Prior Learning of Undergraduates in UK Higher Education Institutions

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Prior Learning of Undergraduates in UK Higher Education Institutions Prior learning of undergraduates in UK higher education institutions Carmen Vidal Rodeiro Tom Sutch Nadir Zanini Cambridge Assessment Research Report 20th June 2013 Author contact details: ARD Research Division Cambridge Assessment 1 Regent Street Cambridge CB2 1GG [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] http://www.cambridgeassessment.org.uk/ Cambridge Assessment is the brand name of the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, a department of the University of Cambridge. Cambridge Assessment is a not-for-profit organisation. How to cite this publication: Vidal Rodeiro, C.L., Sutch, T. and Zanini, N. (2013). Prior learning of undergraduates in UK higher education institutions. Cambridge Assessment Research Report. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Assessment. 2 Contents Executive Summary ….…………….................…………….……………………………………………... 4 1. Introduction ……………………….................…………….……………………………………………... 8 2. Data and methods ….....…………………………………………………………………………………. 12 2.1 Data ...…..………………………………….................…………….………………………………... 12 2.2 Methodology …………………….………………….................…………….………………………. 15 3. Results: Progression to HE from different educational pathways …….…………………………… 18 3.1 University accepted applicants and their characteristics ………...............…………….……….. 18 3.2 Popularity of mainstream qualifications ….….………………….................…………….………. 24 3.3 Distribution of mainstream prior qualifications, and combinations of those, over HE institutions and subjects: descriptive analyses …….………………………………………………….. 50 3.4 Distribution of mainstream prior qualifications, and combinations of those, over HE institutions and subjects: statistical modelling …….………………………………………………… 64 4. Results: Progression to HE from A Levels ...…………..............…………….……………………… 75 4.1 Distribution of A Level students over HE institutions and subjects: descriptive analyses ..… 75 4.2 Destinations of A Level students: statistical modelling …….................…………….………… 82 5. Conclusions and discussion …………………………………………………………………………… 93 References …………………………………………………………………………………………………… 102 Appendix A: Subject areas at university ..……………………………………….................................... 106 Appendix B: University groups …………………………………………………………………………… 112 Appendix C: Data cleaning …………………………………………………………………………………. 116 Appendix D: Categorisation of A Level students .....…………………………………………………… 119 Appendix E: Students’ socio-demographic background and prior qualifications .……….……………. 122 Appendix F: Odds ratios for prior qualifications .……….………………………………………………… 126 3 Executive Summary Background In a climate of significant reform in education it is crucial to better understand how level 3 qualifications, both academic and vocational, are used by young people to reach their goals, in particular, to progress to higher education and employment. Students applying to study a course in a higher education institution have to make two choices: what subject to study and at which institution. These decisions are influenced by a range of factors, for example their personal interests, their socio-economic background and, particularly, their prior qualifications and performance. Aims of the study The main aim of this work was to provide quantitative evidence to understand how different types and combinations of qualifications are used by young people to gain access to higher education institutions (universities and colleges of higher education). Specifically, the research focused on the following issues: a) Investigating if students’ characteristics (e.g. prior educational institution, socio- economic status) were linked to different educational pathways and gave access to different types of institutions and subjects. b) Understanding the range of qualifications and combinations of qualifications held by learners aged 16–19 who progressed to different types of higher education institutions (e.g. mission groups) and to different subjects. c) Identifying the higher education destinations (both institutions and subjects) of learners holding different types of mainstream qualifications and of learners with a mixed economy of qualifications. Given that A Levels are the dominant route to university study, a particular aim of this study was to understand the relationship between subject choice and attainment at A Level and higher education destinations. Methodology The data used was an extract of the HESA student records covering all full-time, first year undergraduates aged 17–19, domiciled in England, studying at UK universities in the 2011/12 academic year (250175 students). The data consisted of the university subject and the HE mission group of the institution where each student was studying, along with information on prior qualifications and socio-demographic characteristics. Considering data on undergraduates enabled us to focus on university participation in terms of institution attended and subject chosen, conditional on being enrolled at university. The issues listed above were addressed in the first instance through descriptive analyses. Multilevel logistic regression was also used to give an assessment of the university groups 4 and courses in which students with particular prior qualifications were over or under represented, while controlling for other factors such as gender, prior educational institution and socio-economic status. In order to analyse the effect of A Level subject choice and attainment, students with at least three A Levels (72% of students in the dataset) were assigned one of seven categories based on their subject choices. This was used to carry out further descriptive analysis and multilevel