People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Larbi Ben M'Hidi University, Oum El Bouaghi Faculty of Letters and Languages Department of English

Islamic Contributions to Development of the Western Sciences,

Technologies, and Thoughts: Seyyed Housein Nasr Vs Bernard

Lewis

A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of Letters and Languages, Department of English, in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master in Anglo-American Studies

By: MERAD FATIMA ZOHRA

Examiner: Mm. GHENNAM Fatima

Supervisor: Mr. FILALI Billel

2013-2014 ABSTRACT

This dissertation investigates the contributions of the Islamic civilization to the development of the western world. In spite of the fact that most western scholars ignored those contributions such as Bernard Lewis, there were other Islamic and even western intellectual figures who affirmed this reality among them Seyyed Hussein Nasr.

As a matter of fact, this research attempts at unveiling the realities behind the controversial ideologies that focus on the idea of the Islamic contributions in the building of the western civilization between approval and denial. In order to support this, the research was pursued under a form of comparative study between two prominent figures; a Muslim and a Westerner scholar. The latter who criticized the bases of the Islamic civilization and denied the existence of any form of give and take between the two civilizations and Nasr who was successful, to a great extent, in proving the profound role of the Islamic contributions to the advancement of western scientific enterprises, through the use of certain historical and scientific evidences.

i

ملخص

تدرس هذه المذكرة إسهامات الحضارة اإلسالمٌة فً تطور العالم الغربً بالرغم من التجاهالت واالنكارات من

طرف العدٌد من العلماء الغربٌٌن من بٌنهم برنارد لوٌس بالمقارنة مع علماء آخرٌن غربٌٌن ومسلمٌن الذٌن اٌدو

هذه الفكرة مثل العالم سٌد حسٌن نصر ، إضافة إلى ذلك تحاول هذه الدراسة كشف اللثام عن الحقائق المتخفٌة

وراء اإلٌدٌولوجٌات المثٌرة للجدل التً ترتكز على فكرة اإلسهامات اإلسالمٌة فً بناء الحضارات الغربٌة بٌن

الموافقة والرفض .

من اجل دعم هذه الحقٌقة اتبع هذا البحث طرٌقة المقارنة بٌن شخصٌتٌن بارزتٌن مسلم وغربً هذا األخٌر الذي

انتقد األسس التً قامت علٌها الحضارة اإلسالمٌة ونفى أي شكل من أشكال األخذ والعطاء بٌن الحضارتٌن،

بالمقابل كانت ردة فعل نصر ناجحة إلى حد بعٌد من خالل إثباته لوجهة نظره حول اإلسهامات اإلسالمٌة فً تقدم

المشارٌع العلمٌة الغربٌة وذلك عن طرٌق أدلة علمٌة وتارٌخٌة.

ii

Résumé

Cette thèse étudie les contributions de la civilisation Islamique au développement du monde occidental. En dépit du fait que la plupart des chercheurs occidentaux sur ces contributions comme Bernard Lewis, il y avait d'autres figures intellectuelles Islamiques et même de l'Ouest qui ont affirmés cette réalité parmi eux;

Seyyed Hussein Nasr. En fait, cette recherche tente de dévoiler les réalités derrière les idéologies controversées qui se concentrent sur l'idée de la contribution Islamique dans la construction de la civilisation occidentale entre l'approbation et le refus. Pour soutenir ceci, la recherche a été poursuivi sous une forme d'étude comparative entre deux figures

; un musulman et un Occidental. Ce dernier qui a critiqué les bases de la civilisation islamique et a nié l'existence de toute forme de donner et prendre entre les deux civilisations et Nasr qui a réussi, à mesure loin, à prouver le rôle profond des contributions Islamiques à l'avancement de la recherche scientifique occidentale des entreprises, par le biais de l'utilisation de certaines preuves historiques et scientifiques .

iii

DEDICATION

To my endearing Parents, Brothers and Sister

iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thank you Almighty Allah for giving me patience to accomplish this humble work.

Thank you, Mr. Filali Billel, for the valuable guidance, generosity, and advice. You have been a great source of inspiration. I would also express my gratitude to all the members of the board of the examiners. I owe a big thank you for Dr. Maamri Fatima for her instructions and advice in the seminar class. Last but not least, I do thank my smallest family, my father, my mother, my sister and my brothers for their unconditional love, for their generosity and patience. I would like to thank my dear friends for being a source of great help and courage.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………...i

Rrésumé…………………………………………………………………………….....ii iii...... ملخص Dedication……………………………………………………………………………iv

Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………….v

Table of Content……………………………………………………………………..vi General Introduction…………………………………………………………………1

Chapter I: Historical Chronology of the Christian-Islamic Relations. Introduction………………………………………………………………………….6 I. The Early Appearance of Islam…………………………………………………....7 1. Muslims toward Christians…………………………………………………….7-11 a. Before the Death of Prophet Muhammad……………………………………..8-10 b. After the Death of Prophet Muhammad………………………………………10-11 2. Christians toward Muslims. ……………………………………………...... 11-12 II. The Medieval Period: The Climax of Antagonism 650-1500………………….12

1. Christian Perceptions of the Islamic Penetrating……………………………..12-15 a. Eastern Christian Perceptions…………………………………………………12-13 b. Western Christian Perceptions………………………………………………...13-15

2. Islamic Reactions against Christians Doctrines……………………………….15-17 III. The Modern Period 1500-1950…………………………… ………….………..18

1. Western Writings………………………………………………………..……..19-20

2. Muslim Reactions to Christians Writings……………………………..………21-23 IV. Contemporary Period 1950-2000…………………………………….…………23 1. Christian Rethinking toward Muslims………………………………………...23-27

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2. Muslim Rethinking toward Christian………………………………………….27-28 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..28-29 Chapter II: Islam and Muslims in the Western Sphere. Introduction……………………………………………………………..…………….30 I. Islamic Andalusia: The Golden Ages of Human History………………………..31-36 II. The Transmission of Islamic Knowledge……………………………………….37-39 III. The Universal of the Islamic Sciences………………………………………….39-47 V. Islamic Figures and the Universal Dimension…………………………………47 1. Ibn Sina……………………………………………...... 47-50 2. Ibn Rushd………………………………………………………………...50-51 3. Al Buruni………………………………………………………………..51-52 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………………52

ChapterIII: Sayyed Houssein Nasr Vs Bernard Lewis: Comparative Study Introduction……………………………………………………………………….53-54 I. The Contributions of the Islamic Civilization to the Development of The West 54 II. Lewis’s Writings…………………………………………………………………...55 1. Lewis’s perception of the Islamic Civilizations………………………………..55-60 2. Lewis’s and his Oriental Perspectives…………………………………………60-64 III. Nasr’s writings…………………………………………………………………...64 1. Nasr and the Islamic Origin of the Universal Sciences and Knowledge………64-66 a. Medicine………………………………………………………………………..66-67 b. Alchemy………………………………………………………………………..67-68 c. Mathematics……………………………………………………………………68-69 2.Nasr and the Oriental Perspectives……………………………………………..69-71 Conclusion ……………………………………………………………………….71-72 General Conclusion……………………………………………………………....72-76 Works cited………………………………………………………………………76-78

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1

General Introduction:

The appearance of Islam in the 7th C was a great event in human history.

Chronologically The wide spread of Islam has began initially in the Arabian Peninsula,

Middle East and then it moved to Africa, Asia, and Europe. Particularly for Europe,

Muslims have made two different trials for dominance; the first attempt was to create an important cultural fusion and the second one in which they created a durable pocket of

Muslims in Andalusia (Spain), where Muslims have ruled for 800 years, from the7th to the 15thc. During Andalusia, many scholars, be they Muslims or not, stated that the era was deemed to be the Golden Age of Islamic Civilization, where there were a great emphasis of the pursuit of knowledge scholars as Avicenna, Al hazen, and Averroes.

Undeniably, the fall of the last Islamic hold in Andalusia in 1492 that coincided with Columbus‘ voyage to the new world marked the beginning of the change in dynamics that took place in the world. The western expansion to the Islamic world destroyed their Islamic civilization through weakening their traditional systems and by using some modern ways as what happened in the French conquest (Napoleonic conquest) in Egypt during the 19th century. By the end of the WWI the Islamic world was completely dominated by the imperialist countries. Nonetheless, Europe absorbed all Islamic sciences and knowledge that were transmitted first through Spain and then during the colonization movement in the Islamic world. Despite that the Islamic contribution to the development of western sciences, technologies and thought is considered as a debatable issue.

Furthermore, many scholars, be they Muslims or non-Muslims, argued that the

Western Christian world could have not witnessed and enjoyed modern advancements without the early immense contribution of Muslims at the level of all domains. On one 2 hand this research aims at investigating the influence of the Islamic civilization on the western world through shedding light on its positive impacts that led to the building of a great European civilization. On the other hand, it aims at denying the western scholars claims that ignored any Islamic contributions through some historical and scientific evidences.

This Research attempts to answer different questions: How was chronological background of Islamic wide spread in the world in general and the west in particular?

How were the European reactions to the Islamic swift spread in the west? What were the main Islamic contributions in the western world? And How did the Islamic sciences and thoughts transmitted to the European countries? To what extent did the Islamic institutions, thoughts, art, and educations influence the western world? In what form were the western influenced by Islamic culture? How did the western scholars deny the

Islamic contribution to the development of the west? What were the main evidences of their claims? How did the Islamic scholars react to those claims? Where Islamic scholars successful in proving Islamic contributions?

This research requires so many different theoretical and applied sources that are concerned with the impact of the Islamic civilization on the western world. Those sources are used in of score of books, dissertations, articles, journals, and other electronic sources.

The primary and secondary sources as books and articles related to the Islamic civilization and its contributions to the development of the western sciences thoughts and technologies were used. For instance the book of Hugh Goddard entitled A History of Christian Muslim Relations reveals the historical facts of the Islamic Christian relations, since the appearance of Islam till the contemporary history as well as the historical reference The Muslim perceptions of Other Religions which edited by Jaques 3

Warrdenburg, tackled the different Islamic perceptions of the other religions mainly the

Christian, in addition to the Christian reaction towards of the Islamic spread over the world followed by the main Christian and Islamic writings on the Subject. In fact, both works helped in the building of the first chapter. Nonetheless, the more significant material that was useful at the second chapter are The masterpiece of Ihsan Masood

Science and Islam where he was successful in high extent in highlighting the way in which Muslims established their dynasty in the western sphere, Spain, and created what many historians referred to us the golden age of the human history. More, the article of

Jahanbakhsh Thawaqib ―The Contribution of The Islamic Civilization to The

Development of The Scientific and Technical Advancement of The World‖ affirmed that the Islamic civilization had a great impact upon the development of western and scientific enterprises since they have suffered in order to create their original works.

Furthermore, the significant work of Housein Nasr Science and Civilization in

Islam shed light on the universality of the Islamic sciences and scholars and the to the great achievements of the humanity which caused the advancement of science, knowledge and thought. Accordingly, the third chapter is based on the writings of

Sayyed Housein Nasr and Bernard Lewis. For example, the book of Lewis The Arabs in

History which highlights that the Islamic civilization is based on translation of the achievements from Greek and Roman works then he states that the Islamic early works just as summaries and interpretations of Greek originals. In his book Islam and the

West, he criticized Arabic translation that suffered from mistakes and misunderstandings. However, in the other side Nasr affirmed that through his work

Science and Civilization in Islam that the origins of the most universal sciences are

Islamic. In his book Traditional Islam in the Modern World, he affirmed that the Islamic 4

Tradition; Quran and Hudith, formulated the grounds for the future progress of the western world.

The methodology which is used in this research is based on a combination of many approaches under the MLA. In addition to the quantitative and qualitative approaches, the research used the analytical approach. In fact, this method is considered as a best one used to improve the impact of the Islamic contributions to the development of the western science. In order to fulfil this aim, the quantitative approach provides us with precise and concise answers to those scholars who ignored the role of Islamic contribution, and the qualitative method for collecting more detailed information to convince the western scholars about their claims.

This research includes three chapters; the first chapter gives a historical overview of the Islamic Christian contact which was characterized by different tensions from its early stages till nowadays. Initially this chapter examines the western reception of all what come from Islam in one hand and the Islamic reaction to the Christian doctrines before and after the death of the prophet in other hand. After that, the chapter refers to the medieval period which is the most significant period since at that time

Christians and Muslims came close through different theological wars. Nevertheless, in the modern period, the surprising event lunched via the change of the balance of power to the scale of the western world. Yet during the contemporary period the eastern and the western world faced the decrease in their hostilities to enter into the mutual perception.

The second chapter highlights the early Muslims presence in the western sphere where they have lasted eighth centuries in Spain. This chapter examines the extent of the success of the Islamic civilization as well as the development of the Islamic sciences and knowledge which integrated sometimes with the heritage of pervious civilization. In 5 addition to that, this chapter deals with the process of transformation of the Islamic knowledge which appeared as a result of certain factors. This chapter investigates the origins of the universal sciences which came from the Islamic root and the universality of the Islamic scholars.

The third chapter sheds light to the writings of Sayyed Housein Nasr and his

―counter attack‖ against the claims of Bernard Lewis about the contributions of the

Islamic civilization to the development of the western world. In spite the fact, that many

Islamic scholars affirmed that the Islamic contributions owe a great deal to the advancement of western scientific enterprise in one hand as Houssein Nasr stated, yet in other hand the western scholars denied this fact such as Bernard Lewis. Besides, in this chapter scrutinizes how Nasr reacted to Lewis.

Since the research deals with the controversial notion of the Islamic contribution in the building of the western civilization between those who advocate and those who deny with having a sort of comparative study between the writings of Seyyed Nasr and

Bernard Lewis, the researcher saw that it is very important to overview the life of both figures. In fact, one should note that the two biographies are so elaborated; the researcher preferred a short overview rather than a detailed biography:

Concerning Nasr, he is an Iranian who studied in America where he received his

BS in physics from M.I.T and his MA and PhD in the history of sciences and learning with concentration in Islamic Sciences, from Harvard. From 1958-79, Nasr was a professor of philosophy at Tehran University. In 1979, he became Professor of Islamic

Studies at Temple University. Currently, he is a professor of Islamic Studies at George

Washington University. From the side of Bernard Lewis, he is a Jewish British

American Historian specializing in Oriental studies who known as a Public Intellectual and Political Commentator. He is a professor at the University of Princeton where he 6 specialized in the interactions between the western and Islamic world. By the end of

1940 he published his masterpiece The Arabs in History where he interpreted the history of the Arabs.

7

Chapter One

Historical Chronology of the Christian-Islamic Relations

Introduction:

Since the appearance of Islam in the Middle East, Christian-Islamic relations have characterized by sympathy, tolerance and brotherhood. Both faiths in its common religious heritages arrived from the Abrahamic faith. Muslims gave a great respect for

Christians because of the Quranic data that recognized them as the people of the book.

Besides, as the Islamic spread to the entire world lunched, Christian‘s fear increased too which lead to the complication of their relations, through the Christian reaction, particularly western Christian, toward the penetrating of Islam.

