CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS AN OVERVIEW OF STANDARDS FOR THE KEEPING OF WILD ANIMALS IN CAPTIVE CARE SETTINGS IN MALAWI THE AAP FOUNDATION

WRITTEN BY

ING. J IEPEMA DR. A. SALB

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

These Standards would not have been completed without the support of numerous organisations, stakeholders and individuals. They were produced by Lilongwe Wildlife Trust (LWT) on behalf of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife (DNPW) and the Department of Animal Health and Livestock Development (DAHLD), with financial support from the AAP Foundation and technical input from a working group.

Members of the working group included: Mr. W. Mgoola Assistant Director (Research & Development), DNPW Mr. C. M. Manda Deputy Director (Conservation Services), DNPW Dr. J. Nkhoma Animal Health Officer & Focal Point on Wildlife, DAHLD Dr. A. Salb Head of Veterinary Services/Wildlife Emergency Rescue Unit, LWT Ing. J. Iepema Sanctuary Manager, LWT Dr. J. Kazembe Senior Lecturer, Department of Environmental Sciences and Management, LUANAR Mr. E. Zakochera Senior Education Officer, WESM

In the process of developing this document, many organisations and individuals from all over the world provided information regarding existing standards for keeping wild animals in captivity. Our thanks go to the Lilongwe Society for the Protection and Care of Animals (LSPCA), the Pan African Sanctuary Alliance (PASA), the Global Federation of Animal Sanctuaries (GFAS), the American Zoo Association (AZA) and the European Associated of Zoos and Aquaria (EAZA).

A special thanks goes to the AAP Foundation, which not only provided the funds to develop the Standards, but also provided valuable feedback during various drafts. CONTENTS

Glossary...... 06

Abbreviations...... 07

Introduction...... 08

SECTION I SCOPE OF THE STANDARDS...... 09

SECTION II GENERAL STANDARDS FOR THE KEEPING OF WILD ANIMALS IN CAPTIVITY.....13

SECTION III STANDARDS PER TAXONOMIC FAMILY AND SPECIES...... 19

01 Suidae (pigs)...... 21 02 Hippopotamidae (hippopotamus)...... 24 03 Bovidae (antelope)...... 27 04 Giraffidae (giraffe)...... 32 05 Equidae (horses)...... 37 06 Rhinocerotidea (rhinoceros)...... 40 07 Elephantidae (elephants)...... 43 08 Orycteropodidae (aardvark)...... 48 09 Cercopithecidae (Old World monkeys)...... 51 10 Galagonidae (galago)...... 56 11 Felidae (cats)...... 60 12 Viverridae/Nandiniidae (genets/civets)...... 65 13 Herpestidae (mongooses)...... 68 14 Hyaenidae (hyenas)...... 72 15 Canidae (dogs/foxes)...... 76 16 Mustelidae (mustelids)...... 80 17 Hystricidae (Old World porcupine)...... 85 18 Sciuridae (squirrels)...... 88 19 Procaviidae (hyraxes)...... 91 20 Erinaceidae (hedgehogs)...... 94 21 Leporidae (rabbits, hares)...... 96 22 Manidae (pangolins)...... 98

SECTION IV CATEGORISATION OF SPECIES...... 99 Appendix I Taxonomic List of Species for Captive Care Standards...... 103 Appendix II Captive Care Standards Scoring Tool...... 105 GLOSSARY

Abnormal Unnatural animal behaviour which is generally due to the inability to cope with Public facility Any facility whereby wild animals are kept in captivity and the public has the behaviour a particular combination of internal and/or external stimuli. Abnormal behavior opportunity to see the animals, whether paid or free of charge. often expresses itself in repetitive behaviours without obvious goal or function, self- inflicting behaviours or apathy. Quarantine A designated, isolated area to temporarily hold animals on arrival at a facility, or when they are suspected of suffering from an infectious/contagious disease, with the Animal The extent to which an animal is able to meet its physical or psychological needs by aim of providing an opportunity to screen the animals for diseases. welfare being able to live in harmony with its environment. Quarantine The time required to keep an animal in isolation to determine if it is free of any Act The National Parks and Wildlife Act 2017 (as amended). time infectious diseases.

Captivity Any setting whereby an animal is being kept in a confined area, where it is Standards The Standards for the Keeping of Wild Animals in Captivity as referred to in section dependent on regular human care and support to fulfil its basic physical and 54A (3) of the National Park and Wildlife Act (Amendment 2017). psychological needs. State A Malawian or international veterinarian who is registered under the Department Caretaker A person who provides daily care to an animal to fulfil its physical and registered of Animal Health and Livestock Development as a legal practicing veterinarian psychological needs. veterinarian in Malawi.

Chute A restricted area within an enclosure which contains one or more hydraulic or Surplus An animal which can no longer be kept in a group or facility due to behavioural or movable barriers that can “squeeze” together to restrict an animal’s movement. animal capacity reasons.

Director The Director of the Department of National Parks and Wildlife. Wild animal An animal species that has not been domesticated.

Domesticated An animal species which has been tamed as a result of being kept and bred under Wildlife farm A captive care setting where wild animals are commercially bred with the purpose of animal human controlled conditions, generally for production or companionship purposes. producing products like meat, skin or fur.

Education A facility whereby wild animals are kept for professional education purposes, e.g. a Wildlife ranch A fenced-off area of land where animals are able to live freely and do not, or to a facility university. limited extend, depend on human intervention for their survival.

Enclosure The primary accommodation in which a wild animal is confined, such as a cage or Wildlife The process of treatment and care of orphaned, sick, injured or confiscated wild fenced off area. rehabilitation animals with the aim of releasing them back into the wild whenever appropriate and feasible. Enclosure Any kind of physical barrier which helps to contain an animal in a restricted area. barrier Wildlife A centre which takes in and provides care for orphaned, injured and/or confiscated rescue centre wild animals in distress. Enclosure All natural and unnatural structures within an enclosure which allow an animal to furniture express its species-specific behaviours, e.g. providing opportunities to hide, climb, Zoo A facility with indoor and/or outdoor enclosures where living wild animals are kept swim, rest and shelter. for public exhibition.

Enclosure The combination and connectivity of the main enclosure, shift yards, indoor rooms Zoonotic An infectious disease that can be transmitted from animals to humans. infrastructure and hatches. diseases

Enrichment An animal husbandry principle that helps to improve the quality of life of captive animals by identifying and providing behavioural stimuli necessary for optimal ABBREVIATIONS psychological and physiological well-being. AZA American Zoo Association Non-native A species that historically did not occur in the ecosystem of a specific location DAHLD Department of Animal Health and Livestock Development species or region. DNPW Department of National Parks and Wildlife EAZA European Association of Zoos and Aquaria Private facility A person who keeps for personal reasons one or more animals in captivity on GFAS Global Federation of Animal Sanctuaries private property. LSPCA Lilongwe Society for the Protection and Care of Animals LUANAR Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural Resources Protective The practice of animal husbandry whereby there always remains a physical barrier LWC Lilongwe Wildlife Centre contact between the caretaker and the animal. Lilongwe Wildlife Trust method LWT PASA Pan African Sanctuary Alliance WESM Wildlife and Environmental Society of Malawi

6 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 7 SECTION I SCOPE OF THE STANDARDS

Introduction

This document sets out the Standards for the Keeping of Wild Animals in Captivity in Malawi (the ‘Standards’). It details the regulations for the minimum required conditions and requirements to keep wild animals in captivity, whereby captivity is defined as:

‘Any setting whereby an animal is being kept in a confined area, where it is depending on regular human care and support to fill its basic physical and psychological needs.’

These Standards apply to all facilities where wild animals are kept in captivity. This includes: public facilities or attractions (such as zoos or lodges where animals are being kept on display); education facilities (such as institutions, like universities, where animals are kept for professional education purposes); wildlife rescue centres; and private facilities whereby wild animals are kept in captivity on private property.

The content of the Standards is based on existing international standards and publications with regards to keeping wild animals in captivity. For those groups or species where no existing standards are available, the Standards are based on general species literature as well as existing knowledge of specialists.

Under Section 83 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 2017 it is an offence to cause unnecessary or undue suffering to any wild animal, whether that animal lives in the wild or is being kept in captivity. These Standards will be used by authorities when assessing potential offences of “unnecessary and/or undue suffering”. They also provide guidance for the issuing of Captivity Licenses under Section 54(A) of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 2017.

8 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI 9 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 9 1. With reference to Section 54A (3) of the in a confined area, where it is dependent on For those groups or species where no existing Class C species: Those species for which there National Park and Wildlife Act (Amendment 2017, regular human care and support to fulfil its basic standards are available, the Standards are based is a high risk that their welfare will be affected hereafter called the ‘Act’), the Standards for the physical and psychological needs.” on general species literature as well as existing by captivity and/or they form a serious risk Keeping of Wild Animals in Captivity (hereafter knowledge of specialists. Wherever required or for human health and safety. In theory it may called the ‘Standards’) provide regulations with The Standards apply to all captive care facilities desirable, the Standards are adapted to address be possible to minimise these risks if the right regard to the minimum required conditions and where wild animals are kept in captivity and, in the welfare and health and safety aspects of expertise is fully applied and all resources are requirements to keep wild animals in captivity. particular: keeping wild animals in captivity. available. However, even under these conditions The Standards also provide further meaning to the it can remain challenging to meet the welfare • Public facilities or attractions such as zoos or conditions to obtain an animal captivity license as 8. The Standards provide a set of general criteria and/or fully eliminate all associated health lodges where animals are kept on display. described in Section 54A (1) of the Act. standards for keeping wild animals in captivity. and safety risks. Species within this class should These standards must be met by each individual • Education facilities such as institutions usually only be kept by professionals who have 2. Despite not being further mentioned within person or institute keeping wild animals in like universities where animals are kept for the proven knowledge and skills to provide these the Standards, wild animals being kept in captivity. The set of general standards is provided professional education purposes. animals with the best possible care standards. captivity should be lawfully obtained subject to in section II and covers the following aspects: the provisions of the Act. According to Section 47, • Wildlife rescue centres: professionally run rescue Class D species: Those species for which there is • Management requirements any person who takes a wild animal without the and rehabilitation facilities which aim to help wild a very high risk that their welfare will be seriously • Enclosure requirements required license commits an offence. Therefore animals in distress. affected by captivity and/or they form a very an animal captivity license needs to be acquired • Husbandry requirements serious risk for human health and safety, even before acquisition of the animal(s). In the same • Private facilities owned by individuals who, for • Nutritional requirements when all existing knowledge on how to keep these line it is worth noting that under Section 83 of the personal reasons, keep one or more animals in • Veterinary requirements wild animals in captivity is applied. Species within Act it is an offence to cause unnecessary or undue captivity on private property. Animals are kept • Health and safety requirements this class should never be kept in captivity, unless suffering to any wild animal, whether than animal indoors or outdoors in an enclosure or confined for emergency rescue or conservation purposes. 9. The Standards should be considered the lives in the wild or is being kept in captivity and area or free-roaming in a confined garden area. In case of the latter, captive care should only be minimum requirement for adequate welfare that these Standards will be used by authorities allowed by specialists. and health and safety criteria. These minimum when assessing potential offences of “unnecessary 5. The Standards exclude wildlife farms and requirements also depend on the specific and/or undue suffering”. ranches. Although wildlife farms can keep wildlife The classification of each mammal species is in small confined areas, their main purpose is to circumstances in which a wild animal is being included within the Standards under Section III. 3. The Standards focus on keeping wild animals produce animal products like meat, skin or fur. kept, e.g. group composition, location of the in captivity in a responsible way from both animal The keeping of wildlife for production reasons enclosure, history of the animals and the purpose 11. Based on the above classifications, the and human perspectives. The following criteria requires a different set of standards and is of keeping the animals in captivity. Therefore the Standards give direction with regard to the likely are hereby taken into account: therefore beyond the scope of these guidelines. requirements for keeping certain wild animals in legal requirements for keeping wild animals in captivity can be higher than as determined by the captivity without causing them “undue and/or The welfare of wild animals Wildlife ranching is generally defined as the Standards. unnecessary suffering”. Therefore, the Standards keeping of wildlife in a managed, fenced-off area provide guidance for the issuing of captivity This aspect is addressed by setting minimum of land, where animals are free-roaming with 10. The Standards classify wildlife mammal licenses under Section 54(A) of the National Parks standards to meet the animals’ physical and a minimum amount of human intervention. species based on their requirements and and Wildlife Act of Malawi (as amended). To help psychological needs. Wild animals have complex Although technically animals are confined in a feasibility to be kept in captivity. The classification achieve this, all species within the Standards have needs that are closely tied to their natural diet, fenced-off area, the difference with the Standards is undertaken by a technical expert committee been categorised in one of the following categories environment and behaviour in the wild. The needs is that animals in game ranches are generally by applying the scoring tool as presented in to help guide authorities and stakeholders, of these animals are not always very well known. self-sufficient and therefore human intervention is Appendix 2. As a result all species covered by the including the general public, as to whether an It can be difficult, if not impossible in some cases, kept to a minimum. Standards are categorised in one of the following animal can be kept in captivity without causing for the average owner to provide for these needs. four classes: it “undue and unnecessary suffering” and/or it Animals can easily suffer physically or mentally as 6. The taxonomic families of wild animals and posing a risk to health and safety: a result of poor husbandry. their species targeted by the Standards are: Class A species: Those species for which there is a relatively small risk that their welfare will be Category I: Generally should be allowed to Public health and safety • Those species of mammals which are listed affected by captivity and/or they form a risk for be kept by private persons and institutions in under the National Parks and Wildlife Act human health and safety. For these species, it is captivity without a captivity licence. This aspect is addressed by setting minimum (Amendment 2004) as Protected Species. generally easier to meet the conditions required standards for husbandry and housing to eliminate to minimise any existing risks and usually no Category II: Generally should be allowed to be or minimise certain risks. Public health and • Those species of mammals which are native specialised knowledge or expertise is required kept by private persons and institutions under the safety risks can arise because wild animals may or non-native, but are known to be commonly to do so. condition that a captivity licence is provided based possess certain threats which can result from kept in captive care settings as described under on the Standards being set. poor husbandry or housing. Another potential section 1.3. Class B species: Those species for which there is risk factor is that wild animal can be common a modest risk that their welfare will be affected by Category III: Generally never allowed to be kept reservoirs of zoonotic diseases. An overview of the species and families of species captivity and/or they form a risk for human health in captivity, with the exception of professional being addressed by the Standards can be found in and safety. For these species, it is possible to institutions which have been provided with an 4. The scope of these Standards focus on wild Appendix I. minimise these risks to an acceptable level when exemption from the DNPW to keep this species animals which are kept in captivity, whereby existing knowledge and expertise is applied by for rescue and/ or conservation purposes. 7. captivity is defined as: The content of the Standards is based on holders who have sufficient knowledge, expertise existing international standards and publications and resources. A complete overview of the species per category is “Any setting whereby an animal is being kept with regards to keeping wild animals in captivity. provided in Section IV. 10 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 11 12. Native and non-native species to Malawi which are currently not listed in one of the categories indicated should generally not SECTION II allowed to be kept in captivity until further assessments have been made and a set of captive care standards for that species has been assigned, unless special exemption is granted by GENERAL STANDARDS the Director of the DNPW (hereafter called the ‘Director’). With regard to non-native species it is highly recommended to maintain a very cautious FOR THE KEEPING OF WILD and restrained policy with regard to proving captivity licenses. ANIMALS IN CAPTIVITY 13. The Standards as presented cover all facilities as indicated under article 3 whereby wild animals are kept in captivity. However there might be emergency situations where there is a need to temporarily keep a wild animal in a captive care setting for rescue or conservation purposes where the Standards cannot be met straight away. In such cases permission for a temporary license can be submitted to the Director. A temporary license to keep a wild animal in captivity should not exceed a maximum period of three months and the conditions in which the animal is kept should be monitored and approved by a state registered veterinarian.

12 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 13 This section provides a set of general ▪▪ Previous locations and/or owners temporarily housing separate from the group (for 2.9 The ground surface of the enclosure needs to standards for keeping wild animals in ▪▪ Wild or captive born instance in case of illness or injury). Temporary be of such a structure that it supports the species- captivity. These standards must be met by • Dates of acquisition housing separate from the group should not specific way of moving and does not present a each individual person or institute keeping • Date of birth (when known) exceed a period of three months. In case there is (potential) danger or risk of injury to the animal wild animals in captivity. • Sex a need to separate an animal for a longer period or negatively affect the general health of the • Animal identification e.g.: of time, written permission is required from the animal(s) being kept. 1. Management requirements ▪▪ Photo Director. A written request to extend the period ▪▪ Microchip needs to be accompanied by a situation report 2.10 The climate conditions (like temperature, 1.1 The facility must at all time have (a) ▪▪ Identification tags/rings from a state registered veterinarian. humidity, ventilation, and lighting) in the caretaker(s) with adequate and verifiable species- ▪▪ Tattoo enclosure need to fall within the tolerance range of specific training, experience and/or knowledge • Veterinary records 2.3 Quarantine enclosures are allowed to differ the particular species being kept. to provide the animals with highest levels of ▪▪ Treatment in size and dimensions from the minimum 2.11 The enclosures need to be provided with welfare and minimises all associated health and ▪▪ Health checks data requirements set in these Standards. The length of sufficient shelter to protect all animals from safety risks. ▪▪ Vaccinations time that an animal is kept in quarantine should inclement weather conditions, such as heavy not exceed the period of three months. In case rains, wind and direct sun. This can be achieved 1.2 Any person or institution which keeps ▪▪ Necropsy reports there is a need to keep an animal in quarantine by providing natural structures (trees, shrubs, or wants to keep wild animals needs to be in 1.4 Besides the records as indicated in 1.3, public for a longer period of time, written permission logs, rocks) or artificial structures (barns, possession of a management plan for the facility. facilities, educational facilities and wildlife is required from the Director. A written request shelters, etc.). A management plan should at least contain the sanctuaries also need to keep records of: to extend the period needs to be accompanied following information: by a situation report from a state registered 2.12 Animals should not be housed in direct and/ • Description and main goals of the facility • Total number of individuals kept per species veterinarian. or visibly adjoining enclosures if this housing • Purpose of the animals to be kept • Up-to-date overview of group compositions arrangement may cause or is causing undue or • Species and (maximum) number of individuals • Daily husbandry records 2.4 In the case that more than one species is kept unnecessary long term suffering and stress. per species to be kept ▪▪ Animal behavioural records in the same enclosure and use the enclosure space • Animal acquisition policy (if relevant) ▪▪ Animal physical records in the same way, the minimum size in space and 2.13 Any enclosure needs to be constructed and • Enclosure facilities and design ▪▪ Medical records dimension of that enclosure for all individual situated in such a way as to prevent predators ▪▪ Size and dimensions ▪▪ Feeding records animals must be based on the requirements set for from entering or approaching the enclosure of ▪▪ Infrastructure the species with the highest requirements in the the animal(s) and in such a way as to keep other ▪▪ Barriers 2. Enclosure requirements Standards. harmful animals out. ▪▪ Furnishing ▪▪ Ground surface 2.1 All wild animals need to be housed in an 2.5 In the case that more than one species is kept 3. Husbandry requirements ▪▪ Climate control enclosure suitable for the particular species, in the same enclosure and use the enclosure space 3.1 Animals should only be handled by, or under • Species/population management plan taking into account the age, history and medical in a clearly different way, the minimum size in the supervision of, a caretaker who is competently ▪▪ Group structure(s) status of the animal(s). The enclosure needs to space and dimension of that enclosure must be trained and authorised. All handling of the ▪▪ Reproduction meet the minimum requirements in size and based on the number and the requirements of animals need to be done with care, in a way which • Caretaker staff, including species-specific dimensions, as well as have the appropriate the species with the highest required standards will avoid unnecessary discomfort, behavioral training, experience and/or knowledge furnishing to: in the Standards. In such cases there is no need stress or actual physical harm to animals. • Animal care policy to add further enclosure space for species with • Allow sufficient and appropriate exercise for the ▪▪ Welfare management lower requirements in terms of enclosure space particular species; 3.2 All animals must be kept in way that their ▪▪ Veterinary care and dimensions, unless the total space provided is species-specific physical and psychological ▪▪ Nutrition • Avoid individual animals being unnecessarily compromised for that particular species. requirements are met, as outlined in the ▪▪ Animal handling dominated by other group members and Standards. Such requirements have been based 2.6 Enclosures and enclosure barriers need to be ▪▪ Enclosure hygiene consequently have insufficient access to required on the natural living conditions of the species, designed and constructed to contain the animal ▪▪ Record keeping resources; scientific knowledge as well as existing captive in a safe and secure way and to ensure that the • Health and safety policy care reference guides available. Examples of enclosure and barriers do not present danger or ▪▪ Emergency policies • Avoid the risk of long-term conflicts between requirements to be taken into account are: ▪▪ Staff health and safety herd or group members or between different risk of injury to the animal or negatively affect the ▪▪ Procedures for dangerous animals species in mixed exhibits; general health of the animal(s) being kept. • Social organisation • Visitor policy • Diet 2.7 All enclosure furniture should be constructed • Financial plan • Provide the opportunity for the animals to be out • Structure of the ground surface on which the and maintained in such a way that it does not ▪▪ Yearly budget of sight and not be unnaturally provoked by the animal(s) is kept present a (potential) danger or risk of injury to the ▪▪ Funding strategy viewing public or any other animals surrounding • Availability of open water for swimming/bathing animal or negatively affect the general health of the enclosure; • Appropriate resting places (den/nest/ the animal(s) being kept. 1.3 Any facility keeping wild animals under sleep trees) a captivity license should at least keep the • Avoid an unacceptable build-up of parasites and 2.8 The enclosure needs to be constructed in • Appropriate furniture following records: other pathogens. a way that it is possible to clean and maintain • Sufficient and appropriate opportunities to hide 2.2 For those animals which are kept socially, the enclosure without creating a stressful or • Animal species being kept including birth, 3.3 For animals being kept in groups, group the facility should provide appropriate dangerous situation for the animal(s) as well as deaths, arrivals and departures structures should resemble, as much as possible, accommodation for animals which are in need of the caretaker. • Animals’ origin the natural social organisation of the species.

14 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 15 Where this is not possible, animals should be kept or unnecessary suffering. Enrichment is an feeding/watering of the animal(s) meets its procedures for ill or injured animals. Policies and in a group composition whereby all individuals important tool to stimulate natural behaviour nutritional requirements. procedures must cover transmission of diseases are compatible with each other. In either case, the repertoires of animals in captivity and to help between animals and/or staff members and group will need to be observed by the caretaker meet the physical and psychological needs of 4.3 The number of feeds and time of food being animals. All these procedures must be approved to determine mutual tolerance amongst the the animal. All animals in captivity must always presented should resemble and support the by DNPW and DAHLD as a minimum and ideally individuals. Any animals under long-term social receive adequate and appropriate enrichment. natural foraging and feeding patterns of the an international regulatory body. stress should be removed from the group. Social animals being kept. animals should generally not be kept alone or 3.7 To ensure the safety of the animal in an 5.5 Any captive care facility must have 4.4 To prevent contamination, all animal food in group combinations which lead to undue or enclosure, all barriers and enclosure furniture appropriate facilities and procedures in place in and drink supplies must be stored and prepared unnecessary suffering, stress or discomfort. For must be checked on a regular basis to ensure order to adequately and safely quarantine new under appropriate and hygienic conditions. individual social animals which cannot be kept in that it is safe and of adequate strength to prevent animal arrivals. New animal arrivals must be kept This entails, for instance, food to be stored in a a social group composition for a period of more escapes or potential hazardous situations for the in quarantine for the time as appropriate for that way that it is inaccessible by vermin and always than three months, serious and demonstrable animal(s). In case of any potential hazardous particular species. Quarantined animals must be prepared on a clean surface and with clean kitchen effort needs to be undertaken in order to move the situations, appropriate action need to be taken as proven, by a qualified and registered veterinarian, utilities. Separate cutting boards, utensils and animal(s) to a setting where it (potentially) can soon as possible to restore a safe environment. to be free of diseases before they are allowed to food preparation surfaces must be used when live in a social group. Long-term solitary keeping leave the quarantine facility. 3.8 Animals which can (potentially) represent a meats, fish and vegetable produce diets are of a social animal is only allowed in exceptional danger to the environment if they escape should prepared in a common kitchen area. 5.6 To ensure their physical and psychological circumstances and after written permission is always be kept in an enclosure which is specifically wellbeing, all animals must be checked on a daily provided by the Director. A written request needs designed to contain that particular species. The 4.5 In cases where animals are socially housed, basis by a qualified and/or experienced caretaker, always to be accompanied by a situation report door/entrance, as well as the locking system, animal food must be provided in such a way that whereby special attention is paid to their physical from a state registered veterinarian. Approval in should be of sufficient strength to safely contain all animals have access to it and that all animals condition and general demeanour. In case of such a case should only be allowed if the living the animal. Wherever possible a double door are able to acquire a sufficient amount and variety a public facility, animal rescue centre or other conditions of the animal(s) do not lead to undue system is put in place to prevent escapes while of food. In case there are one or more animals not professional animal facility, daily records of these or unnecessary suffering. entering the enclosure. able to feed properly, appropriate action must be inspections must be kept on file. taken to resolve this issue. 3.4 The reproduction of animals in captivity can 3.9 To ensure enclosure hygiene and minimise 5.7 In case of an unnatural death or when the contribute positively to the welfare of the animals. disease hazards, uneaten perishable food should 4.6 Uncontrolled feeding by visitors should not be cause of the death is unknown, the holder of Reproductive and parental behaviour fulfils a be removed within a timeframe appropriate for permitted. Where feeding by visitors is permitted the animal(s) must consult an affiliated state basic need of many species and often provides a the type of foodstuff and size of enclosure, prior to this should be on a selective basis and only with registered veterinarian to discuss the situation positive stimuli to a group’s social interactions molding or contamination. Animal waste must be suitable food, with approval from management, and procedures that will be required following and cohesion. However, unrestricted reproduction removed from the enclosure as often as necessary and under supervision from trained caretakers. the death of the animal(s). In any case where the in captivity can also lead to surplus animals to prevent disease transmission, and water death of the animal is related to a (suspected) e.g. too many individuals in relation to the 5.Veterinary care requirements reservoirs, food containers and feeding areas must infectious disease, DNPW and DALHD will need available enclosure space or an undesirable group be cleaned on a daily basis. Proper sanitation is to be informed straight away. composition. Therefore, reproduction should be 5.1 To obtain a captivity license, the applicant an important element of pest control and disease must obtain a letter from a qualified and state sustainable and only allowed if a pre-defined plan 5.8 In case of a public facility, the animals should prevention and must be properly implemented at registered veterinarian in Malawi, wherein he/she for the offspring has been agreed with DNPW not be manipulated in any negative or unnatural all times. states to provide the required health care for the and is included in the issued captivity license. way to entertain the public. Therefore, the reproduction of wild animals in 4. Nutrition requirements animal the license is requested for. captivity should only be allowed under controlled 6. Health and safety requirements 5.2 In any case where an animal being kept is circumstances and should never lead to surplus 4.1 Food, water and milk (whenever required) showing health problems, the holder of the animal animals. In those cases where reproduction is not must be provided so that it always meets the 6.1 Where the facility keeps animals which must consult a state registered veterinarian desirable or should be restricted, the animals must nutritive value and quantity required for the represent a potential risk for the health and safety to assess the animal and provide appropriate be provided with contraception that is appropriate particular species and for individual animals of people and/or the natural environment (e.g. treatment. for that species. within each species. When providing food, water exotic species), a thorough emergency protocol needs to be in place which describes, in detail, or milk, the caretaker must keep in mind the 5.3 Public facilities, educational facilities, 3.5 Two or more different species should only the actions that will be taken in the event of an condition, size and age of each animal as well wildlife sanctuaries or any other facility keeping be allowed to be kept together in one enclosure escape. Caretaker staff must have a thorough as the need to adapt the diet and quantities to C or D class species should ideally have a if they are able to live in harmony and one or understanding of the procedures and potential specific species-specific circumstances (e.g. fast wildlife experienced veterinarian within their more of the species are not compromised in their risks of working with the specific species and days or seasonal variation) and special diets for staff. When such a person is not available species-specific physical or psychological needs. training records must be kept. individual animals (e.g. animals undergoing within the organisation, an affiliated wildlife a course of veterinary treatment, pregnant or 3.6 To create a varied environment, any experienced veterinarian must be available on 6.2 Privately run facilities with less than 10 lactating animals). enclosure must provide sufficient and appropriate consultancy basis. animals of class A or B exempted, each captive environmental stimuli to ensure the psychological care facility needs to have a disaster preparedness 4.2 The nutritional status of the animal must also 5.4 Privately run facilities with less than 10 wellbeing of the animal(s). Where an enclosure plan in place to cover emergency procedures be checked and evaluated on a regular basis. In animals of class A or B exempted, each captive does not provide sufficient stimuli on its own, in the event of a natural disaster (fire, flood, case of any nutritional shortfall, the diet, quantity care facility must have veterinary policies and additional species-specific environmental etc). Caretaker staff must have a thorough of food provided and/or the way the food is Standard Operation Procedures (SOPs) which enrichment must be provided to ensure the understanding of the procedures and potential presented must be adapted so that all subsequent cover preventative health care as well as treatment wellbeing of the animal and prevent undue risks of working with the specific species and 16 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 17 training records must be kept. 6.3 When taking care of (potentially) dangerous SECTION III animals, caretakers must work according to the ‘protected contact’ method, or whenever appropriate, wear appropriate protective clothing. ‘Protected contact’ in this case means that STANDARDS PER caretakers should not share the same physical space with the animals without the benefit of some type of barrier. TAXONOMIC FAMILY 6.4 Animal capture and restraint should only be done by, or under the supervision of, competent and skilled caretakers and in accordance with standard methods that have been approved for AND SPECIES the species needing to be captured/restrained. Appropriate catching equipment and protective gear must be used to prevent and unnecessary harm of the caretaker or animal(s).

6.5 To prevent potential disease transmission, caretakers must be provided with appropriate protective clothing and equipment for cleaning animal enclosures and in situations where hands- on contact with an animal is required (e.g. medical procedures, animal capture).

6.6 For those species which are known to be susceptible to zoonotic diseases e.g. primates, caretakers should be, whenever reasonably possible, vaccinated, with their consent, against most common zoonotic diseases and also receive periodic health checks.

6.7 In the case of a public facility, any direct contact between visitors and animals should be prohibited. Appropriate secondary barriers need to be in place around the enclosure which prevent any direct contact between visitors and animals.

6.8 In the case of a public facility, appropriate signage should be in place indicating rules on how to behave in the presence of the animals with the aim of preventing any negative impacts on the welfare of the animals and ensuring the safety of the visitors.

18 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 19 1. SUIDAE (PIGS) Species and classification

Common name Scientific name Classification Bushpig Potamochoerus larvatus B Common warthog Phacochoerus africanus B 1.1 Enclosure requirements aggression. This can be in the form of logs, walls, boulders and man-made structures. Logs should Size and dimensions be placed and secured in a manner that prevents rolling or falling onto animals. Rocks and logs The main enclosure should measure no less than should also be provided to allow rubbing and 2 300m for one or two individuals. An additional scratching. 50m is required for each additional animal. The enclosure should provide sufficient 2 The shift yard should measure no less than 50m . shade in terms of vegetation through trees or A shelter as part of the shift yard should measure shelters. Wherever live vegetation is used it is Standards per taxonomic family no less than 8m2 each. and species recommended to protect the vegetation through Infrastructure barriers or electric wires.