logistic regression focusing on these students, for whom A Levels were the passport to higher education. The focus on a single qualification allowed levels of attainment to be included in the modelling. Findings Students’ characteristics The level of socio-economic deprivation of the area of residence and the type of prior institution students had attended were linked to the qualifications they had taken at level 3. This underlined the need to control for such factors in our regression models. More female than male students had followed academic and mixed programmes of study prior to entry to higher education, while male students were more likely to have taken vocational qualifications. Students from areas with high deprivation were more likely to hold vocational qualifications, while their counterparts in areas of low deprivation were more likely to have at least one A Level. The popularity of qualifications varied by the type of prior institution attended by students, with BTEC Diplomas and OCR National Extended Diplomas predominantly taken by students who had studied at FE colleges, while IB students had studied mainly in independent and selective schools. Progression to HE with different prior qualifications Students with more academic backgrounds were more likely to go to universities in the Russell and 1994 groups while those holding vocational qualifications were more likely to study in other types of universities (e.g. universities in the University Alliance or in the Million+ Group). Students with a mixture of qualifications prior to entry at university were less likely to study in a Russell Group or 1994 Group university than those who held only academic qualifications. AS and A Levels were the most popular qualifications held by undergraduates at higher education institutions. 86% of the students starting in 2011/12 held these qualifications, but the proportion with only A Levels was 28%. The highest percentages of students with A Levels, and other academic qualifications such as Pre-U, IB, Asset Languages or Free Standing Maths, were found in universities of the Russell Group or 1994 Group. Holding an Extended Project or Pre-U GPR qualification alongside AS/A Levels significantly increased the probability of a student attending a university in the Russell or 1994 Groups, whereas having an OCR National or a BTEC alongside A Levels increased the likelihood of attending universities in the Million+ Group and in the University Alliance. There was considerable variation across university subject areas in the proportion of students with A Levels. The highest percentages were in subject areas related to languages, ‘Historical and Philosophical Studies’, ‘Medicine and Dentistry’ and ‘Physical 5 Sciences’. Students holding Pre-U (principal subject) qualifications or an IB diploma were also more likely to study languages, ‘Historical and Philosophical Studies’, ‘Linguistics, Classics and related subjects’ and ‘Social Studies’, but less likely than average to study science subjects, with the exception of ‘Medicine and Dentistry’. Holding an Extended Project qualification alongside A Levels increased the probability of studying ‘Medicine and Dentistry’, ‘European Languages, Literature and related subjects’, ‘Historical and Philosophical studies’, ‘Linguistics, Classics and related subjects’, ‘Law’, ‘Physical Sciences’ and ‘Veterinary Sciences, Agriculture and related subjects’. BTECs were the second most popular qualification held by undergraduates at HE institutions. The highest percentages of students with BTEC qualifications were in universities of the Million+ Group and the University Alliance, while the lowest were in universities of the Russell Group. Students with other vocational qualifications (such as OCR Nationals and Double AS/A Levels) were also more likely
Recommended publications
  • University Collaboration on Technology Transfer Pdf 4.9 MB
    University Collaboration on Technology Transfer: An All-Island Feasibility Study University Collaboration on Technology Transfer: An All-Island Feasibility Study Contents FOREWORD 03 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 04 SECTION 1 CONTEXT 08 SECTION 2 CURRENT ENVIRONMENT 10 SECTION 3 PROFILE OF THE SECTOR 16 SECTION 4 OPPORTUNITIES FOR COLLABORATION 19 SECTION 5 EXTERNAL PERSPECTIVES ON THE SECTOR 23 SECTION 6 WHAT WORKS ELSEWHERE 25 SECTION 7 CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS 30 APPENDICES APPENDIX 1 METHODOLOGY 35 APPENDIX 2 CASE STUDIES 46 APPENDIX 3 RELEVANT PUBLICATIONS 56 APPENDIX 4 GLOSSARY 58 DISCLAIMER InterTradeIreland, Universities Ireland and the Irish Universities Association are confident that the information and opinions contained in this document have been compiled by the authors from sources believed to be reliable and in good faith, but no representation or warranty, express or implied, is made to their accuracy, completeness or correctness. All opinions or estimates contained in this document constitute the authors’ judgement as of the date of this document and are subject to change without notice. This publication is intended to provide general information to its readers concerning the subject matter of the publication. It is not intended to provide a comprehensive statement of the subject matter of the publication and does not necessarily reflect the views of InterTradeIreland. While care has been taken in the production of the publication, no responsibility is accepted by InterTradeIreland for any errors or omissions herein. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS InterTradeIreland, Universities Ireland and the Irish Universities Association would like to thank Technology & Research Services (Heriot-Watt University), the universities across the island, North and South, and the consultees who participated in the research, for their assistance with the development of this report.