In this chapter we examines the historical relations between Christians and

Muslims from the early appearance of Islam until the contemporary period. First, the theological peril which revealed the early interactions between Christians and Muslims in one hand and the Christian perception of the coming of Islam before and after the death of the prophet in other hand. Second, the medieval period, this point deal with initial complication between both faiths beginning by Muslims refutation of Christian doctrines and the ignorance of the Islamic religion by Christians that leads to two different reactions, political through the religion wars which are known as the Crusades and ideological means as polemical writings. Third, the Modern Period that presented a 8 surprising event because of the changing of the balance of power from East to the West, after that its impact led to the emergence of some western academic studies. Finally, the

Contemporary Period in which tackles the most significant religious organizations that had a great hand to shift the negative image between the two faiths particularly the bad images of Islam and Muslims in the western perception that lead later on to the establishment of the Interfaith Dialogue.

I/The early appearance of Islam: A theological Peril 610-650:

1/Muslims toward Christians:

There were two phases of the interaction of Muslims within Christians, during the prophet‘s life, and another after his death (632/11). During Muhammad‘s life there were no direct interactions with non Muslims, whereas Muhammad followers had been encountered Christian and other groups strongly because of their achievements.

Actually, the early Islamic Christian relations are obviously significant as a result of wide spreading of Christian citizens in all continents as Byzantine and Sassanid Empire

(Goddard 34-35). a. Before the Death of Prophet Muhammad:

From the rise of Islam in the 7th C, Muslim-Christian relations are originated back to the Abraham religion, in which both of them have sharing the same tradition.

More, there were certain factors that led to their interaction as theological and geographical ones. Over fourteen years of their relations were characterized by different tensions moving between cooperation and conflict (Esposito 182).

Without much interest in religious texts that describes Christ as a unique prophet beyond other messengers. Indeed, we cannot ignore the existence of other textual evidence that appreciate Christianity in a good way for instance S 57:27 which indicates 9 a specific good qualities whereas those monks who their lives does not ordered by God.

There were other Quranic evidences as S 9:113 which linked by strong faith of

―hanif,‖ to add S 29:52-55 that indicates certain religious groups including Christian one (Warrdenburg 8).

Muhammad had probably already been making open or more implied statements

hostile to certain Christian beliefs in the Meccan period, when he felt that true

monotheism, to which he was passionately attached, was violated. But his

attitude in Mecca on the whole was open and favorable with regard to the

devotional attitudes and moral virtues which struck him among the Christians, as

expressed for example in S. 57:27 and 5:82–84. Before the hijra, adherents of

the community were sent to Christian Ethiopia for security reasons and

apparently he had made approaches to Christian tribes before deciding to go to

Yathrib (Medina). In the first Medinan years, during his conflict with the Jews,

Muhammad compared the Christians most favorably with the Jews and used

stories about Isa and the way he had been treated as a part of what may be called

an ideological attack on the Jews. But after his victory, first over the Jews and

then over the Meccans in 630 C. E/ 8. H. There was a remarkable change in his

attitude toward the Christians and Christianity which is clear in the well-known

passage (S. 9:29–33) to wage war against them. How is this change to be

explained historically? (Warrdenburg 13)

There were existing specific reasons from Quranic text that led to the change of

Islamic attitude towards Christian ones. First, through Muhammad experience of Jews in Medina he disappointed the unity of all monotheistic including Christian ones.

Second, the ―Hanifiyya movement‖ which used as a treatment against polytheism, is not considered only as a religious movement but also as a "reform movement" in the view 10 point of ―Ahl Alkitab.‖ Third, because of the successful of Muhammad over polytheists and Jews in Mecca, where he respond strongly to them and then he shifted his attention to Christian ones, since they were changed their doctrines to be completely different from what has been mentioned in Hanifiyya of the prophet Ibrahim, or to what 1abeled as ―religious of truth‖ which is the Islamic religion (Warrdenburg 13). b. After the Death of Prophet Muhammad:

There is no denying the impact made by the Islamic community on world

history in the few decades after the death of Muhammad in 632/ 11. A

community which, in the course of the ten years since the Hijra in 622, had made

its mark by becoming the dominant force in Arabia, very quickly also made its

mark on the wider world in pretty much the same length of time. By 642/21 the

Muslim state had conquered and established its control over the majority of the

Sassanid Persian Empire, following the battles of Qadisiyya [637/16] in Iraq and

Niha- wand [642/21] in Iran, and a large part of the Byzantine Empire, following

the battle of the River Yarmuk [636/15] in Syria and a campaign in Egypt in

640/19. The Sassanian Empire was destroyed, its emperor Yazdagird III finally

meeting an ignominious end in central Asia in 651/30, and the Byzantine Empire

lost roughly one half of its territory: according to Arab tradition, following the

battle of the Yarmuk, the emperor Heraclius was driven to say `Farewell Syria.

What a good country for the enemy' (Goddard 34).

Furthermore, after the death of the prophet his successors have following his rule and they called ―khalifs‖. This period of time was characterized by the great victories of

Muslims in world history (Brown 4-6). Moreover, in this time the Byzantine Empire has been faced the religious dimension in their territories that led to their lost. More, Arabs successful campaigns were over the harmful between Byzantine Empire and Persian 11 one. However, Muhammad‘s followers did not dominate all the territories for instance

Jerusalem which were under Christian patriarch leadership Sophronius (Brown 6).

Indeed, Muhammad‘s successors have certain traits as religious tolerance which is not a quality of the Byzantine Empire and the Barbarian Kingdoms of western Europe that were using harshest and violence means toward their population. However, the people of the book were being made liable only to a small annual tax (Jizya) not payable by

Muslim. In addition to that Christians and Muslims shared the same building for the respective worships until the Muslims paid it from the Christian community (Brown 4-

6).

I. 2. Christian toward Muslims:

By the early stages of Islamic impact on Christian one‘s that led to the Christian reaction through different interpretations to religious texts as what was happened to

―Old testament/Hebrew Bible ―during 630/10 and 640/20. In more specific words, in the writings of Genesis about the debate concerning the two sons of ―Abraham‖ Ismael and

Isaac, Ismael as a first born to Hajer Abraham‘s wife and Isaac as a second son to Sarah

Abraham‘s wife . Second, the second claims about the wide spread of Islam is that at this period of time the Christians were divided, particularly Eastern Christian into two sides, one group of those who supported the ―Council of Chalcedon‖ and another group of those who didn‘t. For the sect of non-Caledonian Christians, who defined Islam as the ―God‘s judgment ―, we notice two different interpretations of Nestorian and

Morophysite Christians, whereas their differences does not concerned with the theological factors but rather in receiving end of the authoritative Byzantine violence in

Egypt and Syria as a result of this harshest, some Christian groups become under

Islamic dominance and affirmed their independence to the Council of Chalcedon labeled Melkites as John of Damascus who was a prominent figure of the interpretation 12 of Islamic texts. He is commonly regarded as the last of the fathers of the Eastern

Church, through his theological interpretation, he portrayed Islam as a ―Christian heresy‖ which considered as a third layers in the interpretations of the coming of Islam in which he denies the ―prophethood‖ of Muhammad and refers to Islam as Ishmaelite legendary through which he attacks Islamic religion (Garddard 35-41).

II/ The Medieval Period: the Climax of Antagonism 650-1500:

II.1.Christian perceptions to the Islamic penetrating:

Islam is considered as a fearful reality in Christian perception not mean the refutation of their doctrines. In spite the fact, that reason behind this was the increasing of the Islamic conquered lands which were under Byzantine dominance, before that time in the sixth century. Indeed, Byzantine and Latin viewed Islam as a great antagonistic religion because of their military successful, which lead to evolve Near

East to Muslim territory as the Holy land. Furthermore, the second half of medieval

Europe was considered as a reconquista of Europe to North Africa and Volga .Actually,

Christian have used two means military and ideological one ,this latter which represented as an anti Islamic propaganda. However, this ideological vehicle was the wide spread in this period through the polemic writings (Warrdenburg 41). a. Eastern Christian Perceptions:

In the 9thcentury the mutual perception of Christian Muslims began to develop through the Byzantine Christian writings. This latter were known as a more polemic and antagonistic in one hand and in other the military struggle between the Byzantine

Empire, the Abbasid Empire, and its successor states. Indeed, the most prominent writings of this era were the ones of the Byzantine historian Theophanes the Confessor as a chronicler of events from 284 to 813 in which he adds further detail than the critic 13 of John Damascus (Goddrad 56). Moreover, this attitude by Theophanes lead to develop further writing by Nicetas of Byzantium, who was defend his Christian faith through the two letters sends from the caliph al-Mutawakil. However, Goddard argue that not all of the Byzantine writings has adopted this approach since there were one common ground between Muslim and Christian, for instance Emperor Leo&111 view point through his letter who has send it to the Caliph Umar ibn Abdal Aziz in which there existing three obvious cases of similarities (Goddrad 57). Initially, both of them Muslim and Christian believe in the same God, and have been similar in their communities for certain issues as the problem of division since the Christian community is divided as the Muslim community in addition the similitude in other things as worship practices for Christian the use of symbols and for Muslim the turning toward‖ Kaaba‖ in Mecca for the connection to the Abraham faith (Goddrad 56-59). b. Western Christian Perceptions:

Islamic conquests have been fastened to achieve a great Empire from central

Asia to central Spain. After that, this power reinforced by the mangling within the great

Mongol Empire. More, Turkish power was raised at the same time when they invaded the Byzantine Empire then western Asia and North Africa. In fact, after the defeating of

Byzantine Empire the Turks began to encroach the Europe through Gallipoli

(1354/733AH), then they conquered the legacy of the Empire as well as the Balkan peninsula ,after that they were invaded some states which later on incorporated to the

Ottoman Empire and converted to Islam. More, in 1453/832AH the Ottoman Sultan

Muhammad II, who was known as the conquered of this period have captured

Constantinople which led to finish the final remnant of the Roman Empire. Moreover, in 1529/908 AH the great Sultan Suleiman has increased European fear of aggression in

Vienna yet he failed for dominating the city (Brown 58). 14

From Goddard point of view, the relations between Muslim and western

Christian have been elaborated, since at the beginning western Christians viewed Islam as a threat for their religion and has been described as an anti Christ (Goddrad 80). The most prominent figures who are interpreting the coming of Islam are the Priest Eulogies and the laymen Parl Alvarus. Indeed, the first western Christian respond to this threat was in Spain between 850-860 through the formulation of what is known as the Spanish

Martyr‘s Movement which has been successful in destroying the Islamic visions

(Goddrad 81).

Moreover, the most significant response against Islamic spread was a movement of militant Christianity or what was known as the Crusades which has two meaning, for a theological meaning a religious obligation of holding the cross and its literary meaning dominating the Holy land, since they believing that it is own land

(Goddrad 84). Actually, we can distinguish various periods of those Crusades .The first

Crusade lunched in 1097/490 crossing into Asia Minor and they have faced two major successes, capturing the city of Antioch in Syria after the summer of 1098/491 then seizing Jerusalem on 15July 1099/492 (Goddrad 85). The second Crusade began in

Europe as a response to the Turkish Amir Zengi captured Edessa and preventing the

Crusaders of the one Ireland city they have managed to control for that reason, and by the work of Bernard of Cairvaux who call the people to take up the cross at Vézélay in

Burgundy in 1146/540. A third Crusade also departure in Europe but in this period the kings of France, Germany, and England have promised to take part while the firth

Crusade was the central of Crusading action in 1204/600 it was encouraged by the

Venetians and it had not gone to Palestine at all but had instead sacked Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Empire (Goddrad 89). The fifth Crusade which launched in

1217/614 ended in1221/618, it opened a new military form in Egypt, and successfully 15 seizing Damietta in 1219/616, yet they compelled to withdraw two years later. The sixth

Crusade in 1249-50/647-8 under the leadership of king Louis IX of France (1226/1270) have adopted the same approach and was compelled to surrender and pay a ransom in order to be released (Goddrad 81-89).

II.2 Islamic Reaction against Christian Doctrines:

Polemic attitudes adopted by Islamic writers against Christianity. The early

Quranic Suras have criticized Christianity since the Medina period, when the polemic writing start to react against the Christian doctrines especially when they were doubted on the unity and unique of God through their attribution of the son to God and Jesus as the God, from this point Islamic polemics have considered Christian that are not true monotheists (Warrdenburg 41). In the mid of the 9th century, particularly in the Abbasid dynasty (750/258) polemical literature developed under Caliphs al-Mamun and al-

Mutawakil (847-861) this period was characterized by the raise of Muslim judgment against Christianity as the works of al-Jahiz‘s(869) Vehement (855) in which he reject

Christianity firmly (Warrdenburg 42). However, the writings of Abu-Isaal-Warraq are stronger concerning the rejection of Christian doctrines, as well as Zebiri argue that the most prominent of Christian doctrines of trinity, Incarnation and redemption are irrelevant from Jesus original teaching. In addition to that, the work of Mutazilite

Mutakalimin emphasized the work of polemic literature in which they were affirmably against Christian(Warrdenburg 41-43).

Polemical attitude developed through the mangling between to philosophical and scripture arguments, via the use of Old and New Testaments. From the early

Islamic judgment, they focused on the raise of the problem of abrogation (naskh) of

Christian scriptures who believed in the abrogation of the old Covenant by the new one. 16

Indeed, this problem is not concerned with abrogation itself as what has happen for

Jews but to the problem of the accusation of Tahrif or what will have to the corruption of Old and New Testament. The wrong transmission of the Gospel was occurs as a result of the contradiction between the contents of the four Gospels; although the Quran transmitted from Prophet Muhammad to his followers this was known as a true transmission. All of this argument formed the basis of Mutakalimin polemic against

Christian doctrines (Warrdenburg 43).

According to Thomas, in order to react against Christian doctrines about the distortion of Islamic scriptures (Holy book), Islamic polemics have developed through the integration within certain groups of rational specialists. Those groups were known as Mutazila who were lived in Basra and Baghdad (Thomas 10: 15).Those elites have focused on certain issues as the existence of God and God‘s absolute power. Their works have attacked the Christian doctrines namely the Trinity, unity of the divine and

Incarnation, human natures in Christ, Zaydo Imam al Qasim Ibn Ibrahim al Rassi criticized the doctrine of Trinity in which violates the principles of Islamic teaching about God whereas Ibn Isa-al waraq has clarified that both doctrines are wrong for that reason and has been rejected (Thomas 10:17). However, both of them Zaydi Imam and

Abu Isa shared in the point that Christians are not true monotheists, as a result of their deviation from the truth as in the unity and uniqueness of God and human character of the Christ, yet this does not mean that Christians cannot correct their errors through appropriate studying of their mistakes. Moreover, the most Islamic writing against

Christian doctrines were emerged as a reaction against the wrong understanding of their scripture or on their abrogation or in the purpose to prevent this wrong interpretation

(Thomas 10:15-17). 17

From the 8th century, Islamic power threatened Christianity especially at the time of following the sake of power to Europe instead of Ottoman Empire. The unity of

Muslims destroyed whereas Europe has achieved some territories as Sicily and later on

Spain. Actually, Crusaders influenced by the mutual perceptions of both faiths Islamic and Christian ones (Zebiri 23). The emergence of Crusades was as a result of certain reason as the theology and ordinary reason; for instance a competition about commercial and economic interest, to re-dominate Christendom and holy places of

Palestine under Pope‘s authority, whereas the most significant reason was control the security of pilgrims to Jerusalem. However, the other side of Crusades portrayed

Muslims as a barbarian threat without any religious important. More, Jews, eastern

Christians, and particularly Muslims have been suffered from the violation of the

Crusaders which lead to formulate a negative image toward western attitude while in the western side Christian accused Muslims about the distortion of their faith (Zebiri 23-

24).

