THE ARRIVAL OF RADIO FARDA: INTERNATIONAL BROADCASTING TO IRAN AT A CROSSROADS by Hansjoerg Biener*
Abstract: On December 19, 2002, Radio Farda, the new U.S. external service in Persian, officially started regular broadcasts on shortwave, mediumwave and satellite. With the reformatting of existing services into a 24-hour news and entertainment channel, external broadcasting to Iran has recently received more attention. Iran, however, has always been the target area of various international broadcasting services.(1) In its first worldwide press-freedom index published on October 23, 2002, Reporters Without Borders ranked Iran 122nd among 139 countries surveyed.(2) So, the need for independent reporting seems obvious, while some question the need for embedding news and information in a music and entertainment format. This article examines the question in the broader context of international broadcasting to Iran, including clandestine and even religious stations.
CLASSIC EXTERNAL resumed operation. The service almost BROADCASTING exclusively drew on native speakers Having been a major political factor some of whom had broadcasting both under Shah Reza Pahlavi and under experience in Iranian radio and Mullah rule, Iran has been a traditional television before 1979. In the 1980s, target area for official external services long before the arrival of e-mail, the both from neighboring countries like Farsi service received several hundred Iraq, Kuwait, Pakistan, Saudi Arabia and letters per week in response to the Turkey, as well as the world’s broadcasts.(3) On October 17, 1996, superpowers. In the framework of Voice of America and Worldnet centralized USSR external broadcasting, launched a weekly, call-in radio and TV Radio Baku of the Soviet Republic simulcast in Farsi, the first regularly Azerbaijan only had a minor role as an recurring program to be produced in full external broadcaster, which did however at the VoA headquarters. VoA television include services in Azeri and Persian to today broadcasts two satellite shows to Iran. Although the external services Iran: “Next Chapter,” a weekly, hour- underwent some changes after long, youth-oriented show launched in independence, these broadcasts were 2002, and “Roundtable with You,” a kept. Currently the station broadcasts weekly 90-minute news and public some 165 minutes in Azeri (Guney affairs program. Azerbaijan) and 60 minutes in Farsi, Persian is one of the few regional transmitted regionally on two medium- languages of the world with broadcasts and shortwave frequencies. from the external services of all states The Voice of America (VoA) holding a permanent seat at the UN broadcast to Iran during Second World Security Council. In 1991, Radio France War (1942-1945) and in the 1950s and Internationale (RFI) en Persan (4) joined 1960s (1949-1960, 1964-1966). Soon the existing services of BBC London,(5) after Ayatollah Khomeini ousted the Radio Beijing (today China Radio Shah, the Farsi Service of the VoA International),(6) Radio Moscow (today Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March, 2003) 13
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Voice of Russia),(7) and Voice of Marxist groups, others with Kurdish America.(8) After years of neglect, movements, and after the Revolution of French external broadcasting caught up 1979 with opponents of the Islamic with the major international services, but regime. While names and on air slogans followed its own strategies. It introduced are changing, these general points of a 24-hour news-oriented format into view are still present in underground their Service Mondiale long before the broadcasting. Most stations choose not U.S. reformatting of VoA English into to reveal their transmitter sites but it is VoA Newsnow. It concentrated on evident that most broadcasters use placing RFI programmed FM stations in facilities outside Iran, mainly in Iraq and the capitals of the world to reach the successor states of the former Soviet decision-makers, with the only foreign Union. language service aiming at a mass appeal Clandestine broadcasting to Iran being the Arabic service.(9) Although began in spring 1959, when a RFI has had an Arabic service since Communist “National Voice of Iran” 1988, it acquired the daytime started from Soviet Azerbaijan. In mid- commercial channel RMC Moyen Orient 1986 the programs were integrated into in 1996, which has a regular audience of half-hour Farsi and Azeri services of 12 to 15 million listeners in the Middle “Radio Station Peace and Progress” East. While RMC Moyen Orient (1964-1991), which claimed to be “a continues as a full-time service, its Paris voice of Soviet public opinion” (on air based staff is now also responsible for slogan) and was dissolved shortly after Arabic shortwave broadcasts. It should the collapse of the Soviet Union. Even be noted that Persian has also been on today there are several Communist or the schedule of “Deutsche Welle, the Socialist stations on the air, and Voice of Germany”(10) since 1962 and European listeners find it quite NHK Radio Japan (11) since 1991. intriguing listening to the While broadcasters are reluctant to “Internationale” still sung publish results of audience research in wholeheartedly after the demise of the detail, it is reported that BBC London, Communist regimes of Eastern Europe. Voice of America and Kol Yisrael Radio Nejat-e Iran signed on the air in (Voice of Israel) have the strongest 1982, supporting a movement headed by following among the international Dr. Ali Amini (1905-1992), a former broadcasters. During the Gulf war Prime Minister of Iran during the early between Iraq and Iran (1980-1988), 1960s.