    [Show full text]
  • CASE-Ross Support of Education: United Kingdom and Ireland 2020 Generating Philanthropic Support for Higher Education
    CASE-Ross Support of Education: United Kingdom and Ireland 2020 Generating Philanthropic Support for Higher Education Findings from data collected for 2016–17, 2017–18 and 2018–19 © 2020 Council for Advancement and Support of Education Original publication date: 13 May 2020 All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright may be reproduced or used in any form, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the Council for Advancement and Support of Education. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer: While the publisher has used its best efforts in preparing this document, it makes no representations or warranties in respect to the accuracy or completeness of its contents. No liability or responsibility of any kind (to extent permitted by law), including responsibility for negligence is accepted by the Council for Advancement and Support of Education, its servants, or agents. All information gathered is believed correct at publication date. Neither the publisher nor the author is engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services. If legal advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. CASE-ROSS EDITORIAL BOARD The Editorial Board members helped manage the project by contributing their time and expertise at each stage of developing this report. They were involved with survey review, script creation, survey promotion, data collection, data verification,
    [Show full text]
  • Value for Money in Higher Education
    House of Commons Education Committee Value for money in higher education Seventh Report of Session 2017–19 Report, together with formal minutes relating to the report Ordered by the House of Commons to be printed 24 October 2018 HC 343 Published on 5 November 2018 by authority of the House of Commons The Education Committee The Education Committee is appointed by the House of Commons to examine the expenditure, administration, and policy of the Department for Education and its associated public bodies. Current membership Rt Hon Robert Halfon MP (Conservative, Harlow) (Chair) Lucy Allan MP (Conservative, Telford) Ben Bradley MP (Conservative, Mansfield) Marion Fellows MP (Scottish National Party, Motherwell and Wishaw) James Frith MP (Labour, Bury North) Emma Hardy MP (Labour, Kingston upon Hull West and Hessle) Trudy Harrison MP (Conservative, Copeland) Ian Mearns MP (Labour, Gateshead) Lucy Powell MP (Labour (Co-op), Manchester Central) Thelma Walker MP (Labour, Colne Valley) Mr William Wragg MP (Conservative, Hazel Grove) Powers The Committee is one of the departmental select committees, the powers of which are set out in House of Commons Standing Orders, principally in SO No 152. These are available on the Internet via www.parliament.uk. Publications Committee reports are published on the Committee’s website at www.parliament.uk/education-committee and in print by Order of the House. Evidence relating to this report is published on the inquiry publications page of the Committee’s website. Committee staff The current staff of the Committee are Richard Ward (Clerk), Katya Cassidy (Second Clerk), Chloë Cockett (Committee Specialist), Anna Connell-Smith (Committee Specialist), Victoria Pope (Inquiry Manager), Natalie Flanagan (Senior Committee Assistant), Olivia Cormack (Committee Assistant), Hajera Begum (Committee Apprentice), Gary Calder (Senior Media Officer) and Oliver Florence (Media Officer).