Esposito view that at the time of the departure of the Crusades in 1096 which were the great battle for prominent reasons. A medieval writers played a great role in distorting the image of Islam as an Anti-Christ, for instance Martin Luther (1546) who criticized Muslims through his treaties in which he attack Islam, Quran and the prophet

Mohammed at the time of raising Ottoman Turks on Europe, while in other side ,the positive voices from Christian writers were few to mentioned St Francis of Assisi

(1226) who visited Sultan of Egypt in midst of Crusades, among his basic principles living peacefully by neglecting violence and harshest with Muslims as he has advised his brother (3).

18

III/The Modern Period: 1500-1950

By the end of the 15th century, a surprising event came out by moving the scale of balance of power from Muslims to Christians. This significant event lunched in

1492/897 when the final Islamic pocket in Spain, which known the Narrid Kingdom of

Granada, defeated by Ferdinand and Isabella "Catholic Monarchs" (Goddard 109).

While Muslims world were began to decline at this time, western ones have faced the

European discovery by Christopher Columbus of the new world. Indeed, this era was the first one that directed contacts between the two worlds Muslim and Christian, without European voyagers through Vasco Di Gama‘s sailing round the Cape of God

Hope into the Indian Ocean in 1497/903. In addition, Christians have adopted certain missions to react to Muslims expansion particularly western Christian as the Spanish

Martyrs Movement (Goddard 109-110).

There were existing certain attitudes were considered as another types of

Christian mission, this new response have presented by two famous figures Francis of

Assisi and Roman Lull in which their missions were spread to the Muslim world and beyond. In spite the fact that, their legacy was noticed particularly in the Franciscan mission in the holy land in 1345/746 in order to develop the link between Eastern

Christian who are living under the Muslim world in one hand and in other hand to advance the unity of Eastern and Western Churches. In the 16th century, those missions have received too much attention, whereas in the 17th century the Carmelite mission sent to Iran by Pope Clement VII (1592-1605) where it aimed at capturing the opportunity about the spreading of Christian faith (Goddard 117). In the 18th to the19th century, which captured the period between the French Revolution in 1789/1204 and the beginning of the world war first in 1914/1332, in this period Christian missions have faced consecutive successes, the Muslim‘s power shifted to the advance of European 19

Imperialism. However, in the 20th century some writers emphasized the importance of learning Arabic in the purpose of communicating the Christian mission effectively as the work of Vander Werff (Goddard 124). Indeed this mission did not affect Muslims strongly as other regions in the nineteenth century but they were influenced more by colonialism, the process of European expansion to the Islamic world (Goddard 110-

125).

III.1.Western Writings:

Most of all western writers have selected modern period, particularly the seventeenth and or the eighteenth century, as a focal point for certain discourse (Blanks and Frassetto 14). Actually, western writings toward Islam do not began after the World

War first or World War second, but it established before that period in the nineteenth century, since at that time western shows their jealous about the impact of Islam or

European culture via certain methods as the literary discourse. In the 1830s, medieval poetry was analyzed in order to criticize the prophet life and at the same time

Alessandro d‘ An cormr published his still useful ―La leggenda di Maometto in

Occidente‖ in 1889 (Blanks and Frassetto 15). To examine the medieval attitude toward the east, there were certain successful works as Gaston Paris‘s investigation of the legend of Salah al-Din, where he published in 1893 the first part of his work The Revue de L‘Orient Latin shows the development in the interest with Christian-Muslim relations (Blanks and Frassetto 14-15).

In the 20th century, Germans had made the first step to study the western perception of the Orient, as well as the first book length study in French published not long after. Moreover, the most prominent works between the nineteenth and the twentieth century were interested in the religious relations between west and East, for 20 instance some journals as Revue d‘ Histoire des Religions issued in the mid-nineteenth century with its articles were published in order to persuade Muslims to convert to

Christianity (Blanks and Frassetto 16). More, other journals were issued as The Moslem

World edited by Samuel Zwemen and it published in 1910, Zemer also considered as a missionary with an excessive capacities about Arabic language and Islamic faith(Quran) as well as he gave at the Princeton Theological Seminary in 1916 called ―The

Disintegration of Islam‖ and another one on the Columbia Theological Seminary in

1935 known as ―The Origin of Religion‖ according to his view the Muslim world is described as a literary review about the development of Christian mission in Muslim lands (Blanks and Frassetto 15-16).

From the seventeenth to the eighteenth century, the west have witnessed the establishment of academic studies about Criticizing Islam and Muslims, for example, in the Reformation the Catholics portrayed Islam as a lack of religious succession, after that in the age of Enlightenment thought Islam as means of falsification via exaggerating in their faith or believing that Christianity as a religion based on nature

(Zebiri 26). In the nineteenth century, liberals viewed Islam and other religions submitted to certain changes by times the conservatives believing that Islam as a violating religion spread by the sword in addition to that, they have described the prophet Mohammed as an ambitions man especially in Medina period. Indeed, the twentieth century, strong attitudes began to emerge against Muslims particularly among missionaries for example Temple Gairder and Lewis Bevan Jones. Actually, religious factors pushed Christian to adopt harshest and violating attitudes whereas others use pessimistic ones (Zebiri 26-27).

21

II.2. Muslim Reaction against Christian Writings:

Colonialism reached its climax between the two world wars through the development of European power and Imperialism. This latter captured approximately all the Muslim lands instead of three Muslim countries Afghanistan, Turkey, and Saudi

Arabia but they were influenced by one way or other (Goddrad 126). In addition, to the progress of Christian mission, Muslims have reacted through three ways (Goddrad 127).

First, imitations were considered as a significant reaction towards European power, for instance the Ottoman Empire as the traditions of Muslims preventing the protraction of any human being. Mohamed II (1451-1481) the conqueror of Constantinople had his painting by the Italian painter Bellivic, more of that the Muslims imitated other

European fields as government, the state, economy and education as Ahmed Khan who imitate European models (Goddrad 128). Second, Muslims respond strongly through a military struggle through what is called ―jihad‖ as well as other means for resistance

(Goddrad 126-128).

This attitude developed in the nineteenth century when the Muslims leaders emerged to prevent the European dominance as the British, French, Russians and Dutch over the Muslims worlds, the most prominent figures, for instance, from Algeria, Abd al-Qadir (1808/1883) disobeyed the French for some twenty years, yet he had defeated by them in 1847/1263 (Goddrad 129). In addition to various Muslims movements as

Urabi in Egypt and the Iranian protest movement of 1896/1313 in which they influenced by the ideas and personality of Jamal al Afghani (1838/1297) who referred to the idea of

―Islami at risk‖ and he clashed with Sayyed Ahmed Khan who was searching for imitating European models, through his policy that state in the middle of both pervious reactions, as he has encouraged the reuses of Islamic tradition within western ideas.

More, Muhammad Abdu (1849-1905) from the Middle east was influenced by Khan 22 who has known too as ―Islamic Modernist‖ since he proposed the reformation of

Islamic doctrine into a modernistic way, instead of the traditional ones in addition to that he has a famous work al-Islam wa‘l-nasraniyya (Islam and Christian) in which he defended Islam (Goddrad 139). In fact, both figures from one way to another have expressed the superiority of Islam over Christianity. However, at this time in the ninetieth century, a surprising event penetrated to the world, the teaching of the Gospel and the spreading of conversion from Islam to Christianity, for instance Sheikh Salih

(1765-1827) as a Muslim scholar in Lucknow who was converted to Christianity through contact with Henry Martin. The Egyptian Muhammad Mansur who has graduated from al-Azhar .These conversion from Islam can be considered as a negative

Islamic response to Christian‘s mission and Imperialism (Goddrad 128-136).

By the intensification of Christian missionaries, that helps to the spread of a negative image of Islam. Muslims reacted to them by stating that Christianity could not be true monotheists, because of its wrong interpretation (tahrif). The most significant clashes between both sects held in 1854 in Agra (India) between the German missionary

Karl Gottieb Pfander (1803-1865) and the Indian Muslim Ruhmatullah al-Kairanaur who is known as ―al Hindi‖ (1818-1890), as well as Izhar al-haq (Demonstration of the

Truth ) published in Constantinople in 1867, it is considered as an appropriate illustration of Muslims refutation of Christian doctrines and its scripture in addition to other examples of a Muslim writers as Sayyed Ahmed Khan who is considered as a most prominent figure of this era (1800-1950), he is from India (1817-1898) he reacted to Christianity through his famous work Tebyan al –Kalam fi Tafsir al-Tawrat wa‘ il-

Injil Ala Millat al-Islam (Theological clarification on the subject of the exegesis of

Islam) with the English subtitle: The Mohammedan Commentary on the Holy Bible in order to make all the Islamic world familiar with the bible without polemical intention 23 to forsake about Khan‘s refusing of the corruption of the bible then we move to this acceptance of the existence relation in Old and New Testament by his depending on the

Islamic theology that present the bible or the positive way instead of what have other writer done before. In addition to that the work of Muhammad Abdu who has too a strong desire to modernize Muslim society in one hand, and to distinguish between the negative and positive trends in the development of Christianity, that causing some barriers against sciences‘ advancement (Wandarburg 76-79).

In the 19th century, Europe opposed the advancement of science by religion for that reason he proved this idea through his six negative aspects of Christian attitude that led to affirm that Islam encouraged sciences development. Moreover, during this period also there were certain spiritual movements made by Muslims against non-Muslims as the "Messianic" Bali movement succeeded in developing their communities in Ottoman

Empire; however, this movement became a seat of religion and separated from Islam as

Christianity separated of Judaism. Some European and Americans have converted to

Islam tried to treat the negative image of Islam to the west into a positive one without criticizing their previous religion (Wandarburg 79-80).

V. Contemporary Period 1950-2000

V.1.Christian Rethinking toward Muslims:

By the emergence of modern theology Christian have shifted their thinking into a positive way (Goddrad 149) .Since the twentieth century Christian theology have based on three points known as ―exclusivism‖ which represented by the Swiss

Protestant theologian Karl Barth (1886-1968) they carry their own way of salvation through believing in the Christ or Christian community ―inclusivism‖ hold to the fundamental of their religion without excluding other religion, as Karl Rahner (1904- 24

1984) the German Roman Catholic theologian , and ―Pularism‖ believing in the diversity of salvation affirming that truth is relational i,e. each member of religions community saved according to their religions tradition as John Hick (1922/1346)

(Goddrad 150) . Indeed, the relationship between Christianity and other religions particularly Islam is considered as a most prominent issue facing theologian nowadays, as well as Christian ―exclusivist‖ who based on the tradition of Karl Barth we have

Henrrik Kraemen (1888-1965) was viewed as a missionary in Andalusia has published in 1933 a report entitled Rethinking Missions: a Laymen‘s Enquiry then a year after he published The Christian Message in a Non-Christian world in which he stated his view.

Actually, the influence of Barth on Kraemer led him to conclude the negative view of

Islam. Second, "inclusivism" has been adopted widely in different continent not only in

Roman Catholic as well as British Anglican scholar Bishop Kenneth Cragg (1913) view

Islam positively and has reveal the importance of the Quran to Christianity in his work

The Call of the Minaret (Goddrad 153). Furthermore, the Orthodox Christian Georges

Khodr can be considered as an ―inclusivist‖ who stated that Christian must be developed their recognition of the activities of the Holy Spirit. Third,‖Pluralism‖ as the

Canadian Wilfred Cantwelll Smith (1916-2000) who adopted a pluralistic view toward

Islam as any other religious traditions, then he affirmed that Islam can be considered as a mean for true faiths of God .Actually, the three attitudes ―exclusivist,‖ ―inclusivist,‖ and ―Pluralist‖ are more workable for Christian view toward Islam rather than other religion, too are depicting the modern Christian view of Islam (Goddrad 149-157).

As the Christian ecumenical movement emerged due to the establishment of missionary movements as Edinburgh (1910), Jerusalem (1928) and Tambar am (1938) that led to formulate a forum that reflect the importance of other faith in one hand and the Christian unity and cooperation in other one, as well as the World Council of 25

Churches has increased their members from the date of its establishment in Amsterdam in 1948 (Zebiri 32).

More, those positive attitudes lead to rethinking the Christian attitudes toward other religions, through the interfaith movement that reemerged other dialogical organization, for instance Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue (PCID) established in 1964 in the purpose of encouraging the study of non-Christian traditions and interesting in interfaith dialogue, in addition to the Commission for World Mission and Evangelism of the world council of churches formulated a sub unit known as

Dialogue with People of Living Faiths and Ideologies (DFI) in 1971 that had two aims, the first one is preserving the relations between Christian and non-Christian and the second one is presented the basis for religious relation (Zebiri 33). Actually, most of

Christian thinkers have adopted a pluralistic attitude of religion and they had stated that they can reveal the revelation from other faiths as Justin Martyr and Thomas Aquinas.

Moreover, Second Vatican Council had represented a document in which affirmed the important shift of the Catholic attitude toward other faiths (1962-5) and it depicted its principles from Nostra Aerate (Declaration on the relationship of the Church to non-

Christian Religion) (Zebiri 34). However, Muslims participation in those organizations of dialogue interfaith is few to mentioned, for example in Libya, Tunisia, and Jordan, indeed the luck of Islamic representation is due to the weakness in the credibility of their Islamic government. The Muslim religious scholars are not allowed to present their own view since they are dependent to their government‗s views (Zebiri 32-36).

By the mid of the twentieth century, especially in 1950 the WCC and the

Vatican formulated a meetings between a number of Christian chiefs and other from non-Christian faith in a form of what known as the Dialogue Movement .This organization led to the emergence of new institution, for instance in 1964 Pope Paul VI 26 formulated a Secretariat for Non-Christian Religions in order to learn the tradition of other faiths by promoting interfaith dialogue. Christian institutions established an academic programs for studying Islam in India and Philippines and others can be located in Nigeria, Indonesia, Tunisia, France, and Tanzania. As the number of Muslim citizens has increased in Great Britain since 1950, a number of Islamic organization established through the mangling within Christian churches that lead them later on to solve some problems concerning health and education (Esposito 183). Moreover, in the

U.S., Hartford Seminary in Connecticut established numbers of programs concerning organization of interfaith dialogue about Islamic Christian relations. Besides, in 1993 at

Georgetown University the Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding (CMCU) was established which aims at developing the Christian-Muslim relations through correct the negative image of Muslim in the west (Esposito 183-185).

