in Brunei. Visualisation in 3D provided a novel exploration of floristic and structural data via photorealistic trees. Seamless integration of georeferenced data in a GIS environment replaced the traditional hand-sketch forest bisect through interactive query functions, manipulation of scale, orientations and perspectives, producing distinctive representations of PSF communities. The approaches used can promote improved understanding of the conservation importance of Brunei’s PSFs, thereby enhancing knowledge of both species and community diversity. This is critical in light of the extreme rarity of this rich ecosystem. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In the name of Allah, the most beneficent the most merciful. I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the following individuals and organizations for the continuous support during the course of my studies: Brunei Government In-Service training scheme, Human Resource Department of the Ministry of Education, Brunei, and the Brunei High Commission in London for their advice and financial supports throughout the study period. Brunei Forestry Department of the Ministry of Industries and Primary Resources, and the National Herbarium Brunei (BRUN) for their assistance during fieldwork, and the identification of tree species during the peat swamp forest biodiversity survey in 2011-2012. Botanists and officers of the Forestry Department and the National Herbarium in Sg. Liang, Belait; Awg Joffre Hj Ali Ahmad, Hjh Jamilah Hj Jalil, Jang, Azlan, Watu, Muhd.Ariffin, Rozaidi, Noor Azam and Nur Salihah. Dr. Jonathan Davies and Dr. Alex Cobb for the visit, in which, I have gained further insight into other peat swamp forests in Badas, and the Ulu Medaram peat swamp forests, Belait. The University of Leicester, UK for the facilities and resources. I am also truly indebted to Dr. Claire Jarvis and Prof. Susan Page for their advice and dedication in editing the thesis drafts. A lot have been learnt from their wisdom and vast experience. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, for the vegetation survey course, in which, background knowledge in vegetation survey was sought, at the initial stage of the study. Pisces Conservation Ltd., for the use of Community Analysis Package 4, and Species Richness and Diversity IV software in this thesis. Meragang Sixth Form College, PTEM, Brunei Darussalam, the ex-principals; Madam Chong Li Chen and Hjh Hashimawati Hj Mohammad, principal Pg. Hjh ii Maimunah Pg. Osman, Head of Department of Geography Mr. John Fletcher, colleagues in the Geography Department, Dk Khojatoleslam, Hartini, Sarah of PTEM, colleagues at the University of Leicester and Dr. Asiyah Zahra of the University Brunei Darussalam for their support and friendships. To my husband Juffari, and children; Haris and Zahra, for the immense and unconditional support throughout this journey, in which I will be forever grateful. Thanks for planting the trees for me, as part of the Green Initiatives Project 2014 by the Red Crescent Society, Brunei. Finally, I would also like to thank my brother Pg. Ishak, who accompanied me during the floral biodiversity survey. My sincere gratitude to my father, my mother- in-law, Pg. Abd Wahab, Pg. Hj Ismail, Dr. Sophiana, Hjh. Hasmah and family members, thanks for your love and prayers. Their encouragement and motivation throughout the course of this study have been great especially in time of need. iii ABBREVIATIONS APG Angiosperm Phylogeny Group ASEAN Association of Southeast Asean Nation BA Basal Area BRUN Brunei Herbarium BRAHM Botanical Research And Herbarium Management System CA Correspondence Analysis Dbh Diameter at breast height DCA Detrended Correspondence Analysis (method) DECORANA Detrended Correspondence Analysis (program code) DEM Digital Elevation Model DSM Digital Surface Model ESRI Environmental Systems Research Institute FRA Forest Resource Assessment GIS Geographic Information Systems GISc Geographic Information Science GPS Global Positioning System H’ Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index IV Importance Value Index LDF Lowland Dipterocarp Forest LEDC Less Economically Developing Country MEDC More Economically Developed Country LiDAR Light Detection And Ranging MEA Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Mha Million hectares MSF Mixed Swamp Forest NMDS Non-metric Multi Dimensional Scaling NVC National Vegetation Classification PC Phasic Community PSF Peat swamp forest RA Reciprocal Averaging SFM Sustainable Forest Management TWINSPAN Two Way Indicator Species Analysis UNESCO United Nations Education Scientific and Cultural Organization UN United Nations iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ................................................................................................ I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................... II ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................... IV TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................ V LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................... X LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................... XIII CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................... 1 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 1 1.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES ............................................................................. 6 1.2 THESIS OUTLINE ...................................................................................... 8 CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................... 12 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................... 12 2.1 TROPICAL PEATLAND AND TROPICAL PEAT SWAMP FOREST. ..................... 13 2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF THE PEAT SWAMP FOREST ECOSYSTEM IN BORNEO ..... 14 2.2.1 Ecosystem Services of Peat Swamp Forest ................................. 15 2.3 DIVERSITY AND DISTRIBUTION PATTERNS OF PEAT SWAMP FOREST COMMUNITIES ................................................................................................. 18 2.3.1 Inventory of Peat Swamp Forest diversity/ecology ....................... 23 2.3.2 Factors Affecting Diversity and Distribution of Peat Swamp Forest …………………………………………………………………………..25 2.4 PEATLANDS AND PEAT SWAMP FOREST IN BRUNEI ................................... 30 v 2.5 PHASIC COMMUNITIES AND SPECIES ASSOCIATION PATTERNS .................. 33 2.5.1 Dominant Species ........................................................................ 41 2.5.2 Constant Species ......................................................................... 41 2.5.3 Species Response Curves Along Environmental Gradients ......... 42 2.5.4 Pattern Analysis and Spatio-Ecological Research ........................ 47 2.5.5 GIS and Forest Ecology ............................................................... 51 2.6 VISUALISATION OF PEATSWAMP FOREST COMMUNITIES ............................ 52 2.7 SUMMARY ............................................................................................. 53 CHAPTER THREE ................................................................................... 56 3 METHODOLOGY .............................................................................. 56 3.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 56 3.1.1 Study Area .................................................................................... 58 3.2 PLANT DIVERSITY AND DOMINANCE ......................................................... 59 3.2.1 Field Sampling Technique ............................................................ 59 3.2.2 Tree Species Identification ........................................................... 65 3.2.3 The Different Measures of Peat Swamp Forest Diversity ............
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