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KINETIKA REAKSI HOMOGEN I Asti Budiarti Dosen: Bpk KINETIKA REAKSI HOMOGEN I Asti Budiarti Dosen: Bpk. Haryadi Wibowo, ST, MT 2013430047 Tehnik Kimia Sore TABLE OF CONTENTS Table of contents …………………………………………………………. 1 1 History …………………………………………………………………. 2 2 Principle of operation ………………………………………………….. 3 2.1 Chemistry of batteries ………………………………………….. 4 2.2 Electrochemistry ……………………………………………….. 9 3 Categories and types of batteries ……………………………………… 14 3.1 Primary batteries ………………………………………………. 14 3.2 Secondary batteries ……………………………………………. 15 3.3 Battery cell types …………………………………….………… 16 3.4 Battery cell performance ………………………….…………… 18 4 Capacity and discharge …………………………………….…………. 18 4.1 C rate ………………………………………………….……….. 20 4.2 Fast-charging, large and light batteries ………………….…….. 20 5 Battery lifetime ………………………………………………….…….. 21 5.1 Self-discharge ………………………………………….………. 21 5.2 Corrosion ……………………………………………….……… 22 5.3 Physical component changes …………………………….…….. 22 5.4 Charge/discharge speed ………………………………….…….. 22 5.5 Overcharging …………………………………………………... 23 5.6 Memory effect ………………………………………………..... 23 5.7 Environmental conditions …………………………………….... 23 5.8 Storage …………………………………………………............. 23 6 Battery sizes ………………………………………………………….... 24 1 KINETIKA REAKSI HOMOGEN I Asti Budiarti Dosen: Bpk. Haryadi Wibowo, ST, MT 2013430047 Tehnik Kimia Sore 7 Hazards ……………………………………………………………….... 24 7.1 Explosion …………………………………………..………….... 24 7.2 Leakage …………………………………………………………. 25 7.3 Toxic materials …………………………………………..…….... 25 7.4 Ingestion ………………………………………………………… 26 8 Battery chemistry ……………………………………………….…….... 27 8.1 Primary batteries and their characteristics …………………….... 27 8.2 Secondary (rechargeable) batteries and their characteristics ….... 27 9 Homemade cells ……………………………………………………….. 28 Reference ……………………………………………………………..... 30 1. History David Hatcher Childress, who writes on alternative history and historical revisionism has stated in his book "Technology of the Gods" that reference to a battery like device is found in the sanskrit text Agastya Samhita, 5000 BCE Childress has been accused of making pseudo- scientific and pseudo-archaeological claims by experts. The usage of "battery" to describe a group of electrical devices dates to Benjamin Franklin, who in 1748 described multiple Leyden jars by analogy to a battery of cannon (Benjamin Franklin borrowed the term "battery" from the military, which refers to weapons functioning together. Alessandro Volta built and described the first electrochemical battery, the voltaic pile in 1800. This was a stack of copper and zinc plates, separated by brine soaked paper disks, that could produce a steady current for a considerable length of time. Volta did not appreciate that the voltage was due to chemical reactions. He thought that his cells were an inexhaustible source of energy, and that the associated corrosion effects at the electrodes 2 KINETIKA REAKSI HOMOGEN I Asti Budiarti Dosen: Bpk. Haryadi Wibowo, ST, MT 2013430047 Tehnik Kimia Sore were a mere nuisance, rather than an unavoidable consequence of their operation, as Michael Faraday showed in 1834. Although early batteries were of great value for experimental purposes, in practice their voltages fluctuated and they could not provide a large current for a sustained period. The Daniell cell, invented in 1836 by British chemist John Frederic Daniell, was the first practical source of electricity, becoming an industry standard and seeing widespread adoption as a power source for electrical telegraph networks. It consisted of a copper pot filled with a copper sulfate solution, in which was immersed an unglazed earthenware container filled with sulfuric acid and a zinc electrode. These wet cells used liquid electrolytes, which were prone to leakage and spillage if not handled correctly. Many used glass jars to hold their components, which made them fragile. These characteristics made wet cells unsuitable for portable appliances. Near the end of the nineteenth century, the invention of dry cell batteries, which replaced the liquid electrolyte with a paste, made portable electrical devices practical 2. Principle of operation Batteries convert chemical energy directly to electrical energy. A battery consists of some number of voltaic cells. Each cell consists of two half-cells Voltaic pile; the first battery connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the negative electrode, the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate; the other half-cell includes electrolyte and the positive electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate. Redox reactions