(13) In 1986, the name was Iranian authorities jammed Western changed to Flag of Freedom Radio. broadcasts. Later, it was only on special Produced by a staff of 20 to 25 in occasions (for example, when elections London, Flag of Freedom broadcast over were approaching) that jamming against 21,000 hours of programming in support Western stations was increased (January- of establishing a constitutional February 2000, June 2001). Clandestine democracy in Iran. In 1994, the station stations, however, have always been suddenly left the airwaves. Although jammed intensively. sites were never disclosed, judging from the frequencies, Flag of Freedom must CLANDESTINE BROADCASTING for a period have used an Egyptian No survey of international mediumwave transmitter. broadcasting to Iran would be complete Another station dating to the 1980s is without mentioning the large number of still present. In 1981, the Mujahidin-e clandestine broadcasts targeting both Khalq (National Liberation Army of minority groups and certain segments of Iran, who have a mixed history of Persian society since the late 1950s.(12) Islamism, Marxism, Secularism, armed Some of the stations were affiliated with struggle and terrorism since the 1960s)
14 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March, 2003) The Arrival of Radio Farda: International Broadcasting to Iran at a Crossroads started broadcasting to Iran. Persian broadcasts on the Radio Voice of Broadcasting two separate channels on the Gospel from Ethiopia.(16) The approximately ten frequencies, its Lutheran shortwave station (1963-1977) transmitters are reported to be in a was the first international missionary border area of Iraq. The station is station almost exclusively broadcasting particularly known for its frequency programs produced by churches and hopping by some kilohertz to escape church councils (not individual massive Iranian jamming. missionaries or independent missions) Until the 1990s, clandestine stations based in the target areas. So, in 1962 a used unknown sites to broadcast their studio was built at a Presbyterian messages. After the end of the Cold War literature center in Tehran. Production many external services reduced their started in 1963 and broadcasting of half- schedules. With more and more time hour programs started in 1964. becoming available on privatized Transmission time was doubled in 1968 transmitters, opposition groups now also and remained at one hour daily until use 100-, 250- or even 500 kW- Radio Voice of the Gospel facilities transmitters formerly occupied by were nationalized by the Marxist regular external services. In 2000, Radio government of Mengistu Haile Mariam. Sedaye Iran (14) joined leftist Radio With a mix of 70 percent non-religious Internationale (Worker-communist information and 30 percent religious Party) (15) in using a high-power content, the program philosophy of shortwave station in Moldova. The Radio Voice of the Gospel is very program is affiliated with a satellite dissimilar to most international Christian radio station broadcasting to Iranians in programming aside from the Roman North American exile. It claims not to be Catholic stations Radio Vatican and connected to any party. The program is Radio Veritas Asia. also worth mentioning because it was the Today, Christian broadcasting in first customer buying airtime on French Persian and other languages spoken in transmitters in 2001. It broadcast up to Iran is completely organized by the four hours daily from high-power evangelical branch of Protestant transmitters at Issoudun formerly used Christianity. In 1971, a Radio Voice of by RFI. Christ began broadcasting on Protestant Given the millions of Azeri speaking shortwave station FEBA-Radio people in Iran, it is interesting to note the Seychelles. Using several shortwave (re-) appearance of the Voice of sites, Trans World Radio (TWR) and Southern Azerbaijan in January 2003. A Adventist World Radio followed in 1982 station of the same name was active in and 1996 respectively. Adventist 1996-1998, probably from a transmitter programs in Persian had already been in Israel. However, the station has only produced in Beirut from 1953 to 1956 minimal presence, as the new programs for broadcast via Radio Ceylon, but are only twice weekly. these broadcasts became unavailable when the station stopped selling airtime CHRISTIAN RELIGIOUS to religious broadcasters. In 1996, the BROADCASTING TO IRAN Persian service was re-established using Although the arrival of Islam owned and leased facilities. When in extinguished most traces of the Medieval 2001 Adventist World Radio started Nestorian Church, with only a small using a high-power shortwave center in Christian minority remaining, Iran has the United Arab Emirates, it chose not to been a traditional target of international broadcast in Arabic and Persian from Christian broadcasting. there, thus avoiding intensifying inter- From 1964 until 1977, the Near religious friction.(17) Eastern Christian Council supported