During the 1960s, the western world published significant works about their perceptions of Islam. Specific surveys have appeared in order to promote a mutual understanding between the East and the west, for example The Moslem World. In addition to the works of W. Montgomery Watt in his volume that aimed at portraying a good image of the Prophet‘s life. Indeed, the best illustration of the Christian Islamic

Dialogue published in 1975 associated with the centre d‘ Etudes Pour de Dialogue

Islamo- Chretien at the Ponificio Institute de Saudi Arabie Islamici. The institute‘s

Journal, Islamochristiana, as well as other books published to indicate the

Contemporary Islamic Christian Relations (Blanks and Franssetto 37). Whereas other negative attitudes emerged particularly in France, for instance the works of Phillipe

Sénac in which the negative images of Islam and Muslims still exist with contemporary stereotypes while the positive ones are few to be mentioned. More, in the most recent 27 books of Sénac described a Christianity as a true monotheist while Muslims as a pagans with a wrong faith (Blanks and Franssetto 37-38).

V. 2 .Muslims Rethinking toward Christians:

As for Christian, Muslim thinkers too varied in their views to formulate three attitudes ―exclusivist‖ ―inclusivist‖ ‖pluralist‖ . First, "exclusivist" view adopted by

Ismail al Faruqi (1921-1986) who appreciated Christianity in his famous works

Christian Ethics :a Historical and Systematic Study of its Dominant Ideas. In addition to this, stated that the original Christian faith changed by Jesus‘ followers from the early work of Paul then he suggested that both faiths must be interested in dialogues that lead to the truth (Goddrad 159). Second, ‖inclusivist‖ the best example is the Tunisian scholar Mohammed al Talbi born in 1921 as Ismail al Fariqi who published a work entitled Islam et Dialogue he made a significant interest to Christian-Muslim relations through dialogue, in order to interact them in conversation more than that he suggested that the relationship between Islam and Christianity as the relation between Christianity and Judaism since the New Testament, Mathew 5:17 where Christ states that he did not come to abolish the law but to complete or fulfill it i,e. continue what the Old Testament had began (Goddrad 165). Third ,‖Pluralist‖ or what we know now as ―Proto-pluralism‖ which adopted by Turkish Muslim writers as Adman Aslan in PhD thesis submitted to the University of Lancaster in Which he focused his studies analysis of the two pluralistic attitudes of John Hick and the Iranian thinker Sayyed Hossein Nasr, then he concluded that the pluralistic view of Hick was debated by his Christian community as well as Muhammed Aydin focused his thesis on the Modern Christian thinking as he summing up that Muslims should be learned from Christian re-thinking in order to enter in the Inter faith Dialogue (Goddrad 166). Indeed, a good illustration for a contemporary Islamic thinking toward Christianity is Fazlur Rahman (1919-1988) 28 through his book Christian and Muslim Relations: Yesterday, Today, Tomorrow (born in India) which separated into three parts about the analysis of Christian Islamic relations (Goddrad 158-167).

According to Warrdenburg point of view, Islamic contemporary writings toward

Christianity are approximately negative. More, their basic of writings are depicted from

Quran where specify their refutation against certain Christian doctrines as the son ship of Christ, Trinity, Incarnation and the true revelation of the Bible, as well as those writings were spread widely to the west by affirming the superiority of Islam over other religion, particularly Christianity between 1960-1970s as the Dialogue Movement appeared. However, most of all their publication depicted Jesus as a merciful prophet, they criticized the New Testament through their investigation of the fourth Gospels comparing by the Quranic data as the work of Muhammad Kamil Husayn entitled Qarya

Zalima (the City of Wrongdoing ) published in Cairo in 1954, portrayed the real image of the accusation of Jesus and his suffering in the Christian community. In addition to other writings as the work of Ali Merad who wrote on the account of Charles de

Foucauld, besides some novels and short stories have depicted the of the existence of some differences between Christian and Muslim believers (88-89).

Conclusion:

To sum up, Islamic Christian relations faced different changes and tension since the appearance of Islam till to days. As a result of these tensions both worlds have reacted through political and intellectual ways , political means as the Holy wars or what known as the Crusades and ideological means such as the polemical writings

.Furthermore, the emergence of the Interfaith Dialogue led to the creation of some religious organization as the Pontifical Council for Interreligious Dialogue. Indeed, the most prominent historical period in Christian-Islamic contacts was the medieval period 29 were Muslims have established their power in the western sphere in Spain , where they created a golden age of human history. We will deal more with this point in the Second

Chapter.

30

Chapter Two

Islam and Muslims in the Western Sphere

Introduction:

The presence of Muslims in the western sphere has lasted for eighth centuries in

Spain, where they were successful to create a great Islamic civilization. They established a golden age of the Islamic history in Andalusia, as they developed sciences and knowledge, as well as the modifying, changing and integrating within the heritage of previous civilizations such as Greek, Persian, Nestorian, and Egyptian. After that they excelled in the advancement of modern Islamic sciences which attracted many

Christian scholars to travel into the Islamic lands, in order to acquire their sciences.

This chapter explores the process of the transformation of Islamic knowledge that appeared as a result of certain factors namely, the Crusades which were Christian-

Islamic wars, the translation of many Arabic books into foreign languages mainly Latin, and the role played by the western voyagers into the Islamic lands. More, different

Islamic sciences were transmitted to Europe such as mathematic, astronomy, geography, medical sciences and philosophy which are shared in its Islamic nature. While many scholars believed that it was borrowed from ancient civilizations, other stated that they had been developed by Muslims scientists and thinkers.

Besides, the chapter covers universal aspects of many Islamic scholars, who led to the progress of the sciences and knowledge how they played a significant role in the 31 development of the Islamic as well as the western through the transformation of the

Islamic civilizational aspects to the west. Moreover it sheds light on how which those figures mastered in different intellectual fields and how they have enjoyed by a great respect from both worlds. However, different western scholars have modified Muslim scholars names in order to deny their Islamic origin as ibn Sina to Avicenna and ibn

Rushd to Averroes .

I. Islamic Andalusia: The Golden Age of Human History

Before the Umayyad princes Abd-al-Rahman and Yahya born, Muslims have established their rules when Tariq ibn Ziyed conquered Spain through successful wars against the Christian Visigothic King Roderick, when a famous rock were take his name

Jabel al-Tariq (Gibraltar or Tariq‘s mountain) (Masood 66). After years, Abd al-

Rahman and Yahya have escaped to Spain and then arrived to North Africa and South

Spain to gain some successes. At the beginning, there were minorities of Muslims who later on supported the expansion of Abd al Rahman and Yahya particularly, when Abd al Rahman‘s power developed to state his leadership, he labeled as the Falcon of

Andalusia (Masood 67). Besides he want to reestablish the Umayyad dynasty in Spain, since when at the beginning it was not at the glorious of that time, but he reshaped it to be the focal point of culture, learning , sciences in order to be able to contend Abbasid dynasty in Baghdad, for that reason it was known as the golden age of learning as well as many scholars proved at glory as at the court of the Holy Roman Emperor Otto I, the nun Hroswitt of Grandersheim revote in 955 ―The brilliant ornament of the world shone in the west a noble city newly known for its military powers, and it was wealthy and known for its pleasure and resplendent in all things and especially for its seven stream of wisdom‖ (Masood 68). Cordoba was known as a God‘s heaven at the earth for its wonderful natures. Indeed, its heart was the Library of Cordoba which includes more 32 than 400,000 books at that era, as well as the largest library in Europe was less than that amount (Masood 68). The great number of those books arrived back from the period of

Islamic rule and the rest to the Umayyad‘s power in Spain. However, it had a great impact on science in addition it played a significant role in saving this knowledge physically and mentally in the mind of many scholars as Musa bin Maymun

(Mamonides) and Walid ibn-Rushd (Aviroes) (Masood 66-69).

By the foundation of Spanish dynasty in 138/756 or what was known as al-

Anduls from southern Spain to Portugal, with its central city named Cordova, the most greatest capital in Europe, it is the sign of the establishment of two years and a half of the Islamic rule (Nasr 126). More, Spain enjoyed advancement at all domains as culture and sociology, consequently, this create a state of tolerance, peace and justice between the three religions that had never been seen before. Indeed ,this real relation appeared in some works such as Maimonides which is written by the Jewish writers in Arabic as well as other writings concerning other fields as science, philosophy and arts were transformed from Islam into Christian, where had a great influence on western history such as Toledo city (Nasr 126). In the 5thc/11thc, the Umayyad dynasty decreased in its power by dividing Spain into small district ruled by its local rulers, who known as muluk al-tawaif. As the Muslims failed in the Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa in

608/1219, the Christians re-conquered it and pushed the Muslims minorities to live only in mountains exactly in Alhambra, which itself was built by Muslim in the 13thcentury.

However, the defeat of Muslims by Isabelle and Ferdinand caused the end of their ruler in the Iberian Peninsula in 897/1492, yet the Muslims who are still living in Spain were known as the Moriscos (Nasr 126-127).

Undeniably, Muslims have contributed to the development of European science through the building of their basis to the future advancement of the western world 33 nowadays since the Islamic impact had established after the contact between both faiths and after that it developed over time. Despite this fact, some scholars as Gustav Le Bon claimed that Andalusia at its early stages has reach only a little cultural advancement, by time Muslims enjoyed a cultural progress through creating a European relations via translating from other cultures as the Greeks, and Latin. In Cordoba the Islamic civilization has enjoyed its climax in the sciences advancement through capturing the most prominent characteristics. For instance, its great ability to witness all developments via creating the intellectual institutions in one hand and the role of translation from other civilizations in other hand. This lad to enjoy a progress in different sciences such as astronomy, chemistry, medicine, and natural science as well as their success in technology that helps trade, industry, minerals and weapons .More than that, Muslims have surpassed the Christians and others not only in sciences and technology but excelled into morals and ethics as what was stated by Sedilo ―in this era

Muslims were superior to Christians in terms of morals as well as science and technology. In all of their states and behaviors ,there were such generosity, benevolence, and sacrifice the like of which could not be found in other nations .Among the characteristics that distinguished them from other nations is their respect for mankind which is considered one of their glories‖ (Thawaqib 139). Those merciful

Islamic characteristics particularly the leniently with other faiths led many Christian to convert to Islam therefore there is no need because they share the same rights as

Muslims, even if in holding any position in court (Thawaqib135-140).

As Cordoba flourished under the Umayyad, many Islamic thinkers, clovers and scholars began to think in the substitution of Baghdad by Andalusia. (Masood 69) The latter has witnessed certain talents as the work of Abual-Hassan Ali ibn-Nafi who were known as Ziryab means ―black bird‖, who was a slave from Iraq brought to Cordoba in 34

852 by the leader Abd-al –Rahman III with a rewards by the time he successes to entertain people with his type of music of the oud, the early version of the Spanish guitar, and with his songs love which pushed them to follow his fashion .Not all of the

Andalusia‘s talents were brought for entertainment. Spain at that time was an attractive place for scholars, thinkers, and philosophers since the Umayyad rulers and its people suggested that Cordoba and other cities such as Toledo and Seville have continued large libraries and paid a great respect and rewards the intellectual groups, as well as welcoming all other faiths particularly Christian and Jews (Masood 70). Several Jewish thinkers participated in what was known as the Toledo school in which they translated

Arabic works into Latin (Masood 70). Moreover, other scholars, instead of Muslims as

Christian or what known as a Mozarabs, who were speaking Arabic and adopted Arab life style ,enjoyed a great role in the translation of classical knowledge to Arabic in

Baghdad (Masood 69-70).

Indeed, Andalusia has embraced various faiths known as ‗convivenia‘ which is seemed similar to what called today multicultural societies of western world (Masood

70). The advancement of European countries was as a result of the working of many scholars and researchers from different countries but working together in the same place. Yet there were certain differences between them as the work of Christian and

Jews in al-Andalus, where they had different position in law, if compared with Muslims

(Masood 71). The same thing in the Islamic world non-Muslims have to pay taxes not allowed join the military service they can‘t employ as ruler or Caliph. More, there were other restrictions against non-Muslims. Consequently, in the nineteenth century, a lot of

Christians killed themselves because they were prevented for criticizing the prophet

Muhammad, since it is considered as a heresy for Muslims (Masood 70 -71). 35

According to Trend, in the 10th century Spain was the wonderful place in the world modern developed and civilized city in Europe (Trend 9). The Northern voyagers began to be interested the city that contains 70 libraries and 900public baths, as a result of this knowledge, the leaders of Leon, Navarre or Barcelona indicated Cordoba for maintaining their necessities (Trend 9). The most important thing that attracted voyagers were the writings about the summer palace of Madinatu-l-Zahra, which established approximately three miles from the west of Cordoba (Trend 9). Particularly in the al-Maqqri writings it seemed like a dream palace of the‖Arabian Nights ―or a thousand and a one nights (Trend 9). However, after fifty years of its establishment,

Madinatu -l- Zahra was destroyed, as well as the fall of the Caliphate led the colonizers in order to capture its culture. In addition to this, the 10th century characterized by what was called ―party-kings‖ (Ar.muluk al-tawa if, Sp.royes de taifas ) which led to the mutual perception between the Muslims and North Christians as well as their power decreased . Yet their culture spread through the work of the Mozarabs who have immigrated as a result of the violation of the Berber dynasties, Almoravides (al-

Murabitun ) and Almohades (al-Murrrabitun) (Trend 10). This period of time has witnessed the appearance of the famous figures of Muslims Spanish culture in different fields; in geography al-Bakri and al-Idrisi, in physic Ibn Zuhr and Ibn Arabi of Mursia the mystic, Maimonides the Jewish savant and Ibn Jubayr the voyager (Trend 1-39).

Despite the fact that the Islamic civilization covered several areas namely ,Spain

,Portugal, south France, central Switzerland, Western Italy, Sicily and other Islands, the leaders of those countries have began to lose their territories since they are disputed, lost their unity and swap into unpleasant rulers (Thawaqib 140). Actually, in 1498 the surprising event lunched since the Christian king of Aragon called Ferdinand and the queen of Castilian Spanish have married consequently led to the unity of the two great 36 parts in Spain. Furthermore, the integration of their territories led to new significant political power ―Aragon and Castilian Spanish‖. After that, Spain was considered as the greatest country in the world because of the progress of its power. As both Christian leaders re-conquered Spain by defeating Granada in 1492 and ending the Islamic presence in Spain, Ferdinand and Isabella helped Christopher Columbus to the discovery of the new continent which is known as America (Thawaqib 140). The place in which they signed agreement for Christopher Columbus‘s voyager to discover the new lands was Santafe which is far from Granada six miles and it has established by

Spaniards. After a period of time, each country has seceded to become independent area in order to establish its colonization to other countries in the world. For instance,

Portugal ,British ,French ,Dutch and Germany as well as there were existing other significant events as the emergence of the new nations, the Renaissance discoveries and inventions, the industrial revolution and science development all of that factors led to the establishment of western development upon the Islamic legacy (Thawaqib 140-141).

Baloch concluded that, at the time of conquering Damascus by the Abbasids dynasty, the youth prince escaped from Umayyad into Spain to reestablish Umayyad dynasty beginning by creating what known as the Islamic golden age in Andalusia,

Spain (43). Moreover, its capital city was called Cordoba enjoyed by largest population number and huge cultural information. At the same time, different local dynasties from

Africa united by the greatest Berber dynasties in Spain between the 12th and 13th

Centuries known as the sharifids of Marocco. The Muslims were the powerful dynasty in Europe; they were beaten by ending their last pocket in Granada in 1492 as well as the end of the eight century of the Muslim presence in Spain (43).

