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Surname, Initial(s). (2012) Title of the thesis or dissertation. PhD. (Chemistry)/ M.Sc. (Physics)/ M.A. (Philosophy)/M.Com. (Finance) etc. [Unpublished]: University of Johannesburg. Retrieved from: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Index?site_name=Research%20Output (Accessed: Date).
Motivations and Challenges of Developing Women’s Football Through Local Sports Events
Paulina Maria Ngubeni 201203826
School of Tourism and Hospitality, College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg
Supervisor: Professor T.M. Tichaawa
Co-supervisor: Dr P. Thomas
A Dissertation submitted to the College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg, in fulfilment for the requirement of the degree of Master in Tourism and Hospitality
Submitted: August 2018 PLAGIARISM DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis is my own original work, conducted under the supervision of Prof Tembi Tichaawa and Dr Peta Thomas. It is submitted for the degree of Master in Tourism and Hospitality in the College of Business and Economics at the University of Johannesburg. This work has not been submitted as part of a degree at another institution but it has informed the production of two journal articles written by the same author.
I know that plagiarism is wrong. Plagiarism is to use another’s work and to pretend that it is one’s own.
I have used the Harvard Method convention for citation and referencing. Each contribution to, and quotation in, this essay/assignment from the work(s) of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced.
This essay/assignment is my own work and has not been partially or wholly copied from another.
I have not allowed, and will not allow, anyone to copy my work with the intention of passing it off as his or her own work.
I acknowledge that copying someone else’s assignment or essay, or part of it, is wrong, and declare that this is my own work.
Signature: ______
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I wish to express my deepest gratitude to the following people My Co-supervisor, Dr P Thomas for her endless support and having mentored me since my second year while doing my undergraduate degree. I am thankful for her presence in my life, for having inspired me to study further and to face my fears and for always believing in me. I am most thankful for her support while undertaking this study where I would find myself second-guessing my ability, she has always found ways to lift me out of those dark moments. I am the woman I am today because you have allowed me to make mistakes and learn from them. My supervisor, Prof TM Tichaawa, I am thankful for the time and effort you have put in to ensuring that I complete this study. Your expertise and knowledge in the field of Sport Tourism has ensured that I had access to unlimited knowledge. Your passion and life story has been a motivation for me, and has assured me that I can make my dreams a reality. This journey has been one which I will always treasure and I have only seen further because I have been standing on the shoulders of giants, such as Prof Tichaawa and Dr Thomas. For the time that I was given by all those who participated in the study, your responses have made this study possible. My siblings for helping with data collection and for always keeping me motivated. The College of Business and Economics at the University of Johannesburg for awarding me the Supervisor-linked bursary. The National Research Foundation, for funding this study.
iii DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to my siblings, to whom I am grateful for their support.
iv ABSTRACT
This study departs from the premise that previous research, which focused on sport tourism participation, including motivation, has largely been conducted with specific reference to male dominated sport, particularly soccer. The purpose of this study was to investigate the motivations and challenges linked to women’s soccer in Gauteng province in South Africa and understand how this motivations influence the decision to participate in sport tourism activities.
This study adopted a mixed-methods approach, where quantitative data was collected at three different women’s soccer events in Gauteng, and qualitative interviews were conducted with key stakeholders directly involved in the advancement of women’s soccer. The study adopted the spatially based systematic sampling technique to collect the quantitative data and 167 useable surveys were collected. The five key stakeholders were purposely selected for the qualitative interviews, based on their role and involvement in women’s soccer. The study findings are based on the responses of the participants. The quantitative data was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS), and qualitative data was analysed using thematic content analysis where themes were identified and grouped together based on the responses.
The key findings of the study revealed socialising, and observing the skill of the players as some of the main motivations for attending women’s soccer events. In terms of challenges, it was noted that the late release of fixture dates, delays plans to attend women’s soccer events.
The study concluded that stakeholders directly involved in the advancement of women’s soccer need to work together to combat these challenges; furthermore, communities need to show more support for women’s soccer.
v TABLE OF CONTENTS
PLAGIARISM DECLARATIONii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSiii
DEDICATIONiv
ABSTRACTv
TABLE OF CONTENTSvi
LIST OF TABLESxi
LIST OF FIGURESxiii
LIST OF APPENDICESxiii
LIST OF ACRONYMSxiv
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY1
1.1 PREAMBLE1
1.2 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS3
1.2.1 Tourism3 1.2.2 Sport tourism3 1.2.3 Sport fan4 1.2.4 Motivation4 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT5
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES5
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY6
1.6 STRUCTURE OF THESIS7
1.7 SUMMARY7
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW8
2.1 INTRODUCTION8
vi 2.1.1 Tourism in South Africa linked to sport tourism events8 2.1.2 Relationship between sport and tourism11 2.1.3 Sport tourism definitions in context12 2.1.4 Overview of sport tourism12 2.1.5 Categories of sport tourism14 2.1.6 Sport tourism events16 2.1.7 Benefits of hosting events17 2.1.8 Sport tourism consumer motives19 2.1.9 Profiles of sport fans20 2.1.10 The 2010 FIFA World Cup as a catalyst for women’s sport25 2.2 WOMEN AND SPORTS28
2.2.1 Feminism and sport31 2.2.2 Women and soccer in Africa32 2.2.3 The historical development of women’s soccer in South Africa34 2.2.4 Women’s sport media coverage36 2.3 SUMMARY37
CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY39
3.1 INTRODUCTION39
3.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS39
3.3 BACKGROUND TO STUDY AREA39
3.4 RESEARCH DESIGN40
3.4.1 Research methodology41 3.4.2 Method and tools for data collection42 3.4.2.1 Primary data43 3.4.2.2 Secondary data43 3.4.3 Quantitative survey43 3.4.4 Qualitative survey44 3.4.5 Survey population44 3.4.5.1 Quantitative population44 3.4.5.2 Qualitative population45 3.4.6 Sampling procedure46 3.4.6.1 Quantitative survey46 3.4.6.2 Qualitative interviews47
vii 3.4.7 Qualitative trustworthiness48 3.4.8 Quantitative validity and reliability49 3.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS50
3.6 METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS50
3.6.1 Quantitative data50 3.6.2 Qualitative data50 3.7 SUMMARY51
CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION52
4.1 INTRODUCTION52
4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS52
4.2.1 Gender of respondents53 4.2.2 Age of respondents53 4.2.3 Ethnic group of respondents54 4.2.4 Income of respondents55 4.2.5 Educational level of respondents56 4.2.6 Home province of respondents57 4.2.7 Employment status of the respondents58 4.3 MARKETING OF WOMEN’S SOCCER EVENTS59
4.4 FREQUENCY OF ATTENDANCE AT WOMEN’S SOCCER EVENTS60
4.5 INTEREST IN WOMEN’S SOCCER61
4.5.1 Interest in support for growth in South African women’s soccer61 4.5.2 Interest in soccer as a recreational activity62 4.5.3 Interest in women’s soccer63 4.6 PERCEPTIONS ABOUT WOMEN’S SOCCER63
4.6.1 Perceptions regarding support for women’s soccer64 4.6.2 Perceptions about fun at women’s sport events68 4.6.3 Perceptions of spectator support for women’s soccor69 4.6.4 Perceptions about professionalism in women’s soccer71 4.7 WOMEN’S SOCCER DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES72
4.8 WOMEN’S SOCCER FUNDING CHALLENGES74
viii 4.9 SOCCER KNOWLEDGE AND MOTIVATION76
4.9.1 Relaxation as motivation to attend women’s football events78 4.9.2 Socialising motivation to attend women’s football events79 4.9.3 Skill as a motivation to attend women’s football events81 4.10 LEGACY OF THE 2010 FIFA WORLD CUP84
4.11 VALIDITY ANALYSIS85
4.11.1 Perceptions of women’s soccer85 4.11.2 Women’s soccer challenges87 4.11.3 Decision making about attending a women’s soccer match89 4.11.4 Sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup91 4.12 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS93
4.13 GROUP COMPARISONS94
4.13.1 Perceptions of women’s football and gender94 4.13.2 Decision making about attending a women’s soccer match and gender95 4.13.3 Sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup and gender95 4.13.4 Decision making about attending a women’s soccer match and education level95 4.13.5 Perceptions of women’s football and age96 4.13.6 Sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup and age96 4.14 KEY STAKEHOLDER PERCEPTIONS96
4.14.1 Challenges of advancing women’s football in Gauteng96 4.14.2 Strategies to advance women’s soccer99 4.14.3 2010 FIFA World Cup assistance in advancing women’s soccer100 4.15 OVERVIEW OF PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES FACING WOMEN’S SOCCER102
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS106
5.1 INTRODUCTION106
5.2 CONCLUSIONS BASED ON THE STUDY OBJECTIVES106
5.2.1 Objective 1107 5.2.2 Objective 2108 5.2.3 Objective 3109 5.2.4 Objective 4110
ix 5.3 IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS110
5.4 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY112
5.5 SUGGESTED FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS113
5.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS113
REFERENCES114
APPENDICES125
x LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1: Sport tourism activities.15
Table 2.2: Categories of sport events17
Table 2.3: The benefits of hosting sporting events18
Table 2.4: Categories of sport fans22
Table 2.5: Profiles of sport tourists23
Table 3.1: Key qualitative participants45
Table 3.2: Qualitative interview questions47
Table 4.1: Gender of the respondents53
Table 4.2: Age of respondents54
Table 4.3: Ethnic group of respondents55
Table 4.4: Income of respondents56
Table 4.5: Educational level of respondents57
Table 4.6: Home province of respondents58
Table 4.7: Employment status of respondents59
Table 4.8: Marketing of women’s soccer event60
Table 4.9: Frequency of attendance61
Table 4.10: Interest in support for growth in women’s soccer62
Table 4.11: Interest in soccer as a recreational activity62
Table 4.12: Interest in women’s soccer63
Table 4.13: Support for women’s soccer64
xi Table 4.14: Fun at women’s sport events68
Table 4.15: Spectator support for women’s soccer70
Table 4.16: Professionalism in women’s soccer72
Table 4.17: Development challenges73
Table 4.18: Funding challenges74
Table 4.19: Soccer knowledge and motivation76
Table 4.20: Relaxation at sports events78
Table 4.21: Socialising at events79
Table 4.22: Player skill82
Table 4.23: Legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup84
Table 4.24: Perceptions KMO and Bartlett's test scores86
Table 4.25: Perceptions factor analysis86
Table 4.26: Challenges KMO and Bartlett's test scores87
Table 4.27: Challenges factor analysis89
Table 4.28: Decision-making KMO and Bartlett’s test scores90
Table 4.29: Decision-making factor analysis90
Table 4.30: Legacy KMO and Bartlett's test scores91
Table 4.31: Legacy factor analysis93
Table 4.32: Reliability analysis93
xii LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: The economic contribution of travel and tourism10
Figure2.2: Model of sport tourism11
Figure2.3: A sport tourism framework13
LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A: Survey questionnaire125
Appendix B: Interview schedule129
xiii LIST OF ACRONYMS
Acronyms/Abbreviations Definition/Explanation
AWC African Women’s Championships
DFB Deutscher Fußball-Bund
IAAF International Association of Athletics Federation
FIFA Federation Internationale de Soccer Association
GDP Gross Domestic Produce
KMO Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin
MSA Measures of Sampling Adequacy
PFA Principal Axis Factor Analysis
SABC South African Broadcasting Corporation
SAFA South African Soccer Association
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences
UEFA Union of European Football Associations
USA United States of America
WTO World Tourism Organisation
WTTC World Travel and Tourism Council
xiv CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY
1.1 PREAMBLE
In recent times, sport and event tourism has emerged as a global research theme that has received increased attention from various scholars (Saayman & Uys, 2003; Standeven & De Knop, 1999; Swart & Bob, 2012; Turco, 2012). Ntloko and Swart, (2008:79) stated that, “events have been documented as a robust constituent of sport tourism which draws people from different places”. The reason why sport and event tourism has become imperative as a research niche area is because of its role as a tool for development. According to Swart and Bob (2012), event and sport tourism has become a norm in some destinations; hence, this niche kind of tourism needs innovative approaches and systems to augment it. Peric (2010) highlighted that, women’s soccer, if given much attention, could be a contending augmenting phenomenon to men’s soccer and spread the demand for sport and event tourism.
Women’s soccer as a typology of sport tourism, has become phenomenal in modern tourism development. Sport and event tourism (women’s soccer), has grown in importance in drawing tourists to certain destinations, encouraging economic growth and sustainable development for the host economies (Peric, 2010). Women’s soccer represents one of the least tapped-in sport and niche events that can bring a different kind of solving socio-economic problems in different communities (Kotze, 2006). As a result, this study sought to enlighten the significance of women’s soccer as a powerful means to pull tourists to certain destinations for local economic development. This study therefore aimed to investigate the challenges linked to developing women’s soccer and spectator attitudes in Gauteng, South Africa.
The period of post-apartheid in South Africa has witnessed the introduction of a number of sport tourism strategies that have been developed to promote sport and tourism in the country (Turco, Swart, Bob & Moodley, 2003), with the most prominent being the hosting of international sport tourism events. Such events include the 1995 Rugby World Cup, the 1996 Africa Cup of Nations, the 2003 Cricket World Cup, the 2009 Federation Internationale de Soccer Association (FIFA) Confederation Cup, and the 2010 FIFA World Cup, all of which
1 have boosted sport tourism in the country (Kotze, 2006, Tichaawa & Swart, 2010). Such events have put great emphasis on how sporting events and sport are increasingly playing a significant role in the tourism and leisure sector for developing economies. Furthermore, such mega events like the 2010 FIFA World Cup were believed to have created lasting impacts and legacies to draw other major sporting events to the host country. Unfortunately, there is a general belief that, in South Africa, the 2010 FIFA World Cup did not do much to enhance women’s soccer. There has not been a huge change in women’s soccer development since the 2010 FIFA World Cup (Stander & van Zyl, 2016).
A national tourism policy, ‘White Paper – the Development and Promotion of Tourism in South Africa’, was formulated in 1996 (Swart, 2005:37), but women’s soccer development has still not been in the limelight. According to Ritchie, (2005), for women’s sport to gain ground in South Africa, sport governing bodies need to revise their strategies to develop it, and rationalise the fan base of the sport. Pelak (2010), noted that South African women’s’ soccer did not command any support from the fans. Hence, the reason for undertaking this research was to rationalise women’s soccer fans through investigating challenges and motivations linked to women’s soccer in Gauteng. According to Stewart (2012), women’s soccer has been devoid of proper support, formalised development, good preparation, infrastructure (stadia), media attention, and other fundamentals for its expected development.
This has resulted in women’s soccer existing without a firm fan base. Both the tourism and sports industries in South Africa have not reached their potential in terms of producing financial expansion, largely due to the previous government’s apartheid policy (Swart, 2005). According to Swart, Bob, Knott and Salie (2011), in South Africa the apartheid era left many negative legacies, such as creating a huge gap between soccer fanatics (men’s and women’s soccer) across societies, dividing social communities, contributing to wide inequalities in accessing sport education and sport facilities. Women’s soccer has not been acknowledged by many, neither has it commanded the attention of the media for publicity (Engh, 2010). For these reasons, arguably, South Africa has only recently started to acknowledge the positive impact of sport tourism. Yet, women’s soccer in some parts of the world, especially the western world, has become a famous sport, which is increasingly becoming an alternative tool for local economic development (Pelak, 2010). Until now, women’s soccer has been a mere recreational complement to human leisure time, without proper planning and development (Bull & Lovelell, 2007; Engh & Potgieter, 2015).
2 Swart and Bob (2007:373) indicated that, “the promotion of sports events has become significant in achieving growth within the tourism industry, to be able to capitalise on South Africa’s tourism potential”. Institutionalising women’s soccer would be enormous in the advancement of sport and tourism in South Africa, as it would give a further world-class dimension of sport and leisure (Cornelissen, Bob & Swart, 2011). The hosting of the 2010 World Cup assisted in the growth of research conducted in South Africa, this is mainly because the 2010 World Cup was held in a developing nation for the first time since the one held in Mexico in 1986 (Turco, 2012). Developed from the legacies of the 2010 FIFA World Cup, women’s soccer stands a chance of being a modern phenomenon and a relevant tool for local economic development.
1.2 DEFINITION OF CONCEPTS
The next section provides definitions of the main terms and concepts that underpinned this study. It should be noted that in this thesis, the terms soccer and football were used interchangeably.
1.2.1 Tourism
Tourism is defined in terms of specific activities, which are selected by choice and undertaken outside the home environment (Pearce, 2011). Eslami, Farahani and Asadi (2013:105) defined tourism as a “social, cultural and economic phenomenon that entails the movement of people to countries or places outside their usual environment, for personal or business/professional purposes”. According to the South African Domestic Tourism Growth Strategy (National Department of Tourism, 2012:vii), tourism is the “activities of persons travelling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business, and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited”. Thus, tourism is recognised by the travelling undertaken by people for entertainment purposes.
1.2.2 Sport tourism
Gibson (1998:49) defined sport tourism as “leisure-based travel that takes individuals temporarily outside of their home communities to participate in physical activities, to support,
3 or to honour attractions associated with sport activities”. According to Joseph (2011:146), sport tourism is “when people explore travel to watch and participate in sports or engage in tours of sport locations”. For this research, sport tourism meant using all types of sport to expand tourism, with intensifying the interest and general well-being of the sport and the community (Saayman & Uys, 2003). Arguably, women’s soccer is also part of the sport and event tourism phenomenon. People travel to stadia or venues to watch women’s soccer, with the phenomenon of travelling to watch women’s soccer matches gradually gaining ground, especially in developed destinations (Meier, Konjer & Leinwather, 2016).
1.2.3 Sport fan
According to Dubihlela, Dhurup and Surujal (2009: 155) “A sport fan is a keen sport follower who is motivated by the achievement of a favourite team”. A spectator is “An individual who is motivated by the physical skills displayed in a sporting event” (Dubihlela et al., 2009:155). Women’s soccer has yet to create a stable fan base in many destinations (Engh & Potgieter, 2015). This has been one of the challenges affecting the development of women’s soccer, as it is difficult to successfully plan for women’s soccer events without having an established fan base and following.
1.2.4 Motivation
“Motivation is the intrinsic force within people that is created by a state of tension caused by an unfulfilled need, which drives them towards action” (Mofokeng & Bevan-Dye, 2014:332). Motivation is also defined as those “processes that arouse and instigate behaviour, give direction to behaviour, continue to allow behaviour to persist and lead to choosing or preferring a particular behaviour” (Dhurup, 2010:205). To this end, according to Mofokeng and Bevan- Dye (2014:332), individuals have distinctive reasons for consuming sport and are likely to have different motives for going to a sporting event, buying team licensed merchandise or observing a game on television. “There is wide recognition of the economic impact that major sports events can generate in attracting visitors and event-related construction investment” (Li & Jago, 2013:591). Women’s soccer, as an entity, needs to improve its understanding of the motivations it fulfils for spectators, and the need to attract fans to attend events and support its growth (Engh & Potgieter, 2015). This study sought to understand motivation as the drive that can force people to attend women’s soccer events.
4 1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Sport tourism has increasingly grown to be an important tool for development in both developed and developing contexts (Tichaawa, Moyo, Swart & Mhlanga, 2015). Regrettably, despite the increased research activity and the popularity of sport tourism, mainly linked to sporting events, focus on women’s sport has been limited, with preference given to male dominated sporting events (Schmidt, 2012). Consequently, not much is known about women’s sport, especially the participation therein, and the fan’s motivations for attending related events (Scraton & Flintoff, 2013). This study therefore appraised a sport tourism event, with specific reference to women’s soccer in the South African context (specifically Gauteng province). The study sought to analyse the challenges associated with the development of women’s sport, specifically soccer, from a range of stakeholder perspectives.
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The overall objective of this study was to investigate stakeholder participation, fan motivation, and challenges linked to women’s soccer within the context of sport tourism. Specific objectives were:
To determine the level of interest in women’s soccer by profiling sport fans who currently attend women’s soccer matches;
To explore the main motivations linked to fan participation and attendance in terms of South African women’s soccer;
To identify the current challenges linked to the development of women’s soccer in Gauteng; and
To explore the extent to which the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup assisted in the advancement of women’s soccer.
5 1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
Soccer is a big part of black African culture, popular for bringing people together from all walks of life (Mofokeng & Bevan-Dye, 2014). During the annual Soweto (men’s) Soccer Derby, fans travelled from other parts of South Africa to fill the Soccer City Stadium in Soweto to support their teams (Sport24, 2015). In March 2018, the Soweto Derby attracted around 86 000 spectators (Orlando Pirates Football Club, 2018). A soccer stadium is the meeting point of different people, and is the same sport that has contributed greatly to reducing racism across the world (Van Tuyckom, & Scheerder, 2010). Women’s soccer development would complement the existing role of men’s soccer (Meier et al., 2016), as a move to further improve unity and togetherness across race and gender throughout Africa. Bringing people together will not only improve the social arena of humanity, but also reduce cultural differences in the multicultural societies of South Africa. According to Rober (2013), women’s soccer, if well- structured and advanced, would create occupation opportunities for young women in South Africa. Women’s soccer will help to create job opportunities for girls in South Africa. Girls have immense soccer talent that is not utilised due to limited access (Nauright, 2014). In Nigeria, women’s soccer has helped alleviate poverty, as women have a better chance to express themselves in soccer and earn a decent living (Ogunniyi, 2014). If well structured, with adequate support, equipment, and sponsorship, women’s soccer would help a great deal in advancing women’s roles in communities and societies, as well as being a form of poverty reduction.
Nonetheless, in the Africa continent generally, women’s sport has not received much research attention; consequently, only partial research exists to address the gender dynamics of sports development. The current research on women’s sport development and women’s soccer is fragmented with little research that focuses on fan motives for attending women’s sporting events. This study was significant because it focused on women’s sport development possibilities in the South African context by exploring the motivation of fans to attend women’s soccer events. Studies on fan motives (Dhurup, 2010; Dubihlela et al., 2009; Mofokeng & Bevan-Dye, 2014; Saayman & Uys, 2003) have been conducted; however, all these studies focus on major events. Kim, Kim, Park, Carroll, Yue and Na (2016:1) argued “an increase in media attention results in the growth of sport events which not only attracts participants, spectators, and tourists to the hosting city, but also creates a number of positive impacts on the
6 hosting city”. This study therefore added further knowledge to existing studies on women’s soccer.
1.6 STRUCTURE OF THESIS
The thesis consists of five chapters as follows:
Chapter 1: Presents an introduction and background to the study, motivating the reason for the choice of topic, introducing sport tourism, as well as giving a brief background on the context of women’s soccer in South Africa. This chapter further outlines the problem statement, study objectives, and the significance of the study.
Chapter 2: Covers the literature review of what other academic work is available on this particular topic and other areas that may influence the selected topic. It details with the phenomenon of sport and event tourism, with a strong link to women’s soccer, which was the target niche for this study.
Chapter 3: Presents the research design and methodology, explaining how the research was designed and conducted.
Chapter 4: Presents the research findings, stating the results of the primary data and its analysis. These results are then discussed against the background of the literature reviewed.
Chapter 5: Covers the conclusions of the dissertations, and makes recommendations for future research.
1.7 SUMMARY
The purpose of this chapter was to initiate the study. The chapter introduced the study and defined the concepts used in the thesis. The chapter also outlined the research questions and objectives. Chapter 1 ended with an outline of thesis the structure of the thesis. The following chapter, Chapter 2, entails a literature review for this thesis.
7 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter focuses on reviewing literature on past research. The chapter consists of two sections. The first section focuses on theories that ground the study, including the phenomenon of tourism in South Africa and how it links to sport tourism events. The section goes on to look at sport tourism and the profiles of event attendees as well as the motivation behind attending sport tourism events. The second section of the chapter focuses on the global context of women and sport, reviewing different feminism theories regarding women and sport, the status of women and soccer in Africa, and lastly, the historical developments of women and soccer in South Africa.
2.1.1 Tourism in South Africa and its linkage to sport tourism events
The development of tourism universally has strengthened its relationship with sport. Sport lures individuals and visitors, which influence tourism, consequently sport can be used as an instrument for tourism expansion (Sofield, 2003). Sport and tourism are meticulously interrelated in terms of practice, tourists partake in sports while on holiday, and spectators and athletes travel in search for competition or in search for their sporting passions (Hinch & Higham, 2011:33). Tourism is one of the world’s largest and fastest growing industries while sport is a multibillion-rand industry (Eslami et al., 2013:105). Tourism is considered a major employment provider due to its labour intensiveness and service orientation that expands the economy of a country and attracts foreign revenue. It creates significant induced impacts and indirect impacts that spread economic benefits and opportunities (Bob & Potgieter, 2013:73). Sport on the other hand is also understood to provide a sense of purpose, generate community pride, and celebrate culture (Swart & Bob, 2007:374). Sport support and participation has become a global phenomenon and, international sport competitions have fuelled an ever- increasing world tourism market and as such, sport and tourism have been utilised as drivers of urban rejuvenation (Swart & Bob, 2007:374).