In addition to the main enclosure, there is a need As suids need to be able to wallow for skin care This section provides minimum care standards for each to have at least one shift yard with shelter which and to prevent overheating, sufficient wallows taxonomic family of mammal species covered by the Standards. can serve as hiding space during inclement and need to be made available in the enclosure to In addition and wherever possible, species-specific standards extreme weather. enable this behaviour. Additional pools are are provided where the standards for species within a certain recommended. taxonomic family differ from each other and therefore the A shift yard enables secure separation of animals species requires more specification. for medical treatment or introduction of new Ground surface individuals. The shift yard can be part of the Aspects covered in this section are: All outdoor enclosures must have a natural main enclosure and should in that case have two substrate providing sufficient areas for ground • Enclosure requirements entrance/exits gates to prevent animals being feeding and rooting. When appropriate ground for • Husbandry requirements cornered. natural feeding and rooting is limited, additional • Nutritional requirements If the main enclosure doesn’t provide sufficient organic materials like grasses, straw and hay need • Veterinary requirements natural hiding places (e.g. trees, rock formation) to be provided. • Health and safety requirements additional shelters will need to be placed in the The floor surface must also be provided with a A complete overview of families and species covered in this main enclosure. sufficient amount of grass or hay for nesting. section is provided in Appendix 1. Barriers Climate control Besides the minimum care standards, each species is also For the enclosure barrier, solid (concrete/rock) classified based on their requirements and feasibility of being Under normal Malawian weather conditions suids walls, chain-link or welded mesh as well as post kept in captivity. The methodology used for the classification is should be able to be kept outside throughout the and rail fencing can be used. For the height a presented in Appendix 2. year. Shelter however should be made available minimum of 1.2m is required. Mesh size should at different places in the enclosure to protect the be no bigger than 10x10cm. When post and rail animals from sun, wind and inclement weather. fencing is used, the space between the rails should be no more than 15cm. Shade and shelter can be created through man- made structures or natural structures like hollow Suids are excellent diggers, and therefore any logs, rock overhangs, underground dens and fence line construction should go at least 60cm shade bushes/trees. deep into the ground. To prevent digging, electrical off-set wires can be used with a 1.2 Husbandry requirements minimum gauge of 12 and 7.5 KV. Care standards Furniture Suids are intelligent animals. Adequate welfare Appropriate complexity should be provided standards in captivity can be met through through the use of various natural and artificial appropriate husbandry and management materials in the enclosure that encourage normal procedures. This includes appropriate housing behaviour patterns, minimise any abnormal and enclosure design, environmental enrichment behaviour and avoid animal confrontation and 20 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 21 programmes and a balanced diet to meet reservoirs should be cleaned on a daily basis and chemistry analysis animal is under anaesthesia. nutritional requirements. provided with fresh potable water. • Blood smear for parasites • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Vaccinations To achieve high standards of welfare suids must 1.3 Nutritional requirements direct and flotation methods • Rabies be provided with opportunities to root, bathe, • Faecal pathogen culture • Tetanus wallow, forage for food, and play by providing Diet • +/- Leptospirosis, brucellosis species-appropriate rooting/digging areas, water Other tests As a basic diet a variety of tuber vegetables, carrot, features and/or mud wallows, bedding materials, • African Swine Fever, Classical Swine Fever Deworming/Ectoparasite control nuts and fruit must be offered following species- a variety of plants, logs and substrates as well as • Faecal exam via centrifugation Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) specific needs. The fresh produce portion of the the availability of sufficient places to hide and rest • Urinalysis should be performed on all animals twice a diet should lean more heavily towards vegetables in comfort. year. However, routine deworming may not be and not be primarily over-ripe and/or sugary Identification necessary and may actually upset gastrointestinal Social organisation fruits. Rotation of food items, including seasonally Upon completion of the quarantine period, flora balance. available fruits and vegetables, is recommended. all animals should be able to be individually Warthogs usually live in family groups of related Corncobs, whole potatoes and other large, hard identified through some semi-permanent or Special concerns females and their offspring or as a group of related foods should be cut in pieces to prevent choking. permanent process. These may include: ear tags, Suids are susceptible to Salmonella and may be females with one male. Bush pigs usually live microchips, tattoos, ear notches. in one male harem groups or in family groups Although commercially available diets generally susceptible to Influenza viruses. Brucellosis and with one male and female and their offspring. provide sufficient nutritional value, they do Routine/Preventative healthcare FMD (foot and mouth disease) are both present In captivity it is possible for both species to keep not meet behavioural foraging needs. Where in Malawi and thus should be considered if an multiple females together with their offspring. a commercial diet is provided it should be Visual examinations animal is showing any signs. Wild suids are the Generally it is recommended not to have more complemented with a variety of fresh items. Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, main hosts of African Swine Fever and Classical than one male with the group. When more males Where possible suids must be allowed to browse but should be more critically examined every six Swine Fever as well as Trypanasomiasis. Should are present, it is required to have opportunities to or graze on pasture, scrub or forest lands. When months. This visual examination should include: any animal test positive for any of these viruses, separate the males whenever required. Given their the enclosure doesn’t allow natural browsing, the DAHLD should be notified immediately. • Body condition score, including hair coat, eyes, social nature suids should generally not be housed freshly cut plant material including grasses, all appendages/hooves etc. Post-mortem on their own. leaves, nuts and berries should be provided. • Locomotion/activity All animals that have died of natural causes or Animal monitoring Food presentation • Observation of eating • Social interactions (where appropriate) have been euthanised should undergo a post Daily monitoring is required to quantify and Suids should be fed the non-browse/grasses mortem by a veterinarian or a similarly qualified measure the welfare of individual animals through portion of their diet a minimum of twice daily When possible, each animal should be individual. The carcass should be disposed of monitoring of their nutritional, physical and social during the active feeding time of the species photographed from the front, back, right, and appropriately (incinerated). housed. They should, however, have access to left sides at the time of the biannual visual condition. Qualified personnel must conduct daily 1.5 Health and safety requirements observations to monitor for signs of physical or browse or other natural plant material throughout examinations. These photographs should be the day and night, to encourage normal foraging identified and dated and stored for future behavioural abnormalities. Any unusual activities Potential risks should be recorded in designated reports. behaviour and reduce the incident of abnormal reference/comparison. behaviour. Food must be provisioned at multiple Under certain circumstances, especially when they Physical examinations Catching/Handling feeding sites throughout enclosures to ensure all feel threatened, suids can be aggressive and inflict Hands-on physical examinations should be animals have access and to reduce or eliminate serious injuries. Suids can under certain circumstances be trained aggression that results from competition for food performed on each animal every two years. Ideally to enter chutes/crush cages to accept specific non- resources, especially preferred items. animals would be trained in a chute system. Preventative healthcare painful handling and medical procedures without Anaesthesia should not be necessary unless prior sedation. However, even with training, they Food handling invasive samples need to be taken. Caretakers should be screened for TB and can be highly volatile with a propensity for intense vaccinated for rabies prior to having direct and unpredictable reactions. Training animals for Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage Recommended tests contact with the animals. Due to the potential this kind of purpose should only be done by very areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable • Full physical examination susceptibility of suids to Influenza viruses, keepers experienced caretakers. Where it is not possible foods should be kept under refrigeration. • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum with symptoms of respiratory disease should chemistry analysis to train the animal to come into a small confined 1.4 Veterinary requirements refrain from working with these animals while ill. area, the best way to handle it is under sedation. • Blood smear for parasites • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Safety measures Sedation can be provided using a dart gun/ Quarantine blow pipe. direct and flotation methods Generally animals should be cared for according Quarantine time • Faecal pathogen culture to the protective contact method. Personal Enclosure hygiene Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. Other tests protective equipment should be provided to Animal waste should be removed on a daily Recommended tests • African Swine Fever, Classical Swine Fever each caretaker. Where caretakers need to enter basis to prevent contamination of the animal, • Full physical examination will likely need to be • Faecal exam via centrifugation the enclosure it is highly recommended that the minimise disease hazards and reduce odours. done under anaesthesia. Ideally the animal will • Urinalysis dominant male be locked in the shift yard. People Soiled bedding material and substrate should have been trained in a chute to undergo physical must never corner animals or approach females Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and be removed and replaced with fresh materials examinations with young. Suids generally require care from identification may also all take place whilst the daily, or as needed to prevent build-up. All water • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum experienced and well trained caretakers.

22 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 23 2. HIPPOPOTAMIDAE (HIPPOPOTAMUS) however, have constant access to mud wallows 2.3 Nutritional requirements and shelter space for temperature regulation Species and classification and for protection against inclement weather Diet conditions. Common name Scientific name Classification Hippos are herbivorous foregut fermenters, with 2.2 Husbandry requirements the vast majority of the food eaten being grass. Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibius C In captivity these animals should be provided Care standards with sufficient high quality hay. As a standard, 2.1 Enclosure requirements 25-30cm. Alternatively, steel pipes can be placed hippos should be provided with about 1.5% of vertically in the ground with the posts spaced 35- Hippos are large, strong animals which can be their bodyweight in grass/hay (dry matter). For The Hippopotamus (hippos) are big mammals 30cm apart. aggressive. Mistakes made in daily routines enrichment it is highly recommended to provide with a weight of up to 2,500 kg (average 1,300 or during animal introductions can easily lead an enclosure which is big enough to provide the kg) for females and 3,200 kg (average 1,600 kg) Enclosure gates can be the weakest points of the to dangerous situations for the animal or the animal with natural grazing areas. for males. Considering the size of these animals exhibit so adequate hinges and lock strength environment. Hippo keepers should have as it is vital that the enclosure space provided is of are very important. Interior doors should be much formal training and experience as possible Food presentation sufficient size and strength to contain them while constructed of heavy-gauge steel or pipe that is and should be familiar with their behaviour and meeting their physical and psychological needs. hinged or sliding. Sliding gates are optimal as they husbandry requirements. Food is provisioned at multiple feeding sites have the ability for partial opening, and should be throughout enclosures to ensure all animals have Size and dimensions a minimum of 1.8m wide and 2m high. Social organisation access and to reduce or eliminate aggression that results from competition for food resources. To Because of their size, hippos are preferably kept Furniture Hippos are gregarious animals and the most prevent sand/dust compaction the food should in open space enclosures, which provide sufficient common combination kept in captivity is one male be offered on a concrete pad or in livestock complexity to provide behavioural stimulation. Hippos naturally spend most of their day in with multiple females or just a group of females. troughs or bins. Many factors influence the minimum space water and therefore require constant access to Hippos should not be kept alone. Although required for a group of hippos including, but water. The water body should be big enough to dominant males sometimes accept young bachelor Food handling not limited to: group size, group composition, accommodate all individuals without causing males, this is not recommended in a captive and enclosure complexity. The following aggression. As a standard water surface should not care setting. Food should be stored in a clean and dry place measures provide minimum standards. Captive be less than 225m2 per individual animal. Depth to prevent mouldy or dusty hay which can care facilities should provide as much space of the pool should be from 1.5-2.5m. The entrance Animal monitoring cause problems. as possible. to the water should be gradual and have a non-slip surface to enable the animals to enter and exit the Hippos require daily monitoring and record 2.4 Veterinary requirements The main enclosure should measure no less water safely. keeping. Areas of importance are their general than 1200m2 for one animal. For each additional health and body condition, (social) behavioural Quarantine animal another 300m2 is required. Besides water hippos also require an area with aspects and food consumption. mud or clay to allow wallowing for skin care and Quarantine time A shift yard should measure no less than 225m2 body temperature regulation. The size of mud Catching/Handling Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. for one animal and 300m2 for two animals. wallows should be adapted to the number of Recommended tests animals in the exhibit so that sufficient space is Handling and restraint of hippos is only done 2 • Full physical examination preferably in a A shelter should measure no less than 100m for provided for each individual. through the protective contact method. The best one animal and 15m2 for two animals. method to handle, examine and treat a hippo is by chute system. Visual and physical barriers are also required to using so-called ‘chutes’ or ‘crush’ cages. A chute • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Infrastructure help reduce stress and aggression by permitting is a small restricted area in which contains one chemistry analysis animals to separate themselves from others or more hydraulic barriers that will “squeeze” • Blood smear for parasites In addition to the main enclosure, there needs to together to restrict an animal’s movement. In • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using be at least one shift yard as well as a shelter which during introductions or in group situations. Barriers should be large and high enough to general, major chute design considerations direct and flotation methods can serve as night housing and/or secure space include strength, durability, type and function. To • Faecal pathogen culture during inclement and extreme weather. provide so-called safe zones that allow an animal to pass out of sight. Types of visual barriers can reduce stress a chute should be designed in such a Additional tests include big rocks/boulders, logs as well as trees way that it is part of the enclosure and the animal A shift yard allows animals to be locked up • Tuberculosis test and natural plantings. passes it on a daily basis as a routine. during cleaning of the main enclosure, separating • Faecal exam via centrifugation animals for medical treatment or the introduction Enclosure hygiene • Urinalysis of new individuals. The shift yard should be next Ground surface to the main enclosure and have two entrance/exits The surface of the enclosure should consist as Animal waste should be removed on a daily Identification gates to prevent animals being cornered. much as possible of natural substrate like grass, basis to prevent contamination of the animals Upon completion of the quarantine period, contained, to minimise disease hazards and to all animals should be able to be individually Barriers limestone, sand, and other natural material combinations. reduce odours. Soiled bedding material and identified through some semi-permanent or permanent process. These may include: ear tags, Moats, solid concrete barriers or strong steel pipes substrate should be removed and replaced microchips, tattoos. are used as the primary barrier for hippos. The Climate control with fresh materials daily, or as needed to prevent build-up. All water reservoirs should be primary barrier should be a minimum of 1.5m Under normal Malawian weather conditions high. When using steel pipe the space between cleaned on a daily basis and provided with fresh hippos should be able to be kept outside potable water. the horizontal pipes should not be bigger than throughout the year. The animals should,

24 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 25 Routine/Preventative healthcare animals. Antibodies to Bovine Herpesvirus 2 3. BOVIDAE (ANTELOPE) (BHV2), Rinderpest virus, infectious Bovine Visual examinations Rhinotracheitis virus (IBR) and Contagious For these standards the Malawian species of the bovidea family are split up in the categories as Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, Bovine Pleuropneumonia virus have been found indicated below: but should be more critically examined every six in wild hippos. months. This visual examination should include: Duiker, bushbuck, and dwarf antelopes Post-mortem • Body condition score, including skin condition, Common name Scientific name Classification eyes, all appendages/digits, etc. All animals that have died of natural causes or Common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia C • Locomotion/activity have been euthanised should undergo a post- • Observation of eating mortem by a veterinarian. The carcass should be Red forest duiker Cephalophus natalensis C • Social interactions (where appropriate) disposed of appropriately. Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus C Sharpe’s grysbock Raphicerus sharpei C When possible, each animal should be 2.5 Health and safety requirements photographed from the front, back, right, and Suni Neotragus moschatus C left sides at the time of the biannual visual Potential risks Oribi Ourebia ourebi C examinations. These photographs should be Despite their bulky and sluggish appearance, Klipspringer Oreotragus oreotragus C identified and dated and stored for future hippos can be aggressive and dangerous, reference/comparison. Smaller antelopes < 120 kg especially under stressful or unexpected circumstances. Physical examinations Common name Scientific name Classification Hands-on physical examinations should be Preventative healthcare Impala Aepyceros melampus C performed on each animal every two years in a Puku Kobus vardonii C chute system. Anaesthesia should not be necessary Caretakers should be screened for TB and unless invasive samples need to be taken. vaccinated for rabies prior to having direct contact Southern reedbuck Redunca arundinum C with the animals. Nyala Tragelaphus angasii C Recommended tests • Full physical examination Safety measures Large antelopes and Bovinae > 120 kg • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum chemistry analysis Handling and training of the animals should Common name Scientific name Classification • Blood smear for parasites always be performed according to the protective • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using contact method and within appropriate and Waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus B direct and flotation methods especially designated facilities. All slides, doors, Roan antelope Hippotragus equinus B • Faecal pathogen culture gates must be kept closed and securely fastened Sable antelope Hippotragus niger B at all times; ideally a double-gated system is in Lichtenstein's hartebeest Alcelaphus lichtensteinii B Additional tests place. Locks and security of slides, gates and doors • Tuberculosis test should be double-checked after each use and Blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus B • Faecal exam via centrifugation inspected regularly. Catching of all felids should Common eland Tragelaphus oryx B • Urinalysis be done through conditioning the animal to a Greater kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros B catching/squeeze cage or by chemical restraint Vaccinations, deworming and identification may African buffalo Syncerus caffer B through darting. Caretakers should always keep a also all take place whilst the animal is under safe distance to the enclosure barrier. examination. 3.1 Enclosure requirements Smaller antelopes The main enclosure should measure no less In order to ensure safety and to properly meet the Vaccinations Size and dimensions than 900m2 for a group up to three animals. requirements of management, it is recommended • Rabies An additional 100m2 should be added for each that more than one keeper is responsible for the • Tetanus Bovids must be provided with appropriate space, additional individual. A shift yard should measure care of these animals on a daily basis. Keeper • +/-clostridial diseases, anthrax, brucella, in terms of diversity and complexity, to allow for no less than 100m2. interaction should be restricted to designated leptospirosis, other diseases as per risk expression of normal behaviours. Bovids must areas and should be conducted according to of exposure also be provided with sufficient opportunity Medium- and large-sized antelopes and bovinae the protective contact method. Consistency of and space to exercise daily and have freedom of The main enclosures for waterbucks, roan Deworming/Ectoparasite control routine is vital. Emergency protocols for escapes movement so as to reduce stress and maintain antelopes, sables, hartebeests, wildebeests and Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) should be in place and caretakers should have good physical condition. kudus should measure no less than 1400m2 for a should be performed on all animals twice a full knowledge and understanding of the required group up to three animals. An additional 150m2 year. However, routine deworming may not be procedures. If put on public view, the animal should only be should be added for each additional individual. A necessary and may actually upset gastrointestinal visible from one side and should be given the shift yard should not measure less than 150m2. In case the public has viewing access to the flora balance. means to distance themselves from the public. enclosure, a physical barrier should be present The enclosure for elands and buffalos should Special concerns to keep people at least three meters from the Duikers, bushbucks and dwarf antelopes measure no less than 1800m2 for a group of up enclosure barrier. The enclosure barrier should be The main enclosure should measure no less than to three animals. An additional 200m2 should be 2 Beta-haemolytic and gamma-non-haemolytic constructed in such a way that people are not able 250m for one or two animals. A shift yard should added for each additional individual. A shift yard 2 streptococcal infections are the most common to pass the barrier. measure no less than 36m . should measure no less than 150m². reported bacterial infections in captive 26 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 27 Infrastructure to the strength of the barrier. Barriers can be Duikers, bushbucks and dwarf antelopes unnecessary discomfort, and minimises physical made of steel pipe or hard wood (post and rail All duikers, bushbucks and dwarf antelopes are and psychological stress as much as possible. Besides the main enclosure, at least one more fencing), upright wooden logs or solids concrete/ solitary animals, but are able to be kept in pairs The safest methods are through training and additional area should be provided to separate rock. Chain link fence (4-6 gauge) can be used in or sometime trios when there is mutual tolerance habituation of the animal to handing or chemical one or more animals from the group whenever combination with a secondary fence line (electric amongst the individuals and sufficient space. immobilisation through darting. Animals which required. This can be in the form of an outdoor wires or post and rail fencing). Adult males are territorial and should not be kept are habituated to handling can be physically pen or a barn/shelter. The pen should not be any together in one enclosure. Fighting amongst males restrained for a short period of time or chemically smaller than a quarter of the size of the main Furniture can easily lead to fatal injuries. restrained through hand injection. enclosure and should have at least two gates towards the main enclosure to prevent animals The enclosure should provide as much as Smaller antelopes Enclosure hygiene being cornered. complexity as possible in terms of vegetation and/ Impalas and pukus are gregarious animals and or structures. This can be achieved by providing a should not be kept in groups of less than three Animal waste should be removed on a daily If put on public view, animals should only be variety of trees and bushes, logs, walls, boulders individuals. Groups should not contain more than basis to prevent contamination of the animal, to visible from one side and should be given the and man-made structures. The enclosure should one adult male in order to prevent fighting. minimise disease hazards and to reduce odours. means to distance themselves from the public. The also provide sufficient shade for all animals Soiled bedding material and substrate should latter can be done through providing sufficient present in the enclosure. This can be achieved Southern reedbucks live in monogamous pairs be removed and replaced with fresh materials visual barriers. through vegetation in combination with man- and serious effort needs to be undertaken to keep daily, or as needed to prevent buildup. Food made shelters. these animals according to their natural social way leftovers should be removed as often as required Barriers of living. for the type of food and prior to moulding or Medium and large sized antelopes require access contamination. In hot weather conditions this The fence line should be constructed in such a to a water source large enough for bathing. Nyala females form small herds of 2-3 females still means that food leftovers should be removed way that it protects the animals from predators on Buffalos should have access to sufficient water with their offspring. Nyalas should not be kept daily. All water reservoirs are cleaned on a daily the outside of the enclosure. This can be achieved sources for bathing or mud wallowing. alone and a minimum of two animals is required. basis and provided with fresh potable water. by the fence line being dug into the ground and/ or by using electrified wires on the outside of the Ground surface Medium- and large-sized antelopes and bovinae 3.3 Nutritional requirements enclosure. All of the larger antelopes and bovinae are The outside enclosure should consist of a natural gregarious and should not be kept in herds of Diet An additional barrier should keep the viewing substrate consistent with the site. Where possible less than three animals. An exception is the kudu public at a distance of at least 2m from the natural pasture is kept and rotated, providing the which can be kept in pairs (two females or a All bovid diets must be of a quality, quantity and enclosure fence line. animals with grazing opportunities and natural female with her offspring). variety suitable for each animal’s nutritional resting surfaces. and psychological needs. Wherever possible Duikers, bushbucks and dwarf antelopes Generally all species can be kept in herd of commercial pallets appropriate for the species Enclosure barriers can be made of chain link fence Climate control females with their offspring. In addition one male are provided. In addition fresh hay and browse is (12 gauge), mesh, concrete or wood and should can be added to the herd, but careful observations provided ad libitum on a daily basis. Ideally the The enclosure should provide sufficient shelter to have a minimum height of 1.8m. Mesh size should are required to establish that the male is not enclosure should provide live trees, shrubs and protect each animal from inclement weather. This not exceed 15x15cm to prevent animals getting disturbing the stability of the herd, causing stress grasses to allow natural browsing. Trace mineral can be provided through means of a barn, shelter stuck in the fence line. Electrical wires should not and potential injuries. In such cases the male blocks should be provided in the enclosure to or thick bushes/vegetation and trees. be used to contain these animals as it might stress should be (temporarily) separated from the group. provide essential mineral nutrients. an animal in such a way that it can injure itself. 3.2 Husbandry requirements Animal monitoring Diets of individual animals should be modified to Smaller antelopes Care standards match the physiological state of the animal as it Enclosure barriers can be made of chain link Daily monitoring is required to quantify and changes over time. Therefore the diet should be fence (12 gauge), concrete, bricks or wooden/ All members of the bovidae family are generally measure the welfare of individual animals through prepared with consideration for the age and life metal beams (post and rail fencing) and should social and grazing animals are often found in monitoring of nutritional, physical and social stage, species, condition, and size of the ruminant. have a minimum height of 2m for puku, reedbuck large flocks or herds. These animals benefit from conditions. Qualified personnel must conduct Fresh, clean water should be available at all and nyala and 2.5m for impala. Electrical wires access to pasture and browse for grazing and daily observations to monitor for signs of physical times. Water supply points should be sufficient to should not be used to contain these animals as it walking in pairs or groups. Many species are or behavioural abnormalities. Any abnormalities provide all animals with drinking water. Smaller might stress an animal in such a way that it could prone to stress-related illness and injury. Habitat should be recorded in designated reports artificial water reservoirs should be cleaned and injure itself. design and husbandry techniques should take this refilled on a daily basis. Catching/Handling into account. Medium- and large-sized antelopes and bovinae Duikers, bushbucks and dwarf antelopes Unless the animals are very much habituated Enclosure barriers for waterbucks, roan antelopes, Social organisation Ideally the enclosure should offer a wide variety of to humans, catching and handling of duikers, sables, hartebeests, wildebeests, kudus and elands bushes, grasses and flowers, allowing the animals bushbucks, dwarf antelopes as well as all the can be made of chain link fence (4-6 gauge), As most bovids are gregarious by nature, animals to naturally browse. When existing vegetation smaller antelope species should be avoided as concrete, bricks or wooden/metal beams (post should be kept in a social environment which provides insufficient nutrients or is not available, much as possible or performed with great care. and rail fencing) and can be in combination with resembles as much as possible the natural group the diet besides pellets should consist of good The stress caused by catching can have serious electric wire (minimum of 3000 Volt, 32 Joule) composition of that species. In cases where more quality hay, mixed grains, vegetables and a variety negative consequences for the animals. Therefore to contain the animals. The barrier should have a species are being kept together special attention of browse. Animal protein such as eggs should any capture or restrain should be carried minimum height of 1.8m. needs to be given to ensure that the species are be offered in low amounts. As most fruits are out in a manner that does not cause trauma, compatible with each other. high in sugar these should only be offered in low For buffalos extra attention should be given overheating, excessive cooling, physical harm, or quantities. 28 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 29 Old leftover food should be removed from are separated from the group and fed to make sure Physical examinations have been euthanised should undergo a post- the enclosure on a daily basis to prevent all animals receives sufficient nutrition. As bovids Hands-on physical examinations should be mortem examination by a veterinarian or a contamination and attract vermin. spend most of their active hours on feeding, food performed on each animal every two years under similarly experienced, qualified person. All organ should be presented in such a way that natural manual restraint or anaesthesia. systems should be checked. In antelopes, organs Smaller antelopes foraging is encouraged as much as possible. affected by tuberculosis – lungs, liver, mediastinal Impalas, pukus and reedbucks are all grazers Recommended tests lymph nodes – should be given special and ideally the enclosure should provide natural Food handling • Full physical examination examination. The carcass should be disposed of grass for these animals to feed on. If not, the diet • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum appropriately (incineration). besides pellets should consist of good quality hay, Separate and secure facilities should be provided chemistry analysis mixed grains, vegetables and a variety of browse, for the proper and hygienic storage of food. • Blood smear for parasites 3.5 Health and safety requirements the latter mainly for impalas and nyalas which Food should be protected against dampness, • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using also feed on foliage, forbs, shoots and seeds pods. deterioration and mould and from contamination direct and flotation methods Potential risks by insects, birds, rodents or other animals. The day’s food rations should be broken down Additional tests All horned antelopes may pose a risk to their into at least two, and preferably three, feedings in 3.4 Veterinary requirements • Faecal exam via centrifugation caretakers through goring if they are handled order to promote normal digestive tract activity • Urinalysis inappropriately. Larger antelopes may also Quarantine and to mimic more natural feeding patterns. Food trample people who approach with undue care. Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and The hooves of small antelopes that are manually items should be fed out in elevated feed pans or Quarantine time identification may also all take place whilst the restrained can also cause severe lacerations. If in above-ground hayracks to avoid sand and gravel Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. impaction and/or parasitic infections caused by animal is under examination. an enclosure with antelope, be wary of frightening faecal-oral contamination. Recommended tests them – they can easily injure themselves trying Vaccinations, recommended • Full physical examination either under to get away. • Rabies To avoid competition and monopolising food, anaesthesia or under manual restraint in a • Tetanus Preventative healthcare multiple feeding sites well-spaced within the chute system. • Clostridial vaccinations enclosure should be utilised to prevent dominant • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum • +/- Anthrax, Bovine Viral Diarrhoea, Caretakers should be screened for TB prior to individuals from monopolising feed. chemistry analysis Leptospirosis, Parainfluenza, other diseases as per having direct contact with the animals. • Blood smear for parasites Medium- and large-sized antelopes and bovinae risk of exposure • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Safety measures Almost all big antelopes and bovinae as indicated direct and flotation methods Deworming/Ectoparasite control are predominantly grazers, and to a lesser extent Adult bulls of all large antelopes should be • Faecal pathogen culture Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) browsers. Their diet should consist of good quality approached with care. Working hands-on with should be performed on all animals twice a year. hay supplemented with commercial herbivore Additional tests male buffalos should always be conducted Appropriate anthelminthic administration should concentrate pellets. A selection of seasonal browse • Faecal exam via centrifugation according to the ‘protective contact’ method. be instituted based on results. must be added whenever available. • Urinalysis This means that caretakers should not share the Special concerns same physical space with the animals without the An exception within this group is the greater Identification Common problems of captive ruminants can benefit of some type of barrier. Caretakers should kudu which is a pure browser. Kudus should be Upon completion of the quarantine period, include dental disease, abnormal hoof growth, and also be wary of working in close proximity to provided with a selection of good quality hay, all animals should be able to be individually poor body/coat condition. Husbandry problems females, especially females with calves. herbivore pellets, mixed grains, vegetables and a identified through some semi-permanent or including improper feed items, deficiencies in variety of browse. permanent process. These may include: ear tags, Capture and restraint of the larger antelopes and protein and macro and micro minerals, and microchips, tattoos (ear), ear notches. buffalos can be done best by separating the animal The day’s food rations should be broken down inappropriate substrates for these animals can in a pen. Whenever possible the facility should into at least two, and preferably three, feedings in contribute to these problems. Routine/Preventative healthcare have a chute in which the animal can be restrained order to promote normal digestive tract activity and immobilised whenever required. Whenever and to mimic more natural feeding patterns. Food Visual examinations Bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) these kind of facilities are not available the best items should be fed out in elevated feed pans or Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, is endemic in Malawi along with brucellosis way to capture the animal is through chemical above-ground hayracks to avoid sand and gravel but should be more critically examined every six (Brucella spp.) and should be considered in any immobilisation using a dart gun. impaction and/or parasitic infections caused by months. This visual examination should include: antelope that come from farms where they may have cohabitated with cattle, sheep, or goats. fecal-oral contamination. Enclosure barriers and gates should be • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, FMD (foot and mouth disease) is also present in checked on a daily basis to ensure full and To avoid competition and monopolising food, all appendages/hooves, etc. Malawi. Other diseases of significance in bovids smooth functionality. All slides, doors and multiple feeding sites well-spaced within the • Locomotion/activity include Bluetongue, Bovine Viral Diarrhoea, gates in ruminant areas are kept closed and enclosure should be utilised to prevent dominant • Observation of eating Leptospirosis, and Theileriosis, however the securely fastened at all times unless needed for individuals from monopolising feed. • Social interactions (where appropriate) prevalence of these diseases in Malawi is unknown ruminant access. at present. Should any animal exhibit clinical Food presentation When possible, each animal should be signs of or test positive for any of these diseases, In case the public has viewing access to the photographed from the front, back, right, and the DAHLD should be immediately notified. enclosure, a physical barrier should be present Unless sufficient food is naturally available within left sides at the time of the biannual visual to keep people at least three meters from the the enclosure, bovids are fed as often as required examinations. These photographs should be Post-mortem enclosure barrier. The enclosure barrier should be for the species to support natural feeding activity identified and dated and stored for future constructed in such a way that people are not able patterns. Whenever required, individual animals reference/comparison. All animals that have died of natural causes or to pass the barrier. 30 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 31 4. GIRAFFIDAE (GIRAFFE) provide so-called safe zones that allow an animal zebras, camels, water buffaloes, rhinos, ostriches, to pass out of sight. To protect animals from and geese. Species and classification inclement weather conditions and provide shade shelters should be made available throughout • Natural foraging behaviour and, more Common name Scientific name Classification the enclosure. One or more water sources should specifically, maximising use of the tongue provides the best kind of natural enrichment. Southern giraffe Giraffa giraffe C be available for the animals to drink from. To promote locomotion, feeding stations should be Plenty of natural browse should be provided and Masai giraffe / Rhodesian giraffe Giraffa tippelskirchi C available throughout the enclosure. enrichment devices can be designed with small Reticulated giraffe Giraffa reticulate C openings just large enough for the tongue to find Northern giraffe Giraffa camelopardis C Ground surface and retrieve food items.