37

II. The Transmission of Islamic Knowledge:

Islamic civilization had a great impact on the development of western world. As

Europe borrowed from the Islamic world sciences and technological advancement, the transmission of Islamic knowledge formed the basis for future progress (Thawaqib

135). Moreover, the spread of the Islamic civilization was a result of certain factors as the Crusades between Muslims and Christians, the contact in Sicily and then in Iberia,

Andalusia (Thawaqib 136). As the crusades lunched to capture the Islamic lands, Syrian and Palestinian territory particularly Jerusalem, the Christians discovered a great civilization different from their own by the end of the wars many western thinkers and scientists stay at this Christian colonizes in order to acquire this great civilization

(Thawaqib 136). For instance, the famous figure Adelard of Bath was interested in

Arabic literature and Islamic science for that reason he translated different Islamic works into Latin. Nevertheless, the transmission of Islamic knowledge from Sicily and south Italy to the west has faced various geographical obstacles. Muslims helped to solve those problems by creating a suitable condition for that transmission. In Sicily,

Muslims have created a greatest intellectual culture of different languages namely Latin,

Greek, and Arabic (Thawaqib 137). This point facilitated the process of transmitting the

Islamic knowledge since several Islamic sciences were translated already into Latin by

Sicilian translators. Indeed, the contact between Muslims and Christians in Iberia was deeper than other places. Consequently, there was a great intensification in the transformation of Islamic knowledge to the West. The Muslims attitude towards other religion as Christians and Jewish thinkers was the reason behind the influx of many western scholars to brought Islamic science as well as the huge number of books were translated (Thawaqib 135-137). 38

There were a dynamic in exchanging the knowledge and sciences between

Cordoba, Toledo, Seville and Granada .Scholars and scientists played a great role in developing the means of transfer as well as traders, voyagers and migration. Very obvious, the House of Wisdom, which is the largest Islamic library, helped in translating a huge number of books from different branches to different languages

(Dougless 9). Scholars of Baghdad were interested in reaching their knowledge and experimenting in wisdom to reveal God‘s reality in order to appreciate God. This reality shared between the major faiths, Islam, Christianity, and Judaism since all came from the Abrahamic faith (Dougless 9). It formed in turn the basis for the development of sciences and then its transformation. The creation of intellectual institutions was very fruitful, schools, universities, libraries and Mosques for studying Arabic (Dougless 10).

For example, in al-Andalusia they formed a College in Cordoba connected to the

Umayyad Caliphate, the Seljuk Turks had established the Mutamsiriyyah in Baghdad and the Fatimid‘s leaders created al –Azhar, these universities contributed to the transmitting of knowledge through educating a western scholars who then brought knowledge when they return to Europe (Dougless11). From the 1100s till 1200s, western translations of Arabic books led to the development of European schools mainly the mathematic books with all its fields namely algebra, geometry, and arithematic in which they adopted Arabic numerals instead of Roman numerals since they witnessed it when they were dealing with North Africa and Italian merchants

(Dougless 11). In addition to this, there were other books about astronomy, geography, maps and medicine (Douglass 9-11).

Since 1130, European scholars established the translation of Muslims philosophy into Latin. The center places for the transmission of this knowledge to the Christian world were south Italy and Spain (Zakzouk 42). In fact, the process of translation in 39

Spain established before that period of time. In philosophy The famous western translators was the Raymond ,the bishop of Toledo from 1130-1115 ,after that he created a Council of Translations under the leader of Domnic Gundisalui in order to translate Arabic philosophy and sciences into Latin. Besides, these translations that have enlarge the European knowledge and built the advancement of western philosophy.

(Zakzouk 42)

III/ The Universality of Islamic Sciences:

In early Islamic stages, science had never existed in it nowadays forms, since there were no special government management for recognizing science or other foundations like Google or Microsoft. In fact there were no specific scientific institutions as universities and colleges. Despite the fact that ,sciences of pervious time were motivated by individual scholars and it didn‘t encouraged by any institution , yet when this latter appeared then by time if it altered its specialists or disappeared, the foundations that had a relation with it will be disappeared too ,consequently all the

Islamic institutions broken up (Masood 207-208).

Muslims contributions have positive impact on the west through their most significant works that include all scientific domains. One of The most significant sciences is medicine which has a history of progress through time. In fact, Muslims borrowed from their medical history from the Greeks, Persians, and Egyptians to integrate within their works (Baloch 47). At that time Muslims were motivating physicians through rewarding them by through offering a high salary or wages.

Furthermore, the advancement of medical science in each part of Islamic dynasty, caliphate, or court, is similar to the Hellenistic world (Baloch 47). Indeed, the Arabs were the first in using drugs in their treatment; the world‘s pharmacopeia contains instructions about using drugs in addition to many greatest hospitals and various clinical 40 for providing a good treatment (Baloch 47). The Islamic contributions to medicine can be located in what known as encyclopedias for instance the one of that of Al-Razi, persian scholars, called Al Haui and the greatest encyclopedia of Ibn Sina in which presented the last Graeco-Arabic medical thought later on translated by the German in twelfth century to became a significant medical text book in Europe and its ―material medica ― include some seven hundred and sixty drugs which served as a ‗a medical bible‘ in the west between the 12th and 17thcentury ( Baloch 48). The medical science reached its climax thanks to the Arabs, in the 10th century, through translating some

Greeks and Persian books and then published their own writings in Sicily in 1289

(Baloch 48).

Geography and Astronomy witnessed a great attention in Arabic sciences, while the Arabs borrowed some ideas from previous civilizations, they added things and correcting others such as the form of the earth; they have affirmed that it is oval not circular and measured its circumference accurately (Baloch 49). These discoveries facilitated Navigation in the Mediterranean sea as the famous Muslims voyagers Ibn

Battutah who traveled around 120,000 kilometers from Morocco to north Africa, Egypt,

Arabia, Yeman, Asia Minor ,Crimea, Central Asia, Byzantium, Bulgaria, Persia, to

India, China, Ceylon and Sumatra back to Spain via Syria and Morocco in 1349 (Baloch

49). This greatest navigator considered as strong evidence that Columbus couldn‘t be a voyager without borrowing his advance skills of navigation from the Arabs. Third, in

Mathematic, Muslim mathematicians have a great interest in what IS called‖ Algebra‖ from the Arabic ―al-gebr‖ (a binding together). From 800 to 1200 expanded in treating the Mathematic equations, after that Algebra has spread to Europe via Spain and Sicily

(Baloch 49-51). 41

The Abbasids dynasty witnessed scientific advancement based on individual rather than institutions of higher education (Islam 46). They have established hospitals and clinical in their dynasty. The Abbasid scholars were successful in many fields such as Mathematics and Astronomy. Despite the fact that Muslims have borrowed some mathematical principles from Mesopotamia, Egypt, India, and Greece, they have created other bases and changes. Obviously, Muslims have contributed to Mathematic in creating some terminologies as algebra, zero, sifr/cipher all are from Arabic nature

Muslim mathematicians have altered the ancient Greek system of chords by simplifying and omitting the obstacles of spherical triangles (Islam 46). In the early of the 9th century, in Baghdad, huge number of mathematicians lived as the three sons of Musa ibn Shakir namely Jafar Muhammad, Ahmad and Hasan, also they were labeled as

―Banu Musa‖, they solved problems as the unity of geometrical figures, whereas each one of them in each of the mathematical fields .After that, Muslims have applied their studies in their daily life as the use of geometry in the improving of different types of wheels containing water wheels (Islam 46).

Moreover,‖ Banu Musa‖ published some books an astronomy, mathematic, and geometry. For example Kitab al-Hiyal (the Book of Ingenious Devices ), Kitab Chakl al-Handassi, (Book an Geometrical Form), and Kitab Harakat al-Falak al-Ula (Stars

First Motion ). The ancient Muslim scholar have assorted astronomy as an item of

Mathematical studies; then they wrote different works Al-majist was presented by several Arabic scholars as Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809-877). Moreover, Ibrahim al Fazari,

Muslim mathematician, was the first who discovered an astrolabe and his son

Muhammad who was an expert in the science of stars. Undeniably, in the 9th century astronomical studies developed through the achievements of the greatest scholars as

Abu‘l-Abbas al- Fadl ibn Hatim al-Nairizi, Persian mathematician and astronomer, who 42 wrote different books such as Atmospheric Phenomena, in addition to other treaties in the spherical astrolabe (Islam 46).

One might note that the basis of the Islamic faith as the doctrine of Oneness has a great effect in the Muslims interest in the mathematical sciences. This latter was divided into other branches as astronomy, mathematics itself, physics and geometry. In astronomy, Muslims have mixed the Indian, Persian, ancient Near Eastern and Greeks sciences into their own studies to create a greatest astronomical history as well as they changed and modified some theories the Almagest of Ptolemy which was criticized by some Muslims scientists as Nasir al-Din al-Tusi and some of his students such as Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi (IADESA 2). Muslims discoveries passed to stars as the writings of

Abdal al –Rahman al-Sufi which were later on transmitted to Spain by AlfonsoX Sabio

(IADESA 2). Nevertheless, stars still labeled by names from Arabic nature as

Aldabaran (IADESA 2). Muslims have created different astronomical means and developed others. Consequently they were classified at the top for the inventions of astronomical observatories (IADESA 3). Their practical discoveries did not ended in the measurement of the direction to Mekkeh, yet it excelled to the creation of Almanacs, its name from Arabic origin, also they were interested in the issue of time and Calendar as the famous and accurate calander known as Jalali calendar which appeared as a result of Umar Khayam‘s direction in the twelfth century (IADESA 3) .In fact, the reason behind the establishment of the mathematical studies arrived from the Quranic issues, which need to some solutions, indeed Muslims have enjoyed a great success in the geometrical field via their superior art and the best example was the achievements of

Banu Musa.( IADESA 2-3)

The Greeks have rejected that ancient Arabs have established the medical studies

(Islam 46). Instead of that, Muslims have translated ancient sciences when they 43 controlled Alexandria and Jundishapur, particularly during the Umayyad caliphate as the caliph Amir Muawiyah translated several medical books into Arabic (Islam 46).

After that period, the Abbasid caliphs were too interested in translation from other works for instance in the ninth century the most significant books were translated into

Arabic; however, Muslims didn‘t take the raw material directly but they changed and modified some ideas, and criticized others (Islam 47). Under the caliph al-Munsur rule, several physicians were motivated by the caliph‘s authority such as Jurjis ibn Bakhtishu translated several Greek books about medicine (Islam 47). Muslims created some medical discoveries and works as Ibn Masawayh as his master piece Kitab al-Nawadir al-Tibbiyah (Latin Aphorismi Iohnnis Damasceni ), treatise of 132 medical aphorism and have published Kitab al-Mushajjar al-Kabir in which he described different diseases with their treatments (Islam 47). More, the medical encyclopedias of Abu al-Hasan Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari, as well as the two famous encyclopedic books involved twenty two on medicine had a great contribution to medicine and sciences.

Consequently, and his works were translated into Latin by Gerard of Gremon (Islam 46-

49).

Muslims depicted their medical sciences from the hadith of the prophet which has include healthty instructions which were known later on‖Prophetic Medicine‖ (at-tibb al-nabawi )as a result of the great Muslims interest in safety health (IADESA 5). While at early stages the greatest physicians were Christians, yet in the ninth century Islamic medicine established by the creation of the Paradise of Wisdom (Firdows al-holm) by ibn Rabban al Tabariand his student Muhammad ibn Zakariyya al-Razi (Latin Rhazes),

Islamin phusician, wrote a famous work Kitab al-hawi (Continens) the largest Islamic work in medicine, which benefited and influenced western medicine till the eighth century (IADESA 5). However the work of Ibn Sina has excelled all other physicians 44 for that reason was known in the west ―the Prince of Physician‖ and he has also combined the medical science of Islam in his famous work al Qunon fi al- tibb ( The

Canon of Medicine) (IADESA 5). More, the Ottoman Empire had enjoyed by an excellent medical activities built upon the heritage of ibn Sina consequently it was the central of greatest hospitals and clinical not only for physical treatments but for psychology as well (IADESA 6). Besides, Muslims gave a great interest in pharmacology through studying the effect of drug in medicine as the work of the

Muslim scientists Ibn Juljil, ibn al-Salt and al Ghafiqi a, greatest Muslims

Pharmacologists, wrote The Book of Simple Drugs (IADESA 5-6).

Ptolemy‘s Geographiae has influenced the interest in Islamic scholars to study geography. It motivated Muslims to discover the world through navigation as well as the pilgrimage to Makkah where they measured the distance between ―qiba‖ and every corner in the world (Islam 51). Islamic geography has a deep connection with astronomy via measuring longitude and latitude .In the eighth century ,Muslims collected a great account of geographical knowledge through their voyaging from place to another since they creating commercial relations in the Mediterranean sea, the India

Ocean South east Asia, China and Africa (Islam 51). Under al-Mahdi caliphate,

Muslims witnessed the first geographer Hisham al-Kalbi ( 747-819) from Baghdad, he has published different geographical books in addition to the achievements of

Muhammad ibn Musa al Khwarizmi through his master piece Kitab Surat al-Ard (Book of the Shape of the Earth, with its cities, mountains, seas all the Islands and rivers) in which he improve the Ptolemy‘s geographiae by adding maps; he had also corrected the accurate data for the length of the Mediterranean Sea and the location of the cities of the

Asia and Africa (Islam 53). The works of Abul Hasan Ali ibn Husain al-Masudi such as

Muruj al-Dhab wa-Maadin al Jawhar, which is know in the west as Herodotus of the 45

Arabs, which synthesized history with geography (Islam 53). Besides, Abu Ishaq

Ibrahim al-Farsi al- Istakhir published his book entitled Kitab Masalik al-Mamalik, as the other geographer, he had travelled too to different places in the world including

India, where he met Ibn Huqal. In his work al-Istakhir he drew a world map included

Sindh as well, since he visited it for that reason he studied its sociopolitical, culture and climate, indeed his map still in use and considered as an example of cartography (Islam

51-53).

Muslims widened their studies in geography far from the world Ptolemy because of certain factors. For instance, the Muslims voyagers especially their pilgrims to

Makka, where they exchanged ideas and cultures since a huge number of Muslims from different stains in the world are assembled in one place (IADESA 7). Their geographical bases were based in the work of al-Khawaeizmi, Muslim who scientist established geographical science in the ninth century, initially divided the earth into seven climes, after that they began to draw maps. Furthermore, the famous Muslim geographer was Abu-Abdallal al –ldrisi by his master piece Kitab al-rujari ( The Book of Roger), he was specialized in maps drawing as a result it was collected as a major

Muslims achievements (IADESA 7). Muslims discoveries and achievements played a great role for both the success of Magellan to cross the Cape of Good hope into the

Indian Ocean and for Columbus to discover America (IADESA 7).