    [Show full text]
  • The Student Visa System: Principles to Reform
    THE STUDENT VISA SYSTEM: PRINCIPLES TO REFORM EXECUTIVE SUMMARY Universities UK, GuildHE, MillionPlus, the Russell Group, University Alliance and UK Council for International Student Affairs (UKCISA) have identified five principles that should underpin the design of the new student visa route and several actions that must be taken to achieve this reform. These actions include improving the international student experience, reducing the administrative burden and increasing reliability, transparency and accountability of the immigration system. BACKGROUND Under the current immigration system universities wishing to recruit international (non- EEA) students must sponsor these students, requiring the university1 and student to comply with a range of duties. In December 2018 the UK government published an Immigration White Paper announcing plans for a post-Brexit single visa route for all non-UK domiciled students. The White Paper outlined a commitment to streamlining the existing immigration system to develop more ‘light touch’ sponsorship procedures. The International Education Strategy published on 16 March 2019 reiterates this intention, stating that the government will ‘…keep the visa application process for international students under review, with the aim of improving the customer journey both for students and their sponsoring institutions’. The strategy’s intention to strengthen the UK’s visa offer for international students is central to achieving its ambition of growing the UK’s education exports to £35 billion a year and increasing the number of international higher education (HE) students in the UK to 600,000 by 2030. Together, the commitments in the Immigration White Paper and the International Education Strategy present an opportunity to rethink how the student visa system operates for universities and students.
    [Show full text]
  • The Accountability of Higher Education Institutional Leaders
    The accountability of Higher Education Institutional Leaders Steven Quigley Doctor in Education programme (Ed.D) University College London 1 Abstract This thesis addresses the research question ‘What are the accountability responsibilities and obligations for higher education institutional leaders? In this process, three tensions were identified for those leaders: first, the balancing of accountability responsibilities and obligations in the decision-making process; second, how stakeholders affect the balance between obligations and responsibilities; and third, how decisions based upon the balance between obligations and responsibilities have been affected by different stakeholders which then affect the stakeholders in turn. It was argued from evidence provided by twelve institutional leaders from eight institutions that policy changes affecting institutional funding and financial maintenance can lead institutional leaders, in response to both policy drivers and their accountability, to take institutional action through their agency that can lead to challenges to the academic identity of the staff working in their institutions. A theoretical framework drawing upon theories related to structure and agency was used as a lens to understand responses to questions relating to managerialism, new managerialism, new public management, accountability and academic identity. Halstead’s models of Accountability were used to analyse several reasons for accountability that were identified through this research. Those reasons for accountability were
    [Show full text]
  • A CRITICAL PATH Securing the Future of Higher Education in England
    A CRITICAL PATH Securing the Future of Higher Education in England IPPR Commission on the Future of Higher Education 2013 1 IPPR RESEARCH STAFF Nick Pearce is director of IPPR. Rick Muir is associate director for public service reform at IPPR. Jonathan Clifton is a senior research fellow at IPPR. Annika Olsen is a researcher at IPPR. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The Commissioners would like to thank Nick Pearce, Rick Muir, Jonathan Clifton and Annika Olsen for their help with researching and writing this report, and London Economics for modelling the higher education funding system. They would also like to thank those organisations and individuals who submitted evidence or agreed to be interviewed as part of this project. In particular, they would like to thank the staff and students who facilitated their learning visits to higher education institutions in Sheffield and Newcastle. They would also like to thank Jon Wilson, along with all those who organised and participated in the joint seminar series with King’s College London, and Marc Stears for his guidance in the early stages of the project. ABOUT IPPR IPPR, the Institute for Public Policy Research, is the UK’s leading progressive thinktank. We are an independent charitable organisation with more than 40 staff members, paid interns and visiting fellows. Our main office is in London, with IPPR North, IPPR’s dedicated thinktank for the North of England, operating out of offices in Newcastle and Manchester. The purpose of our work is to assist all those who want to create a society where every citizen lives a decent and fulfilled life, in reciprocal relationships with the people they care about.
    [Show full text]
  • Excellence, Concentration and Critical Mass in UK Research
    Concentration and diversity: understanding the relationship between excellence, concentration and critical mass in UK research A report by University Alliance Libby Aston and Liz Shutt December 2009 Research Paper 2009/01 © Copyright University Alliance 2009 ISBN 978-1-908190-04-8 Concentration and diversity: understanding the relationship between excellence, volume and critical mass in UK research Executive Summary 1. Selectivity not concentration has driven excellence • A policy of selectivity – funding research based on quality – has driven up the quality of UK research since the introduction of the RAE, not concentration. • Selectivity has resulted in concentration of research funding where quality exists. This is fully supported by University Alliance. • The UK has one of the most highly selective research funding methods in the world – QR funding in 2009-10, based on RAE 2008, has not changed that: o In 2007-8, four institutions received 29 per cent of Quality-related (QR) funding (and 23 around 75 per cent). o In 2009-10, four institutions received 32 per cent of QR funding (and 25 around 75 per cent). • Selectivity can, however, be taken too far. HEFCE’s ‘Fundamental Review of Research Policy and Funding’ concluded that “a major increase in selectivity could reduce the number of research-led institutions to a level that would be inconsistent with the general health of the UK research base, in terms of both its economic and its social contribution…leading to complacency and ossification.” 2. Excellence is not determined by volume alone • There is no direct correlation between volume and excellence outside some of the physical sciences.