All giraffe species are categorized as a Category III species, and are generally never allowed to be kept in The ground surface should consist of a natural Social organisation captivity, with the exception of professional institutions which have been provided with an exemption substrate consistent with the site. The surface Giraffes are gregarious, non-territorial animals from the DNPW to keep this species for rescue and/or conservation purposes. should be well-drained and reasonably levelled with slopes of no more than 40 degrees. Hard, forming very loose, open herds of up to 50 in 4.1 Enclosure requirements wet/cold weather. This shelter must be big enough abrasive, but non-slip surfaces should be used number. They are socially aloof, forming no for all individuals to lie down, to get up easily and on walkways to prevent overgrown hooves lasting bonds with fellow herd members. They are, Size and dimensions to move about. Herds with multiple males require (e.g. gravel/dolomite). Sleeping surfaces however, more at ease when housed together with bigger or multiple shelters to prevent competition. within the shelter should be soft e.g. straw, one or more individuals and it is recommended to The recommended size of a giraffe enclosure Shelters must be a minimum of 4m high. sawdust or mulch. keep no less than three giraffes together. depends on the number of individuals, and ages and sexes of the individuals kept. Due to their Barriers Climate control Different options exist in regards to herd social large size a sufficient area is required to provide structures: enough space for all individuals to lie down, to get For the enclosure barrier, solid (rock/concrete) Giraffes are very susceptible to the cold and colder up easily and to move about. walls, wooden poles, chain-link or welded mesh as temperatures affect their energy demands. Under Small breeding herds well dry moats can be used. normal Malawian weather conditions giraffes 1 adult male, 2-3 adult females plus calves. The main enclosure should measure no less should be able to be kept outside throughout the 2 Large breeding herd than 1800m for up to three animals. For each Fences must be very strong and should be free of year. At colder temperatures (below 18 degrees 2 2+ more adult males, 4+ more adult females additional animal 400m should be added to the protruding bolts, screws and nails. The bottom Celsius) or during poor weather, animals will plus calves. enclosure. A separation pen should measure no range of the fence up to 1m should be made need shelter in the form of natural vegetation less than 150m2. of solid material to prevent hooves becoming or a roofed area. During hot sun they will also Single sex group trapped. Otherwise fence wire should not be require shade. Infrastructure wider than 10cm. Electric wires can be used in Either only males or only females. combination with mesh fencing to prevent the 4.2 Husbandry requirements Enclosures should provide arrangements for the Any introductions of new animals should be done animal from breaking through. Electric fencing gradually, allowing individuals to familiarise separation of one or more giraffes. For groups as the only confinement barrier is strongly Care standards up to three individuals the facility should have themselves in adjacent enclosures prior to the discouraged, as it cannot prevent animals from actual introduction, to ensure compatibility. This at least one separation pen in addition to the escaping. Fences must be highly visible as giraffes Sufficient work experience and knowledge of the main enclosure. Facilities which house bigger species biology, behaviour and specific husbandry process should be supervised by an experienced will run without looking carefully when spooked caretaker. groups should have two or more separation and should therefore be a minimum of 2m high. needs is required to meet the specific needs of pens depending on the size of the group. More these animals in a captive care setting. Giraffes Male giraffes do not commonly partake in serious separation pens should be present when keeping are difficult to keep to a reasonable standard due When using a dry moat it should be made with fighting but it is important that they have space larger numbers of individuals. The connecting to their large natural home ranges and repetitive a gradual slope on the inside so the animals can to keep out of each other’s way. Evenly matched separation pens should have at least two gates daily routine in captivity. Social tensions in move in and out without difficulties. The moats males competing over a female in a limited space connecting the pen to the main enclosure and/or limited spaces produce a stressful environment should be no less than 2.5m high as a vertical can lead to abnormal behavioural patterns e.g. other pens. and abnormal behaviours often develop such as wall on the outer perimeter. Ditches with vertical increased ‘necking’ behaviour. walls on both sides are considered dangerous pacing, head twirling and tongue playing. Enclosure design depends heavily on the group of and are strongly discouraged. Water moats are Animal monitoring individuals housed. Small breeding herds or single also not recommended, presenting a risk of water Various strategies can help to minimise sex herds generally require less space than big contamination, slipping and drowning, especially this problem: Giraffes in captive care facilities require close breeding herds (e.g. two males with 3-4 females monitoring and record keeping by experienced to young animals. • Provide large enclosures with sufficient space for and their calves). Large breeding herds require caretakers, who are often able to detect slight animals to avoid each other. additional space with the enclosure divided so Furniture changes in an animal that may be the only that each adult male can move in separate but • Provide a view or window to allow giraffes to outward signs of illness. Observations of the connecting enclosures of 1800m2 each. Any The enclosure should as closely as possible reflect visually orient themselves and observe their giraffe’s physical state and appearance, any connecting corridors or pathways between a natural environment and provide sufficient surroundings. changes in behaviour, and whether or not it enclosures should measure at least 2.5m wide to vegetation to promote natural browsing. The is eating, drinking, urinating and defecating allow for easy movement. natural vegetation also provides a physical • Combining giraffes in mixed species enclosures normally should be made daily. Monitoring of barrier to separate individuals from others is an effective form of enrichment. Giraffes have daily food intake and regularly weighting giraffes In addition to the main enclosure, there is a need during introductions or in group situations. been kept with a variety of other species both provide good health indicators. Any health for a protective shelter for use during night and Barriers should be large and high enough to large and small, such as assorted larger antelopes, concerns should be brought to the attention 32 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 33 of a veterinarian as quickly as possible. Close ration (made from a variety of cereals and grains, 4.4 Veterinary requirements not be necessary unless invasive samples need monitoring is vital when changing a group with vitamins and minerals added), lucerne hay, to be taken. structure or introducing new animals. browse branches and small amounts of fruit and Quarantine vegetables. Alfalfa hay is commonly used in giraffe Recommended tests Catching/Handling diets although can vary considerably in quality. Quarantine time • Full physical examination Lucerne hay must always be supplemented with Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Giraffes can be very difficult to handle safely due additional feeds. Grass hay should not be intended chemistry analysis to their long leg reach, and they are able to kill Recommended tests to be a major proportion of the giraffes’ diet. • Blood smear for parasites or significantly injure a person with one kick. • Full physical examination should be possible to Mineral salt blocks should also be provided at all • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Physical restraint of a giraffe can also lead to high do in a chute. If the giraffe proves intractable, a times and there should be a permanent supply of direct and flotation methods stress levels in the animal, which can be difficult standing sedation can be used. fresh water. • Faecal pathogen culture to identify as the animal may seem calm, but can • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum • Tuberculosis test (caudal tail fold) result in collapse and fatality. For adult giraffes the volume of food offered chemistry analysis should be 1.5-2% of the giraffe’s body weight. • Blood smear for parasites Other tests Giraffes can be conditioned to a chute or crush Browse (especially the leaves and shoots) • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using • Faecal exam via centrifugation cage to be restrained for various procedures, should be provided ad libitum being the giraffe’s direct and flotation methods • Urinalysis including injections, blood collection, hoof work natural diet (inc. acacia, eucalyptus, willow, • Faecal pathogen culture and reproductive manipulation. Individual Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and elm, coprosma, fig, prunus, myoporum, palm • Tuberculosis test giraffes require considerable training to accept identification may also all take place whilst the and cassurina). The actual consumed roughage procedures in a crush, and although time Other tests animal is under examination. quantities from the browse should form 60-70% consuming it is still the preferred method • Faecal exam via centrifugation of all dry matter consumed. of restraint and considered far safer than an • Urinalysis Vaccinations • Rabies anaesthetic. The giraffes should pass through the Any sudden changes to a provided diet should be Identification • Tetanus chute/crush cage daily to become accustomed to strictly avoided and instead gradually changed Upon completion of the quarantine period, • Clostridal diseases the facility from a young age. over a longer period of time. all animals should be able to be individually • +/- Bluetongue, Rotavirus, Coronavirus, Immobilisation or anaesthesia of giraffes have Food presentation identified through some semi-permanent or depending on disease risk long been considered high risk, due to their permanent process. These may include: ear tags, unique physiology and anatomy, which may cause In the wild giraffes will move constantly, spending microchips, ear notches. Special concerns life-threatening problems during anaesthesia all day locating food and feeding. In captivity, food Common problems of captive ruminants and logistical problems due to the large size of should be provisioned at multiple feeding sites Routine/Preventative healthcare can include dental disease, abnormal hoof the animal when it becomes recumbent upon throughout the enclosure to promote locomotion Visual examinations growth, foot rot, and poor body/coat condition. induction. and natural foraging behaviour, ensuring that all Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, Husbandry problems including improper feed animals have access and to reduce or eliminate but should be more critically examined every six items, deficiencies in protein and macro and micro Enclosure hygiene stress that results from competition for food months. This visual examination should include: minerals, and inappropriate substrates for these resources. It is important that food is presented Giraffe faeces needs to be racked up and removed animals can contribute to these problems. Due to on a regular basis throughout the day. from enclosures on a daily basis. Giraffe urine on • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, their selective browsing habits, captive diets for all appendages/hooves, etc. bedding should also be removed with the soiled Vegetables should be prepared into small pieces giraffes can lead to many serious digestive health bedding material. Depending on the amount and • Locomotion/activity problems. to avoid a risk of choking or throat obstruction. • Observation of eating type of house bedding, it does not generally need Food (browse and hay) should be presented at • Social interactions (where appropriate) Bovine tuberculosis (Mycobacterium bovis) frequent changing. Due to the volume of bedding different heights, at 2-3m from the ground where is endemic in Malawi along with brucellosis (and cost and labour) it should be completely all aged giraffes can reach it easily. Vegetables When possible, each animal should be (Brucella spp.) and FMD (foot and mouth replaced on a monthly or quarterly basis. and pellets can be fed in troughs. Devices can be photographed from the front, back, right, and disease). Other diseases of significance in giraffes designed for both formats with small openings Giraffes should be fed at a height of 2-3m above left sides at the time of the biannual visual may include Leptospirosis and Theileriosis, (not exceeding 4.5cm), just large enough for the the ground, which will necessitate keeper access examinations. These photographs should be Malignant Catarrhal Fever (MCF) and Bovine giraffe’s tongue to find and retrieve food items, to hay feeders for cleaning. Old stalks or feed identified and dated and stored for future Viral Diarrhoea/Mucosal Disease complex (BVD/ designed to promote use of the tongue. String hay dust should not be allowed to accumulate in or reference/comparison. MD), and Leucosis; however the prevalence of feeders used with horses are not suitable and tend under hayracks. Complete emptying and rotation these diseases in Malawi is unknown at present. to be ingested. Ideally each rack or trough should Deworming/Ectoparasite control of hayracks on a weekly basis is preferred. Food Due to a high susceptibility to MCF it is strongly contain a different feedstuff. Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) buckets and troughs should be washed out and should be performed on all animals twice a discouraged to house sheep or wildebeest together scrubbed with water daily. A fresh, clean supply of Food handling year. However, routine deworming may not be with giraffes. Should any animal test positive water is required at all times, and water troughs necessary and may actually upset gastrointestinal for any of these diseases, the DAHLD should be should be cleaned out as required. Food storage in a clean and dry location is flora balance. immediately notified. important to prevent mouldy or dusty hay which 4.3 Nutritional requirements can cause problems. Browse should be as fresh as Physical examinations Post-mortem possible to maintain sufficient nutrients. Diet Hands-on physical examinations should be All animals that have died of natural causes or performed on each animal every two years. have been euthanised should undergo a post- In most cases captive giraffes are fed a pelleted Ideally animals would be trained in a chute mortem by a veterinarian or a similarly qualified, system +/- standing sedation. Anaesthesia should 34 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 35 experienced individual. The carcass should be 5. EQUIDAE (HORSES) disposed of appropriately. Species and classification 4.5 Health and safety requirements Common name Scientific name Classification Potential risks Burchell’s zebra Equus burchellii B

Giraffes can be very difficult to handle safely 5.1 Enclosure requirements barriers the distance between the rails should not due to their long leg reach, and are able to kill or be more than 30cm. significantly injure a person with one kick. Size and dimensions Furniture When allowing people in close proximity of The enclosure needs to be big enough to allow giraffes, their flight instinct must be considered. running, play fighting, play running and The enclosure should provide as much complexity The animals must have a view over any explorative behaviour. The enclosure should as possible in terms of vegetation and/or approaching people to avoid situations leading be big enough to allow individuals to separate structures (e.g. fallen logs, bushes, tall grass, to fear and panic. There should always be areas themselves from the group, which is particularly rocks) to: important for males. where the animals can avoid contact with people • Increase the complexity of the enclosure and to avoid too much disturbance. The main enclosure should measure no less promote exploration behaviour. than 900m2 for a group up to three females. Staff preventative healthcare • Support conflict resolution within the group. An additional 100m2 should be added for each Caretakers should be screened for TB and additional individual. When a male is kept • Provide the opportunity for the animals to be out vaccinated for rabies prior to having direct contact with the females the enclosure should measure of sight and not to be unnaturally provoked by the with the animals. no less than 1000m2 for a group up to three viewing public or other animals surrounding the individuals with an additional 100m2 for each enclosure. Safety measures additional animal. The enclosure should also provide sufficient shade It is generally safe for animal caretakers to go into A shift yard should measure no less than 100m2. A for all animals present in the enclosure. This a large outdoor enclosure on foot with giraffes. shelter as part of the shift yard should measure no can be achieved through natural vegetation in Handling and training of the animals however less than 15m2 each. combination with man-made shelters. should always be performed according to the Infrastructure protective contact method and within appropriate Ground surface and especially designated facilities. All slides, In addition to the main enclosure, there is a need Outside enclosures for zebra should consist of a doors, gates should be kept closed and securely to have at least one shift yard with shelter which natural substrate. Ideally part of the enclosure fastened at all times; ideally a double-gated can serve as hiding space during inclement and should provide grass to enable the animals to feed system is in place. Locks and security of slides, extreme weather. on natural vegetation. Outside enclosures should gates and doors are double-checked after each use also have sandy areas for resting and playing A shift yard enables animals to be locked up and inspected regularly. behaviour. Compacted sandy areas are preferred and separated for medical treatment or the for rolling. In order to ensure safety and to properly meet the introduction of new individuals. The shift yard requirements of management, it is recommended can be part of the main enclosure and should in Climate control that more than one keeper is responsible for the that case have two entrance/exits gates to prevent care of these animals on a daily basis. Keeper animals being cornered. Under normal Malawian weather condition Burchell’s zebras should be able to be kept outside interaction should be restricted to designated If the main enclosure doesn’t provide sufficient throughout the year. On colder nights (below areas and should be conducted according to natural hiding places (e.g. trees, rock formation) 10 degrees Celsius) animals will need shelter in the protective contact method. Consistency of additional shelters will need to be placed in the the form of natural vegetation or a roofed area. routine is vital. Emergency protocols for escapes main enclosure or one or more stables will need to Shelter should also be available to protect the should be in place and caretakers should have be provided. animals from inclement weather conditions. full knowledge and understanding of the required procedures. Barriers 5.2 Husbandry requirements In cases where the public has viewing access Fencing as well as dry moats are both used for Care standards to the enclosure, a physical barrier should be containing zebra in captivity. When using dry Generally Burchell’s zebras are not hard to keep present to keep people at least 4m from the moat they should be made with a gradual slope when provided with sufficient enclosure space enclosure barrier. The enclosure barrier should be so the animals can move in and out without to express natural behaviour and avoid conflicts. constructed in such a way that people are not able difficulties. Recommendations for combinations of animals to pass the barrier. For fencing both a post and rail barrier as well as being kept should be followed up. Introductions mesh fencing (chain link or welded mesh) can be of new animals in a herd should be performed used. The minimum height of the fence should with care and only under the supervision of an be 1.8m. If mesh is being used, wire should not experienced caretaker. be less than 9-gauge. When using post and rail

36 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 37 Social organisation basis to prevent contamination of the animals • Blood smear for parasites identification may also all take place whilst the contained, to minimise disease hazards and to • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using animal is under examination. Plains zebras are harem-forming equids with the reduce odours. Soiled bedding material and direct and flotation methods herd stallion playing an important role in the substrate should be removed and replaced with • Faecal pathogen culture Vaccinations social unity of the family. He is the dominant fresh materials daily, or as needed to prevent • Rabies animal in the group, responsible for the spatial build-up. Other tests • Tetanus proximity of the harem, and is sometimes • African horse sickness, Equine Herpes Virus, • +/- Equine Rhinopnumenitis, Influenzia, other observed to intervene in quarrels between the All water reservoirs should be cleaned on a daily and Equine Infectious Anaemia diseases as determined by risk females. Plains zebras should ideally be kept in basis and provided with fresh potable water. • Faecal exam via centrifugation harem groups of one adult male and several adult • Urinalysis Deworming/Ectoparasite control females with their offspring. 5.3 Nutritional requirements Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) Identification should be performed on all animals twice a Diet Keeping plains zebras in male-female pairs is not Upon completion of the quarantine period, year. However, routine deworming may not be recommended. Zebra stallions easily get bored In captivity grass or hay is the basic food source all animals should be able to be individually necessary and may actually upset gastrointestinal and can start to pester females. for zebras, of which approximately 4kg should identified through some semi-permanent flora balance. be offered per animal ad libitum throughout the or permanent process. These may include: Plains zebras can be kept in all-female groups. Special concerns day. In addition to grass, hay and straw, 0.5- ear tags, microchips, ear notches. Due to This might be a good solution for facilities that individually unique stripe patterns, zebras may be want to prevent their zebras from breeding, yet 2kg of horse pellets or grains (such as pressed Brucellosis and FMD (foot and mouth disease) barley, maize, oats, or wheat bran), 0.25-0.5kg photographed and identified via their lateral and are both present in Malawi and thus should be do not want to castrate the stallion. However, as rear stripe patterns. mentioned above, the stallion plays an important of vegetables (e.g. carrots, cabbage), and similar considered if an animal is showing any signs role for the social unity of the breeding group amounts of fruits (e.g. apples) should be offered Routine/preventative health guidelines of either disease. Since zebras are carriers for and should therefore be kept with the females to each animal per day. Freshly cut branches of African Horse Sickness, Equine Herpes Virus and whenever possible. various tree species can be offered for gnawing on Visual examinations Equine Infectious Anaemia, serological testing a regular basis in the outdoor exhibit. Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, should be done to assess presence of these viruses As zebras are gregarious by nature, it is not but should be more critically examined every six if an outbreak is suspected in local susceptible A saltlick should be available at all times, while advisable to keep a stallion solitary over a longer months. This visual examination should include: animals. Zebras are also susceptible to Anthrax, vitamins and minerals should regularly be added period of time. Failure to provide companions Equine Rhinovirus, Rift Valley, and Equine to the diet. In addition fresh potable water should • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, may result in abnormal behaviour patterns, Herpes Virus. Should any animal test positive permanently be available at sufficient places in the all appendages/hooves, etc such as pacing, wind sucking, self-mutilation, for any of these viruses, the DAHLD should be enclosure. • Locomotion/activity aggressive behaviour, etc. If it is not possible to immediately notified. • Observation of eating keep the stallion with females, the male should Food presentation be kept with other stallions, either with other • Social interactions (where appropriate) Post-mortem Food is provided at multiple feeding sites plains zebra stallions, or with stallions from other When possible, each animal should be All animals that have died of natural causes or throughout enclosures to ensure all animals have equid species. photographed from the front, back, right, and have been euthanised should undergo a complete access and to reduce or eliminate aggression that left sides at the time of the biannual visual post-mortem by a veterinarian or other similarly Animal monitoring results from competition for food resources. To examinations. These photographs should be qualified individual. The carcass should be prevent sand/dust compaction the food should Zebras in captive care facilities require daily identified and dated and stored for future disposed of appropriately (incinerated). monitoring and record keeping. Areas of be offered on a dust free, dry, hard surface or in reference/comparison. importance are their general health and body livestock troughs or bins. 5.5 Health and safety requirements Physical examinations recommended condition, (social) behavioural aspects and food As zebras feed up to 70% of time during the whole Potential risks consumption. Hands-on physical examinations should be day, it is important that food is presented on a performed on each animal every two years. Ideally regular basis throughout the day. Zebras can deliver a powerful kick and may do Catching/Handling animals should be trained in a chute system. so when cornered, such as in a stall or another Anaesthesia should not be necessary unless Zebras can, to a certain extent, be trained to Food handling confined space. They will usually prefer to escape invasive samples need to be taken. and may injure themselves trying to get away if enter stalls, chutes, and trailers to accept specific Food storage in a clean and dry location is cornered. non-painful medical procedures without prior important to prevent mouldy or dusty hay which Recommended tests sedation. However, even with training, they can be can cause problems. • Full physical examination Preventative healthcare highly volatile with a propensity for intense and • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum unpredictable reactions that can lead to severe 5.4 Veterinary requirements chemistry analysis All caretakers should be screened for TB and physical trauma to the animal and, potentially, • Blood smear for parasites vaccinated for rabies prior to first contact with Quarantine death. Training animals for this kind of purpose • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using the animals. should only be done by very experienced Quarantine time direct and flotation methods Safety measures caretakers. Wherever it is not possible to train Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. • Faecal pathogen culture the animal to come into a small confined area, the The handling of adult zebras should always be Recommended tests Other tests best way to handle the animal is under sedation. done through the protected contact method. • Full physical examination will likely need to be • African Horse Sickness, Equine Herpes Virus Sedation can be provided using a dart gun/ When caretakers enter the enclosure they have to done under anaesthesia. Ideally animals will be and Equine Infectious Anaemia blow pipe. make sure animals are never cornered. For zebras trained to come into a chute. • Faecal exam via centrifugation being kept on public display, a second barrier is Enclosure hygiene • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum • Urinalysis required to keep the public on a distance of at chemistry analysis Animal waste should be removed on a daily Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and least 2m from the primary barrier. 38 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 39 6. RHINOCEROTIDEA (RHINOCEROS) should be able to be kept outside throughout the contained therein, to minimise disease hazards year. The animals should, however, have constant and to reduce odours. Soiled bedding material Species and classification access to mud wallows and shelter space for and substrate should be removed and replaced temperature regulation and protection against with fresh materials daily, or as needed to prevent Common name Scientific name Classification inclement weather conditions. build-up. Black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis C 6.2 Husbandry requirements All water reservoirs should be cleaned on a daily Rhinoceros are categorized as a Category III species, and are generally never allowed to be kept in basis and provided with fresh potable water. captivity, with the exception of professional institutions which have been provided with an exemption Care standards from the DNPW to keep this species for rescue and/or conservation purposes. 6.3 Nutritional requirements Rhinos are large, strong animals which can 6.1 Enclosure requirements the horizontal pipes should not be bigger than become aggressive. Mistakes made in daily Diet 25-30cm. Alternatively steel pipes can be placed routines or during animal introductions can easily Black rhinos are big land animals (800 to 1350kg). vertically in the ground with the posts spaced lead to dangerous situations for the animal or A variety of leafy greens, vegetables and fruit Because of their size, black rhinos are preferably 35-30cm apart. A secondary fence line can be the environment. Rhino keepers should have as should be offered as a component of the basic diet. kept in open space enclosures which provide used to separate individuals or keep aggressive much formal training and experience as possible In addition high quality hay and browse also form sufficient complexity to provide behavioural animals at a distance from the primary fence line. and should be familiar with rhino behaviour and an important part of the diet for rhinos. stimulation. Vertical steel poles or electric fencing can be used husbandry. for this purpose. For electric fencing high tensile Food presentation Size and dimensions wire of at least 20 gauge is required. Electric fence Social organisation Food is provided at multiple feeding sites energizers must emit at least 9,000V. Many factors influence the minimum space In captivity rhinos can be kept as solitary animals, throughout enclosures to ensure all animals have required for a group of rhinos including, but not As enclosure gates can be the weakest points of but preferably in a social setting. The best access and to reduce or eliminate aggression limited to: group size, group composition, and the exhibit, adequate hinges and lock strength combinations are 2-3 females or one male with that results from competition for food resources, enclosure complexity. The following measures are very important. Interior doors should be one female. For breeding one male can be kept especially preferred items. To prevent sand/ provide minimum standards but captive constructed of heavy-gauge steel or pipe that with two or three females or two couples (2.2) can dust compaction the food should be offered on a care facilities should provide as much space is hinged or sliding. Sliding gates are optimal, also be housed together as long as sufficient space concrete pad or in livestock troughs or bins. as possible. as they have the ability for partial opening, and is provided. Females with calves should be kept Food handling should be a minimum of 1.8m wide and 2m high. separate from other adult rhinos. The main enclosure should measure no less 2 Food storage in a clean and dry location is than 1200m for one animal. For each additional Furniture Animal monitoring animal another 300m2 is required. important to prevent mouldy or dusty hay which Black rhinos need access to mud wallows for skin It is important that all individuals are being can cause problems. 2 A shift yard should measure no less than 300m health, temperature regulation and behavioural monitored on a daily basis. Monitoring of and 2 6.4 Veterinary requirements for one animal and 400m for two animals. enrichment. The size and number of mud wallows interaction with the animals always needs to be required should be adapted based on the number done by experienced and qualified caretakers A shelter should measure no less than 100m2 for Quarantine of animals in the exhibit so that sufficient space is who know the individual animals. Records on one animal and 150m2 for two animals. provided for each individual. behaviour and feeding should be kept on a daily Quarantine time Infrastructure basis. Besides monitoring the animals’ behaviour, Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. Besides mud wallows visual and physical barriers the enclosure should also be inspected on a In addition to the main enclosure, there is a need are required to help reduce stress and aggression daily basis for technical problems and broken Recommended tests to have at least one shift yard as well as a shelter by permitting animals to separate themselves structures. • Full physical examination preferably in a which can serve as night housing and/or secure from others during introductions or in group chute system. space during inclement and extreme weather. situations. Barriers should be large and high Catching/Handling • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum enough to provide so called ‘safe zones’ that allow chemistry analysis A shift yard enables animals to be locked up an animal to pass out of sight. Types of visual Handling and restraint of rhinos is only done • Blood smear for parasites during cleaning of the main enclosure, separating barriers can include large rocks/boulders, logs through the protective contact method. The best • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using animals for medical treatment or the introduction as well as trees and natural plantings. Trees and method to handle, examine and treat a rhino direct and flotation methods of new individuals. The shift yard should be next plantings may be protected from rhinos by pipe is by using so-called ‘chutes’. A chute is a small • Faecal pathogen culture to the main enclosure and have two entrance/exits caging, rock aprons or barrier fencing. restricted area which contains one or more • Tuberculosis test gates to prevent animals being cornered. hydraulic barrier that will “squeeze” together to Ground surface restrict an animal’s movement. Special attention Other tests A shelter serves as a night house and/or secure in the design for rhinos needs to go to strength, • Faecal exam via centrifugation space during inclement and extreme weather. The surface of the enclosure should consist as durability, and functionality. To reduce stress a • Urinalysis much as possible of natural substrate like grass, chute should be designed in such a way that it is Barriers limestone, sand, and other natural material part of the enclosure and the animal passes it on a Identification combinations. The surface should be well drained routine daily basis. Upon completion of the quarantine period, Moats, solids concrete barriers or strong steel with adequate footing. all animals should be able to be individually pipe should be used as the primary barrier Enclosure hygiene identified through some semi-permanent or for rhinos. The primary barrier should have a Climate control permanent process. These may include: ear tags, minimum height of 1.5m. When using steel pipe Animal waste should be removed on a daily microchips, ear notches. (or alternatively steel cables) the space between Under normal Malawian weather condition rhinos basis to prevent contamination of the animals

40 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 41 Routine/Preventative health requirements problems may develop in captive rhinos held on 7. ELEPHANTIDAE (ELEPHANTS) inappropriate surfaces. Salmonella, tuberculosis; Visual examinations gastrointestinal problems and skin problems tend Species and classification Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, to be among the most common illnesses observed but should be more critically examined every six in captive rhinos. Common name Scientific name Classification months. This visual examination should include: African bush elephant Loxodonta Africana D Post-mortem • Body condition score, including skin condition, African bush elephants are categorised as a Category III species, and are generally never allowed to eyes, all appendages/digits, etc. All animals that have died of natural causes or be kept in captivity, with the exception of professional institutions which have been provided with an • Locomotion/activity have been euthanised should undergo a post- exemption from the DNPW to keep this species for rescue and/or conservation purposes. • Observation of eating mortem by a veterinarian. The carcass should be • Social interactions (where appropriate) disposed of appropriately. 7.1 Enclosure requirements Infrastructure