power the battery. Cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode during charging, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode during charging. During discharge, the process is reversed. The electrodes do not touch each other, but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use different electrolytes for each half-cell. A separator allows ions to flow between half-cells, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes. 3 KINETIKA REAKSI HOMOGEN I Asti Budiarti Dosen: Bpk. Haryadi Wibowo, ST, MT 2013430047 Tehnik Kimia Sore Each half-cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The net emf of the cell is the difference between the emfs of its half-cells. Thus, if the electrodes have emfs and , then the net emf is ; in other words, the net emf is the difference between the reduction potentials of the half-reactions. The electrical driving force or across the terminals of a cell is known as the terminal voltage (difference) and is measured in volts. The terminal voltage of a cell that is neither charging nor discharging is called the open-circuit voltage and equals the emf of the cell. Because of internal resistance, the terminal voltage of a cell that is discharging is smaller in magnitude than the open-circuit voltage and the terminal voltage of a cell that is charging exceeds the open-circuit voltage. An ideal cell has negligible internal resistance, so it would maintain a constant terminal voltage of until exhausted, then dropping to zero. If such a cell maintained 1.5 volts and stored a charge of one coulomb then on complete discharge it would perform 1.5 joules of work. In actual cells, the internal resistance increases under discharge and the open circuit voltage also decreases under discharge. If the voltage and resistance are plotted against time, the resulting graphs typically are a curve; the shape of the curve varies according to the chemistry and internal arrangement employed. The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and zinc–carbon cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts; likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. The high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emfs of 3 volts or more. 4 KINETIKA REAKSI HOMOGEN I Asti Budiarti Dosen: Bpk. Haryadi Wibowo, ST, MT 2013430047 Tehnik Kimia Sore A voltaic cell for demonstration purposes. In this example the two half-cells are linked by a salt bridge separator that permits the transfer of ions. 2.1 Chemistry of batteries Chemistry is the driving force behind the magics of batteries. A battery is a package of one or more galvanic cells used for the production and storage of electric energy by chemical means. A galvanic cell consists of at least two half cells, a reduction cell and an oxidation cell. Chemical reactions in the two half cells provide the energy for the galvanic cell operations. Each half cell consists of an electrode and an electrolyte solution. Usually the solution contains ions derived from the electrode by oxidation or reduction reaction. We will make this introduction using a typical setup as depicted here. The picture shows a copper zinc galvanic cell (battery). A galvanic cell is also called a voltaic cell. The spontaneous reactions in it provide the electric energy or current. Two half cells can be put together to form an electrolytic cell, which is used for electrolysis. In this case, electric energy is used to force nonsponaneous chemical reactions. 5 KINETIKA REAKSI HOMOGEN I Asti Budiarti Dosen: Bpk. Haryadi Wibowo, ST, MT 2013430047 Tehnik Kimia Sore Oxidation Reduction Reactions Many difinitions can be given to oxidation and reduction reactions. In terms of electrochemistry, the following definition is most appropriate, because it let us see how the electrons perform their roles in the chemistry of batteries. Loss of electrons is oxidation, and gain of electrons is reduction. Oxidation and reduction reactions cannot be carried out separately. They have to appear together in a chemical reaction. Thus oxidation and reduction reactions are often called redox reactions. In terms of redox reactions, a reducing agent and an oxidizing agent form a redox couple as they undergo the reaction: Oxidant + n e- ® Reductant Reducant ® Oxidant + n e- An oxidant is an oxidizing reagent, and a reductant is a reducing agent. The reductant | oxidant or oxidant | reductant Two members of the couple are the same element or compound, but of different oxidation state. Copper-Zinc Voltaic Cells As an introduction to electrochemistry let us take a look of a simple Voltaic cell or a galvanic
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