In many countries, tourism is a driver of economic growth though foreign exchange and creating direct and indirect employment opportunities (Eslami et al., 2013). Travel for tourism
8 is a vital financial action that has critical incidental and initiated impacts (WTTC, 2017). The World Tourism Organisation (WTO) adds that tourism as an economic sector is positioned in a way that it will accelerate comprehensive socio-economic development, deliver viable livelihoods, cultivate peace and understanding, and offer assistance to guard our environment (WTO, 2016). African governments have appeared intrigued in tourism as an instrument for development and diversification (Bob & Potgieter, 2013). Tourism is an instrument that can be utilised as a resolution to Africa’s socio-economic challenges (Frey & George, 2010). The tourism industry in South Africa has developed significantly since the hosting of the country’s first democratic elections in 1994 (National Department of Tourism, 2015:8). In 2005, Saayman and Olivier reported that the tourism industry was classified as the fourth largest industry in South Africa after mining, agriculture, and trade. The South African Tourism Review (National Department of Tourism, 2015:8) reported that the South African government made the decision to create a Ministry of Tourism in 2009, indicating that the tourism industry was growing, with the advent of the FIFA World Cup in 2010, and resulted in it being considered an important tool for economic growth in South Africa. Tourism in South Africa employed over 600 000 individuals (Mbatha, 2013). In 2016, travel and tourism contributed a total of R127.9 billion towards the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) in South Africa. It was expected that there would be a rise of 2.7 per cent in 2017, and an annual rise of 4.5 per cent from 2017 to 2027, thus tourism would be making a contribution of 3.8 per cent to GDP (WTTC, 2017). South Africa has steadily used sport tourism to advance the country as a major sport events destination by facilitating the rugby, cricket, and FIFA World Cup following the 1994 elections (Bob & Potgieter, 2013). These events have several benefits for host communities, such as employment opportunities for locals. Hawkers were able to sell souvenirs, food and South African branded merchandise such as flags at the stadiums during the soccer events creating micro business employment. Additionally, there is the intangible benefit of drawing attention to various destinations in South Africa and soccer activities in South Africa.
Figure 2.1 demonstrates how tourism has several impacts for various industries and how they are interlinked to contribute towards the country’s GDP and result in employment opportunities.
9
Figure 2.1: The economic contribution of travel and tourism
Source: Adapted from WTTC (2017).
Direct contributions to travel and tourism comprise of all the direct spending on tourism offerings within a country by its residents or visitors. This is the purchasing of hotel rooms, visiting attractions and making use of the transport system. Indirect contribution comprises of the intangible benefits sustained by travel and tourism investment infrastructure spending. This may include tourism marketing and promotion campaigns. The ‘induced’ contribution measures the GDP and employment created by the spending of those who are directly or indirectly employed by the travel and tourism industry (WTTC, 2017). All these travel and tourism impacts add to the country’s GDP and employment offerings.
10 2.1.2 Relationship between sport and tourism
Standeven and De Knop (1999:5) demonstrated that the relationship between sport and tourism is one that is reciprocal. They note that tourism not only aids sport, but progresses tourism by advertising an ever-increasing extent of esteemed visitor encounters. This interdependent relationship of sport and tourism is exemplified in Figure 2.2.
Figure 2.2: Model of sport tourism
Source: Adapted from Standeven and De Knop (1999:5).
Figure 2.2 categorises sport as an exceptional unit of the tourism industry, emphasising the relationship between sport and tourism as collaborative, which then affects sport involvement and sport infrastructure development (Standeven & De Knop, 1999). According to Pigeassou, Bui-Xuan and Gleyse (2003) sport tourism expands both sport and tourism, thus is well recognised as an instrument in financial and social rejuvenation for rural and urban communities (Swart & Bob, 2007). Cornelissen (2007:241) asserts that sport tourism may yield significant economic benefits for host communities from the “movements of people that involve transportation, construction, and renewal of amenities, creation of employment, cultural exchanges, specific services and a range of commercial activity involving sports cruises, tours, attractions, and use of resorts”. Sport tourism encompasses both sport and tourism and these two sectors offer remarkable partnering opportunities due to their roles in society and economies (Eslami et al., 2013). Tourism comprises the activities of people travelling to and remaining in places exterior to their standard environment for not longer than
11 one successive year for amusement, business, and diverse purposes, with no compensation from the destination. Sport is linked to aggressive play, which includes the concepts of time, space, and formalised rules (Mullin, Hardy & Sutton, 2000:56). Therefore, sport tourism can be seen to fuse together sport and tourism.
2.1.3 Sport tourism definitions in context
Sport tourism is a multifaceted concept and its complexity stems from the challenges that occur when defining the concept (Deery, Jago & Fredline, 2004). Several definitions of sport tourists exist as many authors have tried to define this concept. Bouchet, Lebrun and Auvergne (2004:127) defined sport tourism as “the association of a tourist stay at a certain destination, complemented or determined by at least one type of sport or physical activity”. According to Robinson and Gammon (2004:226) “sport tourism encompasses individuals travelling to and or staying in places outside their usual environment and participating in, actively or passively, a competitive or recreational sport as a secondary activity”. Weed (2007:9) defined sport tourism as “leisure-based travel that takes individuals temporarily outside of their everyday communities to participate in physical activities, to watch these activities, or to visit attractions associated with these specific activities”. Sport tourism incorporates professional and unprofessional, competitive and non-competitive, social, recreational and informal activities, as well as leisure, business, and day-trip sport tourism (Huei-Wen &Huei-Fu, 2017).
2.1.4 Overview of sport tourism
In many countries, the growth of sport tourism serves as a podium for advancement and as a corresponding notion to the existing development structure (Rein & Shields, 2007). The consuming and spectating of sport events dates back to the presenting of the ancient Olympic Games where people would gather at Mount Olympus from different places to watch their champions compete (Weed & Bull, 2009). The relationship between sport and tourism has gained momentum in the academic space, with more attention being paid recently to this phenomenon (Wäsche & Woll, 2010:191). Sport tourism is a substantial component within the world of tourism and has developed to be an extremely aggressive niche tourism business (Eslami et al., 2013). According to Roche, Spake and Joseph (2013:147), the growth of sport tourism can be attributed to ‘the increase in the number of participants globally, in diverse professional, intramural and leisure sport leagues; the increased general popularity of sports
12 worldwide, an upsurge in the number of vacationers who incorporate sport events in their holidays and the exponential growth of popularity of engaging in an ‘active lifestyle’. Deery et al. (2004:243) have presented a framework (Figure 2.3) that attempts to delve into the concept of sport tourism. Figure 2.3 highlights the participant types at sporting events, their motivation to be involved, and the outcome of this participation for the individual, the community, and ultimately the nation. Sporting events participants involved, are classed in different roles, those being: attendee, competitor, and official. Additionally, the model demonstrates that the motivation behind the participation in such events is intentional, with the outcomes being individual enjoyment, and with the host communities reaping socio-economic benefits from the events, or the host nations benefiting from the image enhancement involved (Deery et al., 2004).
Figure2.3: A sport tourism framework
Source: Deery et al. (2004:242).
13 2.1.5 Categories of sport tourism
It is widely documented that there are three common categories of sport tourism: watching sporting events, visiting sports related attractions, and active participation in such tourism (Gibson, 1998). The primary classification involves viewing sporting events or participating in sport event tourism such as hallmark events like the FIFA World Cup Soccer Championships, and the Olympic Games (Gibson, 1998). According to Gibson (1998), the second category of sport tourism is celebrity and nostalgia sport tourism, this form of sport tourism encompasses visiting renowned sport related attractions. The last category is active sport tourism, which involves the participation in sport related travel, such as persons that travel to take part in golf, skiing, and tennis in particular (Gibson, 1998). According to Standeven and De Knop (1999:12), there are different forms of tourism, active and passive tourism. Active sport tourists may participate in sport activity holidays, for these tourists, sports is the main purpose of the trip (Standeven & De Knop, 1999). Kurtzman (1995) stated that sport tourism activities could be characterised into five distinctive areas –resorts, cruises, attractions, tours, and events. The five sport tourism activity categories were each sub-divided to indicate the scope of sport tourism and to layout the knowledge boundaries of the profession (Kurtzman, 2005:17). Table 2.1 summarises these five categories of sport tourism and provides practical examples of the types of activities in each category.
14 Table 2.1: Sport tourism activities.
Sport tourism events Sport tourism attractions Sport tourism tours Sport tourism resorts Sport tourism cruises
Olympic Games Sports Museums/Halls of Fame Professional Sport Games Tour Golf Resorts Sports Celebrity Cruises. Golf Cruises/Tennis Cruises Regional/National/International Sports Conferences Sports Study Tours Ski Resorts Multiple Sport Games Sailing Cruises Sports Sports Adventure Tours Snorkel/Scuba Resorts Championships/Bonspiels Shows/Displays/Demonstrations Whale Boating Cruises Facility/Site/Event Tours Fitness & Spa Resorts Invitationals Sports Theme Parks Scuba/Snorkel Cruises Game Safaris Ranches Meets/Marathons Bungee Jumping Sports Fishing/Deep Sea Training Tours Tennis Resorts Fishing Scheduled League Games White Water Rafting Cycling/Walking Tours Outfitters (Professional and Amateur) Sports Conference Cruises Golf Courses, Ski Facilities Trekking/Climbing/Caving Multiple Sports Resorts Twinning/Friendship Games Sports Attractions Cruise Balloon fests Tours Camp Sites Visitations Sports Specific World Water Slides/Wave Tech Pools Ski-doo Excursions Cups/Trophies Sports Hotels Canoeing/Kayaking/Rowing Stadiums/Arenas Outdoor Expeditions Races/Regattas Golf and Ski Condos Sailing Sports Clinics/Courses/Schools Adventure Tours Derbies Fishing Resorts Jet Boating Fantasy Camps Scuba/Diving Tours Stampedes Golf and Country Clubs Yacht Charters/Catamaran Stampedes/Rodeos Cruises Sports Festivals Bare Boat Cruises/Barging Bowl Games Health and Fitness Cruises
Source: Adapted from Kurtzman (2005:17-19).
15 2.1.6 Sport tourism events
According to Getz (2008:403), sport event tourism was recently acknowledged in the tourism industry and research community. Several authors (Hinch & Higham, 2011, Getz, 2008; Gibson, 2017) have identified the relationship between tourism, events, and sport. Sport tourism is acknowledged for the positive capitalisation within the sport industry when influences aligning with sport, entertainment and tourism authorities and organisations to develop and create both non-competitive and competitive sport (Smith, 2010). According to Turco, Riley and Swart (2002:74), non-competitive and competitive sport gives rise to sport tourism events, which can be defined as those events whereby the prime purpose for travel is to participate or view sport. Sport gives people the platform to socialise, develop their minds and bodies, among other things. This perspective of socialisation has made sports particularly alluring for spectators as they share a comparative intrigue with the other participants (Saayman, 2004:7). Therefore, sport tourism has advanced over the past two decades and sport events have aided in fast tracking this growth, according to studies by Allen, Knott and Swart (2013), Breivik (2010), and Breuer, Hallmann, Wicker and Feiler (2010). Sport events form a large part of sport tourism and generally drive sport tourism; therefore, it is of paramount importance to first define and differentiate between these events to understand the full extent of their impact on sport tourism.
Sport tourism events have the ability to attract tourists, where a big percentage of those are spectators (Kurtzman & Zauhar, 2003:42). According to Bjelac and Radovanovic (2003:264), sport events are “events which are characterised by creative and complex sport-like, recreational activities, with entertainment and are performed in accordance with a particular predetermined programme”. Events can be divided into categories, such as mega, major, and local, based on subjective interpretation (Emery, 2001:92). Bjelac and Radovanovic (2003:264) categorised sport events according to six different scales. These are found in the Table 2.2.
16 Table 2.2: Categories of sport events
Type of event Characteristics
Locally held events: Events held locally for participants and spectators from the community. Examples can include the Lowveld Croc Canoe Marathon held in the Lowveld of Mpumalanga (South Africa) as a recreational event for the locals and tourists visiting the area.
Regional or zonal events: Events that are held only in a specific region, for example Fyn Bos Half Marathon held in De Hoop of the Western Cape Region in South Africa, which is held annually in awareness of cancer.
National sports events: Sporting events that are held nationally and people from the community and even from various provinces or regions can partake and can come and enjoy the event.
National events with some international An event that is focused on national consumers, but is known to participation: attract international participants as well
Continental competitions: Sports that compete with other continents, for example the IAAF World Cup in Athletics, which comprises of track and field events. It is also the only World Cup contested by teams representing entire continents, rather than just those of individual nations. Another example is The Rugby World Cup (first held in 1987), where top international teams compete against one another every four years.
Intercontinental events, the largest type Every region, nationality and continent is present and can of event, known as planetary events: partake in the event after qualification, for example the Soccer World Cup, which is held every four years by FIFA for the elder men’s national teams associated with FIFA.
Source: Adapted from Bjelac and Radovanovic (2003:264).
2.1.7 Benefits of hosting events
Standeven and De Knop (1999:204) contended that sport tourism activities demand services to be given by the host community, in this way making available potential social benefits, such as employment opportunities that would not have otherwise existed, however the benefit may be short-term. Sporting events have been identified as one of the strategies that can be utilised to develop cities, regions, or even countries (Bull & Lovell, 2007:230). According to Saayman and Rossouw (2008:2), the economic benefits associated with sporting events are the result of additional spending, those being vacationer and organisational expenditure in preparation for the event. Tassiopoulos and Haydam (2008:870) went on to argue that sport tourism events have been acknowledged as an influential force for expansion, furthermore they invigorate investment in infrastructure projects, which can be delighted in by both locals and visitors alike.
17 Therefore, the main purpose of “hosting a sport event is to motivate individuals to take up exercise in the hosting destination, followed by tourism or advertising benefits, which will in turn enhance the economic benefit for the community by creating employment and other opportunities” (Hsu, Ma & Chang, 2014:68). Swart and Bob (2012:3) identified the benefits associated with hosting sporting events, which are listed in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: The benefits of hosting sporting events
Type of benefit Benefit
Destination profiling and marketing Increased tourism Induced development and construction expenditure Economic Trade and business development/ investment proportion Increased property values Employment creation Improved image and profile of destination
Destination promotion and increased number of tourist visits Tourism Extended length of stay Job creation
Increased media coverage Media Improved image of destination
National pride and unity Community development Civic pride Skills enhancement and development Socio-cultural Shared experiences (‘feel good factor’) Increased community participation Introduction of new and challenging ideas Sport development
Sport infrastructure Improved transport and communication facilities Infrastructure Increased and improved accommodation facilities Urban transformation and renewal Acceleration of infrastructural plans
18 Type of benefit Benefit
Greening events Environmental Increased environmental awareness and education Showcasing natural resources
International prestige Social cohesion Political Development of administrative and governance skills Improved capability to bid for and host events Strengthening regional cooperation
Source: Adapted from Swart and Bob (2012:3)
2.1.8 Sport tourism consumer motives
According to Wiid and Cant (2015), each person or group consume sporting events for diverse reasons, thus motivated in various ways. The motivation for sport consumption theory suggests that the supporters of a particular sport have diverse underlying psychological motives, which explain why they consume and follow a certain sport (Stander & van Zyl, 2016:3). For instance, understanding the motives that drive fans to watch female soccer may result in marketing campaigns being changed to attract more fans at these particular types of matches. Individuals consuming sport events can be called sport fans, someone who is passionate about a particular sport, an athlete, or somebody who is motivated to make the effort to go to a live sporting event (Dubihlela et al., 2009, Wiid & Cant, 2015). The ability of teams in a league to draw profitable sponsorship contracts is mostly reliant on the number of fans they attract; therefore, it is pivotal to understand fan motives for supporting their teams. Fans have varied reasons for consuming sport and have different reasons as to why they would attend a sporting event, buy team merchandise, and watch a game on television (Mofokeng & Bevan-Dye, 2014).
Individual motivations and expectations, external influences and eventual behaviour are the three elements that motivate individuals to participate in sporting events, these elements are necessary to push an individual towards the events (Dubihlela et al., 2009; Karakaya, Yannopolous & Kefalaki, 2016). Wann (1995) developed a Sport Fan Motivation Scale (SFMS) of factors that reflected eustress, self-esteem benefits, and escape from everyday life. Studies by Sloan (1989) reviewed literature on sport motivation and recommended five motivation categories that can be used to explain fan motives. These are salubrious effects,
19 catharsis and aggression, stress and stimulation seeking, entertainment, and achievement for sport participation. In 2001, Trail and James (2001) developed another scale that had 27 factors. These factors included reasons why fans are attracted to certain sports, such as: the degree of drama in the game when the uncertainty of the game makes the fan feel excited, the opportunity for escape as watching sport allows the fan to get away from realities of their life, and finally the chance for social interaction. In 2010, Dhurup (2010:206) suggested factors of entertainment, economy, aesthetics, group affiliation, and family needs. All these scales try to explain the motive behind fans attending sporting events and they all seem to have similar factors, such as entertainment, aesthetics, self-esteem, and social facilitation (Dhurup, 2010; Mofokeng & Bevan-Dye, 2014).
These motives are divided into two categories, psychological and behavioural (Stander & van Zyl, 2016). The psychological motives are the achievement of their team, the experience of eustress, aesthetics, and the opportunity to escape their daily life. The behavioural motives are related to the knowledge the fan acquires by watching the match, appreciating the skill being demonstrated, and the interacting with other fans (Dubihlela et al., 2009; Stander & van Zyl, 2016). These factors play a vital role in influencing the buying behaviour as well as making the decision to consume the sport. The value of these factors has been well researched; however, there is limited research on the South African context relating to the value of these factors (Stander & van Zyl, 2016). Motivations for watching women’s soccer are diverse, and they, in one way or another, appeal to a wide range of fans (Cooky, Messner & Hextrum, 2013; Engh & Potgieter, 2015). Such wide varieties of fan motivation presents a large opportunity for women’s soccer administration to maximise its services, amenities, infrastructures, and atmosphere, which act as an inner drive to draw different fans to women’s soccer. Event planning is more feasible when fan’s motives to attend events are defined (Fridberg, 2010).
2.1.9 Profiles of sport fans
“Sport participation and attendance has become a global marvel and international sport competitions have powered an ever-increasing world tourism market” (Swart & Bob, 2007:374). Because sport tourism events are varied, there are different sport tourist fans that exist. Hunt, Bristol and Bashaw (1999:439) defined a sport fan as a passionate devotee of a specific sport consumptive object; therefore, “a fan is a consumer of organized sports”. These individuals continue to support the team regardless of whether they win or lose (Hunt et al.,
20 1999). Hunt et al. (1999:439) states that “there are five different types of sport fans (Table 2.4) those being; temporary fans, local fans, devoted fans, fanatical fans, and dysfunctional fans”. Their organisation structure is based on the motivation and on the conduct exhibited by different types of fans (Hunt et al., 1999). With this category Hunt et al., (1999:439) wanted to indicate that “the fanatic or avid fans” are connected to their teams and to sport by an emotional attachment, which results in them being faithful towards their teams irrespective of their performance. Additionally, fans who identify with a certain sport or its players may lead them to identifying with a team, which could lead to them attending their games and buying approved team merchandise (Hunt et al., 1999:440).
21 Table 2.4: Categories of sport fans
Participation Type of Fan Description Scale The temporary fan’s interest in the phenomenon of sport is time-
limited. The temporary fan is a fan for a specific, time-bound event. Temporary fan The time boundary may be as short as a few hours, or as long as a few years, with the sport fan becoming a non-fan once the time period has expired. The local fan is not bound by time constraints, as is the temporary fan. Passive Passive participation This fan is bound by geographic limitations.
Local fan They exhibit fan like behaviour, due to their identification with a geographic area (where they were born or where they live) Movement from the locality of the fan results in diminishing devotion to the team/player/sport remaining in the previous locality. The devoted fan probably starts off as a local or temporary fan. They become devoted fans due to an increase in attachment, thereby breaking the boundaries of time and location. They become loyal to the team/player, even if the specific short-term Devoted fan event that initially attracted their temporary attention has come to an end, or if they move from the context of the original geographical location. This fan also remains devoted, even if the team does not experience a winning record. The fanatical fan is very similar to the devoted fan. Their attachment is not bound by time or distance. The fanatical fan uses being a fan as a very important part of self-
Fanatical fan identification, although at least one aspect of their lives, such as work or family, exerts a stronger influence on them than being a fan. They engage in behaviour beyond that of a normal devoted fan, but which is yet acceptable to the majority of people, because it is deemed supportive of the target (sport/team/player) The dysfunctional fan uses being a fan as the primary method of self- identification. Instead of supportive behaviour, the dysfunctional fan engages in disruptive behaviour, disrupting social exchanges surrounding the event. Dysfunctional fan They are ready to engage in violent behaviour under the illusion that it is justified by virtue of being a fan (i.e. they can act as hooligans).
Active Participation Such a fan identifies self so strongly with being a fan that doing so interferes with their ability to perform any normal human role other than being a fan.
Source: Adapted from Hunt et al. (1999).
22 Giulianotti, (2002) suggested that sport fan classification could be best understood by determining their participation levels by focusing on their attendance and their sport tourism demand. Weed and Bull (2009:55-72) stated that there are three main profiles of sport tourists, namely; primary sport tourists, associated sport tourists, and tourists interested in sports (Table 2.5).
Table 2.5: Profiles of sport tourists
Profiles Characteristics
Primary sport tourists These tourists participate in sport tourism as the primary reason for travel. This group is not homogenous thus; it would be very challenging to allocate any mutual characteristics across these sport tourists.
Associated sport tourists These tourists see sport as the main objective for travelling; however, there are other factors apart from sport that influence their decision to travel.
Tourists interested in sports These tourists see sport as not the primary motive for travel. They are incidental sport tourists, but that does not mean sport is always irrelevant to their travel decision
Source: Adapted from Weed and Bull (2009:55-72).
According to Saayman (2004:29), sport tourists are individuals that travel exclusively for a sporting activity or event, however also partake in other forms of tourism activity or touring during their trip. Saayman (2004:20) recommends use of the hard or soft definition for a sport tourist as suggested by Gammon and Robinson (1997): “hard definition: A sport tourist can either be a dynamic or inactive participant at a competitive event” – meaning someone who precisely travels for either active or passive involvement in the sport. For this type of tourist sport is their main purpose for travelling, this however does not mean they do not consume other activities. For the soft definition, (Saayman, 2004:20) is “someone who solely travels for a sport/leisure recreational interest for example skiing”. Sport fans are important as they observe live TV broadcasts, they tune in to the commentary on the radio, they examine sports pages in daily papers, purchase sport branded merchandise, and travel broadly to go to events (Smith & Stewart, 2007).
There are fans who have a detached relationship with sport, their intrigue in sport and travel patterns is decided by variables such as, the team’s performance, where the event will be held, the appearance of star players, and the climate conditions (Smith & Stewart, 2007). Smith and
23 Stewart (2007:156) pointed out that sport fans cannot be reduced to “a definition of the individual by a few basic drives and needs, simply fitting fans into groups based on a single factor that drives sport-related behaviour is an insufficient technique of categorisation”. Additionally, they stated that several studies have tried to develop a single set of variables that influence fan behaviour; the greatest studies have highlighted the significance of multifactorial analysis (Smith & Stewart, 2007:156). Finn (2012) defined active sport tourism as that which comprised of persons that travel to partake in sport activities.
The classification of sport fans can be observed in academic literature reviewed as being based on a wide variety of characteristics not limited to consumption, their expenditure patterns, length of stay, and the services they require (Fourie & Spronk, 2011). Furthermore, the segmentation of sport fans relies on individual demographic characteristics such as gender and economic background (Bouchet, Bodet, Brenache-Assollant & Kada, 2011: 43). Determining the profiles of participants is vital as the information can be used to investigate the factors that determine the buying behaviours of sport fans (Taks, Chalip, Green & Kesenne, 2009). The demographic profile of a fan is important to consider when deciding how to approach types of fan. Demographics consist of variables such as gender, age, level of education, marital status, and income. These variables are discussed below.
Gender: The differences between the genders, when it comes to sport participation, might be attributed to biological and social influences, in this way showing the contrasts in family duties, and contrasts in behaviour and social desires (Humphreys & Ruseski, 2010). Gender influences sports participation, generally men are not only seen to partake in sport more than women but also demonstrate a higher prominence when it comes to spectating (Downward & Rasciute, 2011; Ferreira, 2015).
Age: Sport participation has been seen to drop with age, owing to biological and physical restrictions as well as the change in activities desired by older age groups. Snelgrove, Taks, Chalip, and Green (2008) argued that as sport fans grow older they focus less on sport and view sport consumption as a social activity for the youth. Older people tend to need a higher degree of motivation in order for them to travel and attend sporting events, thus there exists a negative relationship between group affiliation and age group (Smith & Stewart 2007; Taks et al., 2008). This affects more men than women (Downward & Rasciute, 2011; Eberth & Smith, 2010; Ferreira, 2015).
24 Level of education: Several scholars have documented the relationship between education and sport participation (Breuer & Wicker, 2008; Hovemann & Wicker, 2009; Humphreys & Ruseski, 2010), this however does not prove that educated individuals are more likely to partake in sport or spectate. A higher level of education may result in more consciousness about the benefits and significance of sport. It may also be associated with earning higher wages, thus making it possible to partake in sporting activities (Fridberg, 2010; Van Tuyckom & Scheerder, 2010).
Marital status: Eberth and Smith (2010) argued that married individuals are less likely to partake in sport and would not commit to it. The household influence on an individual’s sports involvement is generally examined through the influence of factors such as marital status, size of the household, and parental duties (Ferreira, 2015).