When possible, each animal should be 6.5 Health and safety requirements Due to their size, social organisation and high The enclosure should provide the ability to photographed from the front, back, right, and intelligence, elephants require large enclosures manage the elephant herd in a flexible manner, left sides at the time of the biannual visual Potential risks in combination with sufficient and adequate allowing separation of groups or individuals as examinations. These photographs should be infrastructure and furniture. Insufficient care required. Therefore, besides the main outdoor Because of their strength and nature, rhinos identified and dated and stored for future and management of captive elephants can easily enclosure, an indoor enclosure is required where can be dangerous and need to be approached reference/comparison. lead to physical and psychological abnormalities. individual animals as well as the whole herd can with care. The minimum enclosure requirements to be temporarily housed for a short period of time. Physical examinations Preventative healthcare keep elephants in captivity can vary due to Hands-on physical examinations should be characteristics of animals, social dynamics, history The outside enclosure should have at least one performed on each animal every two years in a All staff members should undergo preventative and health of an animal. The standards given here shift yard which is large enough to temporarily chute system. Anaesthesia should not be necessary TB screening prior to being in direct contact with are therefore minimum standards and should be house one or more individuals. In cases where unless invasive samples need to be taken. the animals. adjusted in case any abnormalities occur. adult elephant bulls are being kept, a separate enclosure needs to be available to separate the Recommended tests Safety measures Size and dimensions male from the group. In such cases, however, it is • Full physical examination important that there are opportunities for tactile, • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Handling and training of the animals should The main enclosure should measure no less than olfactory, visual, and/or auditory interaction with chemistry analysis always be performed according to the protective 2400m², independent of the number of animals. other elephants. Where more than one adult male • Blood smear for parasites contact method and within appropriate and For each independent animal of above four years is being kept, there should be a possibility to split • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using especially designated facilities. All slides, doors, old and adult cows (without calves), the minimum the individuals using a shift yard. direct and flotation methods gates should be kept closed and securely fastened accounted space should be 600m² per individual. • Faecal pathogen culture at all times; ideally a double-gated system will be For adult cows with a calf up to four years old, The indoor enclosure should provide a communal • Tuberculosis test in place. Locks and security of slides, gates and the minimum allocated space is 1000m². For indoor area and provide the opportunity to doors should be double-checked after each use enclosures above 3000m² an additional 400m² is separate the animals into individual boxes for Additional tests and inspected regularly. Catching should be done required for each individual animals of above four husbandry purposes. • Faecal exam via centrifugation through conditioning the animal to a catching/ years old. • Urinalysis squeeze cage or by chemical restraint through Barriers darting. Caretakers should always keep a safe Vaccinations, deworming and identification may Bulls that have regular access to the female distance to the enclosure barrier. herd require a minimum (separate) enclosure Solid concrete or rock walls, horizontal steel rails also all take place whilst the animal is under pipe or dry moats should be used as the primary examination. of 1000m². For each adult bull of eight years or In order to ensure safety and to properly meet the more, the minimum accounted space is 600m² barriers to contain elephants. All materials must requirements of management, it is recommended be strong enough to withstand elephant strength. Vaccinations per individual. For young bulls kept in a group that more than one keeper is responsible for the The barrier should be not less than 2m high when • Rabies of up to four individuals the required enclosure care of these animals on a daily basis. Keeper only cows and juveniles are being kept. For adult • Tetanus space is no less than 2400m², independent of the interaction should be restricted to designated bulls a minimum height of 2.4m is required for • +/- Leptospirosis, clostridial diseases, anthrax, number of animals. For each individual bull the areas and should be conducted according to brucella, other diseases as per risk of exposure accounted space is 600m² per individual. the primary barrier. the protective contact method. Consistency of Deworming/Ectoparasite control routine is vital. Emergency protocols for escapes A shift yard should measure no less than 500m². When using dry moats, special attention needs to should be in place and caretakers should have be given to prevent animals injuring themselves. Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) full knowledge and understanding of the required For the indoor enclosure the minimum required When the moat is designed for animals to enter should be performed on all animals twice a procedures. group space should not be less than 330m² for a it, it should be wide enough for an adult elephant year. However, routine deworming may not be group of up to four animals of above four years old to stand, turn and move in and should provide necessary and may actually upset gastrointestinal In cases where the public has viewing access and adults cows (without calves). The minimum sufficient exit points. The edge of the slope on flora balance. to the enclosure, a physical barrier should be accounted space per individual is 75m². When the enclosure side should be made as gradual present to keep people at least 3m from the a bull is kept inside (with or without cows), the as possible to allow animals easy access. When Special concerns enclosure barrier. The enclosure barrier should be minimum accounted space per bull is 100m². the moat is designed as a steep barrier, adequate constructed in such a way that people are not able barriers need to be provided to prevent animals Anaphylaxis following vaccination has to pass the barrier. Individual box space per adult individual or from falling down. been observed in rhinos; animals should be animals above four years (with or without calves monitored for 30 minutes post injection. Foot up to four years old) should be 33m². 42 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 43 A secondary fence line can be used to separate prevent one elephant preventing other elephants within the matriline. Males leave their natal herd basis to prevent contamination of the animals or keep aggressive animals at a distance or put from entering or exiting. when they reach adulthood and subsequently live contained therein, to minimise disease hazards in front of moats or primary fence lines. Vertical mostly in solitary or in a bull group. Males do and to reduce odours. Soiled bedding material steel poles or electric fencing can be used for this For such intelligent animals there needs to be an associate with female herds when one or more of and substrate should be removed and replaced purpose. For electric fencing high tensile wire enrichment programme which provides a variety the cows are in oestrus. with fresh materials daily, or as needed to prevent of at least 20 gauge is required. Electric fence of manipulative enclosure objects. The objects build-up. energizers must emit at least 9,000 V. need to be regularly replaced with new objects to A captive group of elephants should, if possible, provide continuous stimulation. be built around a matriline as this resembles their All water reservoirs should be cleaned on a daily Enclosure gates are usually the weakest points natural organisation. Females and daughters basis and provided with fresh potable water. of the exhibit and therefore adequate hinges and Ground surface should, whenever possible, not be split from lock strength are very important. Interior doors each other. Basically a group of elephant should 7.3 Nutritional requirements The ground surface of the outside and inside should be constructed of heavy-gauge steel or pipe consist of at least four individuals. Groups of three enclosure requires a variety of harder and softer Diet that is hinged or sliding. Sliding gates are optimal, individuals are possible, but need to be intensively substrates in order to maintain the condition of as they have the ability for partial opening, and observed because of a higher risk of aggression. the footpaths and to stimulate natural behaviours Elephants are herbivores and can eat up to 300- should be a minimum of 1.8m wide and 2m high. Generally, a group of related females will remain like foraging, wallowing, bathing digging and 400kg of food a day. Their diet consists mainly most stable. In breeding facilities a single male resting. Substrates often used are soil, sand and of different kind of grasses and fresh browse, Furniture can be held with more females. Males can be split grass. The inside enclosure should consist of at supplemented with roughage and a smaller from the group whenever required, but should not It is important that all enclosure structures are least 50% sand, with additional harder surfaces amount of tuber vegetables, fruit and vegetables. be kept in complete isolation. Two or more males placed in such a way that the whole surface is made of materials like tarmac, brick or rubber. Elephants must be provided with browse material can also be housed together, but will also require used in an optimal way. Water pools, shades Concrete is not recommended as this can become large enough to avoid molar impaction and intense observations. and hides should therefore be spread out to very slippery. rotation. Since elephant teeth migrate forward (not vertically), it is important that the right type stimulate activity and decrease competition. The Animal monitoring structures should stimulate natural, species- The floor of the inside enclosure should be quick of food is offered to promote dental health and specific behaviour as much as possible and help to drying and well drained to prevent foot problems Because of their size, strength and complex allow for natural progression of each molar. The decrease stress and aggression amongst members and contamination. social behaviour, elephants in captivity require diet must be developed under the direction of a of the herd. Bushes, big logs and rocks can be used constant monitoring to ensure their wellbeing. nutritionist or veterinarian. Climate control to give structure to the enclosure and provide All elephants must be visually inspected and Elephants have the tendency in captivity to visual barriers. Tree stumps, rocks and concrete behaviourally assessed on a daily basis. Reports The animals should have access to shade at all become obese. It is therefore important that the pillars can be placed to provide the animals with should include observations such as condition of times, especially when exposed to direct sunlight. food offered is generally not too high in energy different options to rub themselves, a behaviour urine and faeces, eating and drinking patterns, Shade can be provided by trees/vegetation or levels. This will allow elephants to be kept busy required to maintain the skin. Inside and outside administration of medications (if any), and artificial structures. It is important that there is eating over a long period of time while not the enclosure there should be sufficient ‘loose’ general condition and behaviour. sufficient shelter available for all animals to find becoming too heavy. floor materials like grass, hay and sand for the shade without causing stress. Catching/Handling animals to manipulate. Besides a well-balanced diet elephants should 7.2 Husbandry requirements have always unrestricted access to fresh Elephants require adequate shelters to protect Elephants should only be handled or treated potable water. themselves from inclement weather, especially the Care standards according to the protective contact method. An elephant can be best treated using a restraining hot sun. Big trees or artificial shelters should be Food presentation spread out through the enclosure and should give Due to their intelligence, physical size and device or chute. To reduce stress a restraining all animals the opportunity to seek shelter at the strength as well as their high social requirements device or chute should be designed in such a way In the wild elephants spend up to 16 hours a day same time. elephants require a high level of care with regard that it is part of the enclosure and the animal foraging. To prevent boredom, it is important to housing, environmental enrichment, feeding is made comfortable with the facility through that food and feeding methods encourage natural For thermoregulation and skin care purposes and social interactions. Keeping elephants positive reinforcement training and habituation. feeding patterns as much as possible. Food elephants require a combination of water, mud requires a high level of knowledge of the natural The caretakers must be able to demonstrate should therefore be provided at multiple times and sand. The outside enclosure should provide behaviour of these animals, as well as knowledge a method of restraint that allows husbandry, throughout the whole day and at several locations one or more bathing pools. It is important that and experience of how to meet the species- veterinary, and potentially reproductive simultaneously to reduce or eliminate aggression the water available is sufficient to provide access specific needs of these animals in captivity. An procedures to occur in a safe and efficient that results from competition for food resources, for all animals at the same time. For a group up to environmental enrichment plan is essential in manner. The use of chains and shackles should be especially preferred items. To prevent sand/ four adult elephants the surface of the pool should order to stimulate natural behaviour for both the minimised as much as possible. dust compaction the food should be offered on therefore not be smaller than 60m² with another inside and outside enclosure. Rotation of furniture a concrete pad or in livestock troughs or bins. For these procedures, the facility will need to have 10m² for each additional animal. The pool should is needed based on the elephant’s behaviour which Ideally different ways to deliver food to elephants SOPs which explain how to restrain and handle reach a minimum depth of 80-120cm to allow makes it complicated and more difficult to keep during the day and night should be implemented the animals, while diminishing any negative elephants to properly wallow and be constructed these animals. (e.g. changing animal care staff schedules, impact on the welfare of the animal. Procedures with round edges and no corners. Exit and automated feeders, hanging feeder nets, etc.) entrance points should have a gentle slope of no Social organisation like this should only be done in the presence of more than 30 degrees or have steps wide enough two experienced and knowledgeable caretakers. Food handling for adult elephants and small enough for baby In the wild elephants live in complex social Enclosure hygiene elephants to step up or down. In addition there systems. A herd usually consists of one or more Food storage in a clean and dry facility is is a need for multiple entrance and exit points to matrilines in which related females live together. important to prevent mouldy or dusty grass Females generally remain for most of their life Animal waste should be removed on a daily 44 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 45 or browse which can cause problems. It is Deworming/Ectoparasite control under certain circumstances, respond in an important that hay is of good quality, properly Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) unpredictable way. There are many known cases dried and cured. Purchased hay should be green should be performed on all animals twice a of severe injuries and even death of caretakers in and leafy, have fine, pliable stems and be free of year. However, routine deworming may not be captive care settings. This is due to a variety of weeds, insects, mould, twine, wire, or any other necessary and may actually upset gastrointestinal causes including inexperienced handling, animals foreign objects. Hay should be visually inspected flora balance. responding to unexpected events, inadequate before delivery. facilities and unreliable behaviour of certain Physical examinations individuals. Generally adult bull elephants are 7.4 Veterinary requirements A physical examinations would ideally be seen as more unpredictable and aggressive in performed on each animal every two years. Ideally comparison to cows. Quarantine animals would be trained in a chute system +/- standing sedation. Anaesthesia should not Preventative healthcare Quarantine time be necessary unless invasive samples need to Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. be taken. Caretakers should be screened annually for TB. Recommended tests Recommended tests Safety measures • Full physical examination may be possible to do • Full physical examination in a chute. If the elephant proves intractable, a Handling and training of elephants should always • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum standing sedation may be used. be performed according to the protective contact chemistry analysis • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum method and within appropriate and especially • Blood smear for parasites chemistry analysis designated facilities. All slides, doors, gates • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using • Blood smear for parasites should be kept closed and securely fastened at all direct and flotation methods • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using times; ideally a double-gated system should be • Faecal pathogen culture direct and flotation methods in place. Locks and security of slides, gates and • Tuberculosis test • Faecal pathogen culture doors should be double-checked after each use • Tuberculosis test/culture Other tests and inspected regularly. Any area where staff and • Faecal exam via centrifugation elephants are in close proximity should have clear Other tests • Urinalysis safe zones or a protective barrier. • Faecal exam via centrifugation • Urinalysis Vaccinations, deworming and identification may In order to ensure safety and to properly meet the also all take place whilst the animal is under requirements of management, it essential that Identification examination. more than one keeper is responsible for the care Upon completion of the quarantine period, of these animals on a daily basis. Consistency of all animals should be able to be individually Vaccinations routine is vital. Detailed emergency protocol for identified through some semi-permanent or • Rabies escapes should be in place and caretakers should permanent process. These may include: ear tags, • Tetanus have full knowledge and understanding of the microchips, ear notches. A semi-permanent • +/- Anthrax, Elephant Pox, Food and Mouth required procedures. method is using spray-paint on the rear of Disease, depending on disease risk the animal. In cases where the public has viewing access Special concerns to the enclosure, a physical barrier should be Routine/Preventative healthcare present to keep people at least 4m from the Captive elephants are prone to foot problems due enclosure barrier. The enclosure barrier should be Visual examinations required to decreased activity and inadequate substrate, constructed in such a way that people are not able among other reasons. Ideally, feet should be Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, to pass the barrier. inspected on a daily basis. Captive elephants but should be more critically examined every six also may experience cracks, splitting, or trauma months. This visual examination should include: to their tusks. Elephants are very susceptible to • Body condition score, including skin condition, tuberculosis and captive individuals should have eyes, all appendages/feet/nails, etc. trunk washes for culture on an annual basis. • Locomotion/activity Post-mortem • Observation of eating • Social interactions (where appropriate) All animals that have died of natural causes or have been euthanised should undergo a post- When possible, each animal should be mortem by a veterinarian where possible. The photographed from the front, back, right, and carcass should be disposed of appropriately. left sides at the time of the biannual visual examinations. These photographs should be 7.5 Health and safety requirements identified and dated and stored for future reference/comparison. Potential risks

Elephants are large, strong animals and can,

46 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 47 8. ORYCTEROPODIDAE (AARDVARK) are also possible if the animals are compatible. be given an artificial diet which typically consists Groups with more males than females are not of milk, water, ground meat, and/or meat-based Species and classification recommended. products such as frozen feline diet, mink chow or dry dog food, hard-boiled egg, protein powder, Common name Scientific name Classification Despite the fact that these animals are solitary baby cereal, and a mineral-vitamin supplement. Aardvark Orycteropus afer C in the wild, it is recommended to keep them All ingredients are mixed in a blender to the in small compatible groups in captivity as this consistency of a thick gruel. 8.1 Enclosure requirements animals with sufficient comfort the box should will provide them with more stimuli and hence provide at least 2m² of indoor space and a loose prevent boredom. Food presentation Size and dimensions soft substrate (sand, saw dust) for the animal to lie on. Animal monitoring As wild aardvarks spend a significant amount The enclosure should measure no less than of their active time foraging, it is important to 300m2 per pair of compatible aardvarks. Ground surface Daily monitoring is required to quantify and find ways to keep captive aardvarks occupied measure the welfare of individual animals through through appropriate feeding techniques. Feeding A shift yard should measure no less than 25m2. The ground surface must be of a natural surface monitoring of nutritional, physical and social times should be spread out as much as possible conditions. Seeing as aardvarks are nocturnal, Infrastructure consistent with the site. At least one third of the over their active time, and there should be enclosure should consist of loose sandy soil or any direct monitoring can sometimes be more difficult no less than two feeds a day. Food should be When being kept in groups it is recommended to other substrate which allows the animals to dig. to achieve. Alternatively cameras can be used to offered at different places in the enclosure to have a shift yard available to separate animals for acquire the required information. stimulate exploration and locomotion. Besides management purposes such as medical treatment Climate control the normal feedings it is highly recommended to Catching/Handling or the introduction of new individuals. Under normal Malawian weather conditions provide enrichment feeds on a daily basis. Ideal The method used to catch and handle aardvarks enrichment feeds are crickets or mealworms Barriers aardvarks should be able to be kept outside throughout the year as long as sufficient and should depend on the purpose of the animal being scattered through the enclosure or offered in a feeding ball. Aardvarks are excellent diggers and in the wild appropriate opportunities are given to rest and kept in captivity. Aardvarks can become very used to the presence of humans and can, under certain their burrows reach to 6m deep into the ground. hide. There needs to be at least one artificial Food handling To prevent escapes it is therefore vital to sink the burrow for one or two animals. For bigger groups circumstances, be trained to enter a crush cage or perimeter fence or wall into the ground up to a additional burrows will need to be provided. transport box. Habituation to people is, however, Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage depth not less than 80cm. Concrete or mesh-wire Artificial burrows need to be in shady areas to not desired if rehabilitation and release is the areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable should be placed at the same depth under the prevent overheating. end goal. Wherever it is not possible to train the foods should be kept under refrigeration. whole surface. Mesh wire should not be wider animal to come into a small confined area, the than 8x8cm and not less than 12 gauge. 8.2 Husbandry requirements best way to handle the animal is under sedation. 8.4 Veterinary requirements Sedation can be provided using a dart gun/blow For the upright barrier a solid wall (concrete, Care standards pipe. Training and sedation of these animals Quarantine bricks, wood) can be used as well as mesh wire. should only be conducted by experienced and Aardvarks have a very distinctive biology and Quarantine time The height of the barrier should not be less qualified people. adequate welfare standards in captivity can only Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. than 1.2m. be met through appropriate husbandry and Enclosure hygiene Recommended tests Furniture management procedures. Wild aardvarks are used to travelling 8-10km per night. Insufficient space, Animal waste should be removed on a daily • Full physical examination either under Appropriate complexity should be provided enclosure complexity and behaviour stimulation basis to prevent contamination of the animal, to anaesthesia or under manual restraint through the use of various natural and artificial can lead to boredom and consequently abnormal minimise disease hazards and to reduce odours. • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum materials in the enclosure to encourage normal behaviour. Appropriate housing and enclosure Soiled bedding material and substrate should chemistry analysis behaviour patterns, minimise any abnormal design, environmental enrichment programmes be removed and replaced with fresh materials • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using behaviour and avoid potential aggression between and a balanced diet to meet nutritional daily, or as needed to prevent build-up. All water direct and flotation methods individuals. This can be in the form of logs, walls, requirements are therefore essential. The reservoirs should be cleaned on a daily basis and Other tests boulders and man-made structures. Logs should knowledge and techniques needed to keep these provided with fresh potable water. • Faecal exam via centrifugation be placed and secured in a manner that prevents animals in captivity is not generally available and • Urinalysis rolling or falling onto animals. Rocks and logs needs to be acquired through existing reputable 8.3 Nutritional requirements should also be provided to allow rubbing and captive care facilities which keep aardvarks. Diet Identification scratching. Social organisation Upon completion of the quarantine period, Aardvarks are specialised ant and termite eaters, all animals should be able to be individually The enclosure should provide sufficient which, in the wild, make up the vast majority identified through some semi-permanent or shade in terms of vegetation through trees or Knowledge with regard to social behaviour and of their diet. In a captive care setting, however, permanent process. These may include: ear tags, shelters. Wherever live vegetation is used it is organisation is relatively limited. Generally it is not possible to provide aardvarks with microchips, tattoos, ear notches. recommended to protect the vegetation through aardvarks are solitary animals and therefore can sufficient ants and/ or termites to reach their barriers or electric wires. Aardvarks like water so a be kept on their own. In captivity this species if nutritional requirements. Alternatively they can Routine/Preventative healthcare shallow pool is therefore recommended. often, however, kept in small compatible groups of up to four animals. Successful combinations are be provided with a pulp which consists of a high Visual examinations one male/one female, one male/multiple females proportion of mainly light digestible proteins For sleep and rest an artificial denning box Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, or two males/two females. Single sex groups with additional fruits. Alternatively animals can (burrow) will need to be provided. To provide the but should be more critically examined every six

48 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 49 months. This visual examination should include: 8.5 Health and safety requirements 9. CERCOPITHECIDAE (OLD WORLD MONKEYS)

• Body condition score, including skin/hair, eyes, Safety measures Species and classification all appendages/digits/nails, etc. • Locomotion/activity Animals should be handled with care, and Common name Scientific name Classification • Observation of eating protective clothing (gloves) should be worn. Vervet monkey Chlorocebus pygerythrus C • Social interactions (where appropriate) Yellow baboon Papio cynocephalus C When possible, each animal should be Blue monkey Cercopithecus mitis C photographed from the front, back, right, and left sides at the time of the biannual visual 9.1 Enclosure requirements and provide opportunities to individual animals to examinations. These photographs should be avoid certain other group members; identified and dated and stored for future Old World primates are highly intelligent animals reference/comparison. with diverse and complex needs that are not easily iii) support step-by-step introduction techniques for new animals. Physical examinations met in a captive care setting. Their enclosure Hands-on physical examinations should be needs, with regard to size and design, should take into account the natural species-specific In addition to the main enclosure a minimum performed on each animal every two years under of one, ideally two shift/night rooms should be manual restraint or anaesthesia. requirements. This needs to be achieved through sophisticated structures which make optimal use available. of the entire spatial dimensions of the enclosure. Recommended tests Barriers • Full physical examination Other than when being transported or for medical • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Yellow baboons reasons, Old World primates should be kept at all chemistry analysis Baboons are large, powerful, agile and dexterous times in secure enclosures or other appropriate • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using primates capable of digging, chewing, tearing and facilities in which they have the opportunity to direct and flotation methods damaging the sturdiest of enclosure structures move freely and are able to express their species- and fence lines. The fence line should be at least specific behaviours. Other tests 9 gauge wire and not show any weaknesses. With • Faecal exam via centrifugation Size and dimensions open top enclosures the fence line can be provided • Urinalysis with electrified wires with a voltage being not less than 4.5KV to prevent escape. Alternatively the Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and Yellow baboons fence line can be provided with a 1.2m smooth identification may also all take place whilst the The main enclosure should measure no less surface at the top, ideally with an overhang to animal is under examination. than 225m² for a group up to three animals. For each additional animal another 75m is required. the inside of the enclosure of 75cm. Appropriates Vaccinations The height of the enclosure should not be measures should be taken to prevent the baboons • +/- Rabies less than 3m. from digging underneath the fence line.

Deworming/Ectoparasite control A shift yard should measure no less than 36m². Vervets/Blue monkeys Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) Vervets and blue monkeys can climb well and should be performed on all animals twice a year. Vervets/Blue monkeys jump far. The fence line should therefore be Appropriate anthelminthic administration should The main enclosure should measure no less than designed with these aspects in mind. Closed-top be instituted based on results. 150m² for a group up to three animals. For each enclosures ensure the best guarantee against additional animal another 50m² is required. As escapes, but generally limit the opportunity to Special concerns vervets and blue monkeys are arboreal species climb. With open-top enclosures the fence line the height of the enclosure should be no less should at least be 3m high. To prevent climbing Due to their very specific feeding ecology, it may than 3.5m. out the fence line should be provided with be difficult to provide captive aardvarks with an electrified wires with at least 3.0 KV. Alternatively appropriate diet; malnutrition may be a concern. A shift yard should measure no less than 25m². the fence line can be provided with a 1.8m smooth surface at the top, ideally with an overhang to the Post-mortem Infrastructure inside of the enclosure of 75cm. All animals that have died of natural causes or For mutual tolerance amongst group members Furniture have been euthanised should undergo a post- it is important that the enclosure has multiple mortem examination by a veterinarian or a visual barriers as well as the possibility to split The enclosure should provide sufficient structures similarly experienced, qualified person. The individuals up through side enclosures (like inside (shelters, visual barriers) for animals to withdraw carcass should be disposed of appropriately enclosures/shift yards). These are required to: themselves from the group when desirable. (incineration). i) increase the complexity of the enclosure and Yellow baboons promote exploration behaviour; Despite baboons mainly living on the ground, ii) support conflict resolution within the group they require opportunities to climb and rest away from the ground. Therefore the enclosure should

50 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 51 provide solid climbing structures with sufficient of social skills and consequently abnormal sedated through chemical immobilisation using pallets do not stimulate natural foraging. horizontal branches/beams as well as resting behavioural patterns. a blow pipe or dart gun. If using this method the platforms which provide the opportunity to sit animal should not have the opportunity to climb Food presentation socially with other individuals. When primates are kept in captivity, the number up high, to prevent it from falling down. of individuals per available space and the mutual Food should be scattered through the enclosure. Vervets/Blue monkeys tolerance of the individuals in the group should Vervets/Blue monkeys There should be a minimum of two feedings a day. Vervets and blue monkeys are mainly arboreal be taken into account. Social bonding and group The safest and least stressful method to capture Food handling and need climbing structures which use the total cohesion are important aspects for the welfare and restrain vervets/blue monkeys is through spatial dimension of the enclosure. of the animal. Animals subjected to ongoing conditioning to enter a squeeze/catching cage. Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage aggression or psychological pressure should be When a catching cage is not available, the use of areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable Ground surface removed from the group. a net is recommended for the catching of juvenile foods must be kept under refrigeration or for a males and juvenile and adult females. Adult or The ground surface of the main enclosure should short period of time in vermin-proof containers. Yellow baboons sub-adult males should never be caught with a consist out of natural substrate or sand. Concrete Animal products should come from reliable Yellow baboons live naturally in multi male/ net. In these cases the use of a catching cage or floors are not suitable for long-term housing sources and kept refrigerated/frozen. multi female groups. In captivity ideally a few chemical sedation using a dart is recommended. facilities. (1-3) adult males are kept with multiple females Darting should always be conducted in a confined 9.4 Veterinary requirements and juveniles. It is highly recommended to have Climate control space where the animal does not have the more adult females than males in a captive opportunity to climb to higher areas, to prevent it Quarantine Old World monkeys have a high tolerance in terms group. Single sex groups can be held under from falling down. Quarantine time of climate range. The enclosure should, however, specific circumstances, but only if there is mutual Minimum quarantine time should be 46 days. provide opportunities to hide from inclement or tolerance amongst the individuals. Enclosure hygiene extreme weather (heavy rains, hot sun). If there Vervets/Blue monkeys Indoor rooms should be cleaned on a daily basis Recommended tests is only an inside enclosure it should provide Vervets live naturally in multi male/multi female and uneaten perishable food and faeces should • Full physical examination under anaesthesia (to optimal daylight (including sun) and ventilation to groups, while blue monkeys generally occur in be removed. Dirty surfaces should be cleaned ensure proper testing, see the following) guarantee the wellbeing of the animal. groups of one male and multiple females. It is using an appropriate disinfectant. In the outside • Tuberculosis test: all primates should be tested 9.2 Husbandry requirements highly recommended to have more adult females enclosure food leftovers should be removed as for exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. than males in a captive group. Single sex groups often as required for the type of food and prior The recommended way to do this is by injecting Care standards can be held under specific circumstances, but to moulding or contamination. In hot weather Bovine PPD into the left upper eyelid and Avian only if there is mutual tolerance amongst the conditions food leftovers should be removed daily. PPD into the right upper eyelid at Day one and Primates are highly intelligent and to properly individuals. All water reservoirs should be cleaned on a daily Day 43 of quarantine. keep and manage them in captivity a high level basis and filled with fresh, potable water. • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum of knowledge and experience is required to Animal monitoring chemistry analysis meet their needs. To stimulate their cognitive 9.3 Nutritional requirements • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using abilities the enclosure should provide a complex Being highly intelligent animals living in direct and flotation methods environment that stimulates a wide range of complex social structures, Old World monkeys Diet • Faecal pathogen culture natural primary behaviours and species-specific require close monitoring and record keeping by Primates need constant access to clean water. senses to the highest extent possible. This can, experienced caretakers. Daily observations should Additional tests Where the group exceeds the number of 10 for instance, be achieved by providing as much cover social interactions, the animals’ physical • Faecal exam via centrifugation individuals more water facilities need to be natural vegetation as possible, offering food in condition and appearance, food intake and faeces. • Urinalysis available. a natural and challenging way or by providing Close monitoring is vital when changing a Identification manipulative objects. The animals should have group structure or introducing new animals. Baboons Upon completion of the quarantine period, the opportunity to avoid humans outside of the Competition between individuals and group Baboon diets consist of a mixture of different all animals should be able to be individually enclosure. aggression towards individuals is very common vegetables, with different kinds of fruits, corn and identified through some semi-permanent or animal protein (egg, meat). Where commercial Social group structures amongst primates amongst Old World monkeys and requires daily permanent process. These may include: ear tags, monkey biscuits are available these should be are complex and therefore need specific care monitoring. microchips, tattoos, ear notches. added on a daily basis to provide a well-balanced requirements. Individual social relationships and Catching/Handling diet. The diet should never, however, consist only Routine/Preventative healthcare group stability can change quickly. Therefore of monkey biscuits due to the fact that pallets do constant monitoring of the group is required to be Yellow baboons not stimulate natural foraging. Visual examinations able to respond quickly to situations which require Baboons are large, powerful primates. Therefore Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, intervention. manual capture and restraint should not be Vervets/Blue monkeys but should be more critically examined every six attempted for individuals above the age of three The diet for vervets and blue monkeys should months. This visual examination should include: Social organisation years. Manual capture and restraint of younger consist mainly of a mixture of different vegetables, • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, For social development, especially amongst animals is also not attempted when multiple older fruits, leaves and grasses and, in lower amounts, all appendages/digits, etc. infants and juveniles, it is essential that animals animals are present in an enclosure. The safest corn and animal protein (insects, eggs). Where • Locomotion/activity are kept in social groups which resemble the and least stressful method to capture and restrain commercial monkey biscuits are available these • Observation of eating natural composition of the species as closely an adult baboon is through conditioning to enter should be added on a daily basis to provide a well- • Social interactions (where appropriate) as possible. Failure to provide a normal social a squeeze/catching cage. Alternatively the animal balanced diet. The diet should never, however, environment can lead to poor development can be taken into an indoor enclosure/room and consist only of monkey biscuits due to the fact that 52 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 53 When possible, each animal should be local disease risk Preventative healthcare photographed from the front, back, right, and left sides at the time of the biannual visual Deworming/Ectoparasite control All staff working in direct contact with monkeys examinations. These photographs should be Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) should be screened annually for tuberculosis. identified and dated and stored for future should be performed on all animals twice a year. In addition, staff should maintain up-to-date reference/comparison. Appropriate anthelminthic administration should vaccinations for rabies and tetanus. Staff showing be instituted based on results. signs of respiratory disease should refrain from Physical examinations working with primates and preparing their food. If Hands-on physical examinations should be Special concerns this is not possible, staff should wear a face mask performed on each animal every two years under and keep interactions to a minimum. Selected zoonotic and anthroponotic diseases of anaesthesia. concern are listed below in Table 9.4. Safety measures Recommended tests Monkeys may also be susceptible to a variety of • Full physical examination Quarantine enclosures should only be entered zoonotic respiratory viral and bacterial pathogens. • Tuberculosis when empty. Protective clothing - like gumboots, overalls and gloves - should always be worn. • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Post-mortem chemistry analysis During the quarantine period direct contact • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using All animals that have died of natural causes or between humans and primates should be direct and flotation methods have been euthanised should undergo a post- prevented, unless required for veterinary or • Faecal pathogen culture mortem examination by a veterinarian or a husbandry care. In cases where direct contact is similarly experienced, qualified person. All organ required this should only be performed by well- Additional tests systems should be checked. In primates, organs trained and qualified staff. • Faecal exam via centrifugation affected by tuberculosis – lungs, liver, mediastinal • Urinalysis lymph nodes – should be given special Direct physical interaction should not be allowed, examination. Should any animal show post- Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and with the exception of performing essential mortem signs of tuberculosis, the DAHLD should identification may also all take place whilst the veterinary, husbandry or management activities. be immediately notified. The carcass should be animal is under anaesthesia. Fence lines and barriers should be constructed in disposed of appropriately (incineration). such a way that the public are not able to touch Vaccinations 9.5 Health and safety requirements the animals. The following vaccinations are recommended: Entrance doors to the enclosure, especially when • Rabies Potential risks • Tetanus it contains sub-adult or adult males, should • Measles (only, not the MMR measles/mumps/ Baboons are large, powerful primates and need always be constructed with a lock and a minimum rubella combination) to be treated with care and respect. (Sub) adult of two double bars to prevent animals escaping. • +/- Leptospirosis, pnuemococcus, depending on males can be especially aggressive. Ideally a double-gated system should be in place to prevent escapes while people are entering or leaving the enclosure. Table 9.4 Yellow baboons Origins Baboons are large, powerful primates. Manual Organ Route of (Zoonotic, Organisms Diagnosis capture and restraint should not be attempted for system(s) transmission Anthroponotic, individuals above the age of three years. Manual or Both) capture and restraint of younger animals should also be avoided when multiple older animals Faecal helminthes: Microscopic faecal are present in an enclosure. The safest method hookworms, Gastrointestinal Faecal – oral Both examination (direct, to capture and restrain baboons is through strongyloides, float, centrifugation) conditioning to enter a squeeze/catching cage or roundworms through chemical immobilisation using a blow Faecal bacteria: pipe or dart gun. Salmonella, Shigella, Faecal pathogen Gastrointestinal Faecal – oral Both Yersinia, Klebsiella, culture Vervets/blue monkeys etc. The safest method to capture and restrain vervets/ Faecal protozoa blue monkeys is through conditioning to enter a (Balantidium coli, Microscopic faecal squeeze/catching cage. When a catching cage is Gastrointestinal Faecal – oral Both Entamoeba spp., examination (direct) not available, the use of a net is recommended for Giardia spp., etc.) the catching of juvenile males and juvenile and adult females. Adult or sub-adult males should Mycobacterium Respiratory Intradermal (eyelid) Respiratory Anthroponotic never be caught with a net. The use of a catching tuberculosis secretions testing, culture cage or chemical sedation using a dart is in these cases recommended.