Islamic philosophy was established as a result of the progress of the Muslims thinker during the dominance of the Quranic revelatio (Nasr, Philosophy 163). In fact, it built upon the heritages of pre-Islamic Persian, India, and Hellenic ideas. Whereas; its origin came from the Abrahimic faith and Greek philosophy, it has a great importance in the Islamic thoughts and knowledge as the Maimonides for Jewish or St Thomas

Aquinas for Christian thoughts since it is the key for understanding this universe. Abul 46

Yakub Al-Kindi, the first Islamic philosopher who was working in creating the combination between Islamic teaching and Aristotelian and Napolatonic philosophy, as well as Al-Farabi who continued the synthesis of Al-Kindi and attempted to integrate the political thought of Plato within the Islamic political ideas (Nasr, Islamic Philosophy

169). Furthermore, the greatest Muslim philosopher ibn Sina developed the

―mashohai‖school which reach its climax through his works, in addition to the role of the famous Spanish philosopher ibn Rushd on the development of western thoughts through his perfect achievements in the philosophical thoughts (Nasr, Islamic

Philosophy 163-169)

Some western scholars claimed that Greek philosophy has a great impact on the

Islamic one, because it is based only on the translation of the Greek works into Arabic since 1130 (Zakzouk 46). Two center places caused the contact between Europe and the

Islamic worlds are South Italy and Spain. Particularly, when Christian conquered

Toledo where they have founded the Islamic heritage as its mosques that contain Arabic library were known as institutions (Zakzouk 47). More, there were many western scholars and philosophers such as Thomas Aquinas required his education at Islamic

Universities, as a result he was an experiment in the Arabic philosophical studies which were based in the works of Avicenna and Averroes, who well respected and appreciated from the European of the middle ages as well as Albertus Magnus, western philosopher, influenced by the authority of Avicenna particularly in the definition of the soul and brotherhood. Moreover, Averroes had a great impact on the development of western philosophy through the translation of his master piece into Latin, which affirmed his prevalence in Europe by the French scholar Renan through his work Averroes and

Averoism, in addition to the role of William of Auvergone, archbishop of Paris, in spreading the ideas of Averoes to the west. Besides, al-Ghazali through his 47 philosophical thoughts had caused a great influence upon the European philosophers as

Raimond Martin in his work ―Pugio Fider‖. Despite the fact that al –Ghazali have influenced other western philosophers as David Hume‘s writings in his criticism of the principle of causality and his explanations of cause and effect of habit, yet Hume take this theory blindly for that reason Renan stated that ―Hume has not said about thecriticism of the principles of causality anything more than what al- Ghazali has said‖

(Zakzouk 53). Indeed, there were other evidences on the contributions of the Islamic philosophy in modern western advancements such as the works of the philosophical groups known as Ikhwan al-Safa (Brother of Purity), from Basra, produced in the tenth century the greatest encyclopedia about the human thoughts, after that they were became the leaders of western philosophy in the age of enlightenments in the eighteenth century through imitating them by reproducing the same encyclopedias in (Zakzouk 46-

55).

V. Islamic Figures and the Universal Dimension:

V.1. Ibn Sina

The great genius figure from the early Islamic period Abu Ali Al-Husain Ibn

Sina who played a great role in spreading his intellectual thought to the Islamic world and elsewhere. His master piece The Canon of Medicine (al-Qunan fil-Tibb ) was the reason behind the discover of the modern medical sciences (Ghazanfer 6). He had published more than more than 99 Books in different subjects as his Kitab al-shifa (The book of Healing) which includes different branches such as physics, mathematics and metaphysics. More, he created school named ―Latin Avicennism ―in the west by

William of Auvergne, its purpose is the integration of St Augstine ideas with the

Aristotlenism, also he had a deep influence in many greatest figures as ibn Rushd and

Maimonides (1135-1204), Jewish heretic, as well as other Latin scholars as Albertus 48

Magmus, St. Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, John of Seville, in addition to their claims that proved his universality we have Roger Bacon who labeled him ―The chief authority in philosophy after Aristotle, and Aquinas who was respected him well. He stated that

―Avicenna and Averroes were lights from the East for the schoolmen, who cited them next the Greeks in authority‖ (Ghazanfer 6).

Ibn Sina (370/980 –428/1037) known in the west as Avicenna and in Islamic world Shikh al-Rais, ―Leader among Wise Men‖, is a famous Islamic philosopher and scientist from Bukhars where he received his initial education, he has traveled from place to another when the trouble lunched in Asia, he moved from Persia to Rai after that to Hamadar where he died (Nasr, Science 48). He considered as an Islamic authority despite of the dispute of his time, he wrote a huge number of books with a large length since he is a miracle of his age. Actually, his authority appeared through the writing of his master piece The Canon of Medicine which is not just the basis of the

Islamic medicine yet it translated into other languages as Latin to be studied in the west, as it led to the creation of European Renaissance, as well as the Book of Healing (kitab al-shifa), a monumental encyclopedia, which compromised different fields as philosophy, logic, mathematic and natural sciences. (Nasr, Science 48-49)

Some of the sections of the Book of Healing were translated into Latin during the Sixth/Twelfth century (Nasr, Science 49). Because the word al-shifa like the

Hebrow word ―shef‖ in the meaning of sufficiency the result of that the word was known in Latin as ―Sufficientia‖. Besides, Avicenna had a great effect in the orient and the occident as well. First, he had captured all the intellectual domains as in philosophical thought and medical sciences it continued till nowadays. In the west he was labeled as ―the prince of physicians ― since his medicine had a deep influence on

Europe for a long time, as well as his philosophical and theological thoughts have 49 witnessed an obvious impact upon a greatest philosophers and scholars such as Alberts

Magnus, St. Thomas Acquiesce, Duns Scotus and Roger Bacon (Nasr, Science 49).

The father of modern medicine known in the occident ibn the Sina, mastered in psychological treatment as emotion. He was the leader of psychological psychosomatic medicine through advancing in the system of the deep feelings, which derived from Carl

Jung (Mohamed 5). More, he was the first who described numerous neuropsychaiatri conditions involving insomnia, hallucinations, nightmare, dementia, epilepsy, stroke, paralysis, vertigo, melancholia, and tremors, as a result George Sulton had claimed in his work The Introduction to the History of Sciences, that ―One of the most famous exponent of Muslims universalism and an ancient figure in Islamic Learning was Ibn

Sina , known in the west as Avicenna (Mohamed 5). For a thousand years he has retained his original renown as one of the greatest thinker and medical scholars in history. His most important medical works are the Qanun (Canon) and a treatise on

Cardiac drugs. (Mohamed 6) The Qanun fil al-tibb is an immense encyclopedia of medicine .It contains some of the most illuminating thoughts pertaining to distinctions of mediastinitis from pleunisy; contagious nature of phthisis, distribution of diseases by water and soil; carful description of skin troubles; of sexual diseases and perversions, of nervous ailments (Qanun :Law of Medicine). This work involved 14-volume medical encyclopedia about a benefit instructions, description an illness and its treatments, for that it taken as the basis of studies in many medical schools such as the University of

Montpellier, France (bir wa‘l-ithm). In 411/1020 ibn Sina wrote his famous book of

Perapatetic philosophy (Mohamed 5-6).

Ibn Sina had published his first works at the age of twenty one in 391. His achievements were named kitab al-mujmu in mathematics kitab al-hasil wa‘l-mahsul in sciences about twenty volumes and in ethics kitab al- shifa then al-Qanun fil-tibb in 50 addition to other treaties as Risal al-fil wa‘l-infial and a Risalahfi sin al qadar, which later on formed the ground for studying many intellectual fields in Eastern and Western world such as philosophy, sciences and religion (Nasr, Introduction 178). For example philosophy compromised Shifa,the Najat, the Danishnama-yi‘ala I, al—Isharat wal- tanbihat, as well as different treaties in logic and philosophy. The religious field includes commentaries in different Surahs of the Quran for instance Surat al-ikhlas,

Surat al-nas and Surat al-a‘la (Nasr, Introduction 178).

V.2.Ibn Rushd:

Abu Alwalid Mohamed Ibn Rushd the test theorist philosopher from Cordoba born in 1126,and died in 1198, Ibn Rushd as the bridge yransmited family knowledge to medieval Islam and Europe played a notable work in creating Western renaissance for was known as ― the land mark in the history of western civilization‖ (Ghazanfer 7)

.Moreover, Ibn Rushd came from a well respected since his Grandfather was the Imam of Cordoba mosque, and his father was local judge he has a significant works as: a seven volume ,medical encyclopedia Kitab al koliyate fil-tib, in Latin Colligete a coporrupion of the word Kulliyate, meaning generalities, in addition to his commentaries on Aristotle which were taught in European Universities (Ghazanfar 7-8).

Actually, ibn Rushd Aristotle‘ commentaries has received a great acceptance in the west since it was translated into Latin and Hebrew and then it had spread into different universities, not only at Niples where ST. Thomas studied, but to others as well Paris and Banta that became the hot of Averroism, after that his impact on the west progressed to dominate European social thought. Besides his school of thought became the predominate one of the Spanish Muslims and to Talmudist then it moved to

Christian clergy, yet it faced strong Orthodox reaction during the 12th and the 16th century (Ghazanfar 8-9). 51

Ibn Rushd, Averoes in the west, studied law and Medicines in Cordoba, where he born then he traveled to Marakech to complete his education where he mastered in philosophy (Nasr, Science 53). However, he judged for his philosophical concepts, yet he retained his dignity. Moreover, he experimented too in the medical commentaries of

Aristotal for that St. Thomas called him ―the Commentator and Dant‖ among H.A

Wolfson, a philosopher among the leaders of Aristotle commentaries, suggested that these works include 83 commentaries in addition to several treaties. (Nasr, Science 54)

As well as he wrote other notable woks in Astronomy, physics and specially in

Medicine such as The Incoherence of the Incoherence when he reacts against the attacks of al-Ghazali in philosophy. Moreover, his intellectual influence on the west had received a great attention, since he preserved his works in Latin and Hebrew, instead of the Arabic one, but these translations of his works did not end up in the 7th century, it continued up till the 10th century, since his commentaries created a controversial subject for European philosophers (Nasr, Science 53-54).

V.3.Al Biruni:

Abou Raihan Al-Biruni, born in 362/973, and died 1142/1051, one of the

Muslims prominent figures in the intellectual thought from khawaridm, where he crafted in the Mathematics, his works had passed one hundred eight (Nasr,Cosmological

50). For instance, his India described the Hindi culture namely the religion sciences and customs, his chronology of Ancient Nations affirmed the unity of the calendar and celebrations in many countries his masterpiece Canon Of al-Masaudi, has dominated the same position as that of The Canon of Ibn Sina in Medical science. Indeed, his Element of Astrology is considered as the basis ground of Quadrivium for many centuries, in addition he mastered too, many other scientific fields such as physics, Geography,

Mineralogy, and Mathematics with its two branches Astronomy and Astrology (Nasr, 52

Cosmological 51). Moreover, his geniality made him a mere case amongst his fellows, but his was unfortunate because, his works were not translated into Latin, unlike the way in the Orient, where it was well received (Nasr, Cosmological 50-51).

Al Burani wrote significant works where he journeyed from one place to another. For example, in 390/1000 wrote notable work al-Ather,al-baqiya. Al burani‘s life had faced a political disorder in central Asia and Persia, this led him to draw his attention into Mathematics and Astronomy, then towards Chronology and History, after that to Optics, Medicine, Mineralogy and Pharmacology, in which he wrote Kitab al-

Saidana(alsaidla) . Furthermore, he mastered in his philosophical studies particularly in the anti-Aristotelian philosophy of different philosophers, as Mohamed Ibn Zakaria Al razi. Besides, his famous works that still in use up today Al-Ather al- Baqiyat,

India,Kitab al-tafhim, Kitab al-jamahir fi maarifat al jawahir, Alqanon al masoudi, the updated works kitab al saidanah, and kitab tahdid nihayat al Amakine, in addition to various treaties about Geography and Astronomy (Nasr, Introduction 108-110).

Conclusion:

To sum up, Muslims created a golden age of human history in Spain through developing its sciences. The Islamic knowledge transmitted into Europe through different sources as translation. Indeed, the universality of the Islamic sciences and figures contributed to the development of western thoughts and knowledge. While many scholars deny this reality as Lewis Bernard there were other Islamic and western scholars affirmed this Islamic contribution as Sayyed Houssein Nasr.

53

Chapter Three

.

Sayyed Housein Nasr Vs Bernard Lewis: Comparative Study

Introduction:

In the western world, different scholars and philosophers suggested that the

Islamic civilization did not participate on the development of the western world.

Nevertheless, many Islamic and western scholars affirmed that the Islamic civilization owes a great deal to the advancement of western sciences, thoughts and technologies.

This chapter deals with the writings of Bernard Lewis and his claims. Initially, it examines the negative perception of Lewis to the Islamic civilization through his claims that it was based only on the summary and interpretations of the achievements of ancient civilizations. After that this chapter moves to deal with the Arabic translations which was suffered from the ‗mistakes‘ and ‗misunderstanding‘ from Lewis‘s view point. In spite of that, Lewis‘s belongs to the group of Orientalists who were subjective and most of them were biased writers. As a result, he rejected firmly any Islamic contributions to the west and believed that western advancement is based only on the

Greco-Roman civilizations where they have created strong relations.

This chapter highlights the reaction of Nasr to the claims of Lewis through his writings that the western civilization is based on the original Islamic achievements in 54 medicine, mathematics and alchemy which was derived from the Islamic traditions; the

Quran and Hadith. However, he did not deny the Islamic borrowing from ancient civilizations which were integrated into the Islamic one after many changes and modifications. Accordingly, he criticized the principles and bases of the Orientalists who were characterized by many qualities as subjectivity and incredibility.

I/ The Contributions of the Islamic civilization to the development of the west:

As a matter of fact Muslims transmitted their original achievements to European libraries through the translations of the Islamic thoughts. Muslims have translated many ancient works of other civilizations as the Greek into different Islamic languages.

Moreover, from an early period to the present days, different Arabic manuscripts, sciences, and knowledge are preserved in the western libraries. However, the Islamic interest in the divine reality led to the development of the scientific thoughts in the

Islamic world during the 8thto the 15th century yet Europeans were suffered the ignorance of the Dark Ages. More importantly, the western world witnessed its development only after the transmitting of the sciences of Islamic civilization from

Spain, where Muslims created their golden age, but did not enjoy this advancement before that period; therefore they have already captured the works of Galileo and other ancient non-Muslim scholars (Faruqi 398).

Western scholars denied the fact that Muslims throughout history participated in the development of the west in many domains. This view was advocated by Bernard

Lewis in his different writings as his famous book The Arabs in History where he stated that the Islamic civilization is merely based on the summary and interpretations of the ancient civilizations. More, in his book Islam and The West, affirmed that Arabic translations into western languages suffered from the mistakes and misunderstanding. 55

Consequently it did not contribute to the western sciences and thoughts. Furthermore, in his article ―The Question of Orietalism‖ he stated that Europe did not benefit from the

Islamic and Arabic sciences; instead of that, it was based on the Greco-Roman achievements through creating strong relations.