Income: It has been documented that a lower income can act as an obstruction for sport participants (Breuer & Wicker, 2008; Eberth & Smith, 2010; Humphreys & Ruseski, 2010). This might be confirmed by the fact that the higher the income, the higher the cost of time spent on a leisure activity (Funk, Filo, Beaton & Pitchard, 2009). The level of income plays a role when it comes to participating in sport.
2.1.10 The 2010 FIFA World Cup as a catalyst for women’s sport
The hosting of any sport event always contributes to the construction of a legacy often found in tangible items such as sports facilities, the construction and maintenance of road networks, and the construction of health facilities (Elendu, 2013:145; Kurtzman, 2005). Preuss (2007:211) defined a legacy as “all planned and unplanned, positive and negative, tangible and intangible structures created for and by a sport event that remain longer than the event itself”. Chappelet and Junod (2006:84) defined a legacy as “the material and non-material effects produced directly or indirectly by the sport event, whether planned or not, that durably transform the host region in an objectively and subjectively positive or negative way”.
Chappelet and Junod (2006:84) have gone on to distinguish five types of legacy based on their impacts as follows:
i. Sporting legacy: Sporting facilities are constructed or renewed for an event. These facilities are generally used after the event. These facilities tend to be very symbolic for
25 the host city as they serve as a reminder of the event (Chappelet & Junod, 2006:84). These facilities might also influence the local sporting culture and the availability of new facilities may attract people to participate.
ii. Urban legacy: The construction of buildings solely for a mega-event that does not have any sporting purpose; however, the area can be renovated to create new urban districts (Chappelet & Junod, 2006:84). iii. Infrastructural legacy: Involves different systems such as transport that were renovated or even developed for the mega-event and constantly maintained after the event has passed (Chappelet & Junod, 2006:84). iv. Economic legacy: Involves the “building up of non-tourism orientated companies that were pulled in to the region by its dynamism” (Chappelet & Junod, 2006:85), which is taking advantage of investment opportunities. The alteration within the number of permanent employment positions made and the reduction of unemployment rates within the host region or city are a few of the indicators of this legacy (Chappelet & Junod, 2006:85).
v. Social legacy: Because of the symbolic nature of mega-events, there usually is a creation of myths and stories around the event Chappelet and Junod (2006:85) have termed this the “collective memory”. These are the memories that the residents made around the event and the experience and skills attained from their involvement in the event. Chappelet and Junod (2006:85) argued that an important aspect of this legacy is the change in the local people’s perception of the host community.
Cornelissen, Bob and Swart. (2011) stated that there is no clear definition within the research community on what the term legacy necessitates. However, Cornellissen et al. (2001) added a further two legacies to the five introduced by Chappelet and Junod (2006:84-85). Cornellissen et al. (2001) added environmental and political legacies as important parts of an event.
i. Environmental legacy: Environmental features are the sustainability necessities linked to presenting these events, decreasing the negative and increasing the positive effects on the environment to leave a positive legacy. The key feature of this legacy is to minimise the carbon footprint of an event and integrate green principles (Cornellissen et al., 2001:310).
26 ii. Political legacy- Comprises the advancement of democracy and rights of the people, as well as improved governance (Cornellissen et al., 2001:310).
Focusing on sport tourism and sport events generally has several benefits for host communities such as; increasing its economic value, civic pride, and social benefits. These benefits transpire during the course of the event, however the host community will continue to benefit long after the event has ended (Eslami et al., 2013:108). “The hosting of a mega-event results in both intended and unintended consequences and although many understand the term ‘legacy’ as having only positive implications, the term can also have negative implications” (Cornelissen et al., 2011:308). At times hosting such events may be detrimental to the host country as they have growing public debts, for example, “it took the city of Montreal three decades to pay off the debt associated with hosting the 1976 Summer Olympics” (Cornelissen et al., 2011:308).
Preuss (2015) argues that it is a challenge to identify legacies resultant from sporting events due to the fact that any developments that occur due to the event can be confused with developments not linked to the event, simultaneously a wide variation of areas and stakeholders may be affected by the sporting event. Preuss (2015) identified five event structures which may be produced or influenced by the hosting of a mega event, those being infrastructure, knowledge, policy, networks and emotions, the have the potential to initiate change and are noted to last longer than the event. Mega sport events can be considered as external factor that influences sport participation (Aizawa, Wu, Inoue and Sato, 2018). The hosting of mega sport events has been documented to have trickle-down effect on sport participation in host countries (Potwarka, Scott and Leatherdale, 2016), furthermore these events have direct and indirect impacts on sport participation (Aizawa, et al., 2018). Direct impacts comprise of the, national triumph in international sport competition, direct event experience as a participant and the spectator and role model effect of elite athletes; this role model effect is considered significant in influencing sport participation (Aizawa, et al., 2018:87). Indirect impacts can be considered as part of the trickle-down effect which influence sport participation indirectly by renovating sport infrastructure and through the promotion on sports events in the media (Aizawa, et al., 2018).
The 2010 FIFA World Cup has left several legacies for women’s soccer in South Africa as more grassroots clubs are initiated to increase the participation of girls in soccer. There has also been increased media attention to women’s soccer particularly Banaya Banyana, which
27 has recently had its players receiving recognition for their skill (Sport24, 2018). One of the other legacies that the 2010 FIFA World Cup has left for women’s soccer is increased sport participation, more people are going out to watch women’s soccer matches and gave shown interest for the sport. There are many complexities associated with the application and identification of legacies due to the fact that some are long-term and can only be identified years after the hosting of a mega-event (Rogerson, 2016), The effect of a legacy may only be felt long after the event. The event may only create opportunities, and the legacy may only be activated when other circumstances occur (Preuss, 2015). This could also apply to women’s soccer as there is currently visible legacies such as improved sport infrastructure, the initiation of soccer projects to develop the sport such as Dlala Ntombazana Girls football development project. The advancement of women’s soccer in South Africa still lags far behind men’s sport as not enough funding if offered to women’s sport generally, the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup has assisted in getting recognition for women’s soccer and it will take time to get women and the same level as men in soccer.
This second section of the literature review focuses on women and sports, the coverage of women’s sport, women and sport in Africa, and lastly the historical development of women’s soccer in South Africa. The 2010 FIFA World Cup paved way for development on soccer as a sport, particularly women’s soccer. Women’s soccer development was the focus during the build up to the World Cup, during this period various projects were initiated to develop women’s soccer at grassroots level by attracting girls to play the sport. In preparing the 2010 FIFA World Cup South Africa five new stadiums were built and five were renewed for the spectacle meaning high level league matches with many spectators can attend in comfort. This also attracts continental matches to South Africa in the future. The rejuvenation of stadiums has left a legacy for sport and more sport venues are available.
2.2 Women and sports
In the past the gender composition of sport was unquestionably male. From as early as the history of sports women were seen as the ‘other sex’; they were outsiders who, if they were to be allowed to at all to participate in sport could only partake in ‘suitable’ forms of exercise and sport (Pfister, 2010:234). It was and still is believed that women might do certain forms of sport and exercise, and that other forms are only suitable for men (Pfister, 2010:234). In Brazil and
28 many parts of South America, soccer is still perceived as a male sport (Dalpian, Zylbersztejn, Batistella & Rossi, 2014:573). Therefore, women’s soccer teams were only recognised in the 1980s, although their involvement in soccer dates much further back. To this day, Brazil has not improved the opportunity that it offers its young women??players to develop into professional soccer players (da Costa, 2014:81).
When comparing Brazil with countries like Germany, it is evident that Brazilian women’s soccer is still at a great disadvantage, the Brazil women’s national team has had few goals in the past 25 years compared to Germany, which has scored close to 300 goals against other national women’s soccer teams (da Costa, 2014). According to da Costa (2014), the low number of goals by the Brazilian team could be attributed to the limited number of opportunities that were presented to the team. Da Costa (2014) went on to add that the men’s soccer teams, on the other hand, have had strong sponsorship, technical commission set-up, and opportunities to participate in international preparatory scrimmages.
In 1981, the first Women’s Soccer League in Brazil was established, with only nine participating teams in Rio de Janeiro (da Costa, 2014). In 1982, they witnessed an increase in the number of women’s teams. During this time there were about 200 teams across the country patiently waiting for the sport to be formalised, this however only happened in 1983 when the Brazilian Sports Confederation took the decision to recognise the teams (da Costa, 2014:85). During the 1990s, while under the support of the Brazilian Sports Confederation, Brazilian women’s soccer experienced exponential growth, this was due to taking fourth place during the 1996 Olympic Games, which was hosted in Atlanta (da Costa, 2014:85). “Women are steadily being integrated into the real and imaginary territory of Brazilian soccer and legitimated as players of the most popular sport in the country” (da Costa, 2014:85). In the past the relationship between women and soccer was questioned and even prohibited, today “women’s participation is not only seen as possible, but also essential and must be celebrated as happened with the 70 000 spectators in Maracanã” (da Costa, 2014:85).
It was during the end of the nineteenth century that, infrequently in Europe and the USA, woman started to partake in sporting activities (Pfister, 2010). Women’s sports also confronted previous scientific theories about women’s physical boundaries regarding which sport was considered suitable for the female body (Sikes & Bale, 2014). Title IX in the United States of America (USA) has been the facilitator for sport justice in USA. Title IX is an American federal
29 antidiscrimination act; this law, which was passed in 1972, commanded no discrimination in all the educational programmes that are financed using state funds (Goslin, 2008). Regardless of the increased awareness and importance of gender equality in sports globally, the media in the USA continues to report that there is not much attentiveness or many fans for female sports, but does not explore the lack of media coverage of women’s sports (Hall & Oglesby, 2016:272).
Regardless of the improved involvement of females in sport as a result of Title IX, the growth of professional leagues for women, and the increasing attractiveness of women’s sport among sports supporters, there are regular patterns linked to the absence of news media reporting on women’s sport, which continues over time (Cooky, Messner & Hextrum, 2013). The inter-war period (between World War I and World War II) in Britain witnessed an increased participation and spectatorship in women’s sport across a range of activities (Skillen, 2012). According to Skillen (2012:752), certain sports persisted in the dominion of middle-class women during the inter-war period, this involvement aided those who could afford to take up opportunities within the private sector; sport however remained out of reach for working class women.
Throughout the 1990s, soccer turned into one of the fastest increasing sports for women in the world, new prospects in professional soccer leagues developed, and multinational governing bodies finally stimulated the development of women’s soccer through regional and world championships (Pelak, 2006:381). In Sweden, the first women’s soccer team was established in 1917 (Hjelm & Olofsson, 2003). During the early 1990s, FIFA sponsored the three women’s World Cups (1991, 1995 and 1999), and in 1996, women’s soccer developed into a full medal sport in the Olympic Games (Pelak, 2006:381). In the Olympic Games, women’s involvement increased from 15 per cent in 1972 to 40 per cent in 2000 (Sikes & Bale, 2014). One exception to the general rule is the enhanced interest and visibility of female athletes every four years at the Olympics (Laskow, 2014). During the Olympic Games, the request for patriotism and backing for both women and men sent to represent each nation is uproarious and solid, but when the Olympics end, the intrigue in women’s sports vanishes (Hall & Oglesby, 2016:272).
It was only in the late 1990s and early 2000s that women’s soccer emerged in Israel (Stewart, 2012). In 1998, the Israeli Soccer Association (IFA) presented a women’s soccer league that complied with both FIFA and UEFA regulations. When this adult women’s league was introduced in Israel, the majority of women had no formal training (Steward, 2012:743). Due
30 to the limited resources put into women’s soccer, the Israeli national team faced many challenges when they competed internationally for the first time (Steward, 2012). In 1999, a girls’ soccer team was established when the School Sports Association created the opportunity. This team was called Banāt Sakhnin (daughters of Sakhnin). In 2001, Banāt Sakhnin was the only Palestine Arab team in the Israeli women’s soccer league (Stewart, 2012:745). Most girls and women in Israel play soccer as a hobby and do not see it becoming a profession because there is not much money invested in developing the sport (Steward, 2012) (the current state of women sports in SA is explained in Section 2.2.3).
2.2.1 Feminism and sport
The concept of sport feminism is one that is hard to define. Due to its nature there has been no clear authentic sport feminism; however, there has been a wide range of feminist movements that have the characteristics of mainstream feminism (Hargreaves, 2004:187). Sport feminism is a result of intellect, which transpired from several “philosophies, arguments, theories, or academic discourses and, secondly, as expressions of political action through membership of official bodies, sport organizations and related institutions” (Hargreaves, 2004:187). Prior to postmodernism, sport feminist activity was centred on exposing, challenging, and eliminating gender-based dominant policies and practises (Hargreaves, 2004). Rober (2013:21) defined feminism as “a movement to end sexism, sexist exploitation, and oppression”. Rober (2013:21) stated that the fundamental objectives of feminism are to “endorse women’s rights, transform society, privilege women’s ways of knowing, and include their voices in research”. The “feminist theory is an umbrella term for a variety of theories used to examine the social injustices that several women suffer because of their gender with each of these different theories of feminism includes different analyses of the causes of and remedies for gendered oppression” (Rober, 2013:23). Within these theories exists the concept of sport feminism.
The development of liberal sport feminism during the 1960s was due to the need to create equal opportunities for both men and women (Hargreaves, 2004:188; Scraton & Flintoff, 2013:97). Sport feminism paved the way for the development of women’s sport, especially for those deemed masculine. In 1972, Title IX of the Education Amendments Act was passed, this act prohibits sex discrimination in all areas of education, where sport is also included; the act created a mass societal wave of acceptance for girls and women participating in sport (Staurowsky, Hogshead-Makar, Kane, Wughalter, Yiamouyiannis & Lerner, 2007:383). The
31 fundamental theory of all liberal sport feminism is that women and girls need to have access to sport as it is fundamentally sound and signifies positive experiences; furthermore, the theory focuses on the limited number of women’s participation when it comes to decision making within higher coaching and leadership positions (Scraton & Flintoff, 2013:97). Several other feminist theories exist in addition to liberal sport feminism, which focused in the equal opportunities between men and women (Hargreaves, 2004; Scraton & Flintoff, 2013). Radical sport feminism focuses on the limitations when it comes to opportunities given to women and the role that patriarchy plays in the oppression of women in sport, this theory argues for reallocation of power through separatism (Hargreaves, 2004). Marxist feminism, unlike liberal and radical sport feminism, focuses on “class differences and the capitalist structures that prevent working-class women from participating in sport compared to their middle-class counterparts” (Hargreaves, 2004:188). Cultural feminism theory acknowledges that women are fighting for improved opportunities in sport, this theory also states that patriarchy is flawed and that “agency and determination are dialectically interrelated” (Hargreaves, 2004:188). Nonetheless, it was not until the emergence of postmodernism that all these types of feminist theories served the same goals that are to: uncover, defy, and eradicate gender-based dominant policies and practices (Hargreaves, 2004). “Sport feminisms are associated with anti- discriminatory work concerning subordinated women in particular to their sense and reality of dislocation, marginalization, and disenfranchisement in sport” (Hargreaves, 2004:187).
2.2.2 Women and soccer in Africa
Gender norms also prohibit women from participating in certain sporting activities (Engh & Potgieter, 2015:43). Women are expected to behave in a certain manner, dress in a certain style, remain feminine at all times, and should only participate in sporting codes which are regarded as suitable for women. These gender norms differentiate between men and women and therefore certain things are for women because they are regarded as soft and weak, while others (such as soccer) are for men because such sport requires speed and power. This has meant that women have not been included in some sports regarded as being suitable for men. It often meant that women did not attend male sport matches due to not having knowledge of the sport to spark their interest, for example soccer that has been traditionally enjoyed by predominantly male fans. For over a decade several scholars, including Hargreaves (1994), Hjelm and Olofsson (2003), Nauright (2014), and Pelak (2006) have written about the challenges women face globally. The authors noted that women in soccer are often underpaid compared to the
32 salaries of similarly skilled male players, and even when they excel they still do not get endorsement deals and sponsorships like their male soccer counterparts. Within existing research, there is a specific lack of research on African women and sport.
In Africa, despite the increase in the number of available activities for girls, and that their involvement in sport and physical activity is positive, societal gender roles and norms still affect girls (Hall & Oglesby, 2016). This can be seen in most African countries where gender norms inhibit girls from partaking in certain sporting codes. The literature on sports in Africa is characterised by the proportional invisibility of women; however, Africa has become home to a few of the most affluent sportswomen in the world (Sikes & Bale, 2014). African victories have transpired mainly in athletics and soccer, and were accomplished by athletes from all over the continent, over the past 30 to 40 years (Nauright, 2014:563). In Africa, there has been a lot of scepticism around women’s soccer, the sport has experienced disregard and, at times, outright antagonism, despite this, women’s soccer has developed (Saavedra, 2003). One of the characteristics of women’s soccer in Africa is the lack of research, there are few scholarly articles that have been written on women’s soccer, and what has been written is not accessible (Saavedra, 2003). It can be argued that the historical involvement of women in soccer in Senegal has indicated some positives when it comes to women and sport on the African continent (Saavedra, 2003). Although Senegal was one of the first countries to have a women’s soccer team in Africa, countries such as Ghana, Nigeria and South Africa have since overtaken Senegal when it comes to advancing women’s soccer (Saavedra, 2003). Senegal had a formalised women’s soccer team in 1974 when they played against a visiting team from Italy. This match was organised by Eliot Khouma, a former track athlete who had begun to coach some women athletes informally; the Senegal women’s team lost due to not having had enough time to prepare (Saavedra, 2003). The women’s team started to travel around Senegal where it would play against men’s teams (Saavedra, 2003). The literature on women and sport in Africa remains scant and what is known is mostly based on South Africa (Nauright, 2014).
As with soccer, women have started participating in sport internationally, competing professionally in other countries and this trend is discernible in South Africa. In South Africa however, most of the household and agricultural chores were historically left for women, with men relocating to urban areas for employment opportunities. From a young age, girls have often been obligated to share household duties and agricultural duties with the women, the women’s role was centred on making the house hospitable and supporting her husband (Engh
33 & Potgieter, 2015:43). Therefore, girls in rural areas did not have the time or opportunity to take part in sport as either players or fans.
2.2.3 The historical development of women’s soccer in South Africa
The gendered dynamics of soccer tend to be inspected only when women play the sport; this irregular treatment of gender in the literature broadly strengthens men’s soccer as the standard and women’s soccer as the other (Pelak, 2006:372). Men have participated as both members and managers of soccer in South Africa; nonetheless, women have a forty-year history of partaking in organised soccer (Pelak, 2006). “Men in South Africa have a plethora of opportunities to play soccer, from the street to school, and from clubs to various levels of professional teams; there is no lack of options. Women, on the other hand, have few school teams; they are rarely seen playing on the streets due to household responsibilities and usually have only one, or possibly two, club options in their neighbourhood, if any” (Ogunniyi, 2014:540).
In South Africa, due to the gender norms, women who play sports considered to be masculine (such as soccer) are at times labelled as “tom-boys” or lesbian because they defy the dictation of gender norms (Ogunniyi, 2014). The majority of the time, black women are the victims of such labels from community members; in most cases, women who play soccer constantly need to prove their femininity. Grundlingh (2010:51) quoted an interview: “I don't want to be mistaken for a butch girl. That is why I want to look good going onto the field. I like having my hair tied back. My long hair sends out the signal that I am feminine and the fans do not have to think I am masculine or butch because I play soccer. My long hair helps with getting that message across”. In most African countries, societies are under the impression that they have the right to question one’s sexuality, despite some of these countries, such as Lesotho, Mozambique, and South Africa, having legalised homosexuality.
The display of ones’ femininity can be seen as a form of defence, so that the player reassures the public that they are female. “Heteronormativity and homophobia produce circumstances whereby the majority of sporting women are controlling their own bodies and looks to fit with traditional femininity” (Engh & Potgieter, 2015:43). Furthermore, such prejudices are pushing women with masculine features out of sport. The gender separation of domestic chores burdens women and privileges men, this is a serious factor limiting South African women’s admittance to sports (Pelak, 2010:63).
34 In spite of the fact that women have been playing soccer for decades in South Africa, their commitment rates, prospects, support, and acknowledgment lag far behind that of men (Ogunniyi, 2014). Research on women’s soccer is one of the areas that have been deserted by social science researchers in South Africa and within the African continent (Bogopa, 2014). In spite of the fact that the literature on the history of sports in Africa is developing, the literature on women and sport in Africa remains lacking (Leseth, 2014). White women of southern African countries, namely Namibia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, have had the opportunity to participate and have a long history of engagement with modern sport (Nauright, 2014:565). Although women from other Southern African countries became involved in international competitions during the 1960s, women from South Africa could not participate as the South African sporting system was excluded from international competitions due to the apartheid system (Nauright, 2014:565).
During the 1970s and 1980s, the soccer teams in South Africa were made up of English speaking, middle class white women. During this period, there was a small number of black women who took part in the sport, and the number of coloured women was marginally higher than that of black women, this may well be that coloured women were first to join the sport and then black women followed (Pelak, 2010). By the 1970s, the South African Women’s Soccer Association, which was the governing body for women’s soccer, supported yearly interprovincial competitions. At that time, women’s soccer was an urban sensation and most well known in Cape Town, Durban and Johannesburg (Pelak, 2006). Because of apartheid the women’s team was not able to compete in international tournaments, however in 1989, the squad participated in an international competition in Italy where they had to leave South Africa disguised as an anonymous club.
“It was later on during 1993 when the South African team was able to compete in an official competition with Swaziland. During the first few years of being introduced to women’s soccer the inequalities of apartheid meant that very few black women enjoyed the opportunities to participate in sports, for women living in rural areas participating in sport was irrelevant to their daily lives” (Pelak, 2006:375). Democratisation in South Africa has intensified the prospects for women to inhabit positions of power and unlocked spaces for changes in perceptions about traditional gender roles (Ogunniyi, 2014). “White middle-class women in urban areas, for example, had much more access to sporting opportunities than poor African, coloured and Asian women living in rural or urban settings” (Pelak, 2010:64) The supremacy
35 of white, middle-class women in soccer throughout the early developmental years suggests that race and class privilege helped enable their entry into the male-dominated sport (Pelak, 2010). The first South African national women's team was established in 1993, and became known as 'Banyana Banyana' (Grundlingh, 2010). The early 1990s presented a prospect for black women to join the sport, apartheid was coming to an end, black women joined existing teams, and new teams were formed.
According to Pelak (2010), in this period a shift was seen in the number of members within the sport, the teams for the most part comprised black and coloured women compared to earlier when the teams comprised predominately of white women. “As more African and coloured women joined soccer, more league games were played in black townships, places where white women hardly travelled to. As a result, many white women left the teams and started playing indoor soccer” (Pelak, 2006:376). With new possibilities came more challenges for women participating in male dominated sports such as soccer. Given the historical limitations on women in sport, South African women’s involvement in ‘female-typed’ sports such as netball is more tolerable than their participation in ‘male-typed’ sports such as soccer. Soccer in South Africa, like that in many countries in the world, has been clearly gendered as a male-only sport (Pelak, 2010). In 2001, the sponsorship of the South African banking and insurance company Sanlam allowed for the development of the first national women’s soccer league (Pelak, 2010).
Women and girls have, to date, had inadequate prospects mostly being called only to represent their province or one of the three national teams: under-17 (U17) Bantwana, under-20 (under- 20) Basetsana or the senior Banyana Banyana. The South African Football Association (SAFA) launched the under-20 national team (known as Basetsana) as a way to encourage youth development of the game (Engh, 2011). These are the only three national teams that are accessible to women and girls in South Africa. These restricted prospects have seen quite a number of incredible players leaving the continent to explore better opportunities overseas.
2.2.4 Women’s sport media coverage
Women have been participating in sport for over 20 years; however, the media coverage of women’s sport has decreased. Women account for 40 per cent of participation, however they are only afforded four per cent of the total media coverage (Hall & Oglesby, 2016). It is openly acknowledged that inequality exists when it comes to reporting men’s and women’s sport (Schmidt, 2013). Due to these inequalities women’s sport receives different treatment by the
36 media, compared with men’s sports; male domination is maintained within the sports industry by covering more men’s sports and less women’s sports (Sherry, Osborne & Nicholson, 2016). The isolation of women’s sport within the media gives the impression that women’s sport is less noteworthy compared to that of men (Sherry et al., 2016). Not only does this prohibition make women’s sport obscure, but it has also resulted in female role models not being copious due to their shortage in the media (Hall & Oglesby, 2016).
The overall absence of announcing women’s sport, despite the exceptional increment in the involvement of women within sport, at high school, college, and proficient levels, sends the message to fans that sport remains to be dominated by men (Cooky et al., 2013). According to Sherry et al. (2016), print media reporting for women’s sports has seen a surge in the United Kingdom; this however is not the case in Australia, where there has been a decrease of about two per cent between 1997 and 2010. “International media research has further found that there is a strong preference for covering sports which are traditionally seen as appropriate for women athletes” (Sherry et al., 2016:301). Women who play sports such as soccer or hockey are less likely to be featured in sport photography; however, those who participate in individual sports such as swimming or tennis or those who participate in sports, which are considered to be gender appropriate team sports get the most media coverage (Sherry et al., 2016).