54 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 55 10. GALAGONIDAE (GALAGO) 10.2 Husbandry requirements be performed through positive reinforcement. Aversive techniques to chase animals in a Species and classification Care standards small room or kennel should be avoided as these animals are very susceptible to stress. Common name Scientific name Classification Galagos are nocturnal animals which have very Whenever working with a catching cage is not Greater galago Otolemur crassicaudatus C specific needs with regard to their housing, possible, a catching net can be used, but with social environment and nutrition. To keep these Southern lesser galago Galago moholi C care. Chasing the animals should be kept to an intelligent animals occupied an appropriate absolute minimum and if the animal cannot be enrichment programme needs to be in place. 10.1 Enclosure requirements their time off the ground. When moving around caught within two minutes, the attempt should be Adequate knowledge of their biology, behaviour lesser galagos often leap from one branch to aborted to give the animal the change to recover. and specific husbandry needs is required to meet Size and dimensions another, while greater galagos move along the Ideally animals should be caught while they are their specific needs in captive care settings. branches in a walking or running motion and only sleeping in their nest box or hiding place. Lesser galago: A minimum of 36m² and a height make short jumps when trying to move rapidly. Social organisation of 3m is required for 1-2 compatible animals for Manual restraint of the animal should remain the main enclosure. An additional 4m² is required Because of their arboreal nature, galagos Lesser galagos: generally not much is known as short as possible. For longer procedures for each additional animal. A shift room should be should be provided with an extensive network about the social organisation of lesser galagos. (more than five minutes) chemical restraint is no less than 4m². of branches and natural or artificial climbing They are often seen on their own, but are also recommended. elements which allow them to move in a three- known to associate with each other. Females Enclosure hygiene Greater galago: A minimum of 54m² and a height dimensional environment. Climbing structures sleep together in small groups, sometimes in the of 3m is required for 1-2 compatible animals for should make optimal use of the enclosure space to presence of the dominant male. As galagos are susceptible to stress, cleaning the main enclosure. An additional 5m² is required accommodate an array of locomotory and foraging should be minimised, as long as this does not for each additional animal. A shift room should be behaviours, as well as appropriate sleeping and In captivity lesser galagos can be kept on their compromise hygiene. Uneaten perishable no less than 6m². resting areas. The latter should be created by own, but preferably in small groups of compatible food should be removed within a timeframe providing thick branches, platforms and nest Infrastructure individuals. Groups are composed of several appropriate for the type of foodstuff and prior boxes at multiple sites throughout the enclosure. females with or without one adult male. It is not to moulding or contamination. In hot weather Galagos can be housed in a single room enclosure, Sleeping and resting areas should be well covered recommended to keep more than one male per conditions food leftovers should be removed daily. as long as the animals have sufficient and by natural vegetation or artificial materials (e.g. enclosure. All water reservoirs should be cleaned on a daily appropriate hiding and sleeping sites. For the shade cloth, hessian) and should be provided basis and fresh potable water provided. introduction of new individuals a shift yard is with a layer of soft bedding materials like grasses, Greater galagos: The social organisation of greater essential in addition to the main enclosure. leaves and wood shavings. galagos does not significantly differ from the Soiled bedding material and animal waste should lesser galagos. They are also often seen on their be removed from the ground on a regular basis to As galagos are nocturnal animals, resting and own, but individuals do associate with each other. prevent contamination. This generally can be done Barriers sleeping sites should be well covered and in In captivity it is important to make sure that every 2-3 days. Cleaning branches can cause stress shady areas which are also protected against individuals are able to get along with each other. to the animals as these are often used for scent Galagos are arboreal species and can jump inclement weather like direct sun and rain. Visual The best combination is one male with one or marking to identify their territory. Therefore it is relatively far. To prevent escapes these species barriers should be available throughout the whole more females. Females can also be kept together, recommended to clean only part (up to one third) should be kept in closed top enclosures when enclosure to avoid confrontation or aggression, though agonistic behaviours among females do of the climbing structures and resting places the enclosures are small. Open top enclosures and should include climbing structures, fallen occur. It is not recommended to keep more than at a time. can be used for larger enclosures, as long as the logs, walls, shade structures, topography and large one adult male per enclosure. vegetation is far enough from the fence line to enrichment items. 10.3 Nutritional requirements prevent the animals from escaping. For both Animal monitoring closed and open top enclosures the minimum Ground surface Diet height of the fence should be no less than 3m. Galagos are nocturnal and generally not active When the enclosure is open top, the top of the For galagos the ground surface of the enclosure during the day. This often makes it hard to In the wild lesser galagos generally feed on fence line should be made of a non-grip surface should consist of natural substrate consistent with monitor them properly. Daily observation of food small reptiles and insects including beetles, with the top 80cm angling towards the inside of the site. It is recommended that the substrate be consumption and consistency of the faeces does, grasshoppers, scorpions, butterflies and moths. the enclosure. supplemented with organic materials including, however, provide important information about the Acacia gum is also a substantial part of their diet. but not limited to, soils, sand, leaf litter, bark health status of the animal and accurate records Greater galagos feed on gums, fruits and insects. For lesser galagos the mesh should be no bigger mulch, grasses, straw, hay and wood shavings. need to be kept. The physical condition of the The composition of their diet in the wild varies animal should be assessed at least twice a week. with the location; in certain areas insects have than 15x15mm and a minimum of 12 gauge. For Climate control greater galagos the mesh size should be no bigger Abnormal behaviours like pacing or aggression been estimated to comprise 5% of their diet, while than 25 x25mm and a minimum of 12 gauge. Under normal Malawian weather conditions lesser should be noted straight away and appropriate in another areas insects counted for up to 50-70% and greater galagos should be able to be kept action taken to prevent them. of their diet. Electric fence wire should not be used for outside throughout the year. Shelter and shade Catching/Handling these species. should, however, be provided to protect animals The diet for captive galagos should meet the required nutritional value and therefore be from inclement weather conditions like sun, Whenever possible the catching of galagos Furniture wind or rain. created in consultation with a veterinarian. Food should be done through habituating or training consumption and animal composition need to Galagos are arboreal species which spend most of the animals to enter a kennel or catching be carefully monitored to ensure the health of cage. Training or habituation should always the animals. 56 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 57 Food presentation all appendages/digits, etc. Table 10.4 • Locomotion/activity Galagos should be fed in accordance with their • Observation of eating species-typical activity pattern. Night active • Social interactions (where appropriate) Origins animals should be fed at dusk while day active Organ Route of (Zoonotic, Organisms Diagnosis animals can be fed in the early morning. Food When possible, each animal should be system(s) transmission Anthroponotic, should be offered from the ground at different photographed from the front, back, right, and or Both) locations throughout the enclosure to encourage left sides at the time of the biannual visual Faecal helminthes: movement and exploration. It is strongly Microscopic faecal examinations. These photographs should be hookworms, recommended to provide food in an enriching way Gastrointestinal Faecal – oral Both examination (direct, identified and dated and stored for future strongyloides, to stimulate activity and provide challenge. float, centrifugation) reference/comparison. roundworms Food handling Physical examinations Faecal bacteria: Hands-on physical examinations should be Salmonella, Shigella, Faecal pathogen Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage Gastrointestinal Faecal – oral Both performed on each animal every two years under Yersinia, Klebsiella, culture areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable anaesthesia. etc foods should be kept under refrigeration or, for a Faecal protozoa short period of time, in vermin-proof containers. Recommended tests: (Balantidium coli, Microscopic faecal Animal products should come from reliable Gastrointestinal Faecal – oral Both • Full physical examination Entamoeba spp., examination (direct) sources and kept refrigerated/frozen. • Tuberculosis Giardia spp., etc) • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum 10.4 Veterinary requirements Mycobacterium Respiratory Intradermal (eyelid) chemistry analysis Respiratory Anthroponotic tuberculosis secretions testing, culture Quarantine • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using direct and flotation methods Quarantine time • Faecal pathogen culture similarly experienced, qualified person. All organ Minimum quarantine time should be 46 days. Other tests systems should be checked. In primates, organs • Faecal exam via centrifugation affected by tuberculosis – lungs, liver, mediastinal Recommended tests • Urinalysis lymph nodes – should be given special • Full physical examination under anaesthesia examination. The carcass should be disposed of • Tuberculosis test: all primates should be tested Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and appropriately (incineration). for exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis. identification may also all take place whilst the The recommended way to do this is by injecting animal is under anaesthesia. 10.5 Health and safety requirements Bovine PPD into the left upper eyelid and Avian PPD into the right upper eyelid at Day 1 and Day Vaccinations Potential risks 43 of quarantine. • Rabies • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum • Tetanus Galagos are not aggressive toward humans but chemistry analysis • Measles (only, not MMR combo with measles/ strenuously resist physical restraint. Handling • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using mumps/rubella) animals needs to be done with care. direct and flotation methods • Faecal pathogen culture Deworming/Ectoparasite control Preventative healthcare Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) Other tests All caretakers should be screened for TB and should be performed on all animals twice a year. vaccinated for rabies. Due to the potential • Faecal exam via centrifugation Appropriate anthelminthic administration should • Urinalysis susceptibility of bushbabies to zoonotic viruses be instituted based on results. and bacteria that affect the respiratory system Identification Special concerns (e.g. influenza viruses) keepers with symptoms of Upon completion of the quarantine period, respiratory disease should refrain from working all animals should be able to be individually Galagos can carry very similar zoonotic and with these animals while ill. anthroponotic organisms to other non-human identified through some semi-permanent or Safety measures permanent process. These may include: ear tags, primates. Selected zoonotic and anthroponotic microchips. diseases of concern are listed in Table 10.4. Protective clothing is required while handling these animals. Handling should only be done by Routine/Preventative healthcare Bushbabies may also be susceptible to a variety of zoonotic respiratory viral and bacterial pathogens. experienced caretakers. Visual examinations Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, Post-mortem but should be more critically examined every six All animals that have died of natural causes or months. This visual examination should include: have been euthanised should undergo a post- • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, mortem examination by a veterinarian or a

58 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 59 11. FELIDAE (CATS) larger than 60x60mm (50x50mm for wildcats). combination of natural vegetation (trees, bushes), Escape can be prevented by digging the fence line climbing structures, rocks, platforms and hides Species and classification so that it is buried 50cm underground. For closed should be used. top enclosures, the top should be made of mesh Common name Scientific name Classification with the same strength as the side barriers. Wildcats, servals and caracals Caracal Caracal caracal B All of these species are good climbers and With open top enclosures, the barrier should climbing opportunities should be provided using Wildcat Felis silvestris B prevent the animal from climbing out. This natural vegetation or manmade structures. Where Serval Leptailurus serval B barrier should be at least be 2.5m. In case of closed top enclosures are provided, the total Lion Panthera leo D a mesh barrier, escapes can be prevented by vertical space should be optimally used. Visual Leopard Panthera pardus D creating an inside overhang on top of the fence barriers (bushes, grass, manmade structures) line or by using electrified wires. An overhang to should provide the animals with the opportunity Lions and leopards are categorised as Category III species, and are generally never allowed to be kept in the inside should measure a minimum of 75cm. to hide from conspecifics as well as from people captivity, with the exception of professional institutions which have been provided with an exemption When using electric wires the minimum voltage outside of the enclosure. Animals should, at most from the DNPW to keep this species for rescue and/or conservation purposes. should be 3.5Kv. times, also have access to the inside room. Ideally also a hide (shelter) should be provided in the Leopards outside enclosure. 11.1 Enclosure requirements Shift yards or outdoor pens can be part of the Metal fencing or solid barriers can be used as outside enclosure and should not be smaller barriers to contain leopards. Moats are not Leopards Other than when being transported or for medical 2 than 60m . recommended to contain these species. Leopards are good climbers and climbing reasons, felids should be kept in secure enclosures opportunities should be provided using natural at all times. Felids are powerful animals that Lions and leopards When using fencing, a minimum of 9 gauge chain vegetation/materials or manmade structures. require large spaces to accommodate their natural The main enclosure should measure no less than link or wire mesh is required with a mesh size no This should include platforms or branches which behaviours. In addition to ample size, felid 1600m2 to house one leopard or up to three lions. 2 larger than 75x75mm. To prevent escape, dig the allow resting, sleeping, social behaviour as well as enclosures must also provide physical challenge For each additional lion an additional 400m fence line so that it is buried 80cm underground. feeding behaviours. The enclosure must provide and sufficient environmental complexity. is required. If using a closed top enclosure, the With closed top enclosures, the top should be sufficient visual barriers (vegetation, logs, rocks, Housing felids in inadequately sized and enriched vertical dimension of the main enclosure should made of mesh with the same strength as the manmade structures) to allow the animals to hide. enclosures can result in stress to individual be no less than 5m. side barriers. Large wooden objects should also be available for animals that are unable to express natural 2 scratching and scent marking. Animals should, at behaviours, including the ability to retreat from Indoor rooms should be no smaller than 50m With open top enclosures, the barrier should all times, have access to the inside room. disturbance. with a vertical height of 2.5m. prevent the animal from climbing out. This barrier should be at least 4m high. With mesh barriers Lions Size and dimensions Shift yards or outdoor pens can be part of the outside enclosure and should be no smaller escapes can be prevented by creating an inside The main enclosure should provide a mixture of 2 overhang on top of the fence line and/or by using Ideally felids should be kept in open space than 150m . natural and/or manmade structures which give electrified wires. An overhang to the inside should settings, where they have enough acreage per cat lions the opportunity to be out of sight from other measure of minimum 75cm. When using electric for the species being housed, with trees or other Infrastructure group members or people. Hills, trees, shrubs, wires the minimum voltage should be 6Kv. suitable substrate to ensure healthy claws. branches, rocks and stumps are good examples To be able to temporary house sick or injured of enclosure furniture for lions, and can be used Lions Wildcats animals, as well as to facilitate new animal for shade as well as for territorial marking. Dry moats, metal fencing and solid barriers can be The main enclosure should measure no less than introductions, a minimum of two other enclosure Large wooden objects should also be available used to contain lions. 175m2 for one animal. For each additional animal, areas are required next to the main enclosure. for scratching. Lions like to lie down away from another 75m2 is required. If using a closed top At least one of these areas needs to be an indoor the ground and logs, rocks and/or platform room, with the option for the second one to be a When using a moat the minimum depth should be enclosure, the vertical dimension of the main 5m and the width not less than 7.5m. constructions should provide the opportunity to enclosure should be no less than 2.5m. shift yard or outdoor pen. Both areas should be do so. Animals should, at most times, have access connected to the main enclosure. When using fencing, a minimum of 8 gauge chain to the inside room. 2 Indoor rooms should not be smaller than 20m link or wire mesh is required with a mesh size no with a vertical height of 2m. In the case of lions a minimum of two indoor Ground surface enclosures is required for groups of up to three larger than 75x75mm. To prevent escapes, the fence line should be buried 90cm underground. Shift yards or outdoor pens can be part of the animals. For bigger groups at least three indoor Outdoor enclosures should as much as possible For closed top enclosures, the top should be outside enclosure and should not be smaller enclosures are required. have a natural substrate. The substrate should made of mesh with the same strength as the than 50m2. drain well and be supplemented with organic side barriers. Barriers materials including, but not limited to, soils, Servals and caracals sand, leaf litter, bark mulch, grasses, straw or Wildcats, servals and caracals To prevent escapes, it is highly recommend to use The main enclosure should measure no less than hay. All indoor enclosures should have a non- 2 Metal fencing or solid barriers can be used electrified wire on the fence line with a voltage not 300m for one animal. For each additional animal slip concrete floor sloped to a drain as well as a 2 as barriers to contain wildcats, servals and less than 6Kv. another 100m is required. If using a closed top wooden platform for sleeping and resting. For caracals. Moats are not recommended to contain enclosure, the vertical dimension of the main older animals appropriate bedding materials must these species. Furniture enclosure should be no less than 2.5m. be provided in sufficient amount/depth to prevent In general enclosures for felids should provide a 2 When using fencing, a minimum of 12 gauge chain contact with the concrete. Indoor rooms should be no smaller than 25m varied environment as much as possible. Ideally a with a vertical height of 2.2m. link or wire mesh is required with a mesh size not 60 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 61 Climate control on a daily basis. Special attention is given to their Lions can be fed on a daily basis or on a weekly but should be more critically examined every six physical status and social relationships (whenever rotation schedule with one or two fasting days. months. This visual examination should include: Generally all species under these standards are relevant). Monitoring of the animals always needs When feeding more lions, special attention needs used to the different seasons of the Malawian to be done by experienced and qualified caretakers to be given on how to present the food. All animals • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, climate. Additional climate control measures who know the individual animals. should have access to food, and feeding should not all appendages/digits, etc are not required. Animals should, however, lead to unnecessary aggression. • Locomotion/activity have access to the inside rooms throughout Catching/Handling • Observation of eating most hours of the day so that they can hide from Whenever possible and appropriate, food should • Social interactions (where appropriate) inclement weather conditions. The main enclosure Capture and handling of felids is generally very be presented in such a way that the animal has structures should also provide sufficient shade and stressful for the animal and should only be done if to make effort to acquire the food. This can be When possible, each animal should be opportunities to hide from wind and rain. required for veterinary care, management reasons by done by hiding the food, presenting food photographed from the front, back, right, and or transport. at random places in the enclosure, and also left sides at the time of the biannual visual 11.2 Husbandry requirements hanging food higher up or dragging it through the examinations. These photographs should be The safest and least stressful method to capture enclosure. identified and dated and stored for future Care standards and restrain a felid is through conditioning to reference/comparison. enter a catching cage or lockout area that is All felids should have access to clean potable Felids are intelligent animals which require high easily accessible on all sides. Animals which need water at all times in their indoor and outdoor Physical examinations standards of care to meet their species-specific sedation can also be darted by an experienced enclosure. Hands-on physical examinations should be needs. A lack of good husbandry and housing veterinarian. performed on each animal every two years under facilities can easily lead to abnormal behaviour Food handling manual restraint or anaesthesia. and diminished welfare. Therefore care of these Hand or net catching of felids, even the smaller animals should only be provided by well-trained species, is not recommended. Unless the food is provided fresh, meat should Recommended tests and experienced caretakers. always be stored in a deep freeze. Items frozen • Full physical examination Enclosure hygiene for later use must be dated and labelled. Food • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Social organisation must always be fed within 24 hours of thawing. chemistry analysis Indoor enclosures must be cleaned on a daily Diets must be prepared in a safe and hygienic • Blood smear for parasites Wildcats, caracals, servals and leopards basis and animal waste and food leftovers must manner to reduce the possibility of contamination • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using These species are generally solitary and can be be removed. Areas where animals have been or spoilage. Meat and fish should be prepared direct and flotation methods kept on their own in captivity. Couples (male/ eating, defecating or urinating must be well using separate cutting boards, utensils and food female) can sometimes be housed together when scrubbed with water and disinfected with soap. preparation surfaces. Additional tests animals are compatible and all individuals have Bedding should be turned around on a daily basis • Faecal exam via centrifugation ample space to retreat and hide as needed while and renewed at least every week. Generally food 11.4 Veterinary requirements • Urinalysis social tensions are resolved. Introductions of leftovers inside and outside should be removed these species should always be performed with the within 24 hours after being provided. The outside Quarantine Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and greatest care and only under supervision of well enclosure should be cleaned at least twice a week identification may also all take place whilst the trained and experience caretakers. Females and and faeces removed. Quarantine time animal is under examination. young can generally be easily kept together up to Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. the age that the offspring would naturally start All water reservoirs must be cleaned on a daily Vaccinations Recommended tests to disperse. basis and provided with fresh potable water. • Rabies • Full physical examination either under • Panleukopenia, rhinotracheitis, and calicivirus, Lions 11.3 Nutritional requirements anaesthesia or under manual restraint herpesvirus (all vaccines should be killed only) Lions can be housed in any one of the • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum • Canine distemper virus (killed) based on species Diet following ways: chemistry analysis and disease risk • Blood smear for parasites Ideally felids should be offered a selection of • a female with her sub-adult offspring; • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Deworming/Ectoparasite control whole prey species. When mainly slab meat or • a compatible pair, with or without sub-adult direct and flotation methods Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) boneless meat is provided, a properly calculated offspring; should be performed on all animals twice a year. amount of calcium carbonate and multi vitamins • a single-sex group; Additional tests Appropriate anthelminthic administration should must be supplemented. If available, commercial • a juvenile group while all animals remain under • Faecal exam via centrifugation be instituted based on results. feline supplements can be added to the meat. In breeding age; or • Urinalysis general it is highly recommended to feed all felids • a pride (one male – multiple females) Special concerns bones on a regular basis, for dental health as well Identification In all combinations special attention needs to be as a source of enrichment for the animal. Upon completion of the quarantine period, Rabies and distemper are two diseases of given to mutual relationships, and experienced all animals should be able to be individually concern in carnivores and should be on the list of Food presentation caretakers should be constantly monitoring identified through some semi-permanent or differentials for any animals showing neurological permanent process. These may include: ear tags, signs or unexplained lethargy or depression. whether the individuals are compatible with Felids, except lions, should be fed on a daily basis. microchips, tattoos, ear notches. Since canine distemper is prevalent in companion each other. Introductions of these species should Food should be offered at the time of day animals animals in Malawi, vaccination of lions always be performed with the greatest of care. are active, which is generally between dusk and Routine/Preventative healthcare especially against this disease is recommended. dawn. Therefore for these species food is best Animal monitoring Echinococcus sp is a zoonotic tapeworm that provided by the end of the afternoon. Visual examinations can be shed in the faeces of carnivores. Common It is important that all individuals are monitored Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, 62 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 63 diseases of geriatric captive felids are dental to keep people at least 3m from the enclosure 12. VIVERRIDAE/NANDINIIDAE (GENETS/CIVETS) disease, renal disease and diabetes mellitus. barrier. The barrier should be constructed in such a way that people are not able to pass it. Species and classification Post-mortem Escape protocols should be in place when keeping Common name Scientific name Classification All animals that have died of natural causes or felids and all caretakers should be familiar with African civet Civettictis civetta B have been euthanised should undergo a post- how to act during an escape. mortem examination by a veterinarian or a Common genet genetta genetta B similarly experienced, qualified person. If an African palm civet Nandinia binotata B animal showing neurologic signs dies, the head should be immediately sent for rabies testing. 12.1 Enclosure requirements be bigger than 2.5x2.5cm and have a thickness of The carcass should be disposed of appropriately not less than 9 gauge. The barrier should at least (incineration). Careful consideration should be given to the go 35cm into the ground. Alternatively, a concrete design of enclosures for genets and civets so that apron can be poured at the base of the fence and 11.5 Health and safety requirements all areas meet the physical, social, behavioural extended 35cm on each side of the fence. and psychological needs of the species. Ideally Potential risks the enclosure environment should resemble the African civets natural living conditions for the species as much Mesh or strong solid barriers can be used to All felids are, depending on age and species, to a as possible. contain African civets. The mesh should be no certain extent dangerous to work with and need less than 5x5cm with a thickness of no less than to be looked after with extreme care and suitable Size and dimensions 9 gauge. The barrier should at least go 50cm protective measures. Any mistakes made in direct deep into the ground ending no less than 50cm contact, especially with lions and leopards, can Enclosure sizes are based on the species size, into the enclosure away from the main barrier. A lead to serious and even lethal injuries. behavioural repertoire, home range size, activity concrete apron can also be used for this species, pattern and daily movements, and professional but should cover at least 50cm on each side of the Preventative healthcare experience with ex situ populations of these main barrier. species. The following sizes and dimensions are All personnel in direct contact with carnivores minimum standards: Furniture should be rabies vaccinated. Personal protective equipment should be provided to each caretaker. Genet/Palm civet Enclosure complexity is very important for these 30m² for one individual animal, 40m² for a pair. species and should be provided through the Safety measures The enclosure height should be no less than 2.5m. use of various natural and artificial materials to When a shift yard is available for introductions, encourage normal behaviour patterns, minimise Handling and training of the animals should the space should be no less than 9m² in addition any abnormal behaviour and avoid confrontation always be performed according to the protective to the main enclosure. and aggression. contact method and within appropriate and especially designated facilities. All slides, doors African civet A shelter needs to be provided for each individual and gates should be kept closed and securely 90m² for one individual animal with an additional animal, big enough to offer enough space for two fastened at all times; ideally a double-gated 30m² for a pair. When a shift yard is made adult individuals (if relevant). African genets system should be in place. Locks and security of available for introduction, the space should be no and palm civets also need sufficient horizontal slides, gates and doors should be double-checked less than 16m² in addition to the main enclosure. branches and shelves which can be used for after each use and inspected on a daily basis. sleeping or resting. However, African civets are Under no circumstances should caretakers enter Infrastructure terrestrial and need resting and hiding places on the ground. the same area as a lion or leopard, unless the Generally genets and civets can be housed in a animal is sedated by a qualified veterinarian. single room enclosure, as long as the animals have Catching of all felids should be done through Besides the hides, the quality of space is very sufficient and appropriate hides and sleeping sites. important for all genets and civets. This can be conditioning the animal to a catching/squeeze For the introduction of new individuals a shift cage or by chemical immobilisation through achieved by using hollow logs, providing digging yard is essential in addition to the main enclosure. sites, natural trees, bushes and vines. All these darting. Caretakers should always keep a safe structures should provide sufficient cover to hide distance from the enclosure barrier. Barriers and be out of side of conspecifics or humans. In order to ensure safety and to properly meet the Genet/Palm civets A permanent shallow pool or stream is also management requirements of lions and leopards, These species are arboreal and are best kept in a recommended for African genets. it is essential that more than one keeper is closed top enclosure. When being kept in an open responsible for the care of these animals on a daily top enclosure part of the wall should be made of Ground surface basis. Consistency of routine is vital. Detailed non-grip surface. These species jump easily from emergency protocol for escapes should be in place branch to branch so vegetation should not allow The ground of the enclosure, for the most part, and caretakers should have full knowledge and the animals to escape. should consist of natural substrates consistent understanding of the required procedures. with the site. The substrate may be supplemented Generally, mesh is recommended for these with organic materials including, but not limited In cases where the public has viewing access to species, but can be combined with other materials to, soils, sand, leaf litter, bark mulch, grasses, the enclosure, a physical barrier should be present such as concrete or wood. The mesh should not straw and hay. African civets are real diggers, so 64 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 65 the substrate should allow them to dig in several with care, making sure the animal is not cornered Meat products should come from a reliable source Other tests places in the enclosure. and that the caretaker stays outside of its flight and kept refrigerated/frozen. • Faecal exam via centrifugation distance. • Urinalysis Climate control 12.4 Veterinary requirements Enclosure hygiene Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and Under normal Malawian weather conditions Quarantine identification may also all take place whilst the all genets and civets should be able to be kept Uneaten perishable food must be removed within animal is under examination. outside throughout the year. Shelter and shade a timeframe appropriate for the type of foodstuff Quarantine time should, however, be provided to protect animals and prior to moulding or contamination. All water Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. Vaccinations from inclement weather conditions like sun, reservoirs should be cleaned on a daily basis and • Rabies wind or rain. provided with fresh potable water. Recommended tests • Canine Distemper Virus (killed) • Full physical examination either under • +/- Canine Parvovirus, Civets (killed) 12.2 Husbandry requirements 12.3 Nutritional requirements anaesthesia or under manual restraint • +/- Leptospirosis, Feline Panleukopenia, Canine • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Adenovirus, depending on disease risk Care standards Diet chemistry analysis • Blood smear for parasites Deworming/Ectoparasite control Genets and civets are intelligent animals and African genets are mainly carnivores and should • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) require thoughtful design and husbandry to be provided with a mixture of whole prey like direct and flotation methods should be performed on all animals twice a year. ensure a good quality of life. Housing these mice, day chicks, crickets, meal worms, feline cat Appropriate anthelminthic administration should species in inadequately sized enclosures can food, egg, and a mixture of fruit and veg. Offering Other tests be instituted based on results. result in social stress and/or stress to individual whole prey is important from a nutritional point • Faecal exam via centrifugation animals unable to express natural behaviours, of view as well as dental care. • Urinalysis Special concerns including the ability to retreat from disturbance. Behavioural indicators of stress can include African civets are omnivorous and can be Identification Rabies and distemper are two diseases of heightened aggression, pacing and other repetitive provided with a nutritionally complete, Upon completion of the quarantine period, concern in carnivores and should be on the list of behaviours. Therefore all caretakers should have commercially available feline diet, rodents, fruits, all animals should be able to be individually differentials for any animals showing neurological decent knowledge of the biology, behaviour and corn, day-old chicks and eggs. identified through some semi-permanent or signs or unexplained lethargy or depression. husbandry needs of these species. permanent process. These may include: ear tags Captive viverrids may be prone to obesity and/or Palm civets are mainly fruit eaters and should be and microchips. malnutrition. Social organisation given a variety of lower sugar fruits complemented with about 10% of animal protein which can be Routine/Preventative healthcare Post-mortem Generally most species of genets and civets are offered in the form of day old chicks, mice or eggs. solitary, and can be housed as such. However, Visual examinations All animals that have died of natural causes or it is possible, under certain conditions, to keep Food presentation Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, have been euthanised should undergo a post- pairs in captivity. When keeping pairs the housing but should be more critically examined every six mortem examination by a veterinarian or a conditions need to provide the animals with Genets and civets should be fed in accordance months. This visual examination should include: similarly experienced, qualified person. If an sufficient shelter and cover to get away from with their species-typical activity pattern. Genets animal showing neurologic signs dies, the head each other. When introducing new individuals and civets are generally nocturnal animals, • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, should be immediately sent for rabies testing. a satellite enclosure is required to allow gradual but in captivity their activity patterns can be all appendages/digits, etc The carcass should be disposed of appropriately introduction and reduce aggression. reversed. Night active animals should be fed at • Locomotion/activity (incineration). dusk while day active animals can be fed in the • Observation of eating Animal monitoring early morning. Whole prey (e.g. mice), insects, • Social interactions (where appropriate) 12.5 Health and safety requirements and favourite fruit/forage items can be placed As all species of genets and civets are nocturnal around the enclosure to encourage movement and When possible, each animal should be Potential risks they can be difficult hard to monitor. Daily exploration; this is important for animals of all photographed from the front, back, right, and observation of eating and faeces will, however, ages but can be particularly useful in encouraging left sides at the time of the biannual visual These small mesocarnivores can be difficult to give important information about the health movement for older animals. Foods can be hidden examinations. These photographs should be manually restrain and can inflict serious bites, status of the animals. Their general condition in locations that fit with the animal’s natural identified and dated and stored for future even through leather gloves. should be assessed at least twice a week and feeding style (i.e., ground feeders vs. arboreal reference/comparison. abnormal behaviours, like pacing or aggression, feeders). Preventative healthcare Physical examinations should be noted straight away and appropriate All personnel in direct contact with carnivores action taken to prevent them. Genets will eagerly forage for scattered items, especially mealworms, pinkie rats, live crickets Hands-on physical examinations should be should be rabies vaccinated. PPE (gloves) should Catching/Handling as well as fruit and vegetables. They will also performed on each animal every two years under also be worn when working with carnivores. manual restraint or anaesthesia. benefit from receiving whole prey such as rodents Safety measures Catching or handling these species should be and chickens. done by habituating or training the animals to Recommended tests • Full physical examination For these species it is highly recommended to come into a kennel or catching cage. Aversive Food handling work according to the protective contact method. techniques to chase animals in a small room • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Dry goods must be stored in clean, dry storage chemistry analysis In case capture or restraint is required, this can or kennel should be avoided as these animals best be done through training or habituating can become easily stressed or aggressive. The areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable • Blood smear for parasites foods should be kept under refrigeration or for a • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using animals to come into catching cages or kennels. protective contact method is highly recommended Net catching is not recommended. and entering the enclosure should always be done short period of time in vermin-proof containers. direct and flotation methods