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March, 2003) 15 Hansjoerg Biener
While these broadcasters focused their in the world.”(22) Having started with a attention on Iran, TWR’s German 30-minute broadcast from Moldova, partner started medium- and shortwave there are now two 45-minute broadcasts broadcasts to the Persian-speaking exile daily from transmitters in Moldova and community in Europe. According to Norway. In addition, there is a 24-hour official German statistics, there are some satellite stream to North America. 105,000 residents with Iranian passports, making up some 1.5 percent of RADIO AZADI Germany’s immigrant population and Even before President George W. matching the number of U.S. citizens on Bush labeled Iran as being part of an German soil.(18) A growing number of axis of evil, U.S. politicians lobbied for Iranians are now acquiring German special broadcasts to Iran modeled after citizenship. the example of Radio Free Europe-Radio In 1985, several Protestant Liberty (RFE-RL). This station has had broadcasters formed a strategic alliance its political role both on Capitol Hill in that lead both to more co-operation in Washington, D.C. and in the capitals of expanding programs in existing the target countries.(19) Finally, in the languages and in developing new spring of 1998, some $900,000 were broadcast languages. This included allocated for a Farsi service of RFE-RL, languages spoken in Iran like Azeri, which went on the air October 30, 1998, Baluchi, Hazaragi, Kurdish dialects, broadcasting to audiences in the Middle Luri, Mazanderani and Qashqa’i. Beside East as well as Europe. This must also funding, a major problem is finding be seen as a lobbying success for the native speakers willing to produce surrogate broadcaster looking for new Christian programs. tasks after fulfilling the mission to combat Communism in Eastern Europe PAYAM-E DOOST - VOICE OF and the USSR. Although international THE BAHA'I FAITH broadcasters, including RFE-RL, were The Baha’i Faith was founded by instrumental in breaking news Bahá’u’llah (1817-1892) in Iran, but was monopolies, one must take into account immediately rejected and persecuted by that today’s reform states in Central its Muslim contemporaries. Europe and the Baltics did have some Nevertheless, it has spread to the West democratic traditions before the Second since the first years of the 20th century. World War. On the other hand, in most There are eight Baha’i-owned successor states to the USSR the end of community radio stations worldwide and Communism did not mean the end of several Baha’i based radio programs. authoritarian rule; democracy and free In May 2001, Radio Payam-e Doost speech are yet to be achieved. Instead of (Radio Message from a Friend) which closing down, the station legitimately had been broadcasting on a Washington maintained CIS target areas and even mediumwave station since 1994 and on acquired new target areas by the internet since 1999, was first heard broadcasting a Radio Free Iraq (1998) in on shortwave. According to the website, Arabic, Radio Azadi in Farsi (1998- the program “has only one aim: to 2002), and Radio Free Afghanistan in educate its listeners and dissipate Dari and Pushtu (1985-1993, 2002-). misinformation about the Baha’i faith However, it could be said that this which has permeated the Iranian duplicated existing VoA and Radio Free community for the past sesquicentury, Asia services to China, Korea and other depriving Muslims and Baha’is alike of Asian countries, which have broadcasted a chance to live, work and worship since 1994, and that these might have freely and in total harmony in the cradle been more logical umbrella of one of the most ancient civilizations
16 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March, 2003) The Arrival of Radio Farda: International Broadcasting to Iran at a Crossroads organizations for an expansion to these popular Persian and Western music target areas. expected to appeal to a younger On November 18, 2002, director Tom audience.(23) This nine-member, Dine announced the replacement of presidentially-appointed body devises Radio Azadi by Radio Farda, a new strategies for all U.S. government- program co-produced by RFE-RL and funded non-military international Voice of America staff. Dine told RFE- broadcasting and supervises their RL staff, “Radio Farda's news and implementation. Radio Farda was information offerings will project the expected to cost about $8 million same seriousness of purpose and annually from internal reallocations by adherence to RFE/RL's surrogate the board. mission of promoting democracy, Like VoA-Europe (in English 1985- covering local and relevant international 1997) and Radio Sawa (in Arabic 2002- news, and living up to our professional ), Radio Farda is aimed at listeners under code, embodying the highest journalistic 30 years of age, who according to BBG standards of accuracy and objectivity, as statements make up about 70 percent of have the programs of our Persian the Iranian population.