Female athletes are usually defined in terms of their physical features in the media, this is claimed to sexually objectify women, undervalue their performance, and reaffirm traditional concepts of femininity (Sherry et al., 2016). Hall and Oglesby (2016:272) argued that “women athletes are included not for their athleticism but for their sexual appeal, pictures of female athletes in provocative poses are common in the media; after all sex sells”. The German Soccer Association, well known as Deutscher Fußball-Bund (DFB), is seen to endorse more feminine or eroticised images of women’s soccer to entice more male fans to women’s events (Meier et al., 2016). Such pictures of women are consequential in the sexualisation of women’s soccer.
2.3 SUMMARY
This chapter was separated into two sections; the first section focused on tourism in South Africa, the sport tourism framework, and consumer motives. The second part of the chapter dealt with reviewing secondary data on the involvement of women in sports. It looked at the participation of women in sport, first in the global context, second, in an African context and
37 last, it unpacked the historical development of women’s soccer in South Africa. The following chapter discusses the methodology adopted.
38 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Cooper and Schindler (1998:21) described research as “any organised query carried out to offer information for resolving problems”. Leedy and Ormrod (2010:12) defined research methodology as “a broad strategy that is used to conduct a study to solve a research problem”. The current chapter provides a description of the methods utilised to collect the data in order to accomplish the research. This chapter outlines the research population, sampling methods, methods used to collect the data, methods for data analysis, study limitations, and ethical considerations.
3.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The following questions guided the study:
What is the profile of the fans who currently attend women’s soccer games in Gauteng?
What are the motivating factors for fan attendance at women’s soccer games in Gauteng?
What are the challenges experienced by stakeholders in the advancement of women’s soccer in Gauteng?
To what extent did the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup assist in the advancement of women’s soccer?
3.3 BACKGROUND TO STUDY AREA
Gauteng is South Africa’s smallest province, located on the Highveld of South Africa, it is landlocked and surrounded by four other provinces (Gauteng Tourism Authority (GTA), 2017). Although Gauteng is the country’s smallest province, it is the richest and the economic heart of South Africa, contributing 34 per cent to the country's GDP (GTA, 2017). The Gauteng
39 province has a thriving tourism sector. Gauteng is the gateway into South Africa and records an average of 44 per cent of all international visitor arrivals, thus, the tourism sector has employed more than 200 000 people in the province, contributing R30 billion per annum to the city region’s economy. These figures are an indication as to why Gauteng’s tourism sector has been termed the “new gold” (GTA, 2015:6). Tourists come largely from the African continent, followed by the United Kingdom, USA, and Germany (GTA, 2015).
Gauteng is home to different cultural, recreational, and entertainment events like; “the Moretele Tribute Concert, the Momentum 947 Cycle Challenge, the Discovery 702 Walk the Talk, the Soweto Derby (one of the biggest soccer derbies in Africa), the SANSUI Summer Cup, and the Standard Bank Joy of Jazz”. These events have assisted in selling the destination globally (GTA, 2017:6).
Gauteng is South Africa’s most populated province and is the country’s economic hub (GTA, 2015). Gauteng has a range of facilities, and most importantly is home to a range of women’s soccer teams (compared with other provinces). The most notable institutions include the High Performance Centre where young girls, among other athletes are trained to become professional soccer players, the province is also home to the Mamelodi Sundowns Academy, which has the only professional women’s soccer club in the province (Mamelodi Sundowns FC, 2016). The dynamic and cosmopolitan nature of Gauteng as a province makes it important to test the phenomenon of women’s soccer participation. Moreover, the province boasts of a large number of sport facilities, such as the seven stadiums available in Johannesburg (iSport, 2017), which are readily available for women’s soccer teams to practice and play, thus the focus on Gauteng was deemed an appropriate study area.
3.4 RESEARCH DESIGN
Research design is a plan where research participants are identified, the required information is collected in an attempt to answer the research question (Welman & Kruger, 2001:46). According to Saunders, Lewis and Thornhill (2016), research design is generally a strategy adopted to answer research questions. Altinay and Paraskevas (2008:321) defined research design as defining the methods, strategies, and data collection techniques used to conduct the study. Burns and Burns (2008) proposed that the nature and scope of the research conducted would decide the sort of research plan followed.
40 This research was deemed exploratory. Exploratory research is to consider a circumstance or issue in order to clarify the connections between factors (Saunders et al., 2016). An exploratory research design was used mainly because the phenomenon of women’s soccer is insufficiently researched in South Africa, and the design prioritised the phenomenon of women’s soccer motivations and challenges. Exploratory research was also ideal as it allowed for the use of primary or secondary research, or both types of research (Saunders et al., 2016). The study adopted the positivist research philosophy. This claimed as valid for this mixed methods as a large body of knowledge already exists for men’s soccer. The qualitative stage places dependence on the individuals being examined to provide their own clarifications of their situation and behaviour, the world is viewed from the subject’s point of view (Veal, 2006). This qualitative approach advocates for a malleable method to data gathering, which typically involves qualitative data (Veal, 2006). This research philosophy was ideal for the study as it was able to address the study objective examining motivation, and it provided an understanding as to why people attend sport tourism events. Adopting an deductive method is a practice of constructing from the data’s broad themes to a comprehensive model or theory (Creswell, 2014).
3.4.1 Research methodology
This study has adopted a mixed method approach, which combines both qualitative and quantitative methods. Creswell and Clark (2011:2) defined mixed method research as “including at least one quantitative method and one qualitative method, where neither type of method is inherently linked to any particular inquiry”. Mixed method “is an approach to inquiry involving collecting data using both qualitative and quantitative techniques” (Creswell, 2014:4). He added that the collaboration of both these methods offers a more comprehensive understanding of a research problem than either approach alone (Creswell, 2014:4). Mixed method research offers qualities that offset the shortcomings of both qualitative and quantitative research; moreover, a mixed research strategy helps in answering questions that cannot be answered by quantitative or subjective approaches alone (Creswell & Clark, 2011).
According to Veal (2006), qualitative research is a technique that encompasses collecting very comprehensive data on a few cases whereas quantitative research accumulates minor quantities of data on enormous cases. A mixed method approach was deemed appropriate for the study as it would eliminate the weaknesses that are involved with either quantitative or qualitative
41 research. The singular use of the quantitative or the qualitative approaches would have been inadequate to address the research objectives of the study, as the study topic is under- researched. Creswell (2009) stated that more knowledge is to be gained from the combination of both qualitative and quantitative research than either form by itself. Creswell (2009:4) defined qualitative research as “a way to discover and understand the meaning that individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem”. Veal (2006) described qualitative research as a method that involves collecting very detailed data about a small number of cases. De Vos, Strydom, Fouche and Delport (2005) contended that qualitative research strategies do not offer a step-by-step pattern, or a formula to pursue when collecting data. Burns and Burns (2008:84) argue that qualitative research “captures expressive data that is not accessible from quantitative data; usually information around things such as issues, perceptions, values, needs, sentiments, and inspirations that underlie behaviours at a personal level”. Creswell (2009:18) stressed that, “qualitative research enables the researcher to make knowledge claims based primarily on constructivist perspectives or participatory perspectives, narratives, phenomenology, ethnographies, grounded theories, and case studies”.
According to Creswell (2014:4), “quantitative research is a method to test objective theories by investigating the connection between variables, these variables can be measured on instruments so that numbered data can be analysed using statistical procedures”. The qualitative approach was appropriate for this study, as it provided the opportunity to unearth the challenges that the stakeholders, involved in the advancement of the sport, face, and to learn about the strategies that have been implemented to eradicate these challenges. Quantitative research includes collecting small sums of data for a large number of cases (Veal, 2006). De Vos et al., (2005) were of the view that quantitative research oversees the researcher’s choices and actions. The quantitative approach was adopted because large amounts of data were to be collected at sport tourism events. The study aimed to investigate the motivations for fan attendance at a women’s sporting event, and as sporting events usually attract large numbers of spectators, this tool was appropriate to collect large amounts of data simultaneously.
3.4.2 Method and tools for data collection
The study utilised both primary and secondary data gathering collection methods.
42 3.4.2.1 Primary data
Primary data are data collected for investigation purposes (Burns & Burns, 2008). Additionally, Cooper and Schindler (1998) argued that this information is collected to answer the research question. This study’s data were collected using a complied self-administrated survey. Face- to-face interviews were conducted from the key stakeholders around the Johannesburg and Ekurhuleni areas in the Gauteng province, South Africa.
3.4.2.2 Secondary data
According to Cooper and Schindler (1998), secondary data are previous studies undertaken by other researchers. Burns and Burns (2008) contended that this data is reviewed for understanding before the adoption of a research design, and formulation of the research questions and methodology. For this study, data was collected from a wide range of sources such as:
Books that deal with, tourism, sport tourism, consumer motivation, and sporting events;
Academic journals on sport tourism such as the Journal of Travel Research, the Journal of Sport and Tourism, and others;
Magazines and newspapers; and
Relevant theses and dissertations.
3.4.3 Quantitative survey
A cover letter was attached to the survey questionnaire, which explained the research ethics, research problem, and research objectives to the respondents. The respondents were asked to participate by filling in the questionnaire about their motivations for attending a women’s soccer match, as well as the challenges that they believe existed when it came to women’s soccer in South Africa. The survey questionnaire (Appendix ‘A’) consisted of three sections. The first section covered the demographics, including gender, age, ethnic group, income status, education, home province, employment status, as well as how they found out about the event. Section B aimed to investigate their perceptions about women’s soccer, and the challenges of
43 developing women’s soccer. Section C investigated their motivation factors for attending a women’s soccer event.
3.4.4 Qualitative survey
The qualitative interview schedule was put together using themes that were discussed in the literature review and took into consideration the research objectives. A cover letter was attached to the interview schedule, which explained the research ethics, research problem and research objectives to the respondents. The interview schedule (Appendix ‘B’) consisted of two sections. The first section was to determine the demographics of the participants as well as the duration of their involvement in women’s soccer or the organisation they represented. The second section consisted of open-ended questions about the challenges they faced, their perception of women’s soccer, strategy/s that have been developed to advance women’s soccer, and the legacies of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
3.4.5 Survey population
Primary data is data that is collected by the researcher for analysis purposes. Cooper and Schindler (1998:256) argue that primary data may also be collected by the researcher to assist in answering the research question. The researcher conducted fieldwork and collected qualitative primary data from key stakeholders who focus on advancing women’s soccer. The population of the quantitative study comprised of spectators who participated in sport tourism by attending a soccer matches held in Johannesburg, Tembisa and Springs in three different locations in Gauteng.
3.4.5.1 Quantitative population
According to Tabachnick and Fidell (2007:613), and Pallant (2010:183), a sample size of 150 to 300 participants is adequate to conduct statistical analysis. The bigger the sample size, the more reliable the findings. The study anticipated collecting a minimum of a 100 completed surveys. This study utilised responses from 167 respondents as these were fully completed surveys at women’s soccer events, at three different locations in Gauteng. The first event was held at the UJ Sports Complex in Johannesburg, the second at the Mehlareng stadium in Tembisa, (both events were part of the Sasol league); the third event was held in Springs at the KwaThema stadium. The study was a cross-sectional one and the events selected were part of
44 the provincial Sasol League which allowed the researcher to collect data on women’s soccer within Gauteng. The study initially intended to have 10 fieldworkers who would collect data; however, the number was dropped to five fieldworkers because there were fewer spectators than anticipated at the first event, and the numbers did not increase at the other two events where data was collected.
The fieldworkers were given the survey before the event to give to familiarise themselves with the survey questionnaires, and the researcher explained the study objectives so that they would be in a position to answer questions relating to the study. The researcher only hired fieldworkers who could speak one or more African languages, apart from English, so that they could translate the questions to a language that respondents could understand if they did not understand English. The fieldworkers were trained how to approach a respondent and were advised to adhere to the ethics of the study, to refrain from choosing a response for the respondent, and only simplification of the questions was permitted. The fieldworkers ensured that they only approached individuals who were fans at the event.
3.4.5.2 Qualitative population
The qualitative key participant interviews were conducted with five persons who work closely with advancing women’s soccer, this was done to obtain different perspectives. The selection criteria of each participant are explained in Table 3.1.
Table 3.6: Key qualitative participants
Key Number Reasons for participating stakeholder interviewed
The participant coached a female soccer team that consists of university Female 1 students. The participant was chosen so that a comparison of challenges coach that male coaches face could be made.
This participant coached a female soccer team. He was interviewed so that the role of gender in coaching could be investigated, and so that a Male coach 1 comparison of challenges that female coaches face could be made. The participant was part of the study because he coaches a well known, successful, women’s soccer team.
This participant played for the national team and for the only professional women’s soccer team in Gauteng, Mamelodi Sundowns. It was important Player 1 to interview a player because they were directly involved in playing soccer and face many challenges, which needed to be unearthed for this study.
45 Key Number Reasons for participating stakeholder interviewed
The official was interviewed because SAFA is the custodian of soccer in SAFA South Africa; they are responsible for advancing soccer. This key 1 official participant was interviewed to gain insight into the strategies SAFA has in place to advance women’s soccer in the country.
Sport officers play a similar role to that of SAFA; they are responsible for advancing soccer at the clubs for which they work. They are also responsible for passing down communication from SAFA to the soccer Sport officer 1 teams. Sport officers develop strategies to advance their soccer clubs. This individual was interviewed to find out about the challenges they face and what support they receive from SAFA, the custodian of SA soccer.
3.4.6 Sampling procedure
3.4.6.1 Quantitative survey
“A sample is a sub-set of the population selected for inclusion in the research” (Finn, Elliot- White & Walton, 2000:108). The selected study sample is much smaller than the population selected. According to Finn et al. (2000), the main aim of sampling is to obtain representatives from the general population. Face-to-face quantitative surveys were conducted at the selected stadiums, those being the UJ Sports Complex, Mehlareng Stadium, and Kwathema Stadium. The study adopted the spatially based systematic sampling technique. According to De Vos et al. (2005), this technique is utilised in cases of profoundly brief populaces, such as sporting events. Gravetter and Forzano (2009) stated that systematic sampling starts with identifying the population, then randomly selecting the first participant, thereafter selecting the nth participant. Bless and Higson-Smith (1995) argued that this sampling procedure is simple and quick; however, they warn that this technique relies on the availability of a complete and unbiased population list.
The study was limited to individuals who were over the age of 18. The study included both male and female individuals. The fieldworkers first asked the approached respondent if they were 18 or older and in the event that the respondent was younger, they approached the next respondent they could see. For the duration of the surveys, two fieldworkers were placed at each entrance of the stadium. Four fieldworkers were tasked with collecting the filled in surveys and after collecting 10 surveys, they would be checked by the fifth fieldworker who was responsible for ensuring that those surveys were completed correctly and disqualifying those that were incomplete. The first participant was randomly selected; thereafter the
46 fieldworkers interviewed every fifth participant. This method was adopted until all the required data was collected.
3.4.6.2 Qualitative interviews
Face-to-face interviews were held at different locations in Gauteng with stakeholders who were knowledgeable about women’s soccer. In total, five participants were interviewed. Qualitative validity implies that the researcher checks for the exactness of the discoveries by utilising certain strategies; qualitative reliability, on the other hand, illustrates that the researcher’s approach is consistent over distinctive projects (Creswell, 2009). Table 3.2 links the questions used during the qualitative interview to the underpinning theory from the literature review.
Table 3.7: Qualitative interview questions
Interview schedule question Supporting theory from Chapter 2
Q1. What historical changes have you seen in the last 10 years in government, fans, and female player Engh and Potgieter (2015), Engh (2011), Grundlingh support for the game? (2010), Hargreaves (2004), Hjelm and Olofssom (2003), and Pelak (2010). These authors have written Q1.2 What challenges do you face when fielding a extensively about the development of women’s soccer women’s soccer team and how do you overcome and its challenges. these challenges?
Davies and Williment (2008), Downward and Rasciute (2011), Dhurup (2010), Funk et al., (2009), Q2. What historical changes have taken place in and Mofokeng and Bevan-Dye (2014), These authors improving match fixture opportunities? have written on factors that influence attendance at sporting events and have highlighted that fixtures play a vital role when it comes to decision-making.
Bogopa (2014) has investigated the perceptions of Q3. What historical changes in government support girls playing soccer at a school in South Africa and (funding, school involvement etc.) have you seen writes on strategies to attract girl children to play and what is still needed? soccer.
Q4. Why do you think that women’s soccer is not Cooky et al, (2013), Goslin (2008), and Schmidt given the same promotion in media as that of men’s (2012) have looked at how women’s soccer and other soccer? sports are covered in the media.
Q5. Do you experience resistance from parents or Nauright (2014), Ogunniyi (2014) and Rober (2013) the community in terms of allowing girls to play all described the gender relations when it comes to soccer? playing sport.
Bull and Lovell (2007), Cornelissen et al., (2011), Nyikana Tichaawa and Swart. (2014), Swart and Bob Q6. How do you think the 2010 FIFA World Cup (2012), Sallent, Palau and Guia (2011), and Tichaawa has assisted in attracting women and girls to play et al. (2015) all described the various legacies linked soccer? to hosting a mega-event such as the 2010 FIFA World Cup and how it has an influenced sport development.
47 Interview schedule question Supporting theory from Chapter 2
Q7. What projects are being developed to grow Chappelet and Junod (2006), Elendu (2013), and Kim South African women soccer players? et al., (2016) described how projects can be initiated after hosting a mega sporting event.
3.4.7 Qualitative trustworthiness
In order to ensure qualitative trustworthiness, the following strategies were followed during data collection. According to Shenton (2004), the development of early familiarity with the culture of participating organisations is one of the strategies that can be adopted to ensure credibility. Information about the responsibilities of the participants and organisations assisted during the data collection. Shenton (2004) stated that the best way to ensure credibility is to adopt tactics to help ensure honesty in respondents. The participants were informed that their names would not be used in the dissertation or mentioned during other interviews, that they could withdraw from the interview should they feel uncomfortable, and that their participation was voluntary. The researcher transcribed the interviews and gave each transcript a unique code for easy identification.
Transferability alludes to the degree to which the findings of qualitative research can be repeated in other settings with other respondents (Anney, 2014). According to Bitsch (2005:85), “the researcher enables the transferability verdict by a potential client through utilising thick description and purposeful sampling”. In order to ensure transferability, the number of participants selected to participate in the study was indicated; furthermore, the purposeful sampling was used, only participants that were directly involved in the advancement of women’s soccer were included as part of the study. The data collection methods that were adopted for the study were clearly indicated.
“Dependability refers to the stability of findings over time” (Bitsch, 2005:86). Dependability ensures that research discoveries would be the same when a comparative study is conducted, with comparative members, under a comparable setting (Bitsch, 2005). To address dependability, the processes within the study ought to be reported in detail to enable the study to be replicated (Shenton, 2004). This methodology chapter presented the survey population, data collection, and data analysis processes.
Conformability alludes to the degree to which the results of an inquiry can be affirmed or corroborated by other researchers (Anney, 2014). “Conformability deals with the bias and
48 prejudices of the researcher” (Bitsch, 2005:87). Some of the strategies used to ensure conformability were to present a detailed methodology allowing the truthfulness of the findings to be scrutinised and to make use of triangulation (Shenton, 2004). In order to ensure the conformability of the study, triangulation was adopted when presenting the results to check for similarities with previous studies.
3.4.8 Quantitative validity and reliability
Validity and reliability in research relates to the instruments used to collect data. “The validity of the measurement procedure is the degree to which the measurement process measures the variable it claims to measure, while reliability refers to the consistency or stability of the measurement” (De Vos et al., 2005:269). Validity alluded to the “degree that a research instrument measures what it intends to measure” (De Vos et al., 2005:271). Veal (2006) confirmed that validity is the test that measures the degree to which the information collected genuinely mirrors the wonder that is being examined in the research. Burns and Burns (2008) proposed that validity is the most noteworthy and accessible estimation to the truth or to the falseness of an indicated conclusion.
Reliability is the degree to which the research discoveries would be the same on the off chance that the research was to be rehashed later, or with a distinctive test of subjects (Veal, 2006). Burns and Burns (2008) added that reliability is the consistency, as well as the solidness, of the investigated discoveries that empowers the discoveries to be imitated.
To be able to guarantee reliability and validity in the study, the following was considered:
The format of the quantitative survey was adopted from previous similar studies, and the questions were compiled based on research by Achu (2011), Chain (2009), and Moshoeshoe (2014); however, the questions were reworded to suit this study.
The fieldworkers who assisted with the quantitative fieldwork were trained to administer the questionnaires.
A qualified statistician was consulted regarding the survey questionnaire design and the SPSS data analysis.
49 3.5 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
According to Gravetter and Forzano (2009:98) ethics is the “responsibility of the researchers to be honest and respectful to all individuals who are affected by their research studies or their reports of the studies’ results”. For both sets of data collection, qualitative and quantitative, data fieldworkers informed the participants that completion of the questionnaires was on a voluntary basis and withdrawal was possible at any time during the survey. All surveys that were administered included a declaration of anonymity to ensure the privacy of all respondents.
3.6 METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS
3.6.1 Quantitative data
The Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 25 software was used to analyse the quantitative data (Burns & Burns, 2008), where tables and graphic presentations were generated, and inferential statistical tests were run. The questionnaires were coded for easy and effective capturing. The descriptive analysis was performed for an overall picture of the variables of the sample. The independent samples T-test was used to test for differences between the two genders in perceptions of women’s football, decision-making on attending a women’s soccer match, and sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The independent samples T-test was also used to test for differences between the two education level groups, matric and below; and post-matric, in decision-making on attending a women’s soccer match. The One-Way ANOVA test was used to test for differences between the three age groups in perceptions of women’s football and sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup
3.6.2 Qualitative data
The qualitative data was analysed using content analysis. According to Elo and Kyngas (2007:107), “content analysis is a research technique for creating similar and valid inferences from data to their context, with the purpose of providing knowledge, new insights, a representation of facts, and a practical guide to action”. Furthermore, content analysis is a method that is applied to non-statistical material and it allows the researcher to analyse material in a systematic way, therefore content analysis is a qualitative means of analysing qualitative data (Finn et al., 2000). The use of content analysis was an ideal for this study because it
50 permitted testing of hypothetical issues and improved the understanding of the data. Through content analysis, it is conceivable to distil words into less content related categories (Elo & Kyngas, 2007). All interviews conducted were recorded and transcribed for accuracy. Once the interviews were transcribed, patterns, common responses, and themes were identified using the approach of content analysis. Sekaran and Bougie (2013) justified that analysis of qualitative data is intended to manufacture valid inferences from the vast amount of data collected.
3.7 SUMMARY
This chapter described the research methods adopted in the study. As part of the research, semi- structured interviews were conducted with key stakeholder stakeholders in Gauteng. These interviews were conducted to gain insight into the challenges of developing women’s soccer, as well as some of the legacies that the 2010 FIFA World Cup left behind for women’s soccer. The interviews were semi-structured interviews done face-to-face. This provided the opportunity to probe, acquire in-depth answers, and allow participants to elaborate on their responses. The qualitative surveys were handed out to spectators at three different women’s soccer events in Gauteng. These interviews intended to understand the motivations for attending these events. The following chapter presents and discusses the findings.
51 CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The participation in sport tourism, linked to motivations and challenges regarding women’s soccer in Gauteng, have been the main thrust of this study. The understanding of fans motives for supporting women’s soccer can provide a clear-cut power for marketing the sport to promote sport and event tourism, which is the firm objective of this research. Chapter 2 shows sport and event tourism in a holistic light, and the main view of the tourism sector’s impacts on host destinations and influences on different sets of fans. Chapter 3 gives a detailed research methodology, describing methods and tools used to gather data relevant for the current study. This chapter delivers, tabulates, and discusses the research findings obtained from the fieldwork. Tables, graphs, and pie charts were utilised in relevant sections to demonstrate the findings in this chapter.
This chapter is divided into sections. The demographic profile was the first component of respondents to be presented and analysed. This is followed by a descriptive analysis of the fan survey responses, which details perceptions and challenges around women’s football. A further section contains group comparisons obtained by using content analysis, and the chapter is concluded with an overview of prospects and challenges around women’s soccer.
4.2 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS
The following section presents the findings of the demographic composition of the quantitative survey respondents. The variables measured include gender, age, ethnicity, income, educational level, place of residence and employment status. These variables are important in order to define the profile of a woman’s soccer fan. Profiling respondents gives ideas to events facilitators, planners, and all other stakeholders to ensure easy sport and event tourism management (Stander & Van-Zyl, 2016). The first sub section of demography analysed was gender.
52 4.2.1 Gender of respondents
As expected, results (Table 4.1) reflect that the majority of the respondents were men (63.5 per cent), while women contributed 36.5 per cent of the total figure of respondents. A wide gap in gender shown in percentage participation indicated that, soccer was more supported by males than females. Tradition, stereotype, and beliefs are some of the attributes that are dominant in supporting the general feeling that men love soccer more than do women (Stander & Van-Zyl, 2016). Perhaps, such characteristics could have influenced the results from the research regarding gender. The results further concur with the belief of Pelak (2010), who stated that, men account for the highest percentage of attendance in soccer events because football was and still is perceived as a male sport. Gender is indeed a stumbling block prohibiting women from participating in soccer events, as they are still subject to domestic work (Pelak, 2010).