    [Show full text]
  • Knowledge Exchange and Commercialisation: The
    KNOWLEDGE EXCHANGE AND COMMERCIALISATION: THE STATE OF THE PROFESSION IN UK HIGHER EDUCATION Knowledge Exchange and Commercialisation: The State of the Profession in Higher Education “Knowledge Exchange and Commercialisation: The state of the profession in UK Higher Education” This report was commissioned by PraxisUnico Contact: [email protected] Authors: Rob Johnson and Mattia Fosci www.researchconsulting.co.uk Contact: [email protected] Report dated: February 2016 This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ 2 CONTENTS Foreword 5 Executive summary 7 Background and methodology 9 The KEC profession in UK higher education 11 The work of KEC professionals 19 Profiling KEC professionals 25 Improving the effectiveness of the KEC profession 31 Key trends and challenges 37 Appendix 1 43 Appendix 2 44 Appendix 3 46 3 Knowledge Exchange and Commercialisation: The State of the Profession in Higher Education 4 FOREWORD The focus on taking research knowledge into commercial products and services, policy and social interventions is intense. PraxisUnico has represented professionals working at the interface between researchers and external organisations for almost 15 yearsI. During that time we have seen the work of such intermediaries become increasingly recognised and respected. The UK is ranked 4th in the world for university- industry collaboration in R&DII. The government’s ambition is that universities should ‘continue to increase their collaboration with industry to drive At a time of growth research commercialisation’ and increase the ” in the economy income they earn from working with business III and others to £5 billion by 2025 .
    [Show full text]
  • Guildhe Submission to the Independent Review of Funding and Student Finance
    GuildHE submission to the Independent Review of Funding and Student Finance Led by Lord Browne of Madingley Response to First call for evidence GuildHE seeks a sustainable, diverse and dynamic higher education sector ¾ That delivers a well-educated and socially inclusive nation ¾ That enhances the UK’s economic competitiveness ¾ That fosters cultural engagement and knowledge creation ¾ That promotes global understanding and mutual exchange GuildHE Submission to the Through their success at being strong, adaptable and Independent Review of Funding clear sighted, they will be able to continue to add value and Student Finance to the HE ecology as very many have done in the past two centuries. They have historically been active in their concern both for the neglected and the innovative and play a crucial part in responding to the educational challenges in higher education environments. GuildHE members seek to be thoughtfully pragmatic while actively aspiring and planning for the kind of provision we believe UK higher education should achieve – both for the nation itself and as a world class educational provider. We also recognise that within the Review Panel are those highly versed in the detail of Higher Education Introduction from GuildHE Chair and colleagues for whom much will be new territory. Our material is perhaps explaining the obvious for and Chief Executive Officer those in the know but we hope useful for those who know less about issues affecting this part of the HE Dear Lord Browne, sector and its place in the interlocking pattern of the UK academic and professional community. GuildHE, one of the two formal representative bodies for higher education, is pleased to offer you a contribution to your first call for evidence in for the Professor Ruth Farwell, Chair GuildHE Independent Review of Funding and Student Finance that you are leading for Department of Business Miss Alice Hynes, CEO GuildHE Innovation and Skills (DBIS).