Unquestionably, many Islamic scholars stressed the idea that the development of western civilization could not have been successful without the contributions of the

Islamic sciences and knowledge. One of those scholars is Sayyed Housein Nasr in his master piece Science and Civilization in Islam. In this book, he highlighted that the universal sciences and knowledge come from Islamic origins such as medicine, alchemy, and mathematics. Yet he did not deny the Islamic borrowing from other civilizations as the Greek but Muslims created, developed, and modified different sciences. More, in his monumental book entitled Traditional Islam in The Modern

World, proved that the Islamic traditions the Quran and Hadith were the sources of the advancement of the modern western sciences. His book Religion and the Order of

Nature where he stated that the Islamic view of nature caused the development of western sciences. Moreover, in his book Islamic Life and Thought criticized the

Orientalists for being subjective in their writings and stated that most of them were biased.

II. Lewis’s Writings:

II.1.Lewis’s Perception of the Islamic Civilization:

The Islamic Empire which was established in the near and Middle East created a great civilization with Arabic touch. This civilization was not as a result of the Arab works in the Arabian Peninsula but it was appeared after their expeditions to the different parts of the world such as Persia and Egypt, in addition to that it was not merely the product of the Muslims. Undeniably, Christians, Jews and Zoroastrians owe 56 the great deal in the birth of this civilization without ignoring the role of the Islamic faith and Arabic language in the progress of this civilization. Indeed, Arabic language is considered as the most significant Semitic language of the citizens of North Arabia, who were characterized by lower education, limited culture, and unwritten traditions

.However , they have developed their Arabic poetry which reflected their real life

―Bedouins‖. After that, the Arabic language dominated different cultures (Lewis, Arabs

142).

The Arabs shifts their attention into different areas, where they borrowed new terminologies and expressions and created new meanings to the old words, in order to trace the importance of their language (Lewis, Arabs 142). After the fall of the Arabic

Kingdom, the Arabic language played a great role in revival of the Arabic culture through the classical poetic style. More, in the eleventh century the Arabic language became the most significant instrument for collecting knowledge as it illuminated other ancient languages as Coptic, Aramaic, Greek and Latin (Lewis, Arabs 143-144).

In the Arabian Peninsula, Islam established a unifying civilization based on it religion. The Quranic and the prophetic tradition introduced the Sharia which dominated all the aspects of life. Indeed, Muslims have built their civilization upon the heritage of the old civilizations as the Persian and Geek in addition to other theological terms from Hebrew and Syriac. In philosophy and sciences they borrowed the Greek terminology (Lewis, Arabs 144). Yet the Arabs have excelled in literature through the poetry by producing the ‗allied‘ which was codified for future development .During the

Abbasid dynasty, Muslims developed their poetry through the works of the blind Bashar ibn Burd who modified and changed the pre-Islamic models (Lewis, Arabs 146).

Actually, these achievements were limited to the needs of their leaders and Caliphs in addition to the work of Al-Mutanabbi (950-65) that was appreciated by the Arabs 57

(Lewis, Arabs 147). In prose, Muslims received a significant Arabic document, the

Quran, from which they developed their rhymed prose through the achievements of

Amr ibn Bahr labeled as al-Jahiz, from Basra. Moreover, Muslims were interested in the

Islamic history which records the message of God for humanity, after that produced different historical works but it was limited to one source book. Ibn Khaldun(1332-

1406) who was developed some historical works and was considered as a greatest

Muslim historian of the Arabs and the Middle Ages as well (Lewis, Arabs 147). More,

Muslims were influenced by the theological literature of the Christians, Jewish and

Greek, this later was specialized in philosophy as well as different sciences such as mathematic, geography, astronomy, physics, and medicine (Lewis, Arabs 144-147).

The greatest attention of Muslims in the translation from the Greek books created a deep interest for learning during the ninth and the tenth century, particularly when the movement of translation was lunched under the Umayyads dynasty. Initially

Muslims began by translating works of chemistry, the ancient achievements of Greek

Coptic, and then they moved to medicine where they translated books from Syriac into

Arabic as they established the basis for their medical science (Lewis, Arabs 148).

Despite the fact that the translators were not from Islamic origin instead of that they were from Christian and Jews. There were greatest interests in the process of translation since he established a school for translations in Baghdad with its library for instance

Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809-77) was considered as the greatest Christian translator of that period. Through the translation of the Corpus of Galen and other works as well. The rulers or Caliphs formulated some expeditions for scholars and thinkers to different places as Byzantium in order to obtain manuscripts, several translators published works.

Consequently the Islamic civilization based on summarizing and interpretations of the ancient civilization mainly the Greek one (Lewis, Arabs 144-148). 58

During the Renaissance and the Reformation Ages, Arabic was considered as the most significant translated language in the western world. For example, the first book was translated from Arabic into Latin The Dictes and Sayings of the Philosophy printed in 1477 in addition to another work during the eleventh and the twelfth century The

Kitab Mukhtar al-Hikam wa-Mahasin al-Kilam by Mubashir ibn Fatik (Lewis, West

61). Indeed, translation from Arabic passed into two main elites, the first one was specialized in the translation from Arabic into other Islamic languages, as the Persian and Turkish mainly books of religion, law, and history. The second group was interested in the translation from Arabic into the foreign languages or non-Muslim languages as Hebrew, Latin, and other western languages. Their translations included books on philosophy, theology, science, and medicine (Lewis, west 62). Moreover, the recent translations in were motivated by the movement of Orientalists from early period of Renaissance and Reformation till now. Several translators helped to translate Arabic works into Latin in order to facilitate its uses later via retranslating these works into their own languages. The German scholar Reiske at first stick his attention in philosophy and theology in addition to other historical works which came after a little time when he formulated a great contributions to European historical studies (Lewis, west 63).The Oriental Christian text played a great role in transmitting the Islamic works into Europe before the tenth century , as well as a great number appeared after the nineteenth century through different sources; the Crusades and the Muslims conquests in Spain , Sicily and many parts of the world .Indeed, all of these translations were characterized by mistakes, misunderstanding, and misinterpretations that participated in formulating a small part of the western knowledge(Lewis, west 64).

However, in literature, the first translated work was A Thousand and One Nights by

Antoine Galland in 1704, in addition to other literary works translated by different 59 scholars such as Sir William Jones at the late of the nineteenth century, the great attention played to Arabic was from the scholars and little or no literary interest since it was theoretical and little practice. Actually, this lesser interest in Arabic language was a result of the Bonaparte‘s expedition to Egypt which gave the opportunity for the

Europeans to involve in the Arabic speaking lands (Lewis, west 61-64)

After the rise of the process of translation, the Muslims elites appeared at the scene and marked the emergence of famous Muslims figures namely al-Razi (Rhase),

Ibn Sina and al-Biruni who mastered different domains for that was one of the most notable figure of medieval Islam (Lewis, Arabs 148). While Muslims did not concentrated on the Greek theory, they covered it through practice. In other sciences such as mathematics, physics, and chemistry, Muslims created an original contribution for instance, the Arabic numerals, a system of positional numbering mainly the use of zero, which is attributed to India, yet it was involved in mathematic by the Muslims of the Middle East after that it was transmitted to Europe. Muslims developed the mathematical branches namely algebra, geometry, and trigonometry .In philosophy,

Muslims have based on the Aristatolian translation under the reign of Al-Mamun but later on based on the works of the Muslims philosophy and theology such as Al-Kindi ,

Al-Farabi, ibn Sina and ibn Rushed (Lewis, Arabs 149). In addition to this they developed the Greco-Roman art and architecture by reformulating a more aesthetic one.

In arts, Iranian and Chinese had a great effect upon the Islamic arts since Muslims borrowed the raw material from China and Iran then reshaped it into new original things, the good evidences is the Umayyad‘s castles in Syria as well as other objects in

Iraq and Egypt. Actually, Muslims mastered in their poetic achievements which spread from Iran to Spain as well as their craftsmen who advanced the arts of metal, wood, stone, and glass through imitating and borrowing methods from ancient civilizations 60 then recreating and developing a greatest achievements (Lewis, Arabs 150). Moreover,

Muslims recognized the form of books with title subject beginning and end later with illustrations, since at first the Arabic works was published only in its oral form, after that it established the written form as, drafts, lectured, dictated, employed announces and the most significant form is books, indeed this creation was motivated by the

Chinese introduction of paper during the eighteenth century. Furthermore, the Greek heritage helped Muslims to shift their attention to both learning and refreshing the

Islamic initiative of religious thought. Muslims created different cultures which influenced the humanity thanks to the success of the purely Islamic schools (Lewis,

Arabs 148-151).

II. 2.Lewis and his Oriental perspectives:

The Orientalists were criticized by different disciplines. Many Arab writers rejected their doctrines and approaches through different works. Indeed the appropriate illustration published an article by a Coptic sociologist living in Paris Anour Abdel-

Malek, who published in the UNESCO journal Diogenes in 1963, in his an article entitled ―Orientalism in Crisis‖ .He stated that the Orientalists are ―Europocentric‖ they had no interest in the achievements of the Afro-Asiatic world, they stick their minds on the ancient history and denied the recent one that represent the Oriental people.

Orientalists were against the social sciences mainly the Marist methodology. Second group which criticized the Orientalists were the Marxists, since they suggest that there were Oriental conceptions that led to their disappearance, yet they did not ignore the

Oriental doctrine or Orthodoxy, indeed a suitable example which applied their works is

Perry Anderson‘s perceptive book entitled The Lineages of The Absolutist State in which he dealt with the Islamic matters in general and the Middle East in particular. In addition to the work of the Marxist scholars such as Marxism Rodinson in France and 61

Petrusheusky in Russia had a great impact to Middle Eastern history through their contributions but they owe a great respect for fellow Marxists with other conceptions of scholarship. Moreover, the most significant exponent of anti-Orientalism in the United

States is Edward Said through his significant work Orientalism published in 1978.The thesis of this work is that thesis is ‖Orientalism derives from a particular choosiness experienced between Britain and France and the Orient, which until the early nineteenth century had really meat only India and the Bible lands‖(Lewis, Islam 107). In order to affirm his thesis he recognized the geography and the history of Orientalism through modifying and changing the real time of the development of the Arabic studies in

Britain and France after to their expansion of the Arab world‘s; however, this studies established before that time. Furthermore, he believed that Orientalism is used as a means for Imperialism and he concluded that ‗knowledge was as a source of power‘

(Lewis, Islam 106-108).

There was a debate in the transitions of the Middle Eastern knowledge into the western world. Edward Said stated that the knowledge of the East was acquired and transmitted to the West by their ‗visitors‘. The British and French colonies occupied the east and learned their language and culture, after that the Germans established their work of ―refinement and elaboration.‖ However, his ideas result a controversial issue about the luck of knowledge in the western sphere. Indeed, he did not state the development of the Eastern knowledge in the west directly by some accurate words

.However; Said affirmed that ―scholarship and science are commodities which exist in finite quantities; the west has grabbed an unfair share of these as well as other resources, learning the east not only impoverished but also unscholarly and unscientific‖ (Lewis, Islam 108). In addition to that, Said argued that Orientalism used by the west as a mean of imperialism and he over viewed that knowledge is the source 62 of power (Lewis, Islam 109). Moreover, Said in also depicted a misinterpretations, mistakes and allusions of the historical events consequently, he stated that Muslim armies captured Turkey before they conquered North Africa, this statement is equal to change the date of the civil war before the Norman conquest (Lewis, Islam 109).

Furthermore, Said has changed or modified these historical events in order to prove his thesis as he reduced the Germanic contributions to the Arabic studies after the French and English colonialism to the Arabs lands, which is a great mistake (Lewis, Islam 108-

109).

In fact, the Oriental knowledge that refer to is from India, since the European studies about Islam is rarely to mentioned, for instance the French poet Schwab who used the word ―Renaissance‖ to perform the Indian studies in Europe .Through the participations of the British and French scholars as well as the great role played by the

Germans in creating a unique knowledge based in the Indian language, culture and religious. The work of the scholar Schwap had a great impact on the writings of

Orientalism and anti-Orientalism, since it is appropriate for any time and place instead of that of Said which considered as a rational to the Arabic studies in the west where was not ignored (Lewis, Islam 110). Therefore, the western Indian relations were established recently and the Islamic western one were created since the Middele Ages as well as the Islamic European relations have been regulated but it is not equal to the

Indian European ones. While, the period of the European occupation to Islamic and

Arabic lands lasted in some cases a long time but western scholars did not benefited from the Islamic knowledge as that of the Indian contributions to Europe (Lewis, Islam

108-111).

Orientalists dealt with both worlds; the occidental and the western. In the west mainly Europe and America they were interested in various cultures such as Chinese, 63

Japanese, Indian and Indonesian. However in the Eastern sphere they focused on the

Arabic studies which involved Turkish and Persian and many other areas. Besides, there were various perceptions about the attitudes of Oriental scholars concerning those regions. In the west, particularly in China and India did not admired the Orientalistic attitudes since it varied from time to another, but for the orient , the Arabs converted different negative perceptions to the Orientalists through formulating a controversial issues. Actually, this negative reaction against the Orientalists was dominated all the

Arabs countries by the ―Saidian and related schools‖ which had a great deal in teaching to via the Arab students as well as published their works and critics into the Arab lands.

This Arabic reactions led to the creation of different issues represented by the anti-

Orientalism studies that the Orientalists searching for the knowledge in the Oriental lands in order to colonize them directly or indirectly as in the Marxist beliefs but this statement is false since if it is true why the western studies of the Islamic and Arabic culture began before that time as well as, why this Eastern studies developed and progressed in the Europe and did not faced this advancement before that time in Arabs lands and why western scholars owe a great help to reformulate and recreate the early

Eastern civilization which was seemed died in its mother land?( Lewis, ‖Orientalism‖

17).

Furthermore, the Orientalists were accused of being biased with other peoples, mainly Oriental peoples, who were studying their cultures. While this issue of bias created a problem for Oriental scholars in their evaluation of the other cultures but it is a human quality, any writer is available for being biased (Lewis, ‖Orientalism 17). In fact, the issue of scholarly merit is a debatable issue which includes too the writings of Said that lack the objectivity (Lewis, ‖Orientalism‖ 16-18). 64

Many western scholars advocated the critique of Bernard Lewis as Hsu-Ming

Teo. In fact Teo believed that the reaction of Lewis to Said was not as a result of the attack of Said but it was arrived from the real meaning of the‖Orientalism‖ according to

Teo Orientalism means the process of transformation and it has various meaning, before the publication of the Said‘s book Orientalism: Western Conceptions of The

Orient (1978), it means the study of the languages and cultures of the Middle East, after that it referred to the European process for securing their colonies in the Oriental world

(Teo 2). Moreover, the views of Lewis had a significant impact on the world through his prominent books, particularly in the crises of the Middle East (Teo 6). Said was described as ―the most significant intellectual influence behind the invasion of Iraq―

(Teo7). The US Vice-president Dick Cherrey (2006) claimed that he is a most prominent historian of the Middle East from the ancient period till the contemporary one , in addition the president George Bush appreciated his intellectuality (Teo 7).