Table 4.8: Gender of the respondents
Gender (n = 167) Total (%)
Male 63.5
Female 36.5
4.2.2 Age of respondents
The participants were asked their age to establish the most participative age group. The respondents’ age range was simplified into seven categories as shown in Table 4.2. The knowledge of the age for respondents is generally good as it can help in guiding the planning of future events. Research findings show that the majority (37.1 per cent) of the respondents were aged between 18 and 24 years. The distribution further shows that, the second most participative respondents (35.3 per cent) were between 25 and 34 years of age. Hence, the youth, participants between the ages of 18 and 34, accounted for a large percentage (72.4 per cent). Of the participants, 16.8 per cent indicated that they were between the ages of 35 and 44 years. Only a handful, six per cent of respondents, was made up of people between 45 and 54 years of age, while three per cent comprised people aged between 55 and 64 years. The age group 65 to 74 years contributed 1.8 per cent and no respondents of 75 years and above participated in the survey.
53 The majority (37.1 per cent) of the spectators are young making up a large percentage of the spectators. Sport and event tourism is an adventurous phenomenon, dominated by able-bodied participants (Getz, 2008). It could be assumed that soccer events attract a much younger group of spectators. In the domain of sport, specifically women’s football, the trend is consistent with those of men’s football (Dubihlela et al., 2009), where these events also tend to attract the younger generation, irrespective of whether it be a male or female event.
Table 4.9: Age of respondents
Age group in years (n = 167) Total (%)
18–24 37.1
25–34 35.3
35–44 16.8
45–54 6.0
55–64 3.0
65-74 1.8
70 and older 0
4.2.3 Ethnic group of respondents
While this study sought to understand the motivation and challenges in women’s soccer events, it becomes a prerequisite to look at challenges that affect different race group. A firm establishment of ethnic configuration was deemed necessary to overcome some traditional beliefs regarding the involvement of different groups in soccer events. Racial backgrounds are arguably important to understand the needs and expectations of people. According to Mofokeng and Bevan-Dye (2014), soccer is enjoyed and supported mainly by black African South Africans. As indicated in Table 4.3, the survey results indicated the black ethnic group confirming the assumption, with 85 per cent dominance. Coloureds (11.4 per cent) were the second largest group of participants according to the research findings, whereas, whites represented 2.4 per cent, and Indian or Asian participants, 1.2 per cent.
Within the context of the South African history, it is generally believed and accepted that, some racial groups are historically disadvantaged which perhaps reduced their interest in soccer.
54 Table 4.10: Ethnic group of respondents
Ethnicity (n = 167) Total (%)
Black 85.0
Coloured 11.4
White 2.4
Indian/ Asian 1.2
4.2.4 Income of respondents
As part of demographic analysis, respondents were further requested to indicate their income range per month, which was expressed in South African Rands (ZAR). As shown in Table 4.4, nearly half (47.8 per cent) of the respondents were identified as not earning any income. Those earning R2 000 and below constituted 10.8 per cent of total respondents, while those earning between R2 001 and R5 000 constituted 21.6 per cent to the respondents. Those earning between R5 001 and R10 000 represented 10.8 per cent of respondents, with 4.8 per cent of respondents earning between R10 001 and R15 000. Respondents earning between R15 001 and R20 000 contributed 1.2 per cent while those earning R20 001 and above amounted to 3.0 per cent.
Nearly half of the respondents did not earn any income, they could have been a group of soccer enthusiasts who might not be working, or still studying, and therefore, not employed. Based on the report released by Statistics South Africa (2015), youth unemployment is at 36.9 per cent, claiming that unemployment of youths is rife in all provinces of South Africa. It can therefore be argued that, the state of the economy and the unemployment rates could have a serious impact on the sustainability of sport and event tourism.
55 Table 4.11: Income of respondents
Monthly income (n = 167) Total (%)
No income 47.8
Below R2 000 10.8
R2 001 - R5 000 21.6
R5 001 - R10 000 10.8
R10 001 - R15 000 4.8
R15 001 - R20 000 1.2
R20 001 and above 3.0
4.2.5 Educational level of respondents
Grasping levels of education in respondents on sport and event tourism research is arguably relevant to ascertain their attendance and expenditure habits. As shown in Table 4.5, the findings of the educational level of the respondents indicated
Great concerns in literary levels can spill over to affect the sustainability of sport and event tourism. Rogerson (2004) believed that South Africa needs an educated generation to plan and sustain the needs of events to ensure that the sector can achieve its developmental goals in communities. Limited education among participants can further reduce attendance levels, as people tend to focus on basic needs rather that going out for sports and events. Furthermore, education is generally an instrument used by all stakeholders, to ensure that events are carried out in a manner, which ensures their continuous recurrence.
56 Table 4.12: Educational level of respondents
Education (n = 167) Total (%)
No education 1.8
Primary schooling completed 10.2
Secondary schooling completed 51.5
Certificate/ Diploma 22.8
Degree 11.4
Postgraduate Degree 2.3
4.2.6 Home province of respondents
The provinces of origin for the target respondents were also considered in the study to determine the influence of the sphere of women’s soccer. Despite being the only province represented in the findings, Gauteng has great pulling power for respondents from different provinces. As shown in Table 4.6, 67.6 per cent of respondents hailed from Gauteng, 1.8 per cent of the respondents originate from the Western Cape, and the Free State contributed 4.2 per cent of the respondents. Eastern Cape (4.2 per cent), KwaZulu Natal (5.4 per cent), Mpumalanga (three per cent), Northern Cape (1.2 per cent), North West (2.4 per cent) and Limpopo (10.8 per cent) respondents expressed being part of soccer events in Gauteng.
The dominance of respondents from Gauteng is not surprising given that the province is well positioned with infrastructure like stadia, and job opportunities. The strength of a destination lies in the infrastructure that the destination boasts (Taks, Green, Misnener, & Chalip, 2018). Soccer is generally loved across South Africa, given that all provinces contributed soccer participants.
57 Table 4.13: Home province of respondents
Home province (n = 167) Total (%)
Northern Cape 1.2
Western Cape 1.8
North West 2.4
Mpumalanga 3.0
Free State 3.6
Eastern Cape 4.2
Kwa Zulu Natal 5.4
Limpopo 10.8
Gauteng 67.6
4.2.7 Employment status of the respondents
Gaining insight into the employment status of respondents was relevant for this study. Table 4.7 indicates the results that were attained when the respondents were asked to reveal their employment status. In response to this question, 32.9 per cent responded by stating that they were employed full time, followed by 9.6 per cent who were employed part-time, and 7.8 per cent who were self-employed. Of the respondents, 18 per cent were unemployed, while 28.1 per cent stated that they were students. A small percentage (3.6 per cent) indicated that they were pensioners. A wide distribution of employment status could reflect challenges involved in sport participation as not everyone has disposable income. Unemployed respondents could be the students, pensioners, and unemployed people that have time to go and attend women’s soccer sporting events, however face economic challenges in terms of disposable income for such events, which might influence their attendance. The majority of the respondents who indicated that they don’t have an income are students and the unemployed (Table 4.7).
58 Table 4.14: Employment status of respondents
Employment status (n = 167) Total (%)
Full-time employment 32.9
Part-time employment 9.6
Self- employed 7.8
Student 28.1
Pensioner 3.6
Unemployed 18.0
4.3 MARKETING OF WOMEN’S SOCCER EVENTS
The respondents were asked how they found out about the event(s) and were given a list where they could choose more than one option. This was done to investigate which marketing strategies would be ideal to use in future when attracting potential guests to a women’s soccer event. A wide range of media had been used to highlight, or advertise events across different places. Dhurup (2010) argued that, dating back to the eve of technology, different media has been used, and is being utilised, to advertise events. As shown in Table 4.8, different means of media communication informed respondents about events. Friends and family (28.2 per cent) emerged as the most efficient in circulating the occurrence of such events, followed by word of mouth (24.1 per cent), as well as social media like Facebook and Twitter (11.3 per cent). Newspapers (10.8), television (10.3 per cent), radio (6.2 per cent), and Internet, like blogs (six per cent) and sports websites (3.1 per cent), have been confirmed as the source of information for respondents.
Results suggest that, women’s football events received less communication through traditional media channels like radio, television, and newspapers. One of the key stakeholders (a women’s football coach) critically echoed:
“The advertising of these games is really minimal compared to what the men’s soccer gets, men’s soccer gets the full blown everything”.
59 According to George (2008), word of mouth has shown to be a very quick and yet cheap means of marketing, which supports its dominance as the means of women’s soccer communication to respondents.
Table 4.15: Marketing of women’s soccer event
Marketing (n = 167) Total (%)
Television 10.3
Newspaper 10.8
Radio 6.2
Social media: Facebook, Twitter 11.3
Friends or family 28.2
Internet: Blogs, sport websites 3.1
Word of mouth communication 24.1
Other 6
4.4 FREQUENCY OF ATTENDANCE AT WOMEN’S SOCCER EVENTS
The respondents were asked about the frequency with which they attended women’s soccer events. Table 4.9 reflects that the majority (38.9 per cent) attended women’s soccer events sometimes, 19.5 per cent showed that they always attended, while 18.6 per cent indicated that they rarely attended. Those who attended often constituted 15.2 per cent, whereas those who never attended contributed 7.8 per cent. Engh (2011) highlighted that the support base of women’s soccer is still very weak in South Africa. These findings support this claim by Engh as they reveal that less than 50% of the respondents attend women’s soccer events. However, there is huge potential in the event that those attending sometimes, often, and rarely, start attending always.
60 Table 4.16: Frequency of attendance
Attendance frequency (n = 167) Total (%)
Never 7.8
Rarely 18.6
Sometimes 38.9
Often 15.2
Always 19.5
4.5 INTEREST IN WOMEN’S SOCCER
Section B of the questionnaire survey was designed to examine the levels of interests of the respondents in women’s soccer events. Ascertaining who is interested in the event and the extent to which they are interested is very important in terms of planning for future events (Pearce, Murphy & Brymer, 2009; Peric, 2010).
4.5.1 Interest in support for growth in South African women’s soccer
Respondents were asked about their interest in terms of their support for the growth of women’s soccer in South Africa. As shown in Table 4.10, the majority (41.9 per cent) indicated that they were very interested, followed by those who indicated ‘interested’ (35.9 per cent), whereas (19.8 per cent) expressed that they were somewhat interested and only 2.4 per cent responded by saying they were not interested in supporting women’s soccer. Overall, the results indicated that there was a great interest in women’s soccer as the majority of the respondents have some form of interest. This coincides with Goslin (2008), who believed that it is only a matter of time until the world of sport will see people rallying behind women’s soccer in South Africa.
61 Table 4.17: Interest in support for growth in women’s soccer
Interest level (n = 167) Total (%)
Not interested 2.4
Somewhat interested 19.8
Interested 35.9
Very interested 41.9
4.5.2 Interest in soccer as a recreational activity
Respondents were asked to select a statement that best summarised their interest in soccer as a recreational activity. As illustrated in Table 4.11, the respondents who were keen participants in soccer and regularly played in formal competitions, and those who used to play soccer but have not done so in recent years, constituted 26.3 per cent respectively. Those who played soccer regularly in informal competitions amassed 19.2 per cent. Those who were keen to participate in playing soccer regularly, but not in any formal competitions, and those who have never had an interest in playing soccer, amounted to 14.4 per cent and 13.8 per cent respectively. The fact that the participants who regularly played in informal competitions and those who used to play had the highest percentage is a great indication that women’s soccer has the potential for growth. According to Hjelm and Olofssom (2003), women’s soccer, if properly structured, can grow into an attractive sport and event just like men’s soccer is. Some respondents indicated that they were totally disinterested; this might suggest some underlying traditional beliefs about soccer. Soccer is traditionally regarded as a man’s sport (Mofokeng & Bevan-Dye, 2014).
Table 4.18: Interest in soccer as a recreational activity
Interest levels (n = 167) Total (%)
I am a keen participant in soccer who regularly plays in formal competitions 26.3
I am a keen participant in playing soccer regularly but not in any formal competition 14.4
I occasionally participate in soccer matches socially 19.2
I used to play in soccer matches but have not done so in recent years 26.3
I have never had an interest in playing soccer myself 13.8
62 4.5.3 Interest in women’s soccer
Table 4.12 presents the levels of interest in the sport. The majority (38.9 per cent) indicated that they were interested in watching women’s soccer on TV, and attended matches when they can. Of the respondents 25.7 per cent indicated that they were devoted to women’s soccer and tried to attend most matches, while 18.6 per cent were interested in women’s soccer and watched it on TV. Respondents not interested in women’s soccer amount to 16.8 per cent; however, they watch the matches because their family and friends are interested in women’s soccer. This was clear-cut evidence indicating that women’s soccer is gaining popularity, which is a positive for sport and event tourism.
Table 4.19: Interest in women’s soccer
Interest levels (n = 167) Total (%)
I am a devoted fan of women’s soccer trying to attend as many matches as possible 25.7
I am interested in women’s soccer watching it on TV 18.6
I am interested in women’s soccer watching it on TV and attending when I can 38.9
I am not interested in women’s soccer, but I sometimes watch matches because family or friends are 16.8 interested
4.6 PERCEPTIONS ABOUT WOMEN’S SOCCER
The major objective of the study was to determine the levels of interest in women’s soccer by profiling sports fans who currently attend women’s soccer matches. Therefore, 17 variable statements were used to measure the respondent’s perceptions of women’s soccer, and understand their interest in women’s soccer. .
This section of the questionnaire intended to determine the respondent’s perceptions of women’s soccer. A five-point Likert scale was designed to measure the level of disagreement or agreement with the variable statements. For the purpose of this research, the responses were grouped into three groups; strongly disagree and disagree made one group,, strongly agree and agree have been merged into another, and neutral remained as it is.
These variables were grouped into four factors each of which is discussed in the sections that follow.
63 4.6.1 Perceptions regarding support for women’s soccer
Table 4.13 presents the results obtained regarding the participants perceptions of support for women’s soccer. Regarding the first statement (V1): ‘South African culture supports women playing soccer’, 33 per cent of the participants disagreed with the statement, while 25.7 per cent remained neutral, and 41.3 per cent agreed with the statement. The results show that nearly half (41.3 per cent) of the participants agreed with the statement that, which implied a growing popularity of the sport. According to Grundlingh (2010), women's soccer is one of the fastest growing sports in South Africa. This is a further indication that the sport is getting recognition, thus it can be argued that South African culture is opening up to women playing a sport that is considered exclusively male. The remaining disagreeing and neutral respondents could mean that they might still be inclined to following traditional beliefs that a woman is not capable of playing entertaining soccer. According to Cooky et al. (2013), women’s soccer still suffers traditional mind-set configurations.
Table 4.20: Support for women’s soccer
Item Women’s soccer support statements SD D N SA A M STD
South African culture supports women V1 10.2 22.8 25.7 28.1 13.2 3.11 1.199 playing soccer
Women’s soccer matches are well V2 19.7 36.5 13.2 23.4 7.2 2.65 1.241 advertised in South Africa
There is enough coverage of women’s V3 21.0 33.4 19.8 19.8 6.0 2.56 1.195 soccer on TV
There is enough coverage of women’s V4 22.2 33.4 19.8 21.0 3.6 2.50 1.156 soccer on radio
South Africa’s women’s soccer is V5 12.6 24.5 22.8 33.5 6.6 2.97 1.164 professionally run
South African women soccer teams V6 9.0 21.0 25.1 32.3 12.6 3.19 1.170 compete internationally
V7 Sponsors support women’s soccer 9.6 20.3 22.8 36.5 10.8 3.19 1.165
South African government supports V8 11.4 19.8 27.5 31.1 10.2 3.09 1.171 women’s soccer
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
The second statement (V2): ‘Women’s soccer matches are well advertised in South Africa’, saw 56.2 per cent of respondents disagreeing, 13.2 per cent remaining neutral, while 30.6 per
64 cent of the respondents agreed with the statement. These responses concur with Engh (2010), who believed that there is limited media coverage of women’s football matches. During the 2010 African Women's Championship (AWC), which was hosted in South Africa, the women’s national team did not receive media coverage during the events, with a general belief that the South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) only agreed to screen Banyana Banyana matches and not matches played by other countries. However, they failed to screen the third- place play-off match between Cameroon and South Africa (Engh, 2010). The neutral (13.2 per cent) could mean a total disregard of their attention to the sport, while those who agreed (30.6 per cent) could indicate their levels of tolerance to the extent to which the women’s soccer matches are screened.
Regarding the statement (V3): ‘There is enough coverage of women’s soccer on TV’, the majority (54.4 per cent) disagreed with the statement and 19.8 per cent remained neutral while 25.8 per cent agreed with the statement that there is sufficient coverage of women’s football matches on TV. Engh (2010) shared the same sentiment as the majority of the respondents, and stated that, South African men’s football still dominates media coverage and participation rates, regardless of the recent achievements of the women's national teams. In other words, women’s soccer still receives niche public recognition and support. Swanepoel, Surujlal and Isabirye (2015) advanced that, the increase in television coverage is an important factor in the development of African women’s soccer. The neutral respondents (19.8 per cent) and those who agreed (25.8 per cent) could indicate satisfaction with the manner in which TV covers the sport.
Concerning the statement (V4): ‘There is enough coverage of women’s soccer on radio’, the majority (55.6 per cent) of the respondents disagreed with the statement, 19.8 per cent of the respondents were neutral, while 24.6 per cent agreed with the statement. The results, as firmly expected, prove some recent research. According to Meier et al. (2016) in Germany, a country that is advanced when it comes to women’s football sport media clearly continues to prefer men’s football, and the women’s league soccer hardly appears in the news. Traditional media like TV and radio are still lagging behind when it comes to supporting women’s soccer in both developing and developed nations. However, radio as a form of media has been overshadowed by modern means of communication, with advanced television broadcasters offering a wide range of visual channels that are taking centre stage of communication media, especially in sporting terms.
65 The statement (V5): ‘South Africa’s women’s soccer is professionally run’, was designed to assess professionalism in local women’s football. The study showed that (Table 4.13), 37.1 per cent of the respondents did not agree with the statement, 22.8 per cent remained neutral, and 40.1 per cent of the respondents agreed with the statement. Despite lagging behind men’s soccer, the state of professionalism seems to be improved, given that nearly half (40.1 per cent) of the respondents indicated the presence of professionalism in the sport. According to Grundlingh (2010), the Premier Soccer League (PSL) is greatly improving, spearheading female soccer players in South Africa, as the systems of the league improve to compete at a professional league level.
This could mean that, most women’s football clubs are now being managed professionally, and not just seen as spaces where women can come and play football with other women who share the same hobby. However, the extent of professionalism could still be questionable. According to Clark and Burnett (2010:143), “professional football is still not a viable option for women in South Africa, although there are two known teams in the highest football league, the Sasol Provincial Leagues do not provide stipends for players, thus playing football cannot be considered a career”.
One of the key stakeholders interviewed, a player for the national team and Mamelodi Sundowns, is in agreement with Clark and Burnett (2010), stating that:
“It’s very difficult for us, I don’t want to lie to you and say that its easy, because you just play for fun, at the end of the day you don’t get paid, no salary, there’s nothing”.
Such contradicting claims and outcomes could suggest that professionalism in women’s soccer differs from one level to another, from one team to another, and so on.
The respondents were asked to indicate their level of disagreement or agreement with the statement (V6): ‘South African women soccer teams compete internationally’. From the research findings, 30 per cent of the respondents disagreed with this statement while 47.3 per cent agreed with this statement, and 25.1 per cent remained neutral. With nearly half (47.3 per cent) agreeing with the statement, means that against all odds, women’s soccer is successfully moving up the ranks despite the scant support from certain stakeholders. However, with other respondents (neutral 25.15 per cent and disagreeing 30.0 per cent), the competency of women’s
66 soccer on the international scene is questionable. This is not the narrative for the majority of female football players as most play at lower club levels where there is not any funding available. Therefore, it is only the women who play for the national teams that have the opportunity to play internationally, as they have support from structures such as SAFA (Engh & Potgieter, 2015).
The statement (V7): ‘Sponsors support women’s soccer’, was designed to probe support and sponsorship of women’s soccer. Nearly half (47.3 per cent) of the respondents agreed with the statement, 22.8 per cent remained neutral and 29.9 per cent disagreed with the statement. Engh (2012:141) stated:
The founding of the Sanlam league marked the entry of corporate sponsorship into women’s soccer, soon sponsors such as Vodacom, Cadbury, and Nike jumped on board to sponsor women’s football, the Sanlam sponsorship ended and ABSA and Sasol became the new sponsors. Currently the women’s teams remain with Sasol who is the official supporter of women’s football nationally.
This, arguably, has advanced women’s soccer in several aspects, even though it may not be to everyone’s satisfaction. However, the issue of sponsorship and support towards women’s soccer is still a work in progress. According to Bogopa (2014), the lack of sponsorship in South Africa means that female sports players cannot make it into the professional ranks.
The respondents were asked to indicate their level of disagreement or agreement with the statement (V8): ‘South African government supports women’s soccer’. Nearly half (41.3 per cent) agreed, 31.2 per cent of the respondents disagreed with this statement, while 27.5 per cent remained neutral. The reasons for the 41.3 per cent could be explained from the perspective of the FIFA World Cup legacies. The infrastructure prepared by the government in the wake of the 2010 World Cup set the tone for other sports which would use public infrastructure like stadia, as well as the fame of soccer, in the future (Nyikana et al., 2014). Those respondents who disagreed or were neutral about the statement might be of the view that the South African government is not doing enough to support women’s football in the country. Xhakaza (2005) reiterated that, the South African Government is not empowering females in sport. She added that this lack of support is not only as participants, but also as sports managers, coaches, advisers, administrators, and sports psychologists.
67 4.6.2 Perceptions about fun at women’s sport events
Fun can be defined as excitement generated from an action or activity. The respondents were interrogated about their perceptions of fun at women’s soccer events. The majority (65.2 per cent) of the respondents agreed with the statement (V9): ‘Women soccer players are exciting to watch at matches’; whereas, 9.7 per cent disagreed with the statement, and 25.1 per cent remained neutral. When fans’ expectations are met and satisfied, fun is generated among such fans. According to Mofokeng and Bevan-Dye (2014), fans and spectators have certain expectations when attending sporting events, which range from the outcome of the game, the style of play, the competitiveness of the teams, and their own level of enjoyment. Therefore, if all these are satisfactorily met, the sport is termed fun (Mofokeng & Bevan-Dye, 2014). However, satisfaction varies, and some fans feel the excitement is compromised, which reduces levels of fun (Mofokeng & Bevan-Dye, 2014). This claim represents the disagreeing (9.7 per cent) and the neutral (25.1 per cent) respondents.
Table 4.21: Fun at women’s sport events
Item Fun at women’s sport events statements SD D N SA A M STD
Women soccer players are exciting to V9 3.6 6.1 25.1 39.5 25.7 3.78 1.014 watch at matches
V10 Women play soccer as well as men 6.0 21.0 19.7 34.7 18.6 3.39 1.181
I enjoy attending all levels of women’s V11 4.3 16.8 27.5 25.1 26.3 3.53 1.171 soccer matches
I will pay to attend women’s soccer V12 3.6 14.4 16.1 43.7 22.2 3.66 1.084 matches
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
The statement, V10 in Table 4.14, attempted to see whether women play soccer as well as do men. The majority (53.3 per cent) of the respondents agreed that ‘Women play soccer as well as men’; however, 27 per cent disagreed with statement, and 19.7 per cent remained neutral. One traditional idiom holds true – beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder. Results suggested that, even though women’s soccer is not given the much-needed attention; it commands some likeability among fans. However, results might suggest women’s soccer outwitting men's soccer; this was not the case in other studies. According to Peric (2010) and Pelak (2010), women’s soccer is yet to infiltrate the world of soccer and reach the standards of men’s soccer,
68 in many aspects. However, such positive results must be appreciated at it indicates a growth in women’s soccer, against all odds.
Respondents where further probed of their levels of enjoyment in attending matches (V11): ‘I enjoy attending all levels of women’s soccer matches’. Research findings showed that, 51.4 per cent of the respondents agreed with the statement and 27.5 per cent remained neutral while 21.1 per cent of the respondents disagreed with the statement. As expected, the majority of respondents indicated enjoying women’s soccer matches, as the sport is perceived as fun. According to Dubihlela et al. (2009), each event’s attributes are imperative in sport attendance, the unique character brings together many acting figures, all participating in the same stimulating situation, with specific rules and conditions. This is usually a point of fun for spectators (Peric, 2010). For this reason, it is understandable for the majority of the respondents to attend all levels of women’s football matches as they are in search of new experiences. Some respondents remained neutral (27.5 per cent) while others (21.1 per cent) disagreed that fun could not be a defining factor in loving and watching a sport, perhaps some fans are results- orientated.
The objective asked respondents about their willingness to pay for sport: ‘I will pay to attend women’s soccer matches’ (V12). The majority (65.9 per cent) agreed with the statement, while 18 per cent disagreed, and 16.1 per cent remained neutral. As a tool for local economic development, sport tourism is used to generate a means of economic growth; the majority (65.9 per cent) proved this (Bull & Lovell, 2007). It can be further argued that the search for new experiences is one of the reasons why 65.9 per cent of the respondents stated that they would pay to attend a women’s soccer game. Dubihlela et al. (2009) argued that another reason why people pay to attend soccer events was the people’s pure love of the game and sporting culture. However, the neutral (16.1 per cent) and the disagreeing (18.0 per cent) respondents could suggest the unavailability of disposable income for such events.