    [Show full text]
  • Bracingfor Brexit
    BRACING FOR BREXIT 01 Discussing international education BRACING FOR BREXIT 09 Torn between our best friends 24 In conversation with Sir Anton Muscatelli 30 Putting Europe on the map in India 33 Brussels’ Brexit blues SUMMER 2019 BRACING FOR 02 BREXIT CONTENTS 04 EDITORIAL 05 CONTRIBUTORS 06 SYSTEM OUT OF ORDER (APOLOGIES FOR THE INCONVENIENCE) A look at the malfunctioning political system that brought us Brexit 09 TORN BETWEEN OUR BEST FRIENDS Published by Caught between the UK and the EU, Ireland faces a hard choice European Association for International Education PO Box 11189, 1001 GD Amsterdam, the Netherlands 12 REDISCOVERING OUR SUPERPOWERS TEL +31-20-344 51 00 E-MAIL [email protected], www.eaie.org Universities must overcome outrage to lead the fight against Brexit Editor Douglas Proctor 15 CHARTING THE FLOW OF BREXIT Publications Committee Douglas Proctor (Chair), ‘Brexit flowchart guy’ Jon Worth guides us through the twists and turns Irina Ferencz, Jos Beelen, Han Aarts, Lucia Brajkovic, Jacob Gibbons 18 BRIDGING THE ANGLO-GERMAN DIVIDE Deputy Executive Director, Strategic Engagement Partnerships may prove key to softening the blow of Brexit Elise Kuurstra Associate Director, Knowledge Development and Research Laura E. Rumbley 21 PARTNERSHIPS IN PERIL Editorial Coordinator Jacob Gibbons Uncertainty reigns for UK students and staff in Spain and vice versa Graphic Designer Nhu Nguyen 24 IN CONVERSATION WITH SIR ANTON MUSCATELLI E-MAIL [email protected] Glasgow University Principal Anton Muscatelli on what’s at stake Advertising Contact [email protected] for more information. 28 THE BREXIT BACKDROP: WHAT DOES THE DATA TELL US? The EAIE welcomes requests for advertising space from Facts and figures on UK higher education and its place in the world companies and organisations whose aims and values are compatible with those of the Association and its members.
    [Show full text]
  • Research Findings
    Fair admissions to higher education - a review of the implementation of the Schwartz Report principles three years on: Report 2: Research Findings Centre for Education and Inclusion Research, Sheffield Hallam University and Institute for Access Studies, Staffordshire University December 2008 Research Team: Centre for Education and Inclusion Research, Sheffield Hallam University and Institute for Access Studies, Staffordshire University: Colin McCaig, Tamsin Bowers-Brown, Kim Slack, Ruth Barley, Nick Adnett, Caroline Cripps, Claire Wolstenholme and Ben Willis Acknowledgements The researchers would like to express their thanks to the participating higher education provider institutions that took part in this review through responding to the questionnaire and also to those members of staff who took part in interviews with the researchers to provide qualitative information for the good practice case studies. We also wish to thank the project steering group: Gregory Boone (DIUS); Leslie Currie (SPA); Annie Doyle (SPA); Janet Graham (SPA) and Elaine Underwood (DIUS), with input from stakeholders on the SPA Steering Group. In particular Janet Graham and Annie Doyle of the Supporting Professionalism in Admissions Programme (SPA) for their help and guidance throughout this project. Alternative Formats This is a web-based publication available as a PDF or word document at www.spa.ac.uk or http://www.dius.gov.uk/publications/index.html. If you require this document in any other format, please contact [email protected] Funding This review was funded by the Department of Innovation, Universities and Skills and managed by the Supporting Professionalism in Admissions Programme Intellectual property rights and copyright statement All intellectual property rights and copyright are owned by UCAS on behalf of SPA.
    [Show full text]
  • Vice-Chancellors' Pay, Benefits and Educational Backgrounds
    UP CLOSE AND PERSONAL: VICE-CHANCELLORS’ PAY, BENEFITS AND EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUNDS / r f r d o o e e e o l f s y m a t t v l t o i l t d d o e d d d a a ) ) ) ) t m fi r o e s y a u h y a a a u u f £ £ £ £ u o e c t h o b r e ( ( ( ( r e e e d d t n n c y s c n f n f p e e g a h g t h h h o a a n o e d l s e o 9 0 9 0 0 0 0 i a f i g g i r r n x t n e n n n e n t t t t i a t s b f o i h 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 n n g g i r e e n r o o y o s - - - - - - - d n n n u r r d u r c o d i a a i i r r t p t e e e e - f s l e e e n 8 9 8 9 9 9 9 e e u i u s i s s u h h r r e v r l r r r a u c e e l e t t e a d d i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 r c l n n n r r r c c i g h c a t t s o c a s c p n n n t u 0 0 0 0 0 0 a 0 e i t l e e e f x u u u h r e y o n n n c Y c a T o p U c d U 2 i C p i % 2 P 2 % 2 p e T 2 O 2 S 2 c V U g I Robert Gordon University No affiliation J.
    [Show full text]