(24) This number Service.”(20) In preparation for the new is corroborated by the official data of the service, RFE-RL's Radio Azadi ended its 1375 (1996-1997) census, which is still programming on December 1, 2002. At the source of the latest figures published the time of closing, the Farsi service had by the Statistical Center of Iran.(25) The been on the air eleven hours daily (on new program format was modeled after shortwave). The frequencies were now the 24-hour news and entertainment used for 30-minute newscasts and 2 1/2 service Radio Sawa, which had replaced hours of music daily. the Arabic programs of the Voice of On December 1, the Kayhan America earlier in the year. Still, while newspaper website, which is affiliated the current “BBG strategic plan 2002- with the Iranian leadership, commented 2007”(26) lists the new formats in on the establishment of the Radio Farda Arabic and Farsi as part of an anti- service, depicting it as the CIA putting terrorism effort, it must be emphasized “the finishing touch on its psychological that the original concept was prepared warfare against the Islamic Republic of before the terror attacks of September Iran.”(21) The CIA reference might be 11, 2001. Designed to follow American easily dismissed as Iranian counter- commercial formats by Norman Pattiz, propaganda, but it also recalls the founder of the successful U.S. network historical burden the concept of Westwood One, it was introduced to surrogate broadcasting has borne since Congress on February 28, 2001, giving the inception of Radio Liberation (later politicians plenty of time to voice Liberty) and Radio Free Europe. Both concerns. stations started as veiled CIA operations Although actual programs of Radio in the 1950s and relations were only Farda were supposed to start in mid- broken in the mid-1970s. December, the station name was already used in broadcasts in the time slots left RADIO FARDA by Radio Azadi on December 1, 2002. Both Persian services of the Voice of With the soft launch of the station, any America and Radio Free Europe-Radio judgement on the program content can Liberty claimed a strong following in only be a first assessment. Most Iran, but on November 22, 2002, the broadcast hours combine a ten-minute Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG) news and weather report on the hour, officially announced the creation of a and a five-minute newscast on the half- new Persian-language radio station with hour, with a music only rotation of current news, entertainment features and Iranian and international songs and
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March, 2003) 17 Hansjoerg Biener occasional station promotions. The the program. In a message broadcast on mostly English language international December 21, he pledged continued songs are very much mainstream pop support for the Iranians’ “quest for (boy-/girlgroups, moderate rap, but also freedom, prosperity, honest and effective hit oldies) including some explicit, but government, judicial due process and the not obscene references to sex. Certainly, rule of law.”(31) In response to mini-features will be included in the complaints over their government’s rotation in the near future. When fully censorship and restrictions of implemented the amount of time devoted information, the United States would to news and current affairs was promised now be “airing news and music and to be more than five hours a day. cultural programs nearly 24 hours a day” In the Wall Street Journal of while continuing Voice of America radio December 16, 2002, veteran Senator and TV services to Iran. And although Jesse Helms (Republican senator for some congressmen remain critical of the North Carolina) severely criticized the new approach, Republican change from Radio Azadi to Radio Representative Bob Ney, who had lived Farda: in Iran prior to 1979, gave an interview in Farsi and called Radio Farda “an It's difficult to believe that the invaluable tool to spread a message of Bush administration has agreed peace, freedom, and democracy to support this shift from a throughout Iran.”(32) proven program of serious policy Using transmitters in Europe, the discussion to a teeny-bopper Middle East, Central Asia and South music-based format. It likely will Asia, the service is available on medium insult the cultural sensitivities of and shortwave, but also can be heard on Iranians, as well as their the internet at intelligence. Meanwhile, the