4.6.3 Perceptions of spectator support for women’s soccer
Table 4.15 presents the findings from statements regarding spectator support. The respondents were asked to rate their level of agreement or disagreement with the statement (V13): ‘Most men will pay to attend a women’s soccer match’. Research findings showed that nearly half (42.5 per cent) agreed, 25.8 per cent of the respondents disagreed with the statement, and 31.7 per cent remained neutral. It was assumed that the sport be supported by fellow women. This
69 a breakthrough in traditional structures, where women are seen as kitchen objects (Grundlingh, 2010); thus, seeing numerous men attending the sport is a great achievement in women’s soccer development. However, the neutral (31.7 per cent) and the disagreeing respondents could suggest traditional strongholds in their minds.
The statement (V14): ‘Most women will pay to attend a women’s soccer match’, was posed to investigate women’s support for women’s soccer. The majority of respondents (55.1 per cent) agreed with the statement, 14.4 per cent disagreed, and 30.5 per cent remained neutral. Research findings showed that, women’s soccer in South Africa has a huge fan base, bigger than assumed, with individuals interested in paying to attend the events. According to Grundlingh (2010), in South Africa, football is one of the most popular sports, recreationally, economically, as well as regarding active and passive participants; for this reason, match attendance is vital as it creates economic opportunities within football. Those who remained neutral and those who disagreed could require more exposure to how the sport can potentially help local economies and local communities. According to Saayman and Rossouw (2008), women’s soccer in Africa could gain much momentum and wide coverage if the media was to be fully involved in marketing it.
Table 4.22: Spectator support for women’s soccer
Item Spectator support statements SD D N SA A M STD
Most men will pay to attend a women’s V13 5.4 20.4 31.7 31.1 11.4 3.23 1.068 soccer match
Most women will pay to attend a V14 4.8 9.6 30.5 38.9 16.2 3.52 1.029 women’s soccer match
The audience at women’s soccer V15 matches has as much fun as at men’s 6.6 27.5 21.6 29.3 15.0 3.19 1.185 matches
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
The respondents were asked to rate their level of disagreement or agreement with a statement related to entertainment (V15). Table 4.15 shows that nearly half (43.3 per cent) agreed with the statement, which reads: ‘The audience at women’s soccer matches has as much fun as at men’s matches’. Whereas, 21.6 per cent remained neutral and 34.1 per cent disagreed with the statement. According to Correia and Esteves (2007), fans generally enjoy the drama, the entertainment, the technique, as well as the player’s efforts displayed during the match. Fans
70 who attend women’s football events find the match to be as much fun as men’s soccer events. Arguably, the techniques, officiating, type of play, and communication of women in soccer must generate enthusiasm in the spectators. Those who do not enjoy and have fun in the sport might be motivated by results, or any other attribute of the sport, to support women’s soccer.
4.6.4 Perceptions about professionalism in women’s soccer
Table 4.16 indicates the responses from two statements regarding the professionalism of women’s soccer in South Africa. Professionalism can be defined as the manner in which paid sport, women’s soccer in this regard, can be handled to meet acceptable standards through observing acceptable codes of conduct in facilitating the sport. For the statement (V16): ‘South African women soccer players want to play soccer professionally’, the majority (84.4 per cent) agreed that professionalism was seen in women’s soccer. Whereas, 5.4 per cent of the respondents disagreed with this statement, 10.2 per cent of the respondents were unsure about the question. Such a huge positive response could suggest collective involvement of women’s soccer stakeholders towards professionalism and acceptable codes of conduct in women’s soccer. Those in contradiction with the statement (disagreeing and neutral) could indicate an inability to understand the meaning of professionalism in women’s soccer.
Furthermore, respondents were asked whether ‘Women’s soccer should have a South African national league’ (V17). The majority (82 per cent) of the respondents agreed with the statement, whereas 13.2 per cent remained neutral and 4.8 per cent disagreed with the statement. According to Engh (2011), there have been several attempts to establish a national competitive and professional league for women; these attempts, however, have yet to show results, therefore any woman that wishes to play soccer professionally will have to emigrate overseas to do so. With the majority agreeing with the notion, perhaps it is time the league is advanced and expanded for growth and development. The neutral and disagreeing respondents could imply that their negativity lies in their perception of the role of women in society.
71 Table 4.23: Professionalism in women’s soccer
Item Professionalism statements SD D N SA A M STD
South African women soccer players V16 2.4 3.0 10.2 48.5 35.9 4.13 0.886 want to play soccer professionally
Women’s soccer should have a South V17 2.4 2.4 13.2 35.9 46.1 4.21 0.930 African national league
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
As previously mentioned, statement V5 in Table 4.13, the current support by Sasol of women’s soccer does not mean that women can see the sport as a career, as there are no salaries paid to them. Talks of establishing a professional women’s league date as far back as 2004 and to date nothing has been done (Ndimande-Hlongwa, 2016). According to Ndimande-Hlongwa (2016) most of the Banyana players are unemployed, unlike the male players, who as professional league players, have options to play both in South Africa and abroad. This means that even though the women are interested in playing professionally, they have limited opportunities as a result of not having a professional league.
4.7 WOMEN’S SOCCER DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES
In relation to Table 4.17, the statement (V1): ‘Women’s matches are not played at convenient times on the weekend’, was posed to find out how convenient the scheduling is. Of the respondents, 40.1 per cent agreed that the matches are convenient in terms of time, 33 per cent of the respondents disagreed with the statement, and 26.9 per cent remained. Engh (2010) is of the view that, during the 2010 African Women's Championship (AWC), most matches were played during the day on weekdays; this made it difficult for fans to watch these games. Most fans are too tired to watch midweek games due to work commitments. This is an indication that women’s matches are not awarded the same opportunities as men’s football matches, where most matches are played on weekends or in the evenings during the week so many fans are not busy at work or with other commitments.
72 Table 4.24: Development challenges
Women’s soccer development Item SD D N SA A M STD statements
Women’s matches are not played at V1 7.3 25.7 26.9 32.3 7.8 3.08 1.087 convenient times on the weekend
The venues where women’s matches are V2 6.1 25.7 26.3 29.3 12.6 3.17 1.128 held are not well maintained
Security is not adequate where women’s V3 9.6 19.7 24.0 29.9 16.8 3.25 1.225 soccer matches are played
Women soccer teams don’t attract V4 9.6 27.5 23.4 27.5 12.0 3.05 1.191 skilled coaches
Playing soccer is not supported for girls V5 6.0 15.0 24.1 38.6 16.3 3.44 1.114 at school level
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
As shown in Table 4.17, of the respondents, 41.9 per cent agreed with the statement (V2): ‘The venues where women’s matches are held are not well maintained’, while 26.3 per cent remained neutral and 31.8 per cent disagreed. According to Stander and De Beer (2016), a fan will decide on the value of the sport event held at a stadium; this indicates that the state of the stadium is important when it comes to attaching value to the event. Engh (2010) claimed that, during the 2010 AWC the women’s soccer matches were hosted at small stadiums in townships although there were recently built stadiums, for the 2010 FIFA World Cup that had been held a few months before. The condition of township stadiums is arguably unsatisfactory and not well maintained compared with the newly built stadiums for the men’s World Cup in South Africa. Arguably, the uncertainty in service delivery in small town stadia could explain the disagreement and neutrality of certain respondents.
When it comes to the statement (V3): ‘Security is not adequate where women’s soccer matches are played’, 46.7 per cent of the respondents agreed with the statement. For these respondents, the feeling of safety is important to them. Dhurup (2010) added that aspects of the sports context’s venue such as safety and security might impact on fan attraction. This could be due to weak policy regarding women’s soccer development, limited funds to beef up security, and a general lack of support for the sport. With 29.3 per cent of the respondents disagreeing with the statement, and 24 per cent of the respondents remaining neutral, it could mean that women’s soccer does not attract large crowds when compared with men’s soccer; hence, the limited security concerns.
73 The statement (V4): ‘Women’s soccer teams don’t attract skilled coaches’ was agreed with by 39.5 per cent, while 23.4 per cent remained neutral and 37.1 per cent disagreed. Despite minor points of differences between agreeing and disagreeing, the lack of skilled coaches could be attributed to a lack of sponsorship and funding for women’s soccer. However, the 37.1 per cent that disagreed could imply that some fans are satisfied with the manner in which women’s soccer is developing, and fully satisfied with coaching staff hired for the roles.
The majority (54.9 per cent) of respondents agreed with the statement (V5): ‘Playing soccer is not supported for girls at school level’; whereas, 24.1 per cent remained neutral, and 21 per cent disagreed. Swanepoel et al. (2015) argued that, females tend to drop out of sport sooner and in greater numbers compared with males. According to Sabo and Veliz (2008), factors such as family income, race and ethnicity, type of community, as well as the school attended are some of reasons for the early drop out of females from sports. Pelak (2006) argued that sexual norms also prohibit girls from participating in sport as they are expected to participate in the domestic chores of the household, unlike boys who are allowed to play. The negligence of South African women’s soccer, and the African continent in general, could be attributed to traditional beliefs, which does not recognise women as sports beings, but kitchen objects (Peric, 2010).
4.8 WOMEN’S SOCCER FUNDING CHALLENGES
The respondents were asked to rate their level of disagreement or agreement with the statement (V6): ‘Women’s soccer fixtures are not released in sufficient time to plan attendance’. As shown in Table 4.18, 42.5 per cent agreed with the statement, 33.5 per cent of the respondents disagreed, and 24 per cent remained neutral. Based on Engh’s (2010) findings, during the AWC, the fixtures were released forty days before kick-off. One may argue that 40 days is enough. Respondents do not get fixtures in time because they do not make as much of an effort to search for fixtures, as they do with men’s soccer. The respondents who disagreed, (33.5 per cent) and were neutral (24 per cent), believed that they get notification of fixtures in time, and are probably content to get them forty days prior to matches. It could be an argumentative stance to overcome impromptu excuses by some fans.
Table 4.25: Funding challenges
74 Item Women’s soccer funding statements SD D N SA A M STD
Women’s soccer fixtures are not released V6 4.8 28.7 24.0 28.7 13.8 3.18 1.137 in sufficient time to plan attendance
There is not sufficient funding available V7 5.4 17.4 25.1 35.3 16.8 3.41 1.120 to develop women’s soccer
There are not appropriate leagues for all V8 5.3 15.0 15.0 46.7 18.0 3.57 1.111 ages of women to play in
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
Of the respondents, 42.5 per cent agreed with the statement (V7): ‘There is not sufficient funding available to develop women’s soccer’. Swanepoel et al. (2015) supported this notion claiming that female soccer teams not only have inadequate funding to buy appropriate training equipment, but also lack money for players’ basic expenses during trips. The lack of funding arguably delays the development of the sport, as women cannot play without appropriate kits and resources. However, 22.8 per cent of the respondents disagreed with the statement and 25.1 per cent remained neutral. Women’s soccer fans must be patient to the gradually developing sport phenomenon. At some point, women’s soccer will reach incredible heights in terms of support and fan base, if well financed (Schmidt, 2012).
Another statement (V8): ‘There are not appropriate leagues for all ages of women to play in’, was agreed with by 64.7 per cent of respondents. Whereas, 15 per cent remained neutral and 20.3 per cent disagreed with the statement. According to Pelak (2010), there have been talks and promises of a professional women’s league in South Africa but nothing has materialised. This is not the only challenge because there are so many gaps when it comes to women’s soccer in South Africa, currently there is only one sponsored league (Sasol League); however, this is only at provincial level (Pelak, 2010). The lower leagues such as the regional leagues do not have any financial support and rely on funding by the teams. Due to the lack of funding, establishing leagues is a challenge for most age groups of women and girls. One of the key stakeholders (female coach) highlights the challenge:
“There’s a program called Dlala Ntombazana for girls between 8 and 18 years, but that structure on its own cannot stand because they need funds, and it’s the feeder to the national team”
There are structures in place to close these gaps, however the lack of funding means that these structures do not materialise.
75 4.9 SOCCER KNOWLEDGE AND MOTIVATION
According to Mofokeng and Bevan-Dye (2014), high levels of knowledge about a team and its players, as well as the sport in general, may be necessary for a fan to converse confidently with likeminded individuals, which might increase the feeling of competence and self-esteem. This section intends to investigate the spectator’s knowledge about football, which underlines the motivation towards the sport.
Table 4.26: Soccer knowledge and motivation
Items Soccer knowledge statements SD D N SA A M STD
V1 I go with friends 1.7 9.0 21.6 45.5 22.2 3.77 0.955
V2 I have a favourite team I support 2.4 9.0 13.8 40.1 34.7 3.96 1.032
V3 A match is fun to be at 1.2 6.0 16.8 43.1 32.9 4.01 0.922
V4 I want to watch famous teams playing 3.0 6.0 19.8 41.9 29.3 3.89 0.996
V5 I know a woman soccer player 1.8 13.8 14.4 34.7 35.3 3.88 1.097
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
With regard to the statement (V1): ‘I go with friends’, in Table 4.19, 67.7 per cent agreed with the statement that they were motivated to attend women’s football events with their friends, 10.7 per cent of the respondents disagreed with this statement, and 21.6 per cent remained neutral. Dhurup (2010) asserted that socialisation with friends is an important component for fans as they use sporting events and games as an opportunity for recreation. These respondents (67.7 per cent) were motivated to go with their friends to a women’s sporting event. Those who were in disagreement (10.7 per cent) with the statement might represent the group of introverts.
Concerning the statement (V2): ‘I have a favourite team I support’, 74.8 per cent agreed with the statement, 13.8 per cent of the respondents were neutral and 11.4 per cent of the respondents disagreed. Team identification strongly influenced the decision to attend sporting events (Dubihlela et al., 2009). The results indicated that fans were motivated to attend women’s soccer matches because they have a favourite team to support. According to Kim and Trail (2010), such motivation backs the notion that team identification is a determining factor in sport consumption behaviour. Those who were neutral, or in disagreement with the statement,
76 would suggest that a group of fans go to watch games when they are bored, regardless of which team is playing.
The respondents were further asked to rate their level of agreement with the statement (V3): ‘A match is fun to be at’. The majority (76 per cent) agreed with the statement, 7.2 per cent disagreed, and 16.8 per cent remained neutral. A football match has different types of entertainment activities that can be seen as fun for the respondents. The majority of the respondents indicated that attending women’s football matches was fun. According to Al- Thibiti (2004), entertainment involves the desire for some individuals to have a good time and enjoy the excitement related to sporting events. Some fans might enjoy a sport because of its entertainment value, as sport spectating affords fans a leisure pastime similar to watching movies or television. Those who did not find it interesting or were neutral could represent potential fans of the game, hence, might experience fun in future.
Respondents were asked to agree or disagree with: ‘I want to watch famous teams playing’(V4). The majority (71.2 per cent) agreed, nine per cent of the respondents disagreed, and 19.8 per cent remained neutral. According to Dhurup (2010), individuals are more likely to support a successful team, at least in part because the opportunities for feeling vicarious achievement are higher. Famous teams are mostly known for their outstanding achievements, the majority of the participants at these women’s football events believe that these teams are famous.
In response to the statement (V5): “I know a woman soccer player”, 60 per cent agreed with the statement, 15.6 per cent disagreed, and 14.4 per cent remained neutral. According to Mofokeng and Bevan-Dye (2014), the knowledge about a team’s players suggests great interest in the sport, which makes fans more inclined towards the sport. This influences the decisions of potential fans as they feel largely part of the participating players who are well known to fans. This could motivate the majority of fans to attend the event, as they know women soccer players. However, for those who remained neutral or disagreed, did not mean that the players were less influential. Knowing a player should not discourage fans that may not know them, for example, Lionel Messi is known by those who watch him closely when he plays in live matches, but this does not discourage fans who do not see him playing live.
77 4.9.1 Relaxation as motivation to attend women’s football events
Table 4.27: Relaxation at sports events
Relaxation at sports events Item SD D N SA A M STD statements
Soccer matches are a great change of V6 0.6 12.0 26.9 44.9 15.6 3.63 0.908 pace from what I regularly do
V7 I go to matches with family 6.7 29.5 22.3 31.3 10.2 3.09 1.133
I enjoy eating the food which is sold V8 5.5 20.5 33.1 29.5 11.4 3.21 1.066 there
I can boast about being there to my V9 1.2 18.6 29.9 33.5 16.8 3.46 1.016 friends
I can tell everyone about the match live V10 2.4 18.6 25.7 34.1 19.2 3.49 1.075 from the venue on social media
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
The majority of respondents (60.5 per cent) agreed with the statement (V6): ‘Soccer matches are a great change of pace from what I regularly do’, while 26.9 per cent remained neutral and 12.6 per cent of the respondents disagreed with the statement. It is evident that for the majority of the respondents attending soccer matches gave them the opportunity to escape from what they regularly do. According to Dhurup (2010), a soccer match is seen as a way to escape from the routine of daily life. Robinson and Gammon (2004) explained that escapism involves getting away from the routine and stresses of everyday life. Yfantidou, Costa, and Michalopoulos (2008) added that most individuals participate in a sport event that temporarily takes them away from reality and allows them to forget about everyday stresses.
Of the respondents, 36.2 per cent disagreed with the statement (V7): ‘I go to matches with family’, 22.3 per cent remained neutral, and 41.5 per cent agreed with the statement. Cohen and Avrahami (2005) stated that family motivation refers to the benefits offered by interacting with family members during sport consumption. According to Mofokeng and Bevan-Dye (2014), family as a motivation to attend sport events involves using the consumption of a sport event as an opportunity to engage with family. For these respondents, matches give them to opportunity to go with their families.
The statement (V8): ‘I enjoy eating the food which is sold there’, was asked of the respondents. Of the respondents, 40.9 per cent agreed with the statement, 26 per cent disagreed, and 33.1
78 per cent remained neutral. According to Dhurup (2010), factors such as food and beverage quality play a role in fan attendance, as these can influence the decision to attend a sporting event. According to Al-Thibiti (2004), the quality of the food is important to fans that spend hours at the stadiums before and during the game. The desire to attend and stay at the stadium can be influenced by the quality of the food sold at the stadium (Wakefield & Sloan, 1995).
Of the respondents, 19.8 per cent disagreed with the statement (V9): ‘I can boast about being there to my friends’, 26.9 per cent remained neutral, and 50.3 per cent agreed with the statement. According to Dhurup (2010), individuals are most likely to share the experiences of the game with their friends. The majority of the respondents agreed with the statement that they boast about attending a soccer event to their friends.
Concerning the statement (V10): ‘I can tell everyone about the match live from the venue on social media’, 53.3 per cent of the respondents agreed with the statement, 25.7 per cent remained neutral, and 21 per cent agreed. The majority of the respondents agreed with the statement that they can use social media to update their friends about what they are doing. This could be an opportunity to market women’s soccer rebranding by Sasol on social media, such as twitter, which would further attract sponsorship to grow and develop women’s soccer.
4.9.2 Socialising motivation to attend women’s football events
According to Bush, Bush, Clark and Bush (2005), several characteristics of sport are social in nature, be it attendance at sporting events, participation in a team, or watching the game with others on television. Furthermore Funk et al. (2009) ascertained that socialisation relates to the interpersonal aspects of sport, which represent a need to socialise and the extent to which an individual views attending a sport event as an opportunity to interact with significant others and other spectators.
Table 4.28: Socialising at events
Item Socialising at events statements SD D N SA A M STD
Interacting with other fans is a very V11 1.8 6.0 18.6 47.3 26.3 3.90 0.920 important part of being at matches
I like to talk to other people sitting near V12 0.6 11.3 23.4 40.7 24.0 3.76 0.964 me during the match
79 I like to watch the skilled performance V13 1.2 4.8 15.6 49.1 29.3 4.01 0.868 of the teams
Going with a group leads to improved V14 1.2 9.6 15.0 49.1 25.1 3.87 0.939 social relations
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
Of the respondents, 73.6 per cent agreed with the statement (V11): ‘Interacting with other fans is a very important part of being at matches’, for 7.8 per cent of the respondents this was not a motivation as they disagreed with the statement. and 18.6 per cent were not sure if this was a motivation for them. According to Dhurup (2010), individuals are motivated to attend sporting events by the desire to share time and interact with others who similarly identify with a sport.
Concerning statement (V12): ‘I like to talk to other people sitting near me during the match’, 64.7 per cent agreed with the statement, 11.9 per cent of the respondents disagreed, and 23.4 per cent remained neutral. According to Eberth and Smith (2010), fans are motivated to attend matches due to the enjoyment that they obtain in interacting socially with others while watching a match; furthermore, they emphasise the importance of social interaction in motivating the fans to attend matches. Fans for women’s football matches are motivated to attend their games for the socialisation factor.
The respondents were asked to rate their level of disagreement or agreement with the statement (V13): ‘I like to watch the skilled performance of the teams’, Of the respondents, 78.4 per cent agreed, six per cent disagreed, and 15.6 per cent remained neutral. Downward and Rasciute (2011) argued that, fans are influenced to attend matches by the skills being displayed by players in soccer matches. Dhurup (2010) was of the same view, and added that spectator attendance may be due to the quality of the physical skill of the players. For the current study the majority of the respondents identified that they were attracted to attending women’s football matches by the skilled performance of the team.
Concerning statement (V14): ‘Going with a group leads to improved social relations’, 74.2 per cent agreed, 10.8 per cent of the respondents disagreed with the statement, and 15 per cent remained neutral. Eslami et al. (2013) believed that fans usually do not attend soccer matches alone and that watching a match with a group leads to improved social relations. Correia and Esteves (2007) argued that one of the reasons why fans prefer to attend sporting events as a group is to ensure that they feel safe and that they are not alienated at the event.
80 4.9.3 Skill as a motivation to attend women’s football events
Concerning the statement (V15): ‘I have an understanding of soccer’, Table 4.22 indicates that the majority (80.8 per cent) agreed with the statement, 7.8 per cent disagreed, and 11.4 per cent remained neutral. According to Dhurup (2010), knowledge relates to the understanding of the game and the technical aspects of the game. Comprehension of the game and its rules motivates fans to watch the match as they comprehend what is going on and appreciate the game. The majority of the respondents were people who had an understating of the game and its rules. This could be a pull factor for respondents to attend such games. The disagreeing (7.8 per cent) respondents may imply that some fans simply went to watch games without any other driving force besides using their leisure time for such events.
81 Table 4.29: Player skill
Item Player skill statements SD D N SA A M STD
V15 I have an understanding of soccer 2.4 5.4 11.4 34.1 46.7 4.17 0.994
I appreciate the quality of the soccer V16 1.3 6.6 28.7 36.5 26.9 3.18 0.948 teams playing
Soccer matches are opportunities to V17 1.8 2.4 15.0 47.3 33.5 4.08 0.860 socialise with other people
I feel a personal sense of achievement V18 1.8 7.2 18.6 44.9 27.5 3.89 0.951 when the team does well
An individual player’s ‘sex appeal’ is a V19 13.1 29.3 22.8 21.0 13.8 2.93 1.259 big reason to watch
I enjoy watching players who are V20 9.5 26.9 23.4 24.0 16.2 3.10 1.240 physically attractive
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
Of the respondents, 80.8 per cent agreed with the statement (V16): ‘I appreciate the quality of the soccer teams playing’, 11.4 per cent were not sure of the statement and 7.9 per cent of the respondents disagreed with the statement. These respondents were motivated to attend women’s football matches due to the quality of the soccer teams playing. These respondents agreed with authors such as Pelak (2010), who argued that women play quality football. Mofokeng and Bevan-Dye (2014) postulated that fans are interested in seeing a good quality game; they appreciate the physical skills of the athletes, including the aesthetic qualities of the game.
The respondents were asked to rate their level of disagreement or agreement with the statement (V17): ‘Soccer matches are opportunities to socialise with other people’, 80.8 per cent agreed with the statement, 4.2 per cent of the respondents disagreed with the statement, and 15 per cent remained neutral. According to Funk et al. (2009), socialisation relates to the interpersonal aspects of sport, which represents a need to socialise and the extent to which an individual views attending a sport event as an opportunity to interact with significant others and other spectators. The majority of respondents believed that attending sporting events gave them the opportunity to socialise with other people.
Concerning the statement (V18): ‘I feel a personal sense of achievement when the team does well’, 72.4 per cent agreed with the statement, nine per cent of the respondents disagreed with
82 the statement, and 18.6 per cent remained neutral. According to Elendu (2013), a team’s achievement is related to the sense of personal achievement and pride and fans share in the victory. For the purpose of this study, the respondents indicated that they also feel like they had won when their favourite team had won. Furthermore, Dhurup (2010) adds that the sense of personal achievement when a fan favourite team has won increases a fans’ self-esteem and public image.
The majority (42.4 per cent) of the respondents disagreed with the statement (V19): ‘An individual player’s ‘sex appeal’ is a big reason to watch’, while 22.8 per cent remained neutral and 34.8 per cent agreed with the statement. Combined with the statement (V20): ‘I enjoy watching players who are physically attractive’, which saw 40.2 per cent agree, 36.4 per cent disagree and 23.4 per cent remained neutral. According to Sherry et al. (2016) female athletes are often described in terms of their physical attributes in print and television mediums, which are argued to be sexually objectifying women and devaluing their performance. Research findings indicated that the fans of women’s soccer events are attending the events based on the sexual appearance of the female players, as shown by a large portion of the respondents (40.2 per cent). Despite sexual appeal being the most appealing, the skill of soccer players (80.8 percent agreed with V16) still plays a huge role in making women’s soccer appealing (Skillen, 2012; Smith & Stewart, 2007). This could further strengthen the views of the disagreeing and the neutral respondents.