66 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 67 13. HERPESTIDAE (MONGOOSES) also important to provide sufficient opportunities medical treatment), whereas other species can be for scent marking, which is an important social housed as solitary animals. Species and classification behaviour of mongoose. Dwarf mongooses Common name Scientific name Classification Mongooses like climbing and therefore an Dwarf mongooses are highly gregarious and extensive network of branches is recommended. naturally live in packs. They are best kept in White-tailed mongoose Ichneumia albicauda B Branches should ideally vary in size and stability. small packs of related individuals (on average Marsh mongoose Atilax palidinosus B Nest boxes, feeding plateaus, water reservoirs 8-9 individuals). Unrelated animals can be Egyptian mongoose Herpestes ichneumon B and covered sleeping/hiding spots should be added to the group, but care needs to be given Dwarf mongoose Helogale parvula B located on the ground for all mongoose species. to the introduction process. Usually there is one Appropriate ground cover like bushes, rocks, dominant breeding pair, which form the centre Banded mongoose Mungos mungo B (artificial) termite mounts and pipes are also of the pack. The pack can contain more than Slender mongoose Galerella sanguinea B required throughout the enclosure. Nest boxes one adult male, as long as the individuals are or artificial burrows should be big enough for compatible with each other. Usually it is safer to 13.1 Enclosure requirements Infrastructure the social species (dwarf, banded, white-tailed keep more adult females than males. and Egyptian mongooses) to provide sufficient Careful consideration should be given to the Generally mongooses can be housed in a single space for all individuals. If more than one nest Banded mongooses enclosure design for mongooses so that all room enclosure as long as the group is compatible. box or burrow is available, these should ideally be Banded mongooses are highly gregarious and areas meet the physical, social, behavioural and It is, however, recommended to have one or two interconnected. live in a matriarchal society. Banded mongooses psychological needs of the species. Ideally the shift yards to manage the group, especially for the typically have 10-20 individuals in a colony. enclosure environment should resemble the more gregarious species. A shift yard is required Marsh mongooses in particular like shallow water Colonies with a 50/50 male to female ratio or with natural living conditions for the species as much for the introduction of new individuals. pools and streams, which are recommended to more males than females appears to work best. as possible. Barriers encourage natural behaviour. For other species one or two water reservoirs for each enclosure are Slender mongooses Size and dimensions Mongooses are known to be very good diggers, sufficient. Slender mongooses are best kept as solitary animals or in a compatible pair (male/female). Enclosure size should be based on the species size, so it is important to sink the perimeter fence or Ground surface behavioural repertoire, home range size, activity wall no less than 80cm into the ground. Concrete White-tailed mongooses pattern, daily movements, and professional or mesh-wire should be placed at the same depth A substantial part of the enclosure should consist White-tailed mongooses are best kept as solitary experience with ex situ populations of these under the whole surface. For dwarf and slender of a natural substrate which allows the animals to animals or in a group of compatible, related species. The following sizes and dimensions are mongooses mesh wire should be no less than 12 dig and make burrows. Suitable substrates include females. Male/female or male/male combinations minimum standards: gauge and no more than 1.5cm wide. For other soil, soft sand, grass, mulch, leaves, straw and hay. are not recommended. mongoose species wire should be no less than 12 Dwarf mongooses gauge and no more than 2.5cm wide. Climate control Egyptian mongooses 30m² for a stable (compatible) group up to five Egyptian mongooses can be kept as solitary animals. For each additional animal 4m² should Mongooses are also very good climbers. It is Under normal Malawian weather conditions animals or in small groups of related females with be added. The enclosure height should be no less therefore strongly recommended to keep these all mongoose species should be able to be kept or without one adult male. It is not recommended than 2.1m. Each shift yard should be no less than animals in closed-top enclosures. Concrete or outside throughout the year. Shelter and shade to keep multiple adult males in one enclosure. 4m² in addition to the main enclosure. mesh wire should be used as barriers. For dwarf should, however, be provided to protect animals and slender mongooses mesh wire should be no from inclement weather conditions like sun, Marsh mongooses Slender mongooses less than 12 gauge and no more than 1.5cm wide. wind or rain. Marsh mongooses can be kept as solitary animals 30m² for each individual or pair. The enclosure For other mongoose species the wire should be or in a compatible pair (male/female). height should be no less than 2.4m. Each shift no less than 12 gauge and no more than 2.5cm 13.2 Husbandry requirements yard should be no less than 4m² in addition to the wide. When an open top enclosure is provided, the Animal monitoring main enclosure. barrier should consist of a non-grip wall no less Care standards than 1m at the bottom of the fence for dwarf and It is important that daily observations and records Mongooses are intelligent animals and require Banded mongooses slender mongooses and 1.4m for other species. are kept of feeding behaviour, physical condition, thoughtful design and husbandry to ensure a 45m² for a stable (compatible) group up to five Where open top enclosures are used, it should be and faeces, as well as social stability and relations good quality of life. As they are good diggers animals. For each additional animal 4m² should kept in mind that these species jump easily from within the group. Extra attention needs to be and climbers, the enclosure needs to be also be added. The enclosure height should be no less branch to branch and so vegetation should not given to subordinate individuals to make sure they constructed in such a way that the animals are than 2.1m. Each shift yard should be no less than allow the animals to escape. maintain a good body condition and don’t receive 4m² in addition to the main enclosure. properly enclosed and daily care procedures don’t too much aggression. Furniture give them the opportunity to escape. It is therefore White–tailed, Egyptian and marsh mongooses paramount for caretakers to be familiar with the Catching/Handling 50m² for each individual or pair. For each Enclosure complexity is very important for these behaviour and general biology of these species. additional animal 6m² should be added. The species and should be provided through the It is important that a trustworthy relationship is enclosure height should be no less than 2.4m. use of various natural and artificial materials to Social organisation developed between the caretaker and the animals. Each shift yard should be no less than 6m² in encourage normal behaviour patterns, minimise Animals can be caught with small (appropriate The social organisation of mongooses depend on addition to the main enclosure. any abnormal behaviour and avoid confrontation to the species) compatible catching cages or the individual species. Gregarious species should and aggression. The furniture of the enclosure is with a net. not be kept on their own (unless required for

68 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 69 Enclosure hygiene 13.4 Veterinary requirements Other tests • Faecal exam via centrifugation Food and water containers should be cleaned Quarantine • Urinalysis on a daily basis. Enclosure furniture, including tunnels and nest boxes, should not be included in Quarantine time Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and the daily cleaning regime because these species Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. identification may also all take place whilst the scent mark their territory and thorough cleaning animal is under examination. Recommended tests of their home space may disturb them. Therefore • Full physical examination either under Vaccinations it is recommended to only clean one quarter anaesthesia or under manual restraint • +/- Rabies of the enclosure furniture at the time. Uneaten • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum perishable food should be removed within a chemistry analysis Deworming/Ectoparasite control timeframe appropriate for the type of foodstuff • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) and prior to moulding or contamination. direct and flotation methods should be performed on all animals twice a year. • Tuberculosis test Appropriate anthelminthic administration should 13.3 Nutritional requirements be instituted based on results. Other tests Diet • Faecal exam via centrifugation Special concerns • Urinalysis Generally mongooses consume a wide range Mongooses have been known to carry leptospirosis and social mongoose (e.g. banded of food items in captivity including vertebrates Identification and dwarf mongoose) may maintain tuberculosis (mice, day chicks), eggs, fish, invertebrates Upon completion of the quarantine period, within their family groups. Rabies and distemper (mealworms, crickets, grasshoppers, beetles), dry all animals should be able to be individually are two diseases of concern in carnivores cat food and some fruit and vegetables (carrot, identified through some semi-permanent or and should be on the list of differentials for sweet potato, corn, apple). Offering whole prey permanent process. Microchips are preferred for any animals showing neurological signs or is important from a nutritional point of view, but identification of individuals. unexplained lethargy or depression. also for dental care and enrichment. Routine/Preventative healthcare Post-mortem Food quantities need to be established by a veterinarian or nutritionist, based on the animal Visual examinations All animals that have died of natural causes or needs as well as local availability. Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, have been euthanised should undergo a post- but should be more critically examined every six mortem examination by a veterinarian or a Food presentation months. This visual examination should include: similarly experienced, qualified person. If an animal showing neurologic signs dies, the head • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, Mongooses should be fed in accordance with should be immediately sent for rabies testing. all appendages/digits, etc. their species-typical activity pattern. Nocturnal The carcass should be disposed of appropriately • Locomotion/activity animals are generally fed prior to the night (incineration). • Observation of eating whereas diurnal animals are fed in the morning. • Social interactions (where appropriate) 13.5 Health and safety requirements It is recommended to offer the diet in several (minimum of two) feedings over the active time When possible, each animal should be Potential risks period. Most mongoose references in these photographed from the front, back, right, and Mongooses may be difficult to manually restrain standards are diurnal, except the white-tailed left sides at the time of the biannual visual and may be prone to biting, even through mongoose and the marsh mongoose, which are examinations. These photographs should be leather gloves. nocturnal. identified and dated and stored for future reference/comparison. Preventative healthcare Whole prey (e.g. mice), insects, and favourite fruit/forage items should be placed on feeding Physical examinations Caretakers should be vaccinated for rabies prior to plateaus at different locations in the enclosure to Hands-on physical examinations should be having direct contact with the animals. encourage movement and exploration and prevent performed on each animal every two years under Safety measures aggression because of competition. manual restraint or anaesthesia. Mongooses are good diggers and climbers. Their Food handling Recommended tests enclosure therefore needs to be constructed in • Full physical examination such a way that the animals are properly enclosed Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum and daily care procedures don’t give them the areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable chemistry analysis opportunity to escape. Ideally a double-door foods must be kept refrigerated or for a short • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using system should be in place. Animals can be caught periods of time in vermin-proof containers. Meat direct and flotation methods with small (for the species) compatible catching products should come from a reliable source and • Tuberculosis test cages or with a net. Caretakers should at all times kept refrigerated/frozen. be provided with appropriate personal protective equipment. 70 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 71 14. HYAENIDAE (HYENAS) from inclement or extreme weather (heavy rains, positive relationship with individual animals hot sun), such as an appropriate denning area, when required. The method of choice depends Species and classification bushes, rocks, and an indoor enclosure. on the purpose for which the animals are being held. Animals that are not being trained can be Common name Scientific name Classification 14.2 Husbandry requirements best sedated through darting once separated from other individuals. Chemical immobilisation of Spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta C Care standards the animal should always be undertaken by an 14.1 Enclosure requirements wire 50cm from the main fence line, 35cm above Spotted hyenas are highly intelligent and social experienced and qualified veterinarian. the ground. Voltage should not be less than 6KV. animals which require high standards of care to Enclosure hygiene Other than when being transported or for meet their species-specific needs. A lack of good Furniture medical reasons, hyenas should be kept in husbandry and housing facilities can easily lead to Indoor enclosures and holding pens must be secure enclosures at all times. Hyenas are active, abnormal behaviour and diminished welfare. Care Spotted hyenas live in social groups which are cleaned on a regular basis, with the main focus intelligent and powerful animals that require large of these animals should therefore only be provided characterised by a strict dominance hierarchy. on removing food leftovers, dirty substrate and spaces to accommodate their natural behaviours. by well-trained and experienced caretakers. To encourage exploration behaviour and faeces. However, enclosures should not be so In addition to ample size, felid enclosures must intensely cleaned as to remove all traces of scent scent marking, but also to provide sufficient Social organisation provide a physical challenge and sufficient markings. In general all furniture should be kept environmental complexity. Housing hyenas in opportunities for animals to move out of each The social composition of a group can vary widely. clean but enough scent should be left on them for inadequately sized/enriched enclosures can result other’s sight to support conflict resolution and In the wild, spotted hyenas form permanent, the animals to recognise them. Alternatively every in social stress and/or stress to individual animals reduce stress, it is essential that the enclosure multi-male, multi-female groups that are day a different quarter of the indoor enclosure or as a result of being unable to express natural provides a varied environment with sufficient composed of one or several matrilines of adult pen should be properly cleaned to prevent wiping behaviours, including the ability to retreat from physical barriers. females and their young. As adults, some males out all scent marks at the same time. However, as disturbance. All enclosures should be provisioned with objects will disperse and join other clans. In captivity hyenas generally use their water pools intensively and often drag their food into the water, all water Size and dimensions to support these species-specific behaviours and several combinations are possible, but generally requirements. Trees, wooden logs and rocks it is not recommended to keep more than 5-6 reservoirs should be cleaned on a daily basis to The main enclosure should measure no less than should be provided throughout the enclosure. hyenas in one enclosure to avoid competition and prevent contamination. 2 Soft, unnatural materials (e.g. rubber, plastic) are 1,600m to house up to three hyenas. For each related aggression. One or more females with their 14.3 Nutritional requirements additional hyena an additional 400m2 is required. inappropriate for furnishing or enrichment as they offspring and one adult male is a combination Hyenas are best housed in open top enclosures. are easily destroyed and animals might swallow which can work well. Introducing new, unrelated Diet the pieces. individuals should be done with great care and 2 Indoor rooms should be no smaller than 50m is not without risk. New animals should always Ideally hyenas are fed whole or part of whole Ideally the natural surface and infrastructure of with a vertical height of 2.5m. be first introduced through adjacent enclosures animal carcasses, including bones and intestines. the enclosure should allow the animals to dig their which provide the opportunity to see the Examples of suitable food species are goat, Shift yards or outdoor pens can be part of the own dens. Alternatively one or more artificial dens existing group and the newcomer interact. The chicken, guinea fowl and cow. Slab meat (like outside enclosure and should be no smaller than can be provided. A den should be big enough to introduction of new members should always be beef) can also be provided, but this requires the 150m2 each. house all of the clan members. Special attention conducted by experienced caretakers who are necessary additional vitamins and minerals to needs to be given to the fact that the den should familiar with the full behavioural repertoire of prevent deficiencies. When only slab meat is Infrastructure not be able to fill up with water during the these animals. provided, it is still essential to add bones at a To be able to temporary house sick or injured rainy season. minimum frequency of three times a week for Animal monitoring animals, as well as to facilitate new animal Water elements are frequently used for bathing dental care, calcium requirements and enrichment introductions, a minimum of two additional purposes. and therefore highly recommended to enrich the It is important that all individuals are monitored enclosure areas are required, besides the main captive environment. on a daily basis. Special attention should be given enclosure. At least one of these areas needs to be Food presentation to their physical status and social relationships. an indoor room, with the option for the second Ground surface Daily records should be kept with regard to Hyenas are generally fed once a day. For healthy one to be a shift yard or an outdoor pen. Both social interactions, feeding behaviour and any adult animals it is recommended to introduce areas should be connected to the main enclosure. Outdoor enclosures should have a natural substrate as much as possible. The substrate occurrence of abnormal behaviours. Monitoring one or two fasting days per week to prevent Barrier should drain well and be supplemented with always needs to be done by experienced obesity. Depending on group size and structure, organic materials including, but not limited to, and qualified caretakers who know the food can be spread out through the enclosure A mesh wire or solid (concrete) wall can be used soils, sand, leaf litter, bark mulch, grasses, straw individual animals. to allow lower ranked animals to have access. as a barrier to contain hyenas. Moats are not If food is only provided at one location, escape or hay. All indoor enclosures should have a non- Catching/Handling recommended to contain these species. slip concrete floor sloped to a drain as well as a routes must be present to allow subordinate individuals to avoid aggression during feeding. If wooden platform for sleeping and resting. Handling hyenas should always be performed For mesh wire a minimum of 8 gauge chain link possible, it is recommendable to ‘hide’ the food at according to the protective contact method or or wire mesh is required with a mesh size not Climate control different locations throughout the enclosure for while the animal is sedated. Adult hyenas can larger than 60x60mm. To prevent an outbreak enrichment purposes. Bones or ‘prey’ can also be sometimes be habituated or trained trough by digging, the fence line should be buried 80cm Hyenas are strong animals and have a high buried to elicit natural searching and scavenging positive reinforcement to enter small areas or underground and 50cm inward to the enclosure. tolerance in terms of climate range. The enclosure, behaviours. It is highly recommended to install an electrified however, should provide opportunities to hide even catching cages. Caretakers can built up a

72 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 73 Food handling performed on each animal every two years under Any mistakes made in direct contact can lead to manual restraint or anaesthesia. serious and even lethal injuries. Unless the food is provided fresh, meat should always be stored deep frozen. Items frozen for Recommended tests Preventative healthcare later use must be dated and labelled. Food should • Full physical examination always be fed within 24 hours of thawing. Diets • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Caretakers should be vaccinated against rabies should be prepared in a safe and hygienic manner chemistry analysis and provided with personal protective equipment. to reduce the possibility of contamination or • Blood smear for parasites Safety measures spoilage. Meat must be prepared using separate • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using cutting boards, utensils and food preparation direct and flotation methods Handling and training of hyenas should always surfaces. be performed according to the protective contact Other tests method and within appropriate and especially 14.4 Veterinary requirements • Faecal exam via centrifugation designated facilities. All slides, doors and gates • Urinalysis Quarantine should be kept closed and securely fastened at Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and all times; ideally a double-gated system should Quarantine time identification may also all take place whilst the be in place. Locks and security of slides, gates Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. animal is under examination. and doors should be double-checked after each use and inspected on a daily basis. Under no Recommended tests Vaccinations circumstances should caretakers enter the same • Full physical examination either under • Rabies area as a hyena, unless the animal is sedated anaesthesia or under manual restraint • Canine distemper (killed) by a qualified veterinarian. Catching of hyenas • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum • +/- Feline Panleukopenia (killed) should be done through conditioning the animal chemistry analysis to a catching/squeeze cage or by chemical • Blood smear for parasites Deworming/Ectoparasite control immobilisation through darting. • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) direct and flotation methods should be performed on all animals twice a year. Great care should be taken when hand-raising Appropriate anthelminthic administration should young hyenas as they may become very tame Other tests be instituted based on results. toward humans. Nevertheless, they are very • Faecal exam via centrifugation capable of injuring their caretakers and therefore • Urinalysis Special concerns entering enclosures with hyenas should be prohibited. Identification Rabies and distemper are two diseases of Upon completion of the quarantine period, concern in carnivores and should be on the list of Where the public has viewing access to the all animals should be able to be individually differentials for any animals showing neurological enclosure, a physical barrier should be present identified through some semi-permanent or signs or unexplained lethargy or depression. to keep people at least 3m from the enclosure permanent process. These may include: ear tags, barrier. It should be constructed in such a way Echinococcus sp is a zoonotic tapeworm that can microchips, ear notches. that people are not able to pass the barrier. be shed in the faeces of carnivores. Since hyenas Routine/Preventative healthcare gnaw on bones, fractured teeth and tooth root Escape protocols should be in place when keeping abscesses are not uncommon. The oral cavity hyenas and all caretakers should be familiar with Visual examinations should be well examined whenever an animal is how to act during an escape. Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, under anaesthesia. but should be more critically examined every six months. This visual examination should include: Post-mortem

• Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, All animals that have died of natural causes or all appendages/digits, etc. have been euthanised should undergo a post- • Locomotion/activity mortem examination by a veterinarian or a • Observation of eating similarly experienced, qualified person. If an • Social interactions (where appropriate) animal showing neurologic signs dies, the head should be immediately sent for rabies testing. When possible, each animal should be The carcass should be disposed of appropriately photographed from the front, back, right, and (incineration). left sides at the time of the biannual visual examinations. These photographs should be 14.5 Health and safety requirements identified and dated and stored for future reference/comparison. Potential risks

Physical examinations Hyenas are large, powerful animals that can Hands-on physical examinations should be easily cause injury to other hyenas or humans.

74 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 75 15. CANIDAE (DOGS/FOXES) should be at least 2.5m with an additional 0.9m The enclosure therefore needs to have sufficient angling inwards at an angle of 35-45 degrees. shelters for animals to hide from the hot sun, Species and classification Alternatively the vertical height can be up to 3.5m, heavy rains and wind. For both species it is in which case the overhang is not required. important that a big enough shelter is provided Common name Scientific name Classification to give access to all individuals. It is critical that When using solid walls, the height should be no Side-striped jackal Canis adustus B indoor enclosures provide sufficient ventilation, less than 3.5m with the top 2.5m being smooth, especially when animals are temporarily African wild dog Lycaon pictus D providing no grip for animals to climb on. Dry locked inside. moats should be no less than 5.5m wide and 4.5m Wild dogs are categorised as a Category III species, and are generally never allowed to be kept in high on the exterior side. The slope from the 15.2 Husbandry requirements captivity, with the exception of professional institutions which have been provided with an exemption interior should be no steeper than 30 degrees. from the DNPW to keep this species for rescue and/or conservation purposes. Care standards Electrified wire can be used as a second barrier For a single-sex group of up to three adult animals 15.1 Enclosure requirements or to prevent animals from climbing or digging Jackals and wild dogs are highly intelligent, as well as for a couple (male/female), at least along the primary fence line. Voltage on the wires social animals which require high standards of Size and dimensions one, but ideally two additional areas are required. should not exceed 4.5kV for jackals and 6kV for care. Animals kept in undersized enclosures or Additional areas can be in the form of shift yards wild dogs. social groups of the wrong composition may show Jackals or indoor rooms or a combination of both. The The minimum required main enclosure space diminished wellbeing which can lead to pacing, main enclosure, shift yard and indoor room Furniture aggression, nervousness, poor reproduction, for one or two adult jackals is 400m² with an should be interconnected though hatches. Where additional 100m² for each additional animal. and poor care of offspring. In order to meet the there is only one shift yard available without Jackals and wild dogs are both very active species their physical, social, and behavioural needs, Shift yards and indoor rooms should measure no an indoor room, it needs to provide sufficient that move around a lot. It is therefore important careful consideration should therefore be given to less than 50m² each. shelter to protect animals from inclement weather that the furniture provides sufficient variation enclosure design as well as group composition. conditions. and stimulates the animals to make use of the Wild dogs whole enclosure. Logs, rocks, bushes and trees Social organisation The minimum required main enclosure space For single-sex groups (up to five adult individuals) can be used to provide appropriate infrastructure. for a single-sex group of up to three individuals and one generation breeding groups (a couple Bushes and trees are also essential for providing Jackals is 1600m² with an additional 200m² for each with offspring) at least two additional areas shade and shelter. Natural or artificial shelters In the wild, side-stripped jackals live alone as additional adult individual. are required, of which one is an indoor room. and barriers should be provided to give the well as in monogamous pairs. In captivity these For bigger groups more shift yards or indoor animals the opportunity to be out of each other’s species can be kept alone when in a well-enriched The minimum required enclosure space for rooms might be required depending on group sight, and to allow them to rest and be protected environment. It is, however, recommended to a couple (male/female) is 1400m² with an composition and compatibility of the individuals. from inclement weather conditions. Examples of keep them in compatible couples (male/female) additional 200m² for each additional adult appropriate shelters include: hollow logs, rock or small family groups to provide the animals Barrier individual. overhangs, artificial shelters, logs, rock, trees and with social stimuli. In some situations more than two adults can be kept together, but in these Mesh wire fencing, solid walls and dry moats bushes. In a country such as Malawi shallow water Shift yards and indoor rooms should measure no cases extensive group monitoring is required to can be used to contain jackals and wild dogs. pools are strongly recommended to regulate body less than 65m² each. make sure all individuals get along. Enclosure Water moats are generally not recommended for temperature. As canids like elevated areas (e.g., size and complexity are important factors which jackals and wild dogs because of their swimming hills tops of den boxes, elevated platforms) for Infrastructure can contribute to the success of keeping multiple capabilities. resting and to oversee the surrounding area, it is Jackals recommended to include these elements in the jackals in one enclosure. Jackals landscape. At least one, but ideally two additional areas Wild dogs Mesh wire should be at least 12 gauge and no should be connected to the main enclosure for African wild dogs are highly social animals. wider than 50x50mm. The fence should measure Ground surface management purposes. Additional areas can be Keeping this species solitary has serious welfare at least 2.5m high and be sunk into the ground by in the form of shift yards or indoor rooms or a The ground surface of the outdoor enclosure implications and should only be allowed on a no less than 90cm. Solids walls should be at least combination of both. With breeding groups, two and shift yards should consist mainly of natural temporary basis and with good reason. 2.5m high with the top 1.5m being smooth and additional areas are required. Main enclosures, substrates which allow the animals to dig. Bare, non-climbable. Dry moats should be no less than shift yards and indoor rooms should be connected sandy ground alternated with grass areas is Wild dogs can be kept in family groups as well 5.5m wide and 3.5m high on the exterior side. The with each other through hatches. Where there is ideal. Additional patches with leaf litter, bark as in single-sex groups. In family groups the slope from the interior should be no steeper than only one shift yard available without an indoor mulch or just leaves can be provided to make number of the pack can, in theory, go up to 15-20 30 degrees. room, the shift yard needs to provide sufficient the environment more interesting. The substrate individuals as long as sufficiently sized enclosures, shelter to protect all animals from inclement appropriate infrastructure and knowledge of this Wild dogs should allow water drainage, especially in the weather conditions. species are in place. It is strongly recommended Mesh wire fence lines for wild dogs should be rainy season. to initially keep smaller groups in which all constructed of mesh not thinner than 12 gauge Wild dogs Climate control individuals are compatible with each other. and maximum 50mm x50 mm wide. To prevent Enclosure facilities for wild dogs depend on The basis for a family group is the alpha pair the dogs from digging themselves out, mesh wires the number of animals being kept and the Jackals and wild dogs are adapted to the general with their offspring. With wild dogs, males should be sunk into the ground angling towards composition of the group. More areas are weather conditions in Malawi. It is, however, remain in the natal group even after reaching the inside of the enclosure and up to a depth of no required to support the process of integrating or essential that both species have the option to hide adulthood. Females need to be taken out when less than 90cm. The vertical height of the fence grouping animals. from inclement and extreme weather conditions. reaching adulthood after around 1.5 years. Packs