Furthermore, David koph (1980) affirmed that the view of anti-Orientalism was personal and objective and formulated a negative reaction against the western world .In addition , Lewis was unsatisfied by the work of Said especially when he excluded the

German, Austria, and Russsian scholars from being involved in the coloniztion of the

Oriental world, and he claimed that Orientalism spread well into the west because of its reductively, polemic and simplicity , Lewis‘s critique was as a result of Said‘s misunderstanding, and mistakes since all of the ‖Ideologists‖ , ―Sinologists‖ , and‖

Arabists‖ ignored Orientalism from early time (Teo 2-11).

III. Nasr’s Writings:

III.1.Nasr and Islamic Origin of Universal sciences and Knowledge:

The Islamic Tradition is based on the significant source the Quaranic and Hadith

.The Quranic document which represent the sacred God‘s internal words, which was 65 later on interpreted through both sides internal and external sides. For Hadith the traditional school accepted the Sihah of the Sunni world and The Fourth Book of shiism in which formulated the basis for future knowledge, as well as the prophetic knowledge was accepted by the Islamic traditions since it shares the same meaning as of the revelation in addition to the modern western religious thought (Nasr, Traditional 14)

.Actually, the traditional Islamic school are theology, philosophy, and science and it was not at the same importance, those schools used as the sign for knowing the universal Islamic thoughts as well as it they had a great impact on the development of modern western thoughts (Nasr, Traditional 16).The difference between traditional

Islam and its counter is very obvious but the recent fundamentalism movement agrees with the modernism in some bases principles particularly modern sciences and technologies. Those traditionalists advocated the fact that the Islamic sciences contributed to form the basis for future developments .Therefore the origins and nature of Islamic science and thought are different in some way with that modern sciences in

Christian countries. Actually, they adopted the same attitude and method as the one of modernists in their searching of knowledge such as the form of modern government.

Despite the fact that western modern technology hardens the soul and the mind of

Muslims since they adopted blindly without paying attention to its results (Nasr,

Traditional 19).Since the ancient roots of the Islamic civilization, Muslims interested in the beauty, the Quranic and Hadith texts emphasized on love and beauty which led to the formulation of the Islamic arts which in turn influenced the Islamic sciences (Nasr,

Traditional 14-20).

The Islamic view of nature had a great impact upon the development of the modern studies. Islam used as instrument for the progress of the scientific tradition of

Greco-Alexandrian mainly the science of nature which played a significant role in the 66 western sciences. Nevertheless, Islam as any other religious tradition is based on the principles of the order of nature in the building of their natural sciences, through integrating the Islamic view of nature with the modernistic views (Nasr, Nature 60).

Furthermore, Islamic faith contributed to the progress of various schools of thought, theological, philosophical, scientific and mystical all of them are depicted from the order of nature .Nevertheless, different Islamic scholars and philosophers developed those schools for instance Ibn Sinna Al-Ghazzali , Nasr Al-Dinal-Tusi, Al-Biruni.

Indeed, the order of nature came from the order of the ―Divine Wisdom‖. Consequently the Quranic verses affirmed that the nature is dependent to the order of God as well as the ―Divine Will‖ (Nasr, Nature 60-62). a. Medicine:

Islamic civilization characterized by its advancement in medical sciences which represents the most prominent domains in the Muslims sciences. Indeed, Islamic medical science played a great role in the development of western medicine beginning by the Middle Ages and passed to the Renaissance. The Islamic medical knowledge ended it uses in the western world only before a century ago. However, in the eastern world, it still used as the basis for their medical school. The Islamic schools of medicine traced the great importance in the field excelled too to create a deep connection with other sciences as philosophy (Nasr, Science 184). Medicine and physics had been integrated under the same woven since both of them presented in one branch for that reason the ―wise men‖ or ―hakim‖ played a significant role in the transmission of

Islamic science, he mastered also in physics. Actually, the famous Islamic physicians and philosophers as Avicenna and Averroes were masters in the medical science through their achievements (Nasr, Science 184). However, Muslims did not ignore their influence of medical science of the ancient civilizations for that Nasr stated that. 67

Initially, Muslims have translated some medical texts into Arabic as the work of Ibn –

Muqaffa who established the translation from Pahlavi into Arabic as well as the work of

Yahya, the Barmacid, who was responsible for translating the achievements of Indian medicine into Arabic. Furthermore, the famous Muslim translator was Hunain ibn Ishaq who worked in the translation of the Greek works into Syriac and his students continued this translation into Arabic. Second, Muslims borrowed some medical sciences from pervious civilizations since they translated their medical science from different languages into Arabic such as Latin, Pahlavi, and Sanskrit (Nasr, Science 197). For instance the work of Ali Ibn Rabban-al-Tabari, who converted to Islam, wrote his master piece which entitled Paradise of Wisdom (Firdaus al-hikmah) in 236/850 (Nasr,

Science 184-196). b. Alchemy:

The western influence by Arabic and the Islamic Alchemy established in 6th/12th century the basis of the western alchemy was the Latin authority The Turba philosophorum which involves the principles of alchemy through the collection of the achievements of the nine Greek philosophers namely Iximidrus, Exumdrus,

Anaxagoras, Pandulfus, Arisleus, Lucas, Locustor, Pitagoras and Eximemrs. Indeed, there were different evidences that the Turba is from Arabic origin such as Martin

Plurn, the contemporary expert in the history of alchemy, who viewed that the Turba is the translating work of the book entitled The Controversies and Conferences

Philosophers by the Egyptian alchemist Uthman ibn al Swyaid (Nasr, Science 283). In fact, this work was poor from the numerical and alphabetic symbols which attributed to the Jabirian alchemy (Nasr, Science 284) .During the seventeenth century, the western alchemy become equal to the Islamic. Yet the only difference was in the language of

Muslims in one side and the Christian in the other side (Nasr, Science 284). 68

Furthermore, there is no evidence to the contribution of the Islamic tradition to western alchemy through the works of Nicolas Flamel The Hieroglyphical Figures which represented the Christian Hermeticism. In this book he tackled the relationship between the element of alchemy and animal symbolism (Nasr, Science 286). Famel‘s symbols reflected the same meaning that were faced in the Islamic works since the science of alchemy has a deep connection with Nature and it is different from modern chemistry in its purpose and methodology (Nasr, Science 283-292). c. Mathematics:

Islamic mathematic is equal to the Latin Quadrivium in addition to other subjects. Mathematic was divided into several branches as arithemetic, geometry, astronomy and music. Undeniably, Muslims have excelled in this domain such as Ibn

Sina, Al-Farabi and Al-Ghazali as they published greatest works and treaties about the relationship between music and the soul. Astronomy which is one branch of mathematics is divided into certain fields as astrology in which Muslims solved many problems as that of chronology, calendar, the accurate direction of Mecca, the exact time of prayer (Nasr, Science 147). All the Indian text contributed to the development of algebra system, in fact its origin attributed to the Muslims since they have mastered in their achievements as their use of the Arabic numerals. Moreover, Muslims were influenced by the Indian and Greek mathematics which integrated it in their mathematical science, this in turn contributed to the advancement of the western science

(Nasr, Science 148). Islamic mathematics established through the work of Muhammad ibn al-Khawarizmi who has unified the works of India and Greek. For instance The

Book of Summary in The Process of Calculation for Compulsion and Equation was translated into Latin many times under title of Liber Algorismi, known as‖ the book of al-Khawarismi‖which is the source of ―algorism‖ ( Nasr, Science 149). Al kindi too 69 excelled in mathematic after al-Khawarismi by a centry through his treaties and books as well as his student Ahmed al-Sarakhsi who mastered in geography, music and astrology. In addition to the work of al- Mahani in solving Archimedes problems and the famous Islamic family ―Bun Musa‖ where the three sons mastered in mathematics

Muhammed, Ahmed and Hasan (Nasr, Science 147-149).

III.2.Nasr and Oriental Perspectives:

Muslims scholars and students questioned the real connection between the

Islamic tradition in philosophy and methods and that of the western educational system.

In fact, there were existing two different educational systems in the Muslim world that separated between western minorities and majorities. Both of them were based on the

Islamic tradition. However, the recent generation emphasized their education on the western sciences and philosophy this in return created obstacles for knowing the origin of this thought which is derived back to the Islamic tradition. Furthermore, several western Orientalists wrote on the subject of Islam but they rejected the Islamic faith through the publication of different works, indeed their productions were the basis for modern education even if it tackled the ignorance and distortion of Islam (Nasr,

Thought 31). Islamic religion must be revived by the Islamic scholars through translating the Islamic wisdom and tradition into modern languages since it distorted and derived by the western world (Nasr, Thought 32). The Oriental scholars produced a huge number of works about the Islamic studies not only in the west but also in the

Muslim countries. In fact there were many factors that led the increase of the

Orientalists works as the historical relation between Islam and Christianity, the

European fear towards the early Islamic domination of the Muslims and Islam and to

Indo-European people, since Islam the Semitic roots. Even if the Orientalists were subjective in their Islamic studies, as well as based their views upon the distortion, 70 misunderstanding of events, facts and interpretations, but they have played a role in the scientific and history of the Islamic world. While Orientalists have studied Islam by their point of view the Muslims scholars were responsible for the searching against those Orientalists scholars through learning and knowing all the Islamic tradition, civilization and wisdom via using the western languages, in order to respond strongly to those western scholars and present the Islamic cultures outside as well ( Nasr, Thought

31-33).

By the end of the eighteenth century, the Orientalists views dominated the western minds. Indeed; the principles of the Orientalists were based on the geographical imagination instead of the logic and realities. However, it is a dangerous dichotomy since it divided the world into two different parts; the eastern and the western. While, the oriental people captured the great part of the world they still seen as the inferior world (Lewis and Said, Radical 34). Furthermore, there were different cultures that led to this negative views to the occident such as religion, psychology and politic, but the most prominent factor was the Islamic fears this later threatened the Christian religion

(Lewis and Said, Radical 35). During the middle ages particularly the eighteenth century, the negative views of the western thoughts appeared through claiming that the prophet Muhammad is a layer, sexual and dishonest, all of this suggestion was as a result of the appearance of the new and strange religion based on ancient Greek sciences and thoughts as well as estimating their own faith from the clear, simple faith based on bride and participations. In fact, the reason behind the Christian negative perception toward Muslims and Islam is its near contacts with both faiths which arrived from its origin or roots, yet the westerns‘ fear continued even after the destruction of the Islamic civilization (Lewis and Said, Radical 35). Furthermore, many western scholars and writer reacted against the Islamic world and faiths as the work of Uobale who stated in 71 that the Islamic principles is poor from the intellectual meaning for that meaning was destroyed (Lewis and Said, Radical 34-37).1

After fifteen years ago of the publication of the Said‘s Orientalism, Lewis reacted to him through his work Islam and the West. Lewis criticized Said directly through one of his master piece as he suggested that Muslims were against modernism and they have never separated between the state and the religion well as the existence of certain differences between Muslims‘ traditions during the middle ages (Said,

Commentaries 117). His mistakes, misunderstandings on the interpretations of the facts and the distortion of the truth came from his ideological basis, this later considered as one of the Orientlistic qualities. Nonetheless, Lewis claimed that the Orientalist branch which is interested in the Arabic and Islamic educational system was classified as one of the traditional philology; therefore it is illogical. In spite of the fact that the European interest in the Islamic studies did not arrived from their curiosity but from Islamic threat to Christianity since Islam is the new religion that enjoyed by its culturally and military advancement (Said, Commentaries 119). Furthermore, many scholars affirmed that

European scholars came from a controversial discipline of the Middle Ages, their writings based on the threatening and distortion of Muslims and Islam. However, the most significant problem for Arabs and Muslims by Orientalism was its various forms which led in turn to the creation of strong relations between the Orientalists and its communities (Said, Commentaries 117-120).

Conclusion:

To sum up, the Islamic contributions to the development of western sciences and thoughts considered as a debatable issue for many western scholars. As a matter of fact many western scholars believed that Europe did not benefit from the Islamic civilization

1 It is noteworthy to mention that some paragraphs are translated by the research from Arabic to English. 72 as the claims of Bernard Lewis since he believed that the Islamic civilization based only on the interpretations and summaries of the pervious works. In contrary, different

Islamic and western scholars affirmed the great benefit in addition to the role of these contributions to advancement of modern western sciences as Sayyed Housein Nasr who reacted to them through strong historical and scientific evidences.

73

General Conclusions:

This research analyzed the contributions of the Islamic civilization to the advancement of the western world with a specific emphasis on the fact that the Islamic civilization was built upon the Islamic faith and Arabic language. In contrast, many western scholars and philosophers denied the Islamic contributions, yet other Islamic and even western scholars affirmed that the Islamic achievements participate in the development of western sciences, thoughts, and technologies.

This research attempted to highlight the historical background of Christian

Islamic relations which were generally characterized by acrimonies sometime, and give and take from the other side lasted from the early appearance of Islam during the 7thC till present days. These historical surveys helped the researcher to be aware about the most significant historical events that happened during this period between both worlds.

Furthermore, this research reveals the western perceptions of the appearance of Islam and the different aggressive attitudes used by the westerners to destroy the image of this

―new‖ religion.

This research attempted to cover scale, nature, and the most important Islamic contributions to the west which include many Islamic sciences as medicine, mathematics, geography, alchemy…, as well as the Islamic philosophy which played a great role in the development of the Western thoughts. Moreover, the research investigates the means by which to transmit all of the Islamic sciences and knowledge to the European countries and the different instruments were utilized as the translation from Arabic into Latin and other Western languages, trade, religious wars as the 74

Crusades and the western expeditions to the Islamic dynasties as the ones of Andalusia,

Sicily and southern part of Italy, and Baghdad.

This research proved that the Islamic contributions formed the basic ground for the future development, of the scientific enterprises through using theoretical, historical, and scientific evidences such as the use of some names and words in the western studies. Very important to be mentioned the Islamic achievements were still preserved in the European libraries. To advocate the idea that Muslims did not participate in the building of their civilization, Western scholars tried to label the universal Islamic figures with western names as Ibn Sina became Avecina, Ibn Rushd became Averroes and Ibn Al-Haithem became Al hazen. All these changes aimed at attributing their achievements to the West instead of the Islamic world.

In analyzing the subject, this research attempted to answer two main questions.

The research shows that the western views did not base on a strong evidences, for instance Bernard Lewis claimed that the Islamic civilization which depended only on the summaries and interpretations of the pervious civilizations us the Greek and Roman.

More, he denied any Islamic contribution since all what were transmitted were translated in a wrong way. In contrary, the Islamic views were built upon strong evidences as the writings of Sayyed Housein Nasr who was more logical and near to the truth since he was, to far extant, successful and scientific in his analyses through historical and scientific evidences in one hand, and the fact that he did not deny the contribution of the ancient civilization as the Greek to the development of Islamic achievements in other hand. Nasr put it clear when he said that the Islamic civilization took from all pervious civilizations, but respecting the Islamic ideology of the oneness of God ie adopting all the ideologies and sciences that do not contradict the unity of

God. 75

The research came to conclude that the Islamic civilization owes a great deal to the development of western scientific enterprise. More, the research affirmed different evidences about Islamic contributions. For example, if European scholars did not benefited from those contributions, why they did not witness this development before the progress of the Islamic civilization since they captured already the sciences and knowledge of the pervious civilizations as the Greek one.

76

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