In terms of the level of agreement concerning skill statements, the highest mean was 4.17 and the lowest mean was 2.93. A mean closer to five indicates a positive response, whereas the closer it is to one, indicates a negative response. For this section, this is an indication that the respondents were mostly drawn towards the positive.
83 4.10 LEGACY OF THE 2010 FIFA WORLD CUP
Table 4.30: Legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup
FIFA 2010 World Cup legacy Item SD D N SA A M STD statements
I now attend women’s soccer matches V1 16.1 29.9 20.4 19.2 14.4 2.86 1.305 because of the 2010 FIFA World Cup
I believe that women’s soccer projects V2 have improved due to the hosting of the 8.4 16.8 26.9 32.3 15.6 3.30 1.169 2010 FIFA World Cup
I can now identify myself with women’s V3 8.5 25.7 31.1 25.7 9.0 3.01 1.103 soccer due to the FIFA 2010 World Cup
I am convinced the 2010 FIFA World Cup V4 5.3 15.6 24.0 33.5 21.6 3.50 1.151 left a positive legacy for women’s football
Note: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, N = neutral, A = agree, SA = strongly agree, M = mean, STD = standard deviation
The respondents were asked to rate their level of disagreement or agreement with the statement (V1): ‘I now attend women’s soccer matches because of the 2010 FIFA World Cup’, Of the respondents, 46 per cent disagreed with the statement, 20.4 per cent remained neutral, while 33.6 per cent agreed with the statement. Such results are contradictory to Cornelissen et al. (2011), who believed that the hosting of a mega-event in a region played a role in changing the local sporting culture due to the availability of a new venue, which might increase people’s participation in sport. From the results above it was clear that the 2010 FIFA World Cup had not influenced the majority of the respondents’ attendance of sporting events, such as women’s football matches. This suggested that fans were pushed by factors other than the World Cup to attend women’s soccer events.
In relation to the statement (V2): ‘I believe that women’s soccer projects have improved due to the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup’, 47.9 per cent agreed. According to Cornelissen et al. (2011), a diverse set of sporting activities, including women’s football, would largely benefit from infrastructural investments made in preparation for the 2010 FIFA World Cup, and was most likely to attract more events as facilities are up to standards. Of the respondents, 26.9 per cent were neutral towards the statement, while 25.2 per cent of the respondents disagreed with statement. This implied that 52.1 per cent do not understand the legacies associated with hosting mega events.
84 Of the respondents, 34.7 per cent agreed with the statement (V3): ‘I can now identify myself with women’s soccer due to the FIFA 2010 World Cup’, 31.1 per cent remained neutral, and 34.2 per cent disagreed with the statement. The results showed an almost equal distribution. According to Chappelet and Junod (2006), mega-events such as the 2010 FIFA World Cup have the potential to play a role in changing local sporting culture by increasing people’s participation in sport. In an interview, a SAFA official stated:
“I think it created more interest in football and therefore women’s football because you find that a lot of parents were interested in 2010 and football and it kind of the sports that the parents follow kind of filters down into the kids so you found that a lot more girls found an interest”.
Such a balanced results distribution may suggest that women’s soccer has reached a break-even point in terms of its attractiveness.
With regard to the statement (V4); ‘I am convinced the 2010 FIFA World Cup left a positive legacy for women’s football’, 55.1 per cent agreed with the statement, while 20.9 per cent of the respondent’s disagreed, and 24 per cent remained neutral. Although the majority of the participants agreed, it was evident from the slow developments taking place in women’s football that there were no positive legacies from the 2010 World Cup; this can also be seen in the failure to establish a professional league seven years after the hosting of the World Cup in 2010. According to Engh (2011), women’s football in South Africa is still struggling; much of women’s football remains under-funded and under-resourced in women’s soccer clubs.
In terms of the level of agreement concerning sport legacy statements, the highest mean was 3.50 and the lowest mean was 2.86. The mean tells us the closer it is to five the response was positive, whereas the closer it is to one indicates that the response was negative. For this section, this is an indication that the respondents were mostly drawn towards positive.
4.11 VALIDITY ANALYSIS
4.11.1 Perceptions of women’s soccer
A factor analysis was used to measure the assessment of the validity of the instrument used in this study. Factor analysis refers to a statistical method used to describe variability among
85 observed, correlated variables in terms of potentially lower numbers of unobserved variables called factors (Tucker & MacCallum, 1997). It is used to search for such joint variations in response to unobserved latent variables (Tucker & MacCallum, 1997). This section has uncovered high-level latent, hidden variables. The composition of these items contributes greatly to understanding the influences at play in women’s soccer.
The level of participation, motivation, and associated challenges linked to women’s football in Gauteng were subjected to principal axis factor analysis (PFA). A theoretical exploration of the underlying factor structure was undertaken in the context of women’s soccer. The 17 variables regarding perceptions of women’s football (see Tables 4.13 to 4.16) were subjected to PFA. By looking at the correlation matrix, most correlations were above 0.3, indicating a good relation between the variables. Table 4.24 shows a Kaiser-Meyer-Oklin (KMO) value of 0.809, greater than the recommended value of 0.6, and the Bartlett’s test indicated statistical significance, thus conducting factor analysis was found to be appropriate (Pallant, 2007:181).
Table 4.31: Perceptions KMO and Bartlett's test scores
Test Score
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .809
Approx. Chi-Square 1264.570
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity Df 136
Sig. .000
The analysis revealed the presence of four components, with eigenvalues greater than one, each explaining 28.9 per cent, 20.3 per cent, 7.9 per cent and 6.7 per cent of the variance respectively. The total variance explained by the components was 63.9 per cent.
Table 4.25 details the four B13 factors and their respective items. Factor 1, named Women’s soccer support, consisted of eight items; Factor 2, named Fun at women’s sport events, consisted of four items. Factor 3, named Spectator support, consisted of three items; and Factor 4, named Professionalism, consisted of two items.
Table 4.32: Perceptions factor analysis
86 Factor % of Factor Item loading Variance
Sponsors support women’s soccer 0.800
There is enough coverage of women’s soccer on TV 0.781
South African government supports women’s soccer 0.752
I will pay to attend women’s soccer matches 0.723 1. Women’s 28.992 soccer support South Africa’s women’s soccer is professionally run 0.714
South African women soccer teams compete internationally 0.653
There is enough coverage of women’s soccer on radio 0.610
South African culture supports women playing soccer 0.339
I enjoy attending all levels of women’s soccer matches 0.738
Women play soccer as well as men 0.730 2. Fun at women’s 20.276 sport events I will pay to attend women’s soccer matches 0.714
Women soccer players are exciting to watch at matches 0.537
Most men will pay to attend a women’s soccer match 0.694
3. Spectator The audience at women’s soccer matches has as much fun as 0.600 7.979 support at men’s matches
Most women will pay to attend a women’s soccer match 0.556
Women’s soccer should have a South African national league 0.569 4. Professionalism 6.715 South African women soccer players want to play soccer 0.474 professionally
4.11.2 Women’s soccer challenges
A factor analysis was used to measure the assessment of the validity of the instrument used in this study. The eight variables regarding women’s soccer challenges (see Tables 4.17 and 4.18) were subjected to PFA. The correlation matrix showed most correlations were above 0.3, indicating a good relation between the variables. Table 4.26 shows a KMO value of 0.735, greater than the recommended value of 0.6, and the Bartlett’s test indicates statistical significance, thus conducting factor analysis was found to be appropriate (Pallant, 2007:181).
Table 4.33: Challenges KMO and Bartlett's test scores
87 Test Score
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .735
Approx. Chi-Square 314.043
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity df 28
Sig. .000
The analysis revealed the presence of two components with eigenvalues greater than 1, each explaining 36.8 per cent and 17.4 per cent of the variance respectively. The total variance explained by the components was 54.3 per cent. Table 4.27 details the two B14 factors and their respective items. Factor 1, named Women’s soccer development challenges, consisted of five items, and Factor 2, named Funding challenges for women’s football events, consisted of three items.
88 Table 4.34: Challenges factor analysis
Factor % of Factor Item loading Variance
The venues where women’s matches are held are not 0.798 well maintained
Security is not adequate where women’s soccer matches 0.764 are played 1. Women’s soccer development 36.846 Women soccer teams don’t attract skilled coaches 0.515 challenges Women’s matches are not played at convenient times on 0.445 the weekend
Playing soccer is not supported for girls at school level 0.332
There is not sufficient funding available to develop 0.769 women’s soccer
2. Fun at women’s There are not appropriate leagues for all ages of women 0.561 17.429 sport events to play in
Women’s soccer fixtures are not released in sufficient 0.546 time to plan attendance
4.11.3 Decision making about attending a women’s soccer match
The twenty variables regarding decision making about attending a women’s soccer match (see Tables 4.19 to 4.22) were subjected to PFA. Item C15.8 (I enjoy watching players who are physically attractive) and C15.7 (An individual player’s ‘sex appeal’ is a big reason to watch) were omitted from the factor analysis. C15.8 was omitted because the communality exceeded one and the Measures of Sampling Adequacy (MSA) was 0.544, which was below the 0.6 recommended value. C15.7 was omitted from the analysis because the MSA was 0.574. The correlation matrix showed most correlations above 0.3 indicating a good relation between the variables. Table 4.28 shows a KMO value of 0.868, greater than the recommended value of 0.6, and the Bartlett’s test indicated statistical significance, thus conducting factor analysis was found to be appropriate (Pallant, 2007:181).
89 Table 4.35: Decision-making KMO and Bartlett’s test scores
Test Score
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .868
Approx. Chi-Square 1033.267
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity df 153
Sig. .000
The analysis revealed the presence of four components with eigenvalues greater than 1, each explaining 33.8 per cent, 10.2 per cent, 7.0 per cent, and 5.9 per cent of the variance respectively. The total variance explained by the components was 56.8 per cent. Table 4.29 details the four C15 factors and their respective items. Factor 1, named Football knowledge motivation, consisted of five items; Factor 2, named Relaxation motivation to attend women’s football events, consisted of five items; Factor 3, named Socialising motivations to attend women’s football events, consisted of four items; and Factor 4, named Skill as a motivation to attend women’s football events, consisted of four items.
Table 4.36: Decision-making factor analysis
Factor % of Factor Item loading Variance
A match is fun to be at 0.692
I have a favourite team I support 0.600 1 Football knowledge I want to watch famous teams playing 0.542 33.765 motivation I know a woman soccer player 0.483
I go with friends 0.331
I can tell everyone about the match live from the 0.701 venue on social media
I can boast about being there to my friends 0.667 2 Relaxation motivation to attend I enjoy eating the food which is sold there 0.435 10.166 women’s football I go to matches with family 0.418
Soccer matches are a great change of pace from 0.393 what I regularly do
90 Factor % of Factor Item loading Variance
I like to talk to other people sitting near me during 0.715 the match
3 Socialising Interacting with other fans is a very important part 0.650 motivations to attend of being at matches 7.048 women’s football events I like to watch the skilled performance of the teams 0.580
Going with a group leads to improved social 0.476 relations
I have an understanding of soccer 0.742
I appreciate the quality of the soccer teams playing 0.619 4 Skill as a motivation to attend Soccer matches are opportunities to socialise with 5.868 0.513 women’s football other people
I feel a personal sense of achievement when the 0.478 team does well
4.11.4 Sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup
The four variables regarding sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup (see Table 4.23) were subjected to PFA. The correlation matrix showed most correlations above 0.3, which indicated a good relation between the variables. Table 4.30 shows a KMO value of 0.786, greater than the recommended value of 0.6 and the Bartlett’s test indicates statistical significance, thus conducting factor analysis was found to be appropriate (Pallant, 2007:181).
Table 4.37: Legacy KMO and Bartlett's test scores
Test Score
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy .786
Approx. Chi-Square 219.138
Bartlett's Test of Sphericity df 6
Sig. .000
The analysis revealed the presence of one component with eigenvalues greater than one, explaining 64.1 per cent of the variance. Table 4.31 details the factor and its items. Factor 1, named Sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup Football consisted of four items.
91
92 Table 4.38: Legacy factor analysis
Factor % of Factor Item loading Variance
I now attend women’s soccer matches because of the 2010 0.820 FIFA World Cup
I believe that women’s soccer projects have improved due to 0.730 1. Sports as a the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup legacy of the 2010 64.130 FIFA World Cup I can now identify myself with women’s soccer due to the 0.725 FIFA 2010 World Cup
I am convinced the 2010 FIFA World Cup left a positive 0.613 legacy for women’s football
4.12 RELIABILITY ANALYSIS
Reliability is mainly concerned with a scales’ internal consistency, which is to say where the items concerned all measure the same underlying constructs (Pallant, 2007). The response scale used was ordinal, with categories: strongly disagree (1), disagree (2), neutral (3), agree (4), and strongly agree (5). One of the most commonly used indicators of internal consistency is the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, The recommendation is that this coefficient should be 0.7 to indicate internal consistency (Pallant, 2007:95). Pallant (2007) warns that due to the sensitivity of the numbers on the scale with items smaller than ten it is possible to get a scale lower than 0.7, the inter-item correlation mean should be reported instead. The values between 0.2 and 0.4 indicate internal consistency.
Table 4.39: Reliability analysis
Inter-item Cronbach’s Number of Factor correlations Alpha items mean
Women’s football support 0.880 8
Fun at women’s matches 0.800 4
Spectator support 0.702 3
Professionalism 0.711 2
Women’s football development 0.728 5
93 Inter-item Cronbach’s Number of Factor correlations Alpha items mean
Women’s football funding 0.668 0.402 3
Football knowledge 0.739 5
Relaxation at the match 0.711 5
Socialise 0.784 4
Skill 0.787 4
Sport legacy 0.809 4
According to Table 4.32, ten of the eleven factors had high reliability scores with values between 0.702 and 0.880; above the recommended value of 0.7, indicating internal consistency. One of the factors was below the recommended 0.7 with the value of 0.668, however its inter- item correlations mean was 0.402 which is within the recommended range of 0.2 to 0.4, therefore the women’s football funding factor was also reliable.
4.13 GROUP COMPARISONS
4.13.1 Perceptions of women’s football and gender
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare perceptions by gender of women’s soccer support, fun at women’s sport events, spectator support and, professionalism. There was a significant difference in scores of fun at women’s sport events for males (M = 3.37, SD = 0.847) and females (M = 3.97, SD = 0.818), t (164) = -4.458, p = 0.000. This resulted in female respondents being more in agreement with the statement that they have fun at women’s sport events, than male respondents.
There was however no significant difference in perceptions of women’s soccer support for males (M = 2.94, SD = 0.813) and females (M = 2.86, SD = 0.966), t (164) = 0.552, p = 0.582. Spectator support for males (M = 3.25, SD = 0.874) and females (M = 3.45, SD = 0.801), t (164) = -1.485, p = 0.139. Professionalism for males (M = 4.11, SD = 0.784) and females (M = 4.29, SD = 0.814), t (164) = -1.372, p = 0.173. Males and females have the same perceptions of the factors above. The results indicated that there were no different perceptions concerning the factors above, both genders had similar views on these factors.
94 4.13.2 Decision making about attending a women’s soccer match and gender
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare perceptions by gender for football knowledge, relaxation, socialising, and skills as motivation factors to attend women’s football events. There was no significant difference in perceptions of football knowledge for males (M = 3.83, SD = 0.722) and females (M = 4.04, SD = 0.638), t (164) = -1.921, p = 0.057. Relaxation for males (M = 3.31, SD = 0.749) and females (M = 3.50, SD = 0.636), t (164) = -1.702, p = 0.091. Socialising for males (M = 3.81, SD = 0.761) and females (M = 4.02, SD = 0.631), t (164) = -1.753, p = 0.081. Skills for males (M = 3.96, SD = 0.724) and females (M = 4.03, SD = 0.759), t (164) = -0.577, p = 0.565. Males and females had the same perceptions of the factors above.
4.13.3 Sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup and gender
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare perceptions by gender for sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. There was no significant difference in the perceptions of sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup for males (M = 3.191, SD = 0.959) and females (M = 3.135, SD = 0.930), t (164) = 0.362, p = 0.718. Males and females had the same perceptions of this factor.
4.13.4 Decision making about attending a women’s soccer match and education level
An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare perceptions by education level for football knowledge, relaxation, socialising, and skills as motivation factors to attend women’s football events. There was a significant difference in perceptions of socialising for matric and below (M = 3.78, SD = 0.756) and post-matric (M = 4.05, SD = 0.629), t (162) = -2.483, p = 0.019. Respondents with a post-matric education rated the statements more positively than those with an education level of matric and below.
There was no significant difference in perceptions of football knowledge for matric and below (M = 3.83, SD = 0.722) and post-matric (M = 3.84, SD = 0.728), t (162) = -1.219, p = 0.224. Relaxation for matric and below (M = 3.33, SD = 0.704) and post-matric (M = 3.43, SD = 0.722), t (162) = -0.859, p = 0.392. Skills for matric and below (M = 3.90, SD = 0.685) and post-matric (M = 4.12, SD = 0.802), t (162) = -1.872, p = 0.063. Respondents with matric and below and those with post-matric had the same perceptions of the factors above.
95 4.13.5 Perceptions of women’s football and age
The one-way between-groups analysis of variance was conducted to explore the impact of age on perceptions of women’s football. The age sector of the respondents was divided into three groups (Group 1: 18-34 years; Group 2: 35-54 years; Group 3: 55-74 years). There was no significant difference between the three age groups in women’s soccer support, F (2) = 0.303, p-value = 0.739; fun at women’s sport events, F (2) = 0.231, p-value = 0.794; spectator support, F (2) = 0.781, p-value = 0.460; and professionalism, F (2) = 0.221, p-value = 0.802. The level of education of the respondents had no influence on their rating of the statements.
4.13.6 Sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup and age
The one-way between-groups analysis of variance was conducted to explore the impact of age on perceptions of sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The age sector of the respondents was divided into three groups (Group 1: 18-34 years; Group 2: 35-54 years; Group 3: 55-74 years). There was no significant difference in the perceptions of sports as a legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup between the three age groups, F (2) = 0.029, p-value = 0.969. The results indicated that participants from the different age groups had the same perceptions when it came to the legacy that the 2010 FIFA World Cup had on women’s football in Gauteng. This also indicated that age did not affect opinions about the legacy of the 2010 FIFA World Cup.
4.14 KEY STAKEHOLDER PERCEPTIONS
In-depth interviews were conducted with five key stakeholders. The key stakeholders who were part of the study included a female soccer player, a sport officer, a SAFA official, a male coach, and a female coach. These were semi-structured interviews, which were guided by a structured questionnaire. The purpose of these interviews was to unearth the challenges involved in advancing women’s football in Gauteng and to assess the impact of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in stimulating women to participate in football.
4.14.1 Challenges of advancing women’s football in Gauteng
When asked what their challenges were when it comes to advancing women’s football in Gauteng, the respondents indicated that they had different challenges based on their
96 responsibilities. The respondents identified several challenges that they faced when attempting to advance women’s football in Gauteng. One of the major themes was the challenge of sponsorship; the general challenge that all stakeholders raised was that of insufficient funding for the development of women’s soccer in South Africa. On the issue of sponsorship, a SAFA official asserted:
“We don’t have enough sponsorship and without sponsorship it’s hard to develop leagues, we have the Sasol league, but obviously all the players want a professional league where they can get paid and make money out of football.”
The lack of sponsorship has a domino effect on the slow advancement of women’s football in South Africa. The key stakeholders felt that women’s football matches are not given the same preference as those of men in terms of coverage in the media and this poses another challenge, especially when it comes to attracting sponsorship. A female soccer coach believed that:
“I think the sponsors will not be willing to sponsor something that not visible for them, as much as they are there and waiting on us we also need to be going out to get them as sponsorship seekers,”
This stakeholder believed that more should be done to ensure that women’s soccer matches are actively marketed to attract sponsors, and that there should be other strategies to attract sponsorship, apart from waiting for media coverage.
Furthermore, the key stakeholders were asked about what their views were when it comes to getting more girls to play football. This was another challenge that was as a result of the lack of sponsorship and the poor coverage of women’s football events on different media platforms. The stakeholders believed that there was no motivation for girls to play football, as there were not enough role models to inspire girls to participate in the sport. A coach asserted:
“If my daughter were to ask me to buy her a pair of soccer boots and a soccer ball, I would ask her who she is looking up to and she will say “Percy Tau” for example. As a parent I will be worried and think my daughter wants to be lesbian. We are not using those role models who are professional women footballers, their skills are not being shared, and it is difficult for parents to also motivate their kids because they do not have an idea as to who their kids want to become like because they don’t get to that level.”
97 This coach believed that should there be more professional female football players in the media this would result in parents motivating their girl children to play the sport. Furthermore, a professional player affirmed the statement:
“According to me it’s not fair, they are not promoting women’s football. You can’t discuss Teko Modise, you can’t discuss George Lebese, you can’t discuss Hlompho Kekane or Kaizer Chiefs while Banyana Banyana are playing, what are they saying to other people, you are not promoting women’s football, so to you it’s a matter of "ish, can’t this game get done", things like that.”
The key stakeholders were of the view that South African culture did not support girls to play soccer. Gender norms prohibit girls from playing sport, as they have to do domestic work. Communities or parents also tend to believe that females are not good at playing football. This view also emanated from the responses in Table 4.14; where almost half the respondents disagreed or were unsure about the statement (V10): Women play soccer as well as men. A coach, who is a retired professional football player, was of the view that girl children are not given support at home to play football:
“My parents have supported me but they were not out there supporting me. They would support me in terms of what I need, soccer boots and finance trips, but the only time that they actually the first time that my mom and dad actually got to see me play was at a banyana banyana level.”
For this stakeholder, her parents saw her play for the first time when they attended a football game she played in, at national level, although she had been playing for years before then. Their lack of support stems from the belief that females are not good at playing football or that it is just a hobby. Another stakeholder, a professional football player, shared that she comes from one of the royal communities in South Africa. She was not allowed to play football as this was seen as inappropriate for a princess to be playing with boys in the street instead of being inside the yard doing what girls “do”. She played football because her father was supportive although her community did not understand. She went on to add that now the same community supports her as their see her success in the media, but are not supportive of young girls playing football.
98 Gender is still a big challenge in football, the key stakeholders mentioned, like in other parts of the world, women’s football players are underpaid compared to their male counterparts who get paid more to play the same sport. A SAFA official confirmed this:
“Women footballers always earn less or are amateur except for the USA who fought a battle now and they earn equal kind of salary.”
Coaches are not immune to such challenges; they are also underpaid compared to male coaches. The female coach agreed:
“As a female coach you constantly have to prove to that you are indeed a coach which is something that male coaches don’t have to do.”
4.14.2 Strategies to advance women’s soccer
In order to advance women’s football, players need to adopt strategies that can see the advancement of the sport. The stakeholders have different strategies in place, which are used to advance and develop women’s football based on their role within the sport. The primary objective of an association such as SAFA is to advance football. The stakeholders each had different perceptions regarding the strategies that SAFA has adopted to advance women’s soccer in Gauteng. The SAFA official was asked about what strategies SAFA has in place to advance women’s soccer:
“One of their strategies to advance women’s soccer is staging more competitions between the available teams as well as playing them against international teams.”
She added that SAFA has developed the TUKS High Performance Centre where they develop football skills in girl children. A female coach went on to solidify this statement:
“The motherboard is SAFA, and has been trying; shame, it has been pushing where it can in trying to support the sport by developing the provincial league”.
A sport official also supported these claims:
“SAFA is also doing well at the TUKS High Performance Centre, the lady there is doing quite well with that program as well”.
99 The sport official added that more can be done by SAFA to develop women’s soccer at university level. A coach of a well-known Gauteng women’s team is not of the same view as the two stakeholders above:
“SAFA is not focusing on developing the sport at grassroots level”.
However, the stakeholders are of the view that it is not only SAFA’s responsibility to advance women’s soccer in Gauteng, and that other stakeholders such as the community and various media platforms need to come forward and promote women’s football.
4.14.3 2010 FIFA World Cup assistance in advancing women’s soccer
Sport development is one of the legacies of hosting a mega-event such as the 2010 FIFA World Cup. The hosting of such a prestigious event can have positive sport development legacies for the host country, this however tends to apply to male sports. The key stakeholders were asked what their views were about the legacies of the World Cup on women’s football in Gauteng. A SAFA official was asked about the impact of the World Cup on women’s football:
“The World Cup created more interest in football and therefore women’s football because you find that a lot of parents were interested in10 and football and it kind of the sports that the parents follow kind of filters down into the kids so you found that a lot more girls found an interest”.
The official added that although it created more interest in the sport, it did not increase the sponsorship:
“ It hasn’t attracted many more sponsors because we still only have Sasol”.
A female football coach agreed with the SAFA official concerning the event assisting in attracting and advancing women’s soccer in the country:
“I don’t think it has, I really do not think it has; in fact, I would look at it as pre- post World Cup, it’s still the same, nothing has changed in that we would have after receiving the World Cup. I think a lot of people should have poured into the sport, a lot of people should have said: hey, we can have our own female World Cup, we can host it; but nothing like that has been done and we are still waiting for something like that to happen”.