76 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 77 will therefore naturally have more adult males scavengers which generally adapt their diet to 15.4 Veterinary requirements • Urinalysis than females. the availability of certain food items within the area. They generally feed on insects, fruits, small Quarantine Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and In single-sex groups the number of animals kept vertebrae, carrion and plant material. In captivity identification may also all take place whilst the together should ideally not exceed 7-8 for males this species is known to eat a variety of insects, Quarantine time animal is being examined. Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. and 4-5 for females. This is due to the fact the mice, poultry, fruit and vegetables. As little is Vaccinations females bond less easily and packs need relatively known about long-term complete diets for jackals Recommended tests • Rabies more space to remain stable. in captivity, the composition of the diet provided • Full physical examination either under • Canine distemper virus (killed only) should always be determined in consultation with Due to the complex social structure of wild dogs, anaesthesia or under manual restraint • +/- Parvovirus, leptospirosis, Canine a veterinarian. groups need to be closely monitored to make • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Adenovirus, Canine Parainfluenzia (all killed) chemistry analysis sure all individuals get along. In case individual Wild dogs depending on disease risk • Blood smear for parasites animals are not accepted by the pack, serious Recommended diets for captive wild dogs vary • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Deworming/Ectoparasite control consideration should be given to removing them and therefore diet composition should always be from the group. direct and flotation methods Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) determined in consultation with a veterinarian. should be performed on all animals twice a year. Generally wild dogs are provided with a varied Animal monitoring Other tests Appropriate anthelminthic administration should commercial or homemade raw meat-based diet, • Faecal exam via centrifugation be instituted based on results. Jackals as well as wild dogs are intelligent and meat on the bone (beef, goat, horse), whole prey • Urinalysis social animals which require close observation to (rabbit, chickens, rodents) and a supplement Special concerns ensure their physical and psychological wellbeing. of vitamins and minerals. The diet needs to be Identification Rabies and distemper are two diseases of Well-trained caretakers will need to conduct daily evaluated based on feeding observations, body Upon completion of the quarantine period, concern in carnivores and should be on the list of observations and keep records with regard to body condition and general health. all animals should be able to be individually differentials for any animals showing neurological condition, food consumption, faeces as well as identified through some semi-permanent or Food presentation signs or unexplained lethargy or depression. social interactions. Signs of stress and aggression permanent process. These may include: ear tags, microchips, ear notches. Since canine distemper is prevalent in companion need to be taken seriously and appropriate Jackals animals in Malawi, vaccination of captive action taken. Jackals are strictly nocturnal animals and food in Routine/Preventative healthcare canids against this disease could be of benefit. captivity should be provided at the beginning of Catching/Handling Echinococcus sp is a zoonotic tapeworm that can the evening. Visual examinations be shed in the faeces of carnivores. Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, Direct physical interaction with jackals and wild Wild dogs but should be more critically examined every six dogs should be limited to the protected contact Post-mortem In the wild, wild dogs hunt together with the months. This visual examination should include: method and only conducted by trained caretakers whole pack during the day time. The hunt is a All animals that have died of natural causes or which are familiar with the individuals. Whenever species-specific social behaviour and strengthens • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, have been euthanised should undergo a post- possible and appropriate, positive reinforcement the bond between individuals. It is therefore all appendages/digits, etc. mortem examination by a veterinarian or a training should be used to minimise the need for recommended to feed the group on a regular basis • Locomotion/activity similarly experienced, qualified person. If an chemical immobilisation and to reduce stress by providing them with just a few bigger prey • Observation of eating animal showing neurologic signs dies, the head during procedures. Positive reinforcement items which the dogs need to share. Feeding an • Social interactions (where appropriate) should be immediately sent for rabies testing. training should, in these cases, be part of the daily animal separately can lead to division from the The carcass should be disposed of appropriately husbandry routine as much as possible. Animals When possible, each animal should be group, and should only be conducted in cases (incineration). should not be caught and restrained within visual photographed from the front, back, right, and when this is specifically required. Smaller food contact of other members from the group. When left sides at the time of the biannual visual 15.5 Health and safety requirements items should be scattered in the same area of the positive reinforcement training to enter a box examinations. These photographs should be enclosure. Wild dogs should be fed 6-7 days a or cage is not possible or appropriate, animals identified and dated and stored for future Potential risks week. To prevent boredom daily food should be should be separated for chemical immobilisation. reference/comparison. provided at different times and at different places Jackals have historically been known to cause Enclosure hygiene in the enclosure. Physical examinations outbreaks of rabies as well as distemper. They represent reservoirs for both of these diseases. Indoor enclosures and holding pens should be Food handling Hands-on physical examinations should be cleaned on a regular basis, with the main focus performed on each animal every two years under Preventative healthcare Unless the food is provided fresh, meat should on removing food leftovers, dirty substrate and manual restraint or anaesthesia. always be stored deep frozen. Items frozen for All personnel in direct contact with carnivores faeces. Drinking facilities and pools should be later use should be dated and labelled. Food Recommended tests should be rabies vaccinated. PPE (gloves) should cleaned and disinfected on a daily basis and filled should be fed within 24 hours of thawing. Diets • Full physical examination also be worn when working with carnivores. with fresh potable water. should be prepared in a safe and hygienic manner • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum 15.3 Nutritional requirements to reduce the possibility of contamination or chemistry analysis Safety measures spoilage. Meat should be prepared using separate • Blood smear for parasites Wild dogs should, as much as possible, be cared Diet cutting boards, utensils and food preparation • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using for by the protective contact method. If keepers surfaces. It should always come from a reliable direct and flotation methods need to enter enclosures with African wild dogs, Jackals source and be guaranteed free of diseases. In the wild, side-striped jackals are omnivorous Other tests they should do so as a group and with deliberation • Faecal exam via centrifugation and caution. 78 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 79 16. MUSTELIDAE (MUSTELIDS) manmade shelters should be provided to protect enclosures. Enclosures should offer bedding individuals from inclement weather and provide material like grasses, leaves, hay, straw, wood Species and classification a hiding place for nervous or stressed animals. wool, sedges, pine needles, towels, hessian or There should be at least one nest box for each wood shavings. Common name Scientific name Classification adult. The size of nest boxes should be appropriate Climate control African Striped weasel Poecilogale albinucha B to each species (allowing enough room for the animal to stand up and turn around). Honey badger Mellivora capensis C Under normal Malawian weather conditions all African Speckle-throated otter Lutra maculicollis C Honey badgers mustelids species should be able to be kept outside throughout the year and no additional heating is Clawless otter Aonyx capensis C The enclosure should provide a variety of scrub, bushes, big logs, pipes and rocks. Natural or required. All species, however, require constant 16.1 Enclosure requirements recommended to have one additional holding area manmade shelters should be provided to protect access to burrows or denning areas to hide from for introduction and management purposes. individuals from inclement weather. Although inclement weather. The enclosure should also Careful consideration should be given to enclosure honey badgers are mainly terrestrial, they are able provide sufficient shade and shelter spots which For otters the recommended land/water ratio is design for mustelids so that all areas meet their to climb if they want to. Burrows or artificial caves provide cover and give the opportunity to rest. 4:1 to 5:1. physical, social, behavioural and psychological should be provided as denning areas. needs. Ideally the enclosure environment should 16.2 Husbandry requirements Barriers resemble the natural living conditions for the Honey badgers are good swimmers and a Care standards species as much as possible. The quality of space Mesh wire or solid walls are generally used to pool within the enclosure is therefore highly is very important for these active animals and contain mustelids. As most mustelids are good recommended. Mustelids are intelligent animals and require should be made up of a combination of the right climbers, walls should be non-climbable. If thoughtful design and husbandry to ensure a Otters minimum enclosure size in combination with containment barriers consist of mesh, they should good quality of life. As they are good diggers and Otters are semi-aquatic animals and therefore appropriate furniture. be topped with an un-climbable, inward-facing climbers, the enclosure needs to be constructed require an appropriate sized pool for foraging, overhang of 80cm at a height of 1.80cm. in such a way that the animals are properly Size and dimensions mating, cleaning, and play behaviour. All pool enclosed and daily care procedures don’t give the shorelines should be provided with lounging logs, Electrical wire can be used as a secondary fence animals the opportunity to escape. As carnivores, Enclosure sizes are based on the species size, shaded rest areas, and sandy banks to be used line or straight on the primary barrier to prevent mustelids are capable of inflicting serious wounds behavioural repertoire, home range size, activity as latrine sites. Large flat/sloping rocks and logs the animals from climbing up. The voltage for to conspecifics and keeper staff. The introduction pattern, daily movements, and professional can be used along the shoreline to hold back the speckle-throated otters should not exceed 3KV of new individuals should be undertaken carefully experience with ex situ populations of these substrate as well as provide good sunning areas. and the voltage for clawless otters should not to prevent fighting, injury, or death. Caretakers species. The following sizes and dimensions are The pool should have varying depths, offering exceed 6KV. should be careful when working hands-on with minimum standards: opportunities for animals to forage in the shallow these species. Generally it is paramount for Trees, bushes, and other enclosure furniture water and swim/dive in deeper water. Shorelines Weasels caretakers to be familiar with the behaviour and should be placed away from the perimeter so they should be complex and curving, as opposed to 20m² for one or two animals. For each additional general biology of these species, as well as the cannot be used as a means of escape. straight, uninterrupted lines. animal 4m² is required. The enclosure height individual history and character of the animals. should be no less than 2.1m. Each shift yard Mustelids are good diggers and therefore it is On land a diverse habitat should be created should be no less than 4m² in addition to the Social organisation important to sink the perimeter fence or wall into by using a variety of live plants (trees, bushes, main enclosure. the ground to at least 80cm. For weasels, mesh grasses) as well as log piles, large tree stumps or The social organisation of mustelids depends on Honey badgers wire should be no less than 12 gauge and no more root systems, hollow logs, hills, etc. All of which the specific species. Many species live alone or 120m² for one or two animals. The enclosure than 1.5cm wide. For honey badgers and otter can provide visual complexity to the enclosure and in (seasonal) pairs. Differences amongst species height should be no less than 2.1m. species, wire should be no less than 9 gauge and offer otters excellent opportunities for foraging, do, however, occur. The combination of animals no more than 5cm wide. playing and sheltering. will depend on the space and complexity of the Speckle-throated otters enclosure. A minimum of 150m² to be provided for two Furniture Socially housed otters should be provided with animals with 50m² for each additional animal. several nest boxes; at least one for each individual Striped-weasels Enclosure complexity is very important for these An additional holding pen should be no less animal and one which allows all individuals in Can be kept alone or in pairs (male/female or species. Successful enclosures will take into than 40m². the enclosure together. Nest boxes should be big female/female). Adult males generally don’t get account the species’ and individuals’ needs using enough for each species to stand up and turn along well unless they have been raised together. natural and artificial materials to encourage Clawless otters around in. All introductions need to be performed with great normal behaviour patterns, minimise any A minimum of 225m² should be provided for two care, as past experience has shown that this has abnormal behaviour and avoid confrontation and Ground surface animals with 75m² for each additional animal. led to some individuals killing each other. aggression. An additional holding pen should be no less For all mustelids a substantial part of the than 60m². Honey badgers Striped-weasels enclosure needs to consist of a natural substrate Can be kept alone or in pairs (male/female). Infrastructure The enclosure should be provided with complex which allows the animals to dig and make climbing structures (a combination of thin and burrows. Suitable substrates include soil, soft Clawless otters Most mustelids can be housed in a single room thick branches), bushes, scrubs and large logs on sand, grass, mulch, leaves, straw and hay. Can be housed alone, in small groups of females enclosure as long as the animals are compatible the floor to encourage exploration and provide Digging pits and grooming areas with soft, loose with their offspring or as a single male with one with each other. Generally, however, it is the animal with places to hide and rest. Natural or substrates should always be included in otter or two females. Pairs should be separated during 80 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 81 parturition and early pup rearing. within the mustelid family and an appropriate diet 16.4 Veterinary requirements • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using always needs to be established by a veterinarian direct and flotation methods Speckle-throated otters or nutritionist, based on the animals’ needs as Quarantine • Tuberculosis test This species is best housed in single-sex pairs well as local availability. Striped-weasels are (female/female or male/male) or family groups carnivores that eat rats, mice, birds and chicks. Quarantine time Other tests (multiple females and potentially their offspring). Honey badgers eat a wide variety of invertebrates Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. • Faecal exam via centrifugation Introductions of adult members should always be • Urinalysis and vertebrae ranging from insects, spiders, Recommended tests performed with great care as individuals can fight tortoises, turtles, frogs, fish, rodents and • Full physical examination under anaesthesia. It Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and and injure each other. Adult males can sometimes termites. In captivity a selection of whole prey in may be possible to do an exam on a young animal identification may also all take place whilst the be kept together when introduced to each other at combination with commercially produced whole a young age (< 4 months). under manual restraint, but examinations of adult animal is under anaesthesia. cat food will generally fulfil their requirements. mustelids should be done under anaesthesia. Otters are obligate carnivores but they will eat Animal monitoring • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Vaccinations some vegetative matter such as berries and/or chemistry analysis • Rabies It is important that daily observations and records consume vegetation or other foreign material out • Blood smear for parasites • Canine distemper (killed only) are kept of feeding behaviour, physical condition of boredom or while exploring their environment. • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using • +/- Leptospirosis, Feline Panleukopenia, Canine and faeces as well as the social stability and The diet of clawless otters can, for instance, direct and flotation methods Adenovirus (all killed) depending on disease risk relations within the group. Many mustelids are consist of high quality whole cat food, and a • Tuberculosis test escape artists so the enclosure should be properly combination of fish, crayfish and dry dog food. Deworming/Ectoparasite control checked on a daily basis for holes or other It is important that a variety of fish is provided Other tests Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) potential escape routes. to get the animal used to eating different types. • Faecal exam via centrifugation should be performed on all animals twice a year. Hard dietary items should also be routinely • Urinalysis Appropriate anthelminthic administration should Catching/Handling incorporated for dental health. These can include: be instituted based on results. hard kibble, crayfish, crabs, chicken necks, ox/ Identification All mustelid species are good candidates for crate horse tails, partially frozen fish, bony fish, day-old Special concerns training with the use of positive reinforcement chicks, mice, rib bones, canine dental bones, or Upon completion of the quarantine period, Mustelids may show signs of anaphylaxis after techniques. As mustelids are susceptible to similar items. all animals should be able to be individually stress and injury by improper handling, this is identified through some semi-permanent or vaccination; animals should be observed for 30 the recommended method for otters and honey Food presentation permanent process. These may include microchips minutes post-injection. Rabies and distemper are badgers. Striped-weasels can also be caught by net or ear notches, depending on the species. two diseases of concern in carnivores and should or hand, as long as appropriate protective clothes Mustelids should be offered food during the be on the list of differentials for any animals are worn. period of the day when they would typically be Routine/Preventative healthcare showing neurological signs or unexplained expected to forage. This will not only discourage lethargy or depression. Echinococcus sp is a Enclosure hygiene pest species, but will encourage typical foraging Visual examinations zoonotic tapeworm that can be shed in the faeces behaviour. Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, of carnivores. Enclosure furniture, including perches and nest but should be more critically examined every six boxes, should not be included in the daily cleaning Due to a high metabolic rate and rapid digestive months. This visual examination should include: Post-mortem regime as these species scent mark their territory passage rate, it is recommended that mustelids and a thorough cleaning of their home space may be fed at least twice a day. Due to their very active • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, All animals that have died of natural causes or be a source of stress. One quarter of the enclosure nature weasels should be fed 3-4 times a day. At all appendages/digits, etc. have been euthanised should undergo a post- furniture should be cleaned at a time, leaving least 2-3 of these feedings should be provided in • Locomotion/activity mortem examination by a veterinarian or a scent marks on the rest. Old, soiled furnishings a different fashion, by varying the feeding times • Observation of eating similarly experienced, qualified person. If an may be replaced 25% at a time. and delivery methods. Otters should ideally be fed • Social interactions (where appropriate) animal showing neurologic signs dies, the head three times a day. should be immediately sent for rabies testing. Food leftovers should be removed on a daily basis When possible, each animal should be The carcass should be disposed of appropriately or more often when temperatures are very warm. For all mustelid species, enrichment is an photographed from the front, back, right, and (incineration). Food and water containers should be cleaned on important aspect of their care. Food should left sides at the time of the biannual visual a daily basis and water containers filled with fresh therefore be presented in a variety of challenging examinations. These photographs should be 16.5 Health and safety requirements potable water. ways to prevent boredom. On top of normal feeds, identified and dated and stored for future Potential risks so called ‘enrichment feeds’ can be provided on a reference/comparison. Pool water for otters needs to be kept clear daily basis to keep the animal active. Mustelids are carnivores and can therefore inflict and clean. It is highly recommended to use Physical examinations serious bite wounds. appropriate water filter systems. If this is not an Food handling Hands-on physical examinations should be performed on each animal every two years under option, the pool needs to be drained and refreshed Preventative healthcare on a daily basis. Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage anaesthesia. areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable Caretakers should be screened for TB and 16.3 Nutritional requirements foods should be kept under refrigeration or for a Recommended tests • Full physical examination vaccinated for rabies prior to having direct short period of time in vermin-proof containers. contact with the animals. In addition caretakers Diet • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Meat products should come from a reliable source should also be provided with personal protective and be kept refrigerated/frozen. chemistry analysis There is great variation in food requirements • Blood smear for parasites equipment. Due to the potential susceptibility

82 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 83 of some mustelid species to Influenza viruses, 17. HYSTRICIDAE (OLD WORLD PORCUPINE) keepers with symptoms of respiratory disease should refrain from working with these animals Species and classification while ill. Common name Scientific name Classification Safety measures Crested porcupine Hystrix africaeaustralis B Mustelids are good diggers and climbers. The 17.1 Enclosure requirements made up of natural substrate consistent with the enclosure therefore needs to be constructed in site. The substrate may be supplemented with such a way that the animals are properly enclosed Size and dimensions materials like wood shavings, sand, gravel and and daily care procedures don’t give the animals boulder. Grass areas are also recommended. the opportunity to escape. Ideally a double-door The enclosure should not measure less than system should be in place. 120m² for up to two individuals with a minimum Climate control height of 1.8m. For each additional individual For the health and safety of the caretakers, but another 15m² is required. When a shift yard is Under normal Malawian weather conditions also to ensure the wellbeing of the animals it is made available, the space should be no less than porcupines are able to be kept outside throughout recommended to work according to the protective 20m² in addition to the main enclosure. the year. contact method. Ideally all facilities should have holding areas in order to shift animals into/out of Infrastructure 17.2 Husbandry requirements their primary enclosure. When this is not the case, Care standards caretakers should be provided with appropriate Generally porcupines can be housed in a single room enclosure, as long as the animals have personal protective equipment when entering Porcupines are generally not difficult to keep in the enclosures. For catching, especially for otters sufficient and appropriate hides and sleeping sites. For the introduction of new individuals a captivity. It is important that the enclosure size and honey badgers, it is strongly recommended and furniture provide the animal with a varied that the animals are trained to enter crates or shift yard is recommended in addition to the main enclosure. environment and sufficient places to hide and rest. catching cages. Barriers Social organisation

Porcupines are powerful diggers and have strong The southern crested porcupine can be kept teeth with which they can easily chew through as a solitary animal, but does better in pairs mesh wire. A mesh wire or chain link fence is or in small mixed groups containing one therefore not suitable to use as a primary barrier. male. Females do not need to be removed for To contain porcupines concrete or brick walls are parturition. Male porcupines are normally not recommended to be used. The wall should reach aggressive towards their offspring and play an at least 80cm underneath the ground and 120cm active role in raising and protecting their young. above ground. Southern crested porcupines are Introducing same sex animals to each other can poor climbers and can therefore easily be kept potentially lead to aggression, although it is often in an open top enclosure, unless predators are accomplished successfully if the animals are given present in the area. the opportunity to get familiar with each other through a mesh wire barrier or door. Furniture Animal monitoring The enclosure furniture should provide varied surroundings with sufficient opportunities to Daily observation is required to quantify and hide. Typical structures which can be used are big measure the welfare of individual animals through wooden logs, branches and rocks. Hollow logs or monitoring of nutritional, physical and social artificial pipes are good places for porcupines to conditions. Qualified personnel should conduct rest and sleep. An artificial burrow can also be daily observations to monitor for signs of physical provided. Natural or artificial structures (shelters) or behavioural abnormalities. Any unusual should be provided to give protection against activities must be recorded in designated reports. inclement weather conditions, especially the Catching/Handling sun. Natural vegetation like trees and bushes are good places to hide and provide shelter. It has, Porcupine species respond well to positive however, to be kept in mind that porcupines will reinforcement, and they can be well trained for gnaw on natural vegetation and therefore in small veterinary and management procedures to come enclosures vegetation needs to be protected. into a catching/squeeze cage. For more extended procedures it is necessary to anaesthetise the Ground surface animal. With these animals it is very possible to Most of the ground of the enclosure should be build up a positive relationship between caretaker and animal. 84 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 85 Enclosure hygiene Identification Post-mortem Upon completion of the quarantine period, Porcupine enclosures need to be cleaned daily. all animals should be able to be individually All animals that have died of natural causes or Natural substrate can be spot cleaned while identified through some semi-permanent or have been euthanised should undergo a post- artificial substrate should be scrubbed with permanent process. Microchips are an option. mortem examination by a veterinarian or a water and soap or disinfectant. Food and water similarly experienced, qualified person. The bowls should be cleaned and disinfected daily. Routine/Preventative health checks carcass should be disposed of appropriately When food is being scattered, leftovers should be (incineration). removed on a daily basis. Visual examinations Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, 17.5 Health and safety requirements 17.3 Nutritional requirements but should be more critically examined every six months. This visual examination should include: Potential risks Diet • Body condition score, including spine integrity, Animals should be handled with care by wearing Unless commercial food is available (monkey/ eyes, all appendages/digits, etc. protective clothing (gloves). rodent/herbivore chow, leafeater biscuits), • Locomotion/activity Preventative healthcare porcupines should be given a variety of 60% • Observation of eating hard vegetables (carrot, sweet potato, broccoli), • Social interactions (where appropriate) Caretakers should be screened for TB and 25% leafy vegetables (cabbage, green beans) and vaccinated for rabies prior to having direct contact 15% fruit (apple, pear, banana). Besides this, a When possible, each animal should be with the animals. combination of bark, roots, tubers and wild fruits photographed from the front, back, right, and should be provided to complement the diet. Fresh, left sides at the time of the biannual visual Safety measures clean water should be available at all times. examinations. These photographs should be identified and dated and stored for future Capture and restraint of porcupines should be Food presentation reference/comparison. undertaken with caution due to their defence capabilities. Crested porcupines have large, Porcupines are naturally nocturnal, but are known Physical examinations smooth quills which are held erect when the in captivity to become more active during the day. Hands-on physical examinations should be animal is excited or threatened. The quills Food should be provided according to the animals’ performed on each animal every two years under make hand restraint difficult, if not impossible. activity patterns and offered at least once, manual restraint (squeeze cage) or anaesthesia. Entering an enclosure with porcupines should preferably twice, a day. Food is best be scattered only be done when the animal is not aggressive throughout the enclosure to stimulate activity. Required tests and the enclosure provides enough space and Alternatively it can be offered on trays throughout • Full physical examination opportunities for the animal to hide. A broom the enclosure. • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum or a wooden shield should be carried to keep the chemistry analysis animals at a safe distance. Whenever required, Food handling • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using the animal should be moved to a neighbouring direct and flotation methods Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage shift yard for enclosure maintenance or cleaning. areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable Recommended tests Caretakers need to be provided with appropriate foods should be kept under refrigeration or for • Faecal exam via centrifugation personal protective equipment while entering the short periods of time in vermin-proof containers. • Urinalysis enclosure.

17.4 Veterinary requirements Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and identification may also all take place whilst the Quarantine animal is under examination. Quarantine time Vaccinations Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. • +/- Rabies Recommended tests Deworming/Ectoparasite control • Full physical examination either under Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) anaesthesia or under manual restraint should be performed on all animals twice a year. (squeeze cage) Appropriate anthelminthic administration should • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum be instituted based on results. chemistry analysis • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Special concerns direct and flotation methods While porcupines are well protected by their Other tests spines, their skin is very thin and prone to tearing. • Faecal exam via centrifugation Injections should be given carefully as sloughing • Urinalysis of skin through inappropriate injections and handling has been known to occur.

86 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 87 18. SCIURIDAE (SQUIRRELS) lead to boredom and abnormal behaviours. sufficient calcium. It is therefore paramount for caretakers to be Species and classification familiar with the behaviour and general biology of The mutable sun squirrel is more omnivorous. these species. In addition to fruit (see diet as above), these Common name Scientific name Classification species require extra protein in the form of insects Social organisation (crickets, meal worms) and eggs. Mutable sun squirrel Heliosciurus mutabilis B Smith's bush squirrel Paraxerus cepapi B All species except the Smith’s bush squirrel are Food presentation Striped bush squirrel Paraxerus flavovittis B generally solitary animals. The Smith’s bush squirrel generally lives in breeding pairs or family Squirrels should be fed in accordance with their Black and red bush squirrel Paraxerus lucifer B groups. Despite this fact all species can be kept species-typical activity pattern. The species that Red bush squirrel Paraxerus palliates B alone or in breeding pairs, the latter based on the occur within Malawi are diurnal and are most condition that a separation pen is available to split active in the early morning and late afternoon. Despite the fact that there are differences in the behaviour and ecology of the Malawian squirrel up individuals when required. Dry food can be offered in a bowl or feeding species, the husbandry standards required to keep these animals in captivity remain reasonably similar. platter at one or two locations within the Therefore the standards provided here cover all species of Malawian squirrel. Animal monitoring enclosure. To stimulate exploration behaviour the 18.1 Enclosure requirements the use of various natural and artificial materials fruit can be offered throughout the enclosures at It is important that daily observations and records different heights. (branches, ropes, platforms) to encourage are kept of feeding behaviour, physical condition Size and dimensions normal behaviour patterns, minimise any and social interactions (when relevant). Food handling abnormal behaviour and avoid confrontation and The enclosure size for one or two compatible aggression. To prevent boredom furniture should Catching/Handling Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage squirrels should be no less than 15m² with a be changed on a regular basis. As all species of areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable minimum height of 2.5m. Each separation pen Malawian squirrels are arboreal the infrastructure Catching and handling can lead to high stress foods must be kept refrigerated or for a short should measure no less than 2m². provided should fully cover all dimensions of the levels and apathy amongst squirrels. In some periods of time in vermin-proof containers. Meat cases the stress can even result in death of the Infrastructure enclosure. products should come from a reliable source and animal. Catching and handling should therefore kept refrigerated/frozen. Most endemic squirrels are solitary but can, To provide the animals with the opportunity to only be conducted by experienced and well- under the right circumstances, be kept in hide and rest, nest boxes need to be provided. As a trained caretakers. 18.4 Veterinary requirements compatible couples. The latter can, however, lead general rule there should always be one more nest To minimise stress the catching of squirrels Quarantine to aggression during certain times of the year or box available than there are adult animals in the should be best performed by using a catching cage when having young. Therefore when squirrels enclosure. or comparted tunnel. Entering the catching cage Quarantine time are kept in couples or family groups, a separation The barriers of the enclosure should be or use of the tunnel should be part of the daily Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. pen is required to split animals up in case strong enough to resist gnawing activity, but husbandry to habituate animals to the device. this required. the enclosure itself should provide sufficient Recommended tests opportunities to accommodate this behaviour. Enclosure hygiene • Full physical examination either under Barriers anaesthesia or under manual restraint Food and water containers should be • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Enclosure barriers can be made of solids material Ground surface cleaned on a daily basis. Faeces and uneaten direct and flotation methods (concrete, brick, glass) or mesh. Being rodents, The ground surface should be made up of a perishable food should be removed within an squirrels can chew heavily on enclosure materials natural substrate consistent with the site, which appropriate timeframe and prior to moulding or Other tests causing severe damage. To prevent escapes allows caretakers to easily clean the enclosure. contamination. • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum materials used for barriers should be chew chemistry analysis resistant. The advantage of mesh wire as opposed Climate control 18.3 Nutritional requirements • Faecal exam via centrifugation to solid materials is that mesh gives the animals • Urinalysis the opportunity to climb. When being used, mesh Under normal Malawian weather conditions Diet wire should not be wider than 16mm to prevent all squirrel species should be able to be kept Identification animals from squeezing through. outside throughout the year. Shelter and shade The Smith’s bush squirrel, striped bush squirrel, Upon completion of the quarantine period, should, however, be provided to protect animals black and red bush squirrel as well as the red bush all animals should be able to be individually As all Malawian squirrels are highly arboreal it from inclement weather conditions like sun, squirrel are generally fruit and seed eaters. Their identified through some semi-permanent is strongly recommended to make the enclosure wind or rain. diet in captivity should consist of a variation of or permanent process. Microchips are one closed-top. Side barriers should reach up to 30cm fresh fruits and a mixture of equal parts of wild possibility for squirrels. underneath the ground to prevent escapes. 18.2 Husbandry requirements bird seed, parrot mix, hamster mix and mixed nuts. Commercial nuts should be avoided as they Routine/Preventative healthcare Furniture Care standards limit the squirrels’ uptake of calcium. In addition the animals should be provided on a daily basis Visual examinations Squirrels are very active animals which require Squirrels are active and intelligent animals with fresh leaves, buds and bark. As squirrels Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, sufficient opportunities to move around. It is which require thoughtful enclosure design teeth grow constantly throughout their lives but should be more critically examined every six therefore important to provide these opportunities and husbandry to provide them with a good they should be provided with chewing material months. This visual examination should include: in captivity. To achieve this, enclosure complexity quality of life. Small enclosures with insufficient like hard bark, roots and large bones. The latter is very important and should be provided through opportunities to exercise and explore generally • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, are also required to provide the animals with

88 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 89 all appendages/digits, tail/tail pelage, etc. Safety measures 19. PROCAVIIDAE (HYRAXES) • Locomotion/activity • Observation of eating Animals should only be handled by experienced Species and classification • Social interactions (where appropriate) staff. Catching is best done using catching cages or tunnels. When handling animals staff need to Common name Scientific name Classification When possible, each animal should be wear appropriate leather gloves. photographed from the front, back, right, and Rock hyrax Cavia capensis B left sides at the time of the biannual visual Yellow-spotted rock hyrax Heterohyrax brucei B examinations. These photographs should be Southern tree hyrax Dendrohyrax arboreus B identified and dated and stored for future reference/comparison. 19.1 Enclosure requirements should be made off the ground.

Physical examinations Size and dimensions In general the enclosure should provide sufficient Hands-on physical examinations should be barriers for animals to hide from each other or performed on each animal every two years under The enclosure size should measure no less than the public. manual restraint or anaesthesia. 45m² for 2-5 individuals with a height of 2.5m. For each additional individual another 4m² is Ground surface Recommended tests required. When a shift yard is made available for • Full physical examination introductions, the space should be no less than Most of the ground of the enclosure should be • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using 9m² in addition to the main enclosure. made up of natural substrate consistent with the direct and flotation methods site. The substrate may be supplemented with Infrastructure materials like wood shavings, sand, gravel and Other tests boulders. Grass areas are also recommended. • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Generally hyraxes can be housed in a single room chemistry analysis enclosure, as long as the animals have sufficient Climate control • Faecal exam via centrifugation and appropriate hides and sleeping sites. For the • Urinalysis introduction of new individuals a shift yard, in Under normal Malawian weather conditions addition to the main enclosure, is essential. all hyrax species are able to be kept outside Deworming, contraception and identification throughout the year. Hyraxes have a relatively may also all take place whilst the animal is under Barriers poor ability to regulate body temperature and a examination. low metabolic rate. It is therefore essential that Solid walls or wire mesh can be used to contain appropriate shelter is provided to protect animals Vaccinations hyraxes. Moats are not recommended. from inclement weather conditions like sun, wind None. or rain. It is also important for hyraxes to be able The mesh size should be no less than 6x6cm with to sunbathe and the enclosure should provide Deworming/Ectoparasite control a thickness of no less than 12 gauge. The barrier sufficient sunny spots to do so. Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) should go at least 50cm deep into the ground to should be performed on all animals twice a year. prevent the animal from digging out. 19.2 Husbandry requirements Appropriate anthelminthic administration should be instituted based on results. All hyraxes are good climbers and are best kept in Care standards a closed top enclosure. When kept in an open top Special concerns enclosure part of the wall should be made from a Housing hyraxes in inadequately sized enclosures non-grip surface. In these cases it should also be can result in social stress and/or stress to Rodents may be vectors for Salmonella, Plague, kept in mind that these animals move easily from individual animals which are unable to express and Leptospirosis. branch to branch and vegetation should not allow natural behaviours, including the ability to retreat them to escape. from disturbance. Behavioural indicators of Post-mortem stress can include heightened aggression, pacing Furniture All animals that have died of natural causes or and other repetitive behaviours. Therefore all caretakers should have decent knowledge of have been euthanised should undergo a post- Appropriate complexity should be provided mortem examination by a veterinarian or a the biology, behaviour and husbandry needs of through the use of various natural and artificial these species. similarly experienced, qualified person. The materials in the enclosure. For hyraxes this means carcass should be disposed of appropriately one or more rock formations for climbing, sun Social organisation (incineration). bathing and hiding. The enclosure should provide Hyraxes are gregarious species and usually live 18.5 Health and safety requirements additional structures for hiding and/or providing shelter, such as tree trunks, pipes, dust baths as in colonies with one dominant territorial male Potential risks well as bushes and trees. At least one appropriate and several related females and their offspring. shaped rock or wooden nest box should be Animals should be kept in pairs or larger groups. Squirrels have sharp teeth and claws and can available to be used as a den. The denning area Possible combinations are one male with one inflict serious injuries during physical restraint. should be no smaller than 50x30x35cm with or more females or just females. Keeping two an entrance of 30x30cm. For tree hyraxes dens males together can easily lead to aggression and should be avoided. Male offspring should be 90 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 91 removed from the enclosure before reaching (sub) areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable Other tests adulthood. Integration of new animals should be foods should be kept under refrigeration or for a • Faecal exam via centrifugation done with care and by using a satellite enclosure short period of time in vermin-proof containers. • Urinalysis to provide the opportunity for the animals to get used to each other. In case of aggression, the 19.4 Veterinary requirements Vaccinations, deworming, contraception and satellite enclosure can also be used to separate identification may also all take place whilst the Quarantine individuals. animal is under examination. Quarantine time Animal monitoring Vaccinations Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. • Rabies Daily observation is required to quantify and • +/- Tetanus Recommended tests measure the welfare of individual animals • Full physical examination either under through monitoring of nutritional, physical and Deworming/Ectoparasite control anaesthesia or under manual restraint social conditions. Qualified personnel should Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum conduct daily observations to monitor for should be performed on all animals twice a year. chemistry analysis signs of physical or behavioural abnormalities. Appropriate anthelminthic administration should • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Any unusual activities should be recorded in be instituted based on results. direct and flotation methods designated reports. Special concerns Other tests Catching/Handling • Faecal exam via centrifugation Conspecific fighting is frequent in captive, stressed It is very possible to build up a positive • Urinalysis hyraxes. Due to their sharp teeth and fluffy relationship between the caretaker and animal. haircoat, it may be difficult to detect injuries. Identification Catching or handling of all these species should Hyraxes with hair that is matted together, wet, or Upon completion of the quarantine period, ideally be done by habituating or training the otherwise unkempt should be examined closely all animals should be able to be individually animal to come into a kennel or catching cage to for injury. identified through some semi-permanent or prevent stress. permanent process. Microchips are the best Post-mortem Enclosure hygiene option for these animals. All animals that have died of natural causes or Animal waste should be removed from the habitat Routine/Preventative healthcare have been euthanised should undergo a post- as often as necessary to prevent contamination of mortem examination by a veterinarian or a Visual examinations the animals, to minimise disease hazards and to similarly experienced, qualified person. The Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, reduce odours. Generally for hyraxes this means carcass should be disposed of appropriately but should be more critically examined every six that enclosures should be cleaned at least three (incineration). months. This visual examination should include: times a week. 19.5 Health and safety requirements • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, All water reservoirs should be cleaned on a daily all appendages/digits, etc. Potential risks basis and provided with fresh potable water. • Locomotion/activity 19.3 Nutritional requirements • Observation of eating Animals should be handled with care wearing • Social interactions (where appropriate) protective clothing, although hyraxes can easily Diet bite through leather gloves. When possible, each animal should be The diet should consist of a combination of photographed from the front, back, right, and Preventative healthcare about 35% vegetables/starch (e.g. carrot, sweet left sides at the time of the biannual visual Caretakers should be screened for TB and potato, squash, broccoli), 15% fruit (e.g. apple, examinations. These photographs should be vaccinated for rabies prior to having direct contact pear, bananas), 25% of leafy vegetables (cabbage, identified and dated and stored for future with the animals. lettuce, collared greens) and 10% fresh grass, reference/comparison. browse or fine hay. Safety measures Physical examinations Food presentation Hands-on physical examinations should be In case capture or restraint is required, this is best performed on each animal every two years under done through training or habituating animals to Food should be presented in bowls or on feeding manual restraint or anaesthesia. come into catching boxes or kennels. Net catching platforms at different locations in the enclosure. is possible, but generally only recommended in Animals should be fed a minimum of once, but Recommended tests emergency situations or with animals that have ideally twice during the period of the day they • Full physical examination not been trained to come into a kennel or box. are active. • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Caretakers need to be provided with appropriate chemistry analysis personal protective equipment while entering the Food handling • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using enclosure. direct and flotation methods Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage

92 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 93 20. ERINACEIDAE (HEDGEHOGS) is therefore best presented at the beginning of the Other tests night. The food should be presented on multiple • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Species and classification plates throughout the enclosure. chemistry analysis • Faecal exam via centrifugation Food handling Common name Scientific name Classification • Urinalysis African pygmy hedgehog Atelerix albiventris B Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage Deworming and identification may also all take areas in sealed containers. Perishable foods place whilst the animal is under examination. 20.1 Enclosure requirements hide and rest. The enclosure should also provide should be kept under refrigeration or for a short sufficient protection against inclement weather period of time in vermin-proof containers. Size and dimensions Vaccinations and flooding. None recommended. 20.4 Veterinary requirements The enclosure size should measure no less than Social organisation Deworming/Ectoparasite control 2.25m² for one or two hedgehogs. For each Quarantine additional animal 0.5m² should be added. Hedgehogs are primarily solitary animals and Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) should be performed on all animals twice a year. this is the best way to keep them. If necessary, Quarantine time Appropriate anthelminthic administration should Infrastructure hedgehogs can be kept together or in small groups Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. as long as the animals are compatible and don’t be instituted based on results. Hedgehogs can be kept in a single room enclosure. show aggression towards each other. Best options Recommended tests Physical barriers and hides should be used to Special concerns for social housing are one male with one or more • Full physical examination either under provide infrastructure to the enclosure. females, or two or more females. Females should anaesthesia or under manual restraint Pygmy hedgehogs are highly susceptible to Barriers be kept separated from the male during courtship • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using dermatitis from urine or faecal contamination, or when having young. direct and flotation methods which can be common in captive conditions. Hedgehogs are excellent climbers and to prevent Hedgehogs can also carry internal and external Animal monitoring Other tests escapes the walls of the enclosure should be made parasites including fleas and ticks, as well as • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum of a smooth non-climbable surface. The floor and intestinal helminthes and tapeworms. Hedgehogs Daily monitoring is required to determine the chemistry analysis walls should be free from sharp edges to prevent are susceptible to both obesity and malnutrition welfare of individual animals. Important aspects • Faecal exam via centrifugation the animals from injuring themselves. It is not (particularly calcium deficiencies) and may suffer to monitor are food intake, physical condition and • Urinalysis recommended to use mesh for floors and walls as social interaction. Infants should be weighed on a from dental disease and neoplasia. Hedgehogs animals will easily get stuck. Mesh can be used daily basis to monitor their condition. display a self-anointing behaviour called “anting” to close the top to prevent escapes or to protect Identification Upon completion of the quarantine period, which should not be confused with a disease animals from potential predators outside the Catching/Handling process. Under cold conditions, hedgehogs go into enclosure. all animals should be able to be individually identified through some semi-permanent or a reduced activity state called torpor, which may Hedgehogs need to be handled with care due to be confused with a disease process. Furniture their quills. If they are handled on a regular basis permanent process. Microchips are one option. they will stop curling up to defend themselves, Routine/Preventative healthcare Post-mortem The enclosure furniture should provide a varied which makes it easier to hold them. Animals environment with sufficient opportunities to hide. which feel threatened or discomforted might All animals that have died of natural causes or Typical structures which can be used are wooden Visual examinations bite. For animals which are kept according to the have been euthanised should undergo a post- logs, branches and rocks. Bushes, scrubs, hollow Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, hands-off method it is best to provide them with mortem examination by a veterinarian or a logs or artificial structures should be provided but should be more critically examined every six a nest box/shelter which can be taken out of the similarly experienced, qualified person. The at different locations to provide shade and months. This visual examination should include: enclosure for transport or medical treatment. carcass should be disposed of appropriately opportunities to rest and hide. Whenever required • Body condition score, including spines/skin, (incineration). artificial hides should be added to the enclosure. Enclosure hygiene eyes, all appendages/digits, etc. 20.5 Health and safety requirements Ground surface Food leftovers should be taken out on a daily • Locomotion/activity • Observation of eating basis to prevent contamination. Water containers Potential risks The ground surface should consist of natural should be cleaned daily and filled with fresh water. • Social interactions (where appropriate) substrate. At least half of the enclosure should be Wet spots in the bedding should be taken out on The primary threat is if the handler drops a When possible, each animal should be covered with dead/fresh leaves or grass. a daily basis. Walls and bedding in general should hedgehog accidentally if the hedgehog accidentally photographed from the front, back, right, and be cleaned/refreshed at least twice a week. pricks them. Climate control left sides at the time of the biannual visual 20.3 Nutritional requirements examinations. These photographs should be Preventative healthcare Sufficient natural and/or artificial hides identified and dated and stored for future should be present to protect the animal from Diet reference/comparison. inclement weather conditions, including the Caretakers should be screened for TB and vaccinated for rabies prior to having direct contact sun. Appropriate measures should be taken to Captive hedgehogs do well on a diet of commercial Physical examinations with the animals. prevent the enclosure from flooding during the dog or cat food in combination with mealworms, • Hands-on physical examinations should be rainy season. crickets and small amounts of fruits and performed on each animal every two years under Safety measures 20.2 Husbandry requirements vegetables. Insects are an essential part of the manual restraint or anaesthesia. diet; depriving insectivores of insects can lead to Handling hedgehogs should be done with Recommended tests Care standards malnutrition. protective gloves (gardening gloves are fine). • Full physical examination Hedgehogs can be held bare-handed by To minimise stress it is important that hedgehogs Food presentation • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using experienced handlers. direct and flotation methods are provided with sufficient opportunities to Hedgehogs are naturally nocturnal animals. Food 94 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 95 21. LEPORIDAE (RABBITS, HARES) Identification related bacterial infections should be considered Upon completion of the quarantine period, in any lagomorph with an upper respiratory Species and classification all animals should be able to be individually disease. Lagamorphs have continuously growing identified through some semi-permanent or teeth; animals on an inappropriate diet may Common name Scientific name Classification permanent process. Microchips are one option for develop dental problems. Lagamorphs are hind- Smith’s red rock hare Pronolagus rupestris B lagomorphs. gut fermenters and can suffer an antimicrobial dysbiosis. The following antibiotics should not be Scrub hare Lepus saxatilis B Routine/Preventative health requirements given orally: clindamycin, lincomycin, penicillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, amoxicillin-clavulanic 21.1 Enclosure requirements Catching/Handling Visual examinations acid, cephalosporins, erythromycin. Fatal enteritis Each animal should be visualised on a daily basis, Hares which are habituated to humans can easily may result. Size and dimensions but should be more critically examined every six be handled. However, for rehabilitation purposes, months. This visual examination should include: The enclosure size should measure no less than handling should be kept to a minimum. Post-mortem 30m² for up to two individuals. • Body condition score, including haircoat, eyes, Enclosure hygiene All animals that have died of natural causes or Infrastructure all appendages/digits, etc. have been euthanised should undergo a post- Food and water containers should be • Locomotion/activity mortem examination by a veterinarian or a Hares can be kept alone or in a compatible pair. cleaned on a daily basis. Faeces and uneaten • Observation of eating similarly experienced, qualified person. The perishable food should be removed within an • Social interactions (where appropriate) carcass should be disposed of appropriately Barriers appropriate timeframe and prior to moulding or (incineration). When possible, each animal should be contamination. Solid walls (glass, bricks, concrete, wood) or mesh photographed from the front, back, right, and 21.5 Health and safety requirements wire can be used to contain hares. Mesh wires 21.3 Nutritional requirements left sides at the time of the biannual visual should be no wider than 7cm. examinations. These photographs should be Potential risks Diet identified and dated and stored for future Furniture reference/comparison. Animals should be handled with care and while Hares are plant eaters and should be fed with hay wearing protective clothing (gloves). The enclosure should provide sufficient cover with in addition to fresh grass, twigs, vegetables Physical examinations through natural vegetation like grass, bushes and pellets. Hands-on physical examinations should be and trees. In addition manmade structures can performed on each animal every two years under provide opportunities to hide. Food presentation manual restraint or anaesthesia.

Ground surface Food should be provided at several locations Recommended tests throughout the enclosure to stimulate locomotion. • Full physical examination The ground surface should consist of a natural • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using substrate with grassy and sandy areas. Food handling direct and flotation methods Climate control Dry goods should be stored in clean, dry storage Other tests areas in sealed containers or on pallets. Perishable Under normal Malawian weather conditions hares • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum foods should be kept under refrigeration or for a chemistry analysis are able to be kept outside throughout the year as short periods of time in vermin-proof containers. long as sufficient shelter is provided to hide from • Faecal exam via centrifugation inclement weather. 21.4 Veterinary requirements • Urinalysis

21.2 Husbandry requirements Quarantine Deworming, contraception and identification may also all take place whilst the animal is under Care standards Quarantine time examination. Minimum quarantine time should be 30 days. Hares are generally not difficult to keep in Vaccinations captivity. It is important that the enclosure size Recommended tests None and furniture provide the animal with sufficient • Full physical examination either under space and places to hide and rest. anaesthesia or under manual restraint Deworming/Ectoparasite control • Faecal endoparasites – microscopic exam using Faecal examinations (direct/float/centrifugation) Social organisation direct and flotation methods should be performed on all animals twice a year. Appropriate anthelminthic administration should Hares are solitary animals but in captivity can be Other tests be instituted based on results. kept in compatible pairs. • Complete Blood Count (CBC), serum Special concerns Animal monitoring chemistry analysis • Faecal exam via centrifugation Lagamorphs may be carriers of the zoonotic Regular monitoring of food intake, body condition • Urinalysis disease tularemia. Rabbits and hares should be and faeces is required. held properly in order to ensure that they do not fracture their spine while kicking. Pasturella/

96 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 97 22. MANIDAE (PANGOLINS) Species and classification SECTION IV

Common name Scientific name Classification Cape pangolin Manis temmincki D CATEGORISATION OF SPECIES Pangolins in general are very difficult to successfully keep in captivity due to their specialised behaviour and dependence on natural living circumstances. Despite several institutions in Asia and Africa working on captive care guidelines, a lot more research is required to successfully keep and breed these species in captivity. Currently, no published captive care standards exist for Cape pangolins and only a few institutions have experience with keeping this species. In cases where there is any emergency need to keep Cape pangolins in temporary captivity, it is recommended that all relevant staff contact those institutions which have experience with keeping this species.

These Standards highlight some important aspects on how to keep this species in captivity. Pangolins are categorised as a Category III species, and are generally never allowed to be kept in captivity, with the exception of professional institutions which have been provided with an exemption from the DNPW to keep this species for rescue and/or conservation purposes. 22.1 Enclosure requirements successful than others, more work is needed to improve the artificial diet for pangolins in Stress is one of the major causes of fatality the future. among captive pangolins and is thought to be created by the combined results of inappropriate 22.4 Veterinary requirements environmental factors. An environment that is as natural as possible is therefore key to reducing Due to poor adaptability to a captive environment stress levels. Appropriate burrows, natural ground and a weak immune system, pangolins easily substrate and enclosure furniture are important get sick. Some of the more common veterinary factors. A stable climate with appropriate problems of captive pangolins are: temperature and humidity is another key factor • Moist dermatitis, especially in stressed pangolins given that pangolins have slow metabolism and that are housed inappropriately lack fur. Pangolins kept under low temperature • Ticks between the scales conditions are known to die very easily. • Intestinal helminthes 22.2 Husbandry requirements • Clinical coccidiosis, especially in stressed pangolins that are malnourished and housed Human interference and handling are serious inappropriately (in crowded, unsanitary stress factors and should be minimised as much conditions) as possible. Capture and handling should only • Gastric ulceration be performed when absolutely necessary and the animals should be kept in an environment free from disturbance. 22.3 Nutritional requirements

In the wild pangolins live on a diet of ants, termites, and various other invertebrates including bee larvae, flies, worms, earthworms and crickets. These are not easy to acquire and provide in captivity in sufficient quantities. An appropriate artificial diet is therefore another key factor for the captive breeding of pangolins. According to their natural food composition a number of artificial diets for cap¬tive pangolins had been developed. Ingredients include eggs, meat (minced beef, horse meat, fish), milk, milk powders, canned feline diet, orchid leaves, commercial chows, psyllium seeds, carrots, yeasts, multivitamins, and insects. Although lots of diet formulas have been developed, some more 98 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 99 As outlined in Section I, article 9, this Section provides an overview Category II species (continued) of the categorisation of the species covered by the Standards. Common name Scientific name Category I Greater kudu Tragelaphus strepsiceros Generally allowed to be kept by private persons and institutions African buffalo Syncerus caffer without a captivity licence. Caracal Caracal caracal Category II Wildcat Felis silvestris Serval Leptailurus serval Generally allowed to be kept by private persons and institutions Side-striped jackal Canis adustus under the condition that a captivity licence is provided based on the African civet Civettictis civetta Standards as being set. Common genet genetta genetta Category III African palm civet Nandinia binotata African striped weasel Poecilogale albinucha Generally never allowed to be kept in captivity, with the exception African speckle-throated otter Lutra maculicollis of professional institutions which have been provided with an Clawless otter Aonyx capensis exemption from the DNPW to keep this species for rescue and/or Honey badger Mellivora capensis conservation purposes. Slender mongoose Galerella sanguinea Common dwarf mongoose Helogale parvula Category I species Egyptian mongoose Herpestes ichneumon Common name Scientific name Banded mongoose Mungos mungo African pygmy hedgehog Atelerix albiventris White-tailed mongoose Ichneumia albicauda Rock hyrax Cavia capensis Category II species Yellow-spotted rock hyrax Heterohyrax brucei Southern tree hyrax Dendrohyrax arboreus Common name Scientific name Mutable sun squirrel Heliosciurus mutabilis Vervet monkey Chlorocebus pygerythrus Smith's bush squirrel Paraxerus cepapi Yellow baboon Papio cynocephalus Striped bush squirrel Paraxerus flavovittis Blue monkey Cercopithecus mitis Black and red bush squirrel Paraxerus Lucifer Greater galago Otolemur crassicaudatus Red bush squirrel Paraxerus palliates Southern lesser galago Galago moholi Crested porcupine Hystrix africaeaustralis Burchell’s zebra Equus burchellii Smith's red rock hare Pronolagus rupestris Hippopotamus Hippopotamus amphibious Scrub hare Lepus saxatilis Bushpig Potamochoerus larvatus Aardvark Orycteropus afer Common warthog Phacochoerus africanus Common duiker Sylvicapra grimmia Category III species Red forest duiker Cephalophus natalensis Bushbuck Tragelaphus scriptus Common name Scientific name Sharpe’s grysbok Raphicerus sharpie Black rhinoceros Diceros bicornis Suni Neotragus moschatus Southern giraffe Giraffa giraffe Oribi Ourebia ourebi Masai/Rhodesian giraffe Giraffa tippelskirchi Klipspringer Oreotragus oreotragus Reticulated giraffe Giraffa reticulate Impala Aepyceros melampus Northern giraffe Giraffa camelopardis Puku Kobus vardonii African bush elephant Loxodonta africana Southern reedbuck Redunca arundinum Lion Hippopotamus amphibious Nyala Tragelaphus angasii Panthera leo Potamochoerus larvatus Waterbuck Kobus ellipsiprymnus Leopard Phacochoerus africanus Roan antelope Hippotragus equinus Panthera pardus Sylvicapra grimmia Sable antelope Hippotragus niger Spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta Lichtenstein's hartebeest Alcelaphus lichtensteinii African wild dog Lycaon pictus Blue wildebeest Connochaetes taurinus Cape pangolin Manis temmincki Common eland Tragelaphus oryx

100 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 101 APPENDIX I Taxonomic List of Species for Captive Care Standards

Cercopithecidae (Old World monkeys) Order • Vervet monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) Family • Yellow baboon (Papio cynocephalus) • Blue monkey (Cercopithecus mitis) KEY • Species common name (scientific name) Carnivora (carnivorans) Artiodactyla (even-toed ungulates) Felidae (cats)

• Caracal (Caracal caracal) Suidae (pigs) • Wildcat (Felis silvestris) • Bushpig (Potamochoerus larvatus) • Serval (Leptailurus serval) • Common warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) • Lion (Panthera leo) • Leopard (Panthera pardus) Hippopotamidae (hippopotamuses) • Hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) Viverridae (civets, genets) • African civet (Civettictis civetta) Bovidae (antelope) • Common genet (Genetta genetta) • Nyala (Tragelaphus angasii) • Common eland (Tragelaphus oryx) Nandiniidae • Bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus) • African palm civet (Nandinia binotata) • Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) • Sharpe’s grysbok (Raphicerus sharpei) Herpestidae (mongooses) • Red forest duiker (Cephalophus natalensis) • Slender mongoose (Galerella sanguinea) • Common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) • Common dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula) • Waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus) • Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon) • Puku (Kobus vardonii) • Banded mongoose (Mungos mungo) • Southern reedbuck (Redunca arundinum) • Roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus) Hyaenidae (hyaenas) • Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger) • Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) • Impala (Aepyceros melampus) • Lichtenstein’s hartebeest Canidae (dogs, foxes) (Alcelaphus lichtensteinii) • Side-striped jackal (Canis adustus) • Blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus) • African wild dog (Lycaon pictus) • African buffalo (Syncerus caffer) • Suni (Neotragus moschatus) Mustelidae (mustelids) • Klipspringer (Oreotragus oreotragus) • African striped weasel (Poecilogale albinucha) • Oribi (Ourebia ourebi) • African speckle-throated otter (Lutra maculicollis) • Clawless otter (Aonyx capensis) Giraffidae (giraffe) • Honey badger (Mellivora capensis) • Giraffa camelopardalis Perissodactyla (odd-toed ungulates) Rodentia Hystricidae (old world porcupine) Equidae (horses) • Crested porcupine (Hystrix africaeaustralis) • Burchell’s zebra (Equus burchellii) Sciuridae (squirrels) Rhinocerotidae • Mutable sun squirrel (Heliosciurus mutabilis) • Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis) • Smith’s bush squirrel (Paraxerus cepapi) Hyracoidea (hyraxes) • Striped bush squirrel (Paraxerus flavovittis) • Black and red bush squirrel (Paraxerus Lucifer) Procaviidae • Red bush squirrel (Paraxerus palliates) • Rock hyrax Erinaceomorpha (hedgehogs and Tubulidentata (aardvarks) gymnures)

Orycteropodidae Erinaceidae • Aardvark (Orycteropus afer) • African pygmy hedgehog (Atelerix albiventris) Proboscidea (elephants) Lagomorpha (lagomorphs)

Elephantidae (elephants) Leporidae (rabbits, hares) • African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana) • Smith’s red rock hare (Pronolagus rupestris) • Scrub hare (Lepus saxatilis) Primates Pholidota (pangolins) Galagonidae (galagos) • Greater galago (Otolemur crassicaudatus) Manidae • Bushbaby (Galago moholi) • Cape pangolin (Manis temmincki) 102 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 103 APPENDIX II Captive Care Standards Scoring Tool Rationale Methodology

The Standards for Keeping Wild Animal in The scoring tool helps make an assessment of the Captivity (the ‘Standards’) provide standards to suitability of keeping a wild animal in a captive keep wild animals in captivity in such a way that care setting. The tool takes the following two the minimum needs in terms of welfare and health aspects into consideration: and safety are covered. Nevertheless, this does not mean that all species covered in the Standards 1. The WELFARE REQUIREMENTS of the are suitable for being kept in captivity. Where animal in a captive care setting. some wild animals are easier to keep in captivity, Welfare is defined as the requirements to meet the others have much more complex needs in terms of animal’s physical and psychological needs. Figure 1 required space, complexity of enclosure, enclosure design, social structure and safety requirements. 2. The HEALTH AND SAFETY RISKS It must also be noted that the requirements involved in keeping the animal in a captive of certain species can be so high that animal care setting. POTENTIAL TO KEEP WILDLIFE SPECIES IN CAPTIVITY welfare or human health and safety will still be seriously compromised even if all the minimum Health and safety risks are expressed as the standards are met. potential risk for the holder or general public in terms of physical injuries and/or disease To address this issue, the Standards provides both transmission (zoonotic diseases). WELFARE HEALTH AND minimum standards as well as a categorization REQUIREMENTS SAFETY RISKS structure that classifies species according to The potential to keep a certain species in captivity their requirements and feasibility to be kept initially depends on what the impact is on an in captivity. Based on the classification, the animal if the welfare requirements are not being Standards provide advice with regard to the likely met or, from a human perspective, if the health The impact on the The impact on the legal requirements of keeping wild animals in and safety risks are not all eliminated. Besides the welfare of the species in welfare of the species in captivity without causing undue or unnecessary impact, there is also a need to look at how feasible a captive care setting if a captive care setting if suffering or risks to humans or the environment. the requirements to meet the requirements to meet it is for someone to meet the set requirements

IMPACT the species’ needs are the species’ needs are To be able to classify and categorise the animals it for an animal(s). Feasibility is the possibility or not fully met not fully met is important that a well-informed and considered likelihood that the welfare requirements will be judgement is made to determine the feasibility fully met when any potential health and safety of a certain species to be kept in captivity. To risks are eliminated. Feasibility depends on the support this process the working group developed required knowledge and expertise needed to keep a scoring tool which takes both welfare and health an animal in captivity and applicability of both The required knowledge, and safety aspects into account. The required knowledge, expertise and of these for each particular species. For certain expertise and applicability of these to species the required knowledge and expertise applicability of these to eliminate Health and is generally available. For other species such meet the species’ needs in Safty risks while keeping knowledge might be only available amongst

FEASIBILITY terms of welfare these animals in a captive restricted professionals or specialists. And even if care setting such knowledge is available, this does not always mean that it is easily applicable in practice i.e. in some cases the knowledge can only be properly applied by specialist species experts. In other cases the required resources may be so specific that they are not easily available within a country such as Malawi.

The potential to keep a certain species in captivity is therefore a product of the impact on, as well as the feasibility of keeping that species in captivity (see Figure 1).

104 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 105 To determine the impact and feasibility a set of these high risks if the right expertise is fully criteria has been established to reach appropriate applied and all resources are available. However, standards in animal welfare and to eliminate even under these conditions it can remain health and safety risks. An overview of these challenging to meet the welfare criteria and/or criteria is given in the Tables II.1 and II.2. fully eliminate all associated health and safety risks. Species within this class should usually only For each criteria, the impact and feasibility is be kept by professionals who have the proven scored on a scale from one to four. With regards Table II.1 knowledge and skills to provide these animals to the impact, a score of ‘one’ indicates that the with the best possible care standards. impact on the welfare of an animal is likely to Criterion Animal needs Interpretation be low, even if recommended welfare criteria Class D species Enclosure The animal’s physical The enclosure provides sufficient space and structures are not met. A ‘four’ indicates that the impact is space and and psychological needs to not restrict the animal in its species-specific very high when criteria are not fully met. With Those species for which there is a very high risk structures in terms of locomotion locomotion needs. The space and structures help to regards to feasibility, a score of ‘one’ indicates that their welfare will be seriously affected by reduce stress and keep the animal in a good physical that the knowledge required to keep a certain captivity and/or they form a very serious risk for human health and safety, even when all existing condition. species is generally available and well applicable in practice, whereas a score of ‘four’ indicates that knowledge on how to keep these wild animals Resting, The animal’s needs in The enclosure provides the required structures and the required knowledge is not available in Malawi in captivity is applied. Species within this class hiding and terms of hiding, resting facilities for tahe animal to rest, hide and shelter from or is, at best, scarcely available. For a complete should never be kept in captivity, unless for shelter and shelter inclement weather conditions. overview of the scoring tool see Table II.3 (scoring emergency rescue or conservation purposes. In Behavioural The animal’s The animal is provided with an appropriately complex of the feasibility) and Table II.4 (scoring of the case of the latter, captive care should only be stimuli psychological needs in and varied living environment and care system to impact) below. allowed by specialists. terms of behavioural stimulate and challenge its natural species-specific Based on the classification, the Standards provide stimuli and challenge behavioural patterns with regard to environmental Application of the scoring tool direction with regard to the legal requirements to exploration and foraging. To apply the scoring tool for the species covered keep a wild animal in captivity. All species of the Social The animal’s social and Animals are kept in social settings appropriate to their by the Standards, a technical committee of Standards are hereby categorised by the technical environment biosocial needs species, whereby group structures are managed in such captive care specialists from DNPW, DAHLD committee in one of the following categories: a way that they sustainably meet the animals’ social and and specialist NGOs should be formed. The biosocial needs. committee determines in accordance with the Category I set criteria the feasibility and impact of keeping Animal Capture, restraint and Whenever required, capture, handling and restraint of Generally should be allowed to be kept by private handling handling with least the animal can be done safely and appropriately, with wild animals in captivity. The scores are assigned based on publications and existing knowledge of persons and institutions in captivity without a possible stress and minimal stress and discomfort. captivity licence. discomfort the committee members. Based on the individual scores, the committee will place the species in the Category II Diet The animal’s nutritional The animal is provided with a diet with the quality, classification system outlined below. needs quantity and variety to match the physiological and Generally should be allowed to be kept by private psychological state of the individual as it changes over Class A species persons and institutions under the condition time, with consideration for its age, life stage, condition that a captivity licence is provided based on the and size. Those species for which there is a relatively small risk that their welfare will be affected by captivity Standards as being set. Healthcare The need to have The ability to provide the animal with appropriate and/or they form a risk for human health and access to appropriate veterinary healthcare such that physical pain, injury or Category III safety. For these species, it is generally easier veterinary care disease is prevented or rapidly diagnosed and treated. to meet the conditions required to minimise Generally never allowed to be kept in captivity, Table II.2 any existing risks and usually no specialised with the exception of professional institutions knowledge or expertise is required to do so. which have been provided with an exemption from the DNPW to keep this species for rescue Criterion Animal needs Interpretation Class B species and/or conservation purposes. Physical The risk of the animal The animal causes physical trauma as a result of Those species for which there is a modest risk that injury causing any physical poor care procedures or poor design, construction or A complete overview of the species per category is their welfare will be affected by captivity and/or trauma maintenance of the enclosure. provided in Section IV. they form a risk for human health and safety. For Zoonotic risks The risk of the animal The animal transfers a zoonotic disease as a result of these species, it is possible to minimise these risks Wherever appropriate, the committee will cluster transferring any poor preventative healthcare. to an acceptable level when existing knowledge certain species for the scoring tool based on zoonotic diseases and expertise is applied by holders who have similarities in their biology and associated health sufficient knowledge, expertise and resources. and safety risks. Clustering is mainly applied for species within certain families whereby social Class C species structure, food specialisation and use of enclosure Those species for which there is a high risk that are relatively similar. One of the advantages of their welfare will be affected by captivity and/ clustering species is that existing knowledge of or they form a serious risk for human health and well-known species can be applied to other species safety. In theory it may be possible to minimise about which relatively little is known. 106 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 107 Table II.3: Scoring tool with regard to impact of keeping wild animals in captivity Table II.4: Scoring tool with regard to feasibility to keep wild animals in captivity Zoonotic risks Physical injury CRITERIA not fully eliminated health and safety if the risks are The potential impact on public IMPACT: Healthcare Diet handling Animal environment Social stimuli Behavioural and shelter Resting, hiding and structures Enclosure space CRITERIA met following requirements are not a captive care setting if the and welfare of the animal in The impact on the health IMPACT: RISKS HEALTH & SAFETY REQUIREMENTS zoonotic diseases The animal transfers any housing of inappropriate care / physical injury as a result The animal causes appropriate veterinary care The need to have access needs The animal’s nutritional stress handling with least possible Capture, restraint, and biosocial needs The animal’s social and behavioural stimuli needs in terms of The animal’s psychological shelter terms of resting, hiding and The animal’s needs in and design terms of enclosure space psychological needs in The animal’s physical and The required The required Very high. knowledge to meet the criterion is not available or exclusive to a small group of specialists who have long term experience of working with the species to meet the specific needs. Successfully applying the knowledge / expertise remains challenging and the welfare criterion is often not fully met. Very high. knowledge to meet the criterion is only considered available to well-trained or educated holders. Successfully applying the knowledge / expertise remains challenging and the health and safety risks often cannot be fully eliminated. intervention is required. day functioning and no medical no impact on the normal day-to- remains small and brief. There is low. In case of any incident, impact injury or disease transmission remains Low. The chance of any physical welfare of the animal. - detrimental effect on the health and and have no - or to a very low extent problems which can easily be resolved related behaviours and/or health itself through abnormal or stress criterion is not fully met, which shows welfare of the animal is low in case Low. The impact on the health and The required knowledge to The required knowledge High. meet the criterion is only considered available to well-trained and educated holders. Successfully applying the knowledge / expertise often remains challenging and the welfare criterion cannot always be fully met. High. to eliminate the risks is only considered available and/or applicable to well-trained and educated holders. Successfully applying the knowledge / expertise often remains challenging and health and safety risks cannot always be fully eliminated. day functioning or health. have long-term impact on the day-to- treatment. An incident is unlikely to could require short-term medical low. In case of any incident, impact injury or disease transmission remains Modest. The chance of any physical health and welfare of the animal. or limited detrimental effect on the to resolve but have only a temporary health problems which are difficult or stress related behaviours and/or which shows itself through abnormal in case the criterion is not fully met, and welfare of the animal is modest Modest. The impact on the health Modest. The required knowledge to meet the criterion is available but requires access to specialised Applying sources of information. the available knowledge is possible and considered sufficient to meet the animal’s needs. Modest. The required knowledge to eliminate the risks is available but requires access to specialised sources of information. The available information is easy to implement. or health up to several weeks. impact on the day-to-day functioning required. An incident is likely to have it is likely that medical treatment significant. In case of any incident, injury or disease transmission is High. health and welfare of the animal. extensive detrimental impact on the to resolve and have long term and/or health problems which are difficult stress related behaviours and/or shows itself through abnormal or the criterion is not fully met, which welfare of the animal is high in case High. The chance of any physical The impact on the health and Low. The required knowledge to meet the criterion is generally known or available to everyone and is generally sufficient to meet the animal’s needs. Low. The required knowledge to eliminate the risks is generally known or available and easy to implement. day-to-day functioning or health. long-term or life-long impact on the required. An incident is likely to have is likely that medical treatment is large. In case of any incident, it transmission injury or disease physical Very high. health and welfare of the animal. / extensive detrimental impact on the life-long / potentially life-threatening difficult to resolve and have long / or health problems which are very or stress related behaviours and/ which shows itself through abnormal in case the criterion is not fully met, and welfare of the animal is very high Very high. The chance of any The impact on the health The animal’s physical and psychological needs in terms of enclosure space and design The animal’s needs in terms of resting, hiding and shelter The animal’s psychological needs in terms of behavioural stimuli The animal’s social and biosocial needs Capture, restraint, and handling with least possible stress The animal’s nutritional needs The need to have access appropriate veterinary care The animal causes physical injury as a result of inappropriate care / housing The animal transfers any zoonotic diseases REQUIREMENTS HEALTH & SAFETY RISKS FEASIBILITY BASED ON WELFARE CRITERIA: The chance that the welfare criteria will not be fully met, based on required knowledge and expertise, applicability of these in action CRITERIA Enclosure space and structures Resting, hiding and shelter Behavioural stimuli Social environment Animal handling Diet Healthcare FEASIBILITY: Chance that the health and safety risks will not be fully eliminated based on the required knowledge and expertise, and applicability of these in practice CRITERIA Physical injury Zoonotic risks

108 • CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI CAPTIVE CARE STANDARDS IN MALAWI • 109