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Europe (on air since 1951), Radio to reach out to “decision-makers” and Liberty (1953), Radio / TV Martí to “opinion leaders” by providing “up to Cuba (1983) and Radio Free Asia (1994) date news and current affairs programs.” partly duplicating VoA services in the Even then, U.S. congressmen cannot respective languages, the 2002 arrival of expect alleged decision-makers and additional 24-hour services in Arabic opinion leaders to decide and effectively and Farsi could not come as a surprise. lead in line with U.S. policies when they But while the increasingly fragmented are out of tune with the majority of the structure of U.S. international population. While newsradio formats do broadcasting apparently makes sense to not provide pleasant company for easy lobbyists and policymakers in listening at home or at work, music Washington, it remains to be seen based formats do, and it can be expected whether the 24-hour news and that news and weather on top of the hour entertainment format will indeed as well as concise current affairs succeed. In an editorial, Andy Sennitt, a programs at peak listening times will not former editor of the World Radio TV let listeners change the station even if Handbook and currently with Radio they differ in some opinions. Netherlands, sharply criticized “a BBG communiqués mainly base their patronizing attitude to the target arguments on the success of Radio audiences. It seems to be assumed that Sawa. According to Norman J. Pattiz, the only way to gain the attention of chairman of the BBG`s Middle East young people in the Middle East--and Committee who also oversaw creation of indeed elsewhere--is by playing popular Radio Sawa, “Because of Radio Sawa’s music.... I don't doubt the sincerity of overwhelming success in attracting those who formulate and carry out the audiences and new listeners, the BBG policies. I just think that the model is believes a similarly formatted service in outdated and flawed.”(34) Persian directed at Iran is a high It is worth mentioning that Voice of priority.”(35) Even before the arrival of America indeed abandoned a 24-hour this new U.S. external service in Arabic, music and entertainment project to the daytime news and entertainment Europe after 12 years. VoA-Europe had channel Radio Monte Carlo Moyen been designed as a U.S. network style Orient has established a loyal following satellite and terrestrial service to counter of millions of listeners because they like what decision-makers perceived as the style of presentation and value the “Anti-Americanism” in Western Europe. informational content to balance local When it went on the air in 1985, it was reports. The station broadcasting from a the first VoA service in English to mediumwave transmitter on Cyprus Europe after a pause of 30 years. since 1971 is now part of the RFI-group Although the channel was an excellent of France’s external broadcaster. mix of contemporary music and According to audience research in the entertainment, current news, information 1990s listeners in Jordan also listened to programs, as well as political call-in Kol Yisrael because they liked the shows and commentaries “reflecting the program format although they did not views of the U.S. government” (on air share the views of the station.(36) phrase), it had only a small impact Obviously Radio Farda is looking for because Europe-wide FM coverage was a winning mix of welcome entertainment sketchy and local partners mainly and maybe not so welcome news and rebroadcast the music shows. On the commentary from an American other hand, one might see the re- perspective. With all kinds of opinion establishment of music based formats as aired in Persian and even many different a reverse trend to the last decade when religious views already broadcast on many international broadcasters claimed short and mediumwave to Iran, Radio
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Farda will certainly differ from all other Institution of Electrical Engineers, 1994 broadcasts and provide a full-time and 2002). alternative to Iranian domestic 2. The index measured how much broadcasting. What still remains to be freedom journalists and the media have proven is that expected high audience and what efforts the government makes figures for Radio Farda indeed relate to ensure press freedom. A RSF with an expected high impact on Iranian questionnaire to local and foreign public opinion. journalists living in the country, researchers, legal experts, and regional *Having studied theology, philosophy specialists asked about murder, and sociology, Dr. Hansjoerg Biener, imprisonment, and assaults on served in several positions at the journalists, censorship and pressure on Evangelical-Lutheran Church of the media, and the impunity of those Bavaria (1987-2000) and the University responsible for such incidents. Reporters of Erlangen-Nuremberg (2000-). Dr. without borders dossier on Iran at Biener has published in several fields
20 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March, 2003) The Arrival of Radio Farda: International Broadcasting to Iran at a Crossroads
Fight,” available at 21. Kayhan website
Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March, 2003) 21 Hansjoerg Biener
28. Jackson Diehl, “Casey Kasem or ses/2002/12/print/20021220-7.html> Freedom?,” Washington Post (December (visited January 1, 2002) 16, 2002), Page A25, available at 32. “Ney takes to Iranian airwaves,” 22 Middle East Review of International Affairs, Vol. 7, No. 1 (March, 2003)