100 The female coach argued that the victories of Banyana Banyana have had much bigger impacts when it comes to advancing the sport, compared to what the World Cup had done. A sports official disagreed:
“I think it has worked because the fact that there was prize money pumped into the women’s football, that means something was done because if there was no money then nothing would have been done”.
According to the sport official, the world cup had assisted in getting funding for women’s football for its development. Interestingly the male coach shared the same sentiments as the female coach when asked whether he thought the 2010 FIFA World Cup had assisted in advancing women’s soccer:
“It’s still the same because more girls want to go and support the boy’s teams. After the World Cup had ended, they all go to support men’s football, so forget about the women’s football”.
It was evident from these responses that the majority of the key stakeholders are of the view that the 2010 FIFA World Cup has not done much to advance women’s football. It was also evident that the hype around advancing women’s football dwindled soon after the World Cup and not much has been done since. The projects that were established after the World Cup do not seem to serve their purpose. The female coach responded to the question about projects that were established after the World Cup:
“I am aware of a project called the legacy, which was supposed to feed into its post-World Cup, something to do with the legacy keeping it going, it’s mentioned in corridors, in specific corridors, but nothing has really been done by it, in terms of projects, no”.
This was one example of the failed projects, and there could be many more that have not been able to serve their purpose.
Tools such as social media have been used to promote women’s and girls’ sporting events. Having sponsors such as Sasol and establishing the only national league called the Sasol League has attracted more girls to playing the sport. Although social media and the existence of the Sasol League has played a pivotal role in advancing and attracting more girls to play
101 soccer, there are still a lot of challenges that hinder the growth of the sport. Participants at a women’s sport event were asked to complete a survey and 42.5 per cent agreed with the statement (V6): ‘Women’s soccer fixtures are not released in sufficient time to plan attendance’ found in Table 4.18. The male coach agreed:
“If the fixtures are not there in time people won’t know, but we shouldn’t even suffer, there should be like how it is with the people that follow men’s football, the strategy is there, we just need to copy that. Like for each season there is a break, but during that break the information is loaded online and supporters know of upcoming games long before the season even starts”.
The above results from the quantitative data indicate that the status of women’s football in Gauteng is slowly improving although there is a need to develop new strategies that will result in more girls and women partaking in the sport.
4.15 OVERVIEW OF PROSPECTS AND CHALLENGES FACING WOMEN’S SOCCER
Support for soccer in the country is still predominantly male. This was confirmed in the study and is in line with Pelak (2010) who stated that women might be prohibited from participating in soccer related events due to them being expected to carry out domestic work. Gender remains a significant factor in inhibiting women from participating in sporting events, especially soccer. The study identified that age was also important in determining support for women’s soccer. Most participants and spectators of sports tend to be young. From this study, it was apparent that age plays a key role in determining support for women’s soccer. This was in line with Dubihlela et al. (2009) who established that soccer is most likely to attract younger spectators. It is also in line with Taks, Green, Misnener and Chalip, (2018) who argued that sport and event tourism is adventurous and will tend to attract younger people. The majority of people who support women’s soccer are from the black ethnic community. This was confirmed by the study and is in line with Mofokeng and Bevan-Dye (2014) who observed that soccer is mainly enjoyed by black South Africans.
Income was an important determinant in whether a person will be interested in a particular sport or not. The income of an individual is most likely to have an effect on whether a person
102 will participate in or spectate a particular sport. A majority of respondents in this study had little or no income. This affects their interest in the sport as expenses are incurred to travel to the sports venue to either participate or spectate. In addition to income, education also played a key role in participation and spectating in sports. Income and education go hand in hand. The higher the level of education, it is more likely that the individual will have a higher income. People with low incomes would be limited in participating in sports, as they will tend to concentrate more on meeting basic needs. This is a challenge that women’s soccer and sport tourism continually face as most participants in the study had low education levels and relatively low incomes.
Men’s soccer is marketed aggressively on all forms of media, compared to women’s soccer. Marketing has a significant impact on how people become aware of certain sporting events. This study established that friends and family play an important role in ensuring that people know which sports events are being held, especially women’s soccer. It would be helpful if the mainstream media could market women’s soccer in the same way that they promote men’s soccer, so that word-of-mouth communication, and friends and family are not the only means of advancing awareness of women’s soccer. The study determined that word-of-mouth still plays an important role in alerting people to specific soccer events. This was in line with George (2008), who observed that word-of-mouth has become a convenient way of making people aware of specific sports events. Unlike men’s soccer, social media and word-of-mouth remain important in raising awareness of women’s soccer. This needs to be addressed if the sport is to be promoted and realise its full potential.
Advertising of women’s soccer in the mainstream media is still at low levels, while male football dominates advertising in all forms of mainstream media, There is a need for a shift in media advertising that can give prominence to women’s soccer. As Swanepoel et al. (2015) pointed out; such a shift can lead to growth and development of women’s soccer, thus contributing positively to sport tourism. The study established that attendance of sports events among participants was sporadic. Many respondents attended sports events when time and finances allowed. This was especially true when it comes to the attendance of women’s soccer matches. This finding was in line with Engh (2011) who argued that there is only very weak support for women’s soccer in South Africa. This study established that many people are interested in watching women’s soccer on television, though they may sometimes physically attend some of the matches. This finding indicated that there is potential to grow interest in
103 women’s soccer, which will have a positive effect on women’s soccer in particular and sport tourism in general.
This study found that there is an increasing appreciation among participants of women’s soccer, and support for the sport is growing despite the abovementioned sporadic attendance. It was apparent that South African culture in general is opening up to women’s soccer, as expressed by most participants in the study. This finding contradicts the contention of Cooky et al (2013) that women’s soccer in the country continues to suffer from a negative cultural mindset, which has an impact on its support. The study established that respondents enjoyed attending all levels of women’s soccer matches. Most participants were willing to pay to attend the matches despite their low incomes. This can support women’s soccer, thus acting as a means of enhancing sport tourism and subsequent local economic development. This finding was in line with Bull and Lovell (2007), who argued that sports is capable of having a ripple effect of boosting local economies.
The study identified several challenges associated with women’s soccer. One such challenge is the times that women’s soccer matches are held. Most of the matches are played during the day, which is inconvenient. Playing matches during the day makes it difficult for spectators who are working to attend such matches. Another challenge that was identified by the study was that most venues that host women’s soccer matches are not well maintained. Women’s soccer matches are normally held in small stadiums in townships, where conditions of the field may make it difficult for games to be played smoothly. There is a need to maintain such facilities properly in order to make women’s soccer matches more exciting. The issue of the calibre of coaches in charge of women’s teams was also identified as a challenge. Respondents indicated that most women’s soccer teams did not have high calibre soccer coaches. This affects team performance and sponsorship and in turn will affect the development of women’s soccer as fewer funds will be channelled to the teams.
The developmental aspect of women’s soccer is lacking. Structures are not in place to encourage young girls to play soccer, especially at school level. There is also a high dropout rate by girls who play soccer as they progress to higher grades in their education. Funding for women’s soccer, especially from the corporate sector, continues to be a challenge. Women’s soccer teams continue to lack access to funds that can enable them to buy equipment, pay basic expenses, like allowances and travel costs, and even finance trips to play matches. This in turn
104 affects team performance and may affect the fan base. The study identified several factors that motivated people to attend women’s soccer matches. These included socialisation during the matches, the ability to gain knowledge about soccer, and the feeling of general relaxation experienced while attending the matches. These factors can be utilised to encourage more participation and attendance of women’s soccer matches, thus aiding sport tourism in general.
105 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The aim of this study was to explore the concept of sport tourism participation with emphasis on women’s football in the South African context. Using Gauteng as the study area, the study focused on the participation, motivations, and challenges that were linked to the women’s soccer events. Based on the findings and discussion presented in the previous chapter, and remaining cognisant of the pre-defined study objectives stated in the introductory chapter, Chapter 5 draws conclusions based on such study objectives, and provides recommendations for practical implications that are relevant to stakeholders involved in the management of women’s soccer and sport tourism. It also provides recommendations for future research; furthermore, the study limitations, direction for future research, and overall conclusions are outlined in this chapter.
5.2 CONCLUSIONS BASED ON THE STUDY OBJECTIVES
The conclusions for the current study have been drawn up based on the outlined objectives in Chapter 1. As previously indicated, the study sought to:
To determine the level of interest in women’s football, by profiling sport fans who currently attend women’s football matches;
To explore the main motivations linked to fan participation and attendance in terms of South African women’s football;
To identify the current challenges linked to the development of women’s football in Gauteng; and
To explore the extent to which the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup assisted in the advancement of women’s football.
106 5.2.1 Objective 1
To determine the level of interest in women’s football, by profiling sport fans that currently attend women’s football matches.
The study established that overall; most spectators of women’s soccer are men, within the age range of 18 to 74 years. Most participants resided in Gauteng and were black. In addition, the majority of the participants had completed their secondary education and some held a tertiary qualification. Despite this, most have indicated that they earn no income. It is apparent that interest in women’s soccer is mainly among the black South African community, who possess formal education, but have low incomes. In addition, the sports fans tend to be mostly young and male. Women will generally not be able to attend the matches, as they are involved in household chores. This has implications in the level of interest in women’s football. However low incomes prohibit most people from attending football matches, as the little financial resources that they may have will be spent on basic survival needs. This in turn affects sport tourism, as fewer people are able to travel and spend money on women’s football matches. Contrary to some research findings (Ogunniyi, 2014; Rober, 2013; Schmidt, 2012), a phenomenal interest in women’s soccer has developed. Most respondents in this study indicated that they frequently attended women’s soccer, and were interested in women’s soccer growth. It can be concluded that the sport has a significant fan base. It is evident from the study that the increased attendance in women’s soccer matches can be attributed to the 2010 FIFA World Cup legacy, which popularised football in the country. This is in line with Cornelissen et al. (2011) who argued that mega events like a World Cup set the tone for future events in host destinations. The interest in women’s soccer can be exploited to increase sport tourism through making conscious efforts to satisfy present fan needs.
The need thus arises for proper planning of soccer matches, based on fan profiles and interests, which should lead to increased attendance at women’s soccer matches. Planning of sport and event tourism becomes easy when the interests of key stakeholders are determined and well profiled for specific events that are to be staged (Nyikana et al., 2014; Sallent et al., 2011). Saayman and Uys (2003) argued that, ascertaining interests of fans in event tourism, soccer in particular, is key to avoiding instances where such events are hosted and fans do not pitch up. Robinson and Gammon (2004) further argued that planning an event involves many aspects consisting of human resources, equipment, amenities, and other forms of infrastructure. In the
107 event that fans do not show interest and therefore do not attend, it means a waste of time and resources for event planners (Sikes & Bale, 2014).
5.2.2 Objective 2
To explore the main motivations linked to fan participation and attendance in terms of South African women’s football.
Motivation can be described as the drive or force that makes someone do something or be involved in a certain activity. Exploring the main motivations linked to fan participation and attendance was highly regarded in this study, as motivation is key to the sustainability of sport and event tourism. Motivation can drive fans to attend paid events, regardless of finance and time constraints. From the study, it was evident that enjoyment of women’s soccer is the driving force behind fan attendance at women’s soccer matches. The study established that there was a feel good factor experienced while attending women’s soccer matches. In addition, socialisation and gaining knowledge about soccer in general make fans interested in attending the matches. This resulted in participation despite the expenses involved given that most participants had low incomes, yet were willing to travel and pay to attend these matches. From the research findings, going to a women’s soccer match with friends, having a favourite team to support, the fun side of the sport, and watching famous teams playing were outright areas of motivation to attend women’s soccer by respondents.
It is apparent that the same motivation that leads fans to attend men’s soccer is also responsible for fans attending women’s soccer. This results in an increase in sport tourism. Therefore, structures need to be put in place that will mainstream women’s soccer into general soccer fan activities so that attendance of the matches can be comparable to those of men’s soccer. The motivations to attend women’s soccer matches presents a wide opportunity for women’s soccer administration to maximise service provision, amenities, infrastructure, and atmosphere, which all contribute towards an inner drive to draw more fans to women’s soccer. Even though literature indicates that males are motivated to attend women’s sporting events for the sex appeal or revealing clothing (Grundlingh, 2010; Leseth, 2014), this study was unable to establish this factor as a motivation. Soccer matches are arguably opportunities to socialise with other people and generally have a good time.
108 5.2.3 Objective 3
To identify the current challenges linked to the development of women’s football in Gauteng.
The third objective sought to unearth the challenges that affect the development of women’s soccer in Gauteng. Sport development is a process that goes through a number of challenges (Ogunniyi, 2014). This study established that women’s soccer is facing a number of challenges, ranging from structural issues, inadequate equipment, less competent coaching personnel, sponsorship, and funding. The facilities at which women’s soccer events are held are also not up to standard, which lowers the quality of the matches.
This study established that the venues where women’s matches are held are not well maintained. The type and capacity of the venue plays a major role in attracting people to an event. It is apparent that women’s soccer is usually scheduled to be played in small venues in townships, which may not be appealing to fans. There is a need for women’s soccer to be played in better venues where facilities and amenities meet the fans desires. For example, the matches could be held just before major men’s soccer matches are played in well-established and high-class venues. This strategy would not be adopted permanently, however it will give women’s soccer the opportunity to have a large group of spectators. For major men’s soccer events spectators are allowed to enter into the venue hours before the match starts, therefore this time can be used to showcase women’s soccer until its attracts a huge following on its own.The issue of security when women’s soccer matches are held in townships becomes important. Townships are often associated with crime, and providing adequate security becomes a challenge. This will affect event tourism, as people will be unwilling to go to unsafe areas.
Coaching is another challenge identified by this study as affecting women’s football. The inability to attract competent or qualified coaches, inadequate planning and support of women’s soccer development, and insufficient funding continue to affect women’s soccer. In addition, the study has identified that administrative skills and encouraging grassroots support for women’s soccer are affecting the development of the sport. Even though a women’s soccer league exists, it does not draw as much funding as the men’s league. These challenges need to be addressed to advance women’s soccer in Gauteng, and South Africa as a whole.
109 5.2.4 Objective 4
To explore the extent to which the hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup assisted in the advancement of women’s football.
The last objective was to examine the extent to which hosting of the 2010 FIFA World Cup has assisted in women’s soccer growth and development. South Africa hosted the first ever mega-event in Africa with the 2010 FIFA World Cup. Literature (Cornelissen, et al., 2001; Preuss 2015; Tichaawa & Bob, 2016) has indicated that the hosting of such events leaves the host country with several legacies, a sporting legacy being one of them. From this study, it is evident that hosting the 2010 FIFA World Cup left a legacy of increased support for soccer in general. However, this interest has not been exploited by sports administrators and relevant stakeholders to increase interest in women’s soccer and event tourism. Robinson and Gammon (2004) contended that it is the responsibility of the public sector and relevant stakeholders to take advantage of the aftermath of such events to ensure that the legacy is experienced for many areas. There is a need for all stakeholders to utilise the impact of the 2010 FIFA World Cup to popularise women’s soccer in all sections of society. This should lead to the growth of women’s soccer and the subsequent increase in sport tourism.
5.3 IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS
The study revealed that the current profiles of individuals who attend women’s soccer events are mostly young, educated, black males. Sport tourism stakeholders need to understand the kind of activities that will attract these types of people to women’s soccer events, and package such activities in the overall match activities. There is also need to expand the interest in women’s soccer to wider sectors of society, much as it is enjoyed in male soccer. These include elderly people, young girls and women, and affluent people of other races. Therefore, there is a need to look at wider societal groups and tailor package women’s soccer events in such a way that will attract these sectors of society. Issues such as costs and security should be taken into consideration for such groups. When it comes to pricing tickets the socio-economic status of the locals in the host community should be taken into consideration and ensure that they would be able to afford the tickets or costs involved in attending the sporting event. In terms of motivation, some of the research outcomes have shown that sports fans that attend women’s events are motivated to attend for the socialisation aspect of the event and the skill displayed
110 by the players. Based on these motivations, managers and event planners must look at how these motivations can be better met at events, while also creating other means of motivation, which will encourage potential attendees of women’s soccer events.
From the challenges that have been identified, there is a need for all stakeholders to play a more proactive role in increasing interest in women’s soccer. SAFA and the government can play a prominent role in this proactivity. SAFA is responsible for football development in South Africa. As such, the body oversees all development aspects of football, and one of the main challenges of developing football is that of financial support. Currently there is limited support when it comes to the development of women’s soccer in the country and one of their main sponsors is Sasol. According to Pelak (2010), the scant financial support for women’s football has been a frequent problem in South Africa and the rest of the world. Currently, the issue of sponsorship is holding back women’s football from truly advancing in the country.
This study suggests that stakeholders like SAFA should put measures in place to ensure that women’s soccer matches will be hosted at recognised and secure venues (stadia), especially before main matches of established clubs. Arrangements can be made with such clubs regarding the financial implications. This will mainstream women’s soccer into the psyche of most football fans in the country. Staging women’s soccer events in established venues might be able to attract potential fans, which could result in increasing revenue by attracting sponsors, which will beef up the development of the sport. Even though many clubs are struggling to attract fans to matches in major venues, playing such matches will place women’s soccer at the forefront of football in the country.
There is a need to professionalise women’s soccer. SAFA, the government, and other stakeholders need to ensure that women’s soccer has wide support by covering the majority of the women’s events in various media platforms. Properly sponsored women’s soccer can attract effective coaches, and upgrade women’s soccer equipment to global standards. One may claim that, if such recommendations are taken with great caution and women’s soccer gets the same priority as men’s soccer; the sport would contribute to economic development through sport tourism. Furthermore, SAFA must focus on establishing new partnerships that can generate funds for the development of women’s soccer. SAFA needs to invest in human capital as currently there is only one individual employed by SAFA who focuses on the management and strategy development to advance women’s soccer in Gauteng. Increasing their human capital
111 and having more individuals focusing on women’s soccer could lead to the introduction of new partnerships and sponsorships.
In addition, government departments, such as the Department of Sport and Recreation, need to support women’s soccer by raising awareness among diverse fan bases. The Department of Basic Education as well as the Department of Sport and Recreation need to work together in supporting SAFA when it comes to the development of the sport at grassroots level, especially at secondary school level, where most girls stop playing the sport in higher grades. The success of women’s soccer in Gauteng and South Africa would take collaborative efforts from different stakeholders (Mofokeng & Bevan-Dye, 2014).
Advertisement and marketing of women’s soccer needs to be encouraged. Currently there is scant media coverage of women’s soccer across different media platforms. Pelak (2010) asserted that with each televised event, there is an intense increase in the number of girls and women expressing interest in the game. Event organisers need to utilise such opportunities. In addition, organisers need to approach different local community radio and television stations and encourage them to start covering women’s soccer events to raise awareness of the sport within their communities. This grassroots level coverage will influence the development of soccer in these communities and will be instrumental in changing the perceptions of women’s soccer. This will also ensure that fans are able to get information regarding upcoming events. Media is the only way to promote women’s soccer to a large number of people (Jonsson & Devonish, 2008). Coaches, players, and clubs must form part of the organising teams and as such, they need to make use of social media to engage with their supporters and inform them of upcoming games and events. Clubs can create events where they invite the communities to participate in different activities with the football players to establish a relationship between the clubs and communities to gain support.
5.4 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY
The current study analysed sport tourism participation, motivations, and challenges linked to women’s football in Gauteng. Despite efforts applied to ensure acceptability and credibility of the study, it is not without limitations. The views of the participants were those from a small sample of Gauteng sport fans who were present at selected events. The study only focused on a small part of Gauteng and did not explore other provinces, as such generalising the study
112 findings should be done with caution. This study was also limited to three events, available during the period of study. However, it was ensured that respondents who had been watching women’s soccer were approached. Future researchers are advised to focus on a broader sample size, and consider all other provinces.
5.5 SUGGESTED FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS
This study has been very important in terms of the analysis of sport tourism in general. The study’s uniqueness is that it has focused on women’s events as opposed to male dominated events, which have already been largely researched. The study has also shown that there is a similarity with male events in many areas, however a women’s event is unique in that it still has many challenges in relation to funding, media coverage, and acceptance by the public. Therefore, further research on how these challenges can be mitigated would be important. Future research needs to consider overcoming challenges linked to attendance, not only in Gauteng but in other provinces as well.
5.6 CONCLUDING REMARKS
The current study analysed sport tourism participation, motivations, and challenges linked to women’s football in Gauteng in an attempt to add to the scant knowledge regarding African women and football. The key motivations found in the study are related to football knowledge and skill. The limited media coverage and late release of fixture dates are some of the challenges that prevent fans from attending women’s sporting events. The study also discovered challenges exposed by key stakeholders who are involved in the advancement of women’s soccer in Gauteng in order to unearth challenges. The general challenge they face is that of funding, there is only one major sponsor for women’s football in the country, resulting in the delayed development of the national women’s league, which is anticipated to start in 2019. The limited sponsorship also affects the development of the sport at grassroots level. All stakeholders, SAFA, government and other footballing communities, must join hands in supporting women’s soccer to advance the sport in terms of popularity, attractiveness, and its power as an economic tool for local or host communities like the Gauteng province, and destinations elsewhere.
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124 APPENDICES
Appendix A: Survey Questionnaire
COLLEGE OF BUSINESS AND ECONOMICS SCHOOL OF TOURISM AND HOSPITALITY (STH) ATTENDEES SURVEY QUESTIONNAIRE
This questionnaire forms part of the data as partial requirement for a Master’s Degree at the STH, University of Johannesburg. The research is aimed at measuring sport tourism participation. Specifically, it looks at motivations and challenges linked to women football development. You are kindly requested to participate in the study. The information provided remains strictly confidential and your personal details will remain strictly protected. The data will be used for academic purposes only.
Name of Event: Location: S. No………..
Section A – Demographics
1. Your Gender Male 1 Female 2
2. Please indicate your age group 18-24 1 25-34 2 35-44 3 45-54 4 55-64 5 65-74 6 75 and above 7
3. Please indicate your ethnicity Black 1 White 2 Coloured 3 Indian or Asian 4
4. How much do you earn on a monthly basis? No income 1 Below R2 000 2 R2 001- R5 000 3 R5 001- R10 000 4 R10 001- R15 000 5 R15 001- R20 000 6 R20 001 and above 7
5. Your highest educational qualification? No education 1 Primary schooling completed 2 Secondary schooling completed 3 Certificate/ Diploma 4 Degree 5 Postgraduate degree 6
125
4. Which province do you originate from? Western Cape 1 Gauteng 2 Free State 3 Eastern Cape 4 Kwa Zulu Natal 5 Mpumalanga 6 Northern Cape 7 North West 8 Limpopo 9 Outside South Africa’s borders (Specify) 10
5. Occupation Full-time employment 1 Part-time employment 2 Self-employed 3 Student 4 Pensioner 5 Unemployed 6
8. How did you find out about this event? You can select more than 1 option Television 1 Newspaper 2 Radio 3 Social media : Facebook, Twitter 4 Friends or family 5 Internet: blogs, sports websites 6 Word of mouth communication 7 Other (Specify) 8
9. How often do you attend women’s soccer matches?
Never 1 Rarely 2 Sometimes 3 Often 4 Always 5
126 Section B
This section captures your perceptions of South African Women’s Soccer
10. How interested are you in seeing support for South African women’s soccer grow? SELECT ONE ONLY Not interested 1 Somewhat interested 2 Interested 3 Very Interested 4 11. Which of the following statements best summarises your interest in soccer as a recreational activity? SELECT ONE ONLY I am a keen participant in soccer who regularly plays in formal competitions 1 I am a keen participant in playing soccer regularly but not in any formal competition 2 I occasionally participate in soccer matches socially 3 I used to play in soccer matches but have not done so in recent years 4 I have never had an interest in playing soccer myself 5
12. Which of the following statements best summarises your interest in women’s soccer I am a devoted fan of women’s soccer trying to attend as many matches as possible 1 I am interested in women’s soccer watching it on TV 2 I am interested in women’s soccer watching it on TV and attending when I can 3 I am not interested in women’s soccer, but I sometimes watch matches because family or friends are 4 interested
13. To what extent do you agree with the following statements? SD= Strongly Disagree | D= Disagree | N= Neutral | A= Agree | SA= Strongly Agree SD D N A SA 13.1 Women soccer players are exciting to watch at matches 1 2 3 4 5 13.2 Women play soccer as well as men 1 2 3 4 5 13.3 I enjoy attending all levels of women’s soccer matches 1 2 3 4 5 13.4 I will pay to attend women’s soccer matches 1 2 3 4 5 13.5 South African culture supports women playing soccer 1 2 3 4 5 13.6 South African women soccer players want to play soccer 1 2 3 4 5 professionally 13.7 Women’s soccer should have a South African national league 1 2 3 4 5 13.8 Most men will pay to attend a women’s soccer match 1 2 3 4 5 13.9 Most women will pay to attend a women’s soccer match 1 2 3 4 5 13.10 The audience at women’s soccer matches has as much fun as at 1 2 3 4 5 men’s matches 13.11 Women’s soccer matches are well advertised in South Africa 1 2 3 4 5 13.12 There is enough coverage of women’s soccer on TV 1 2 3 4 5 13.13 There is enough coverage of women’s soccer on radio 1 2 3 4 5 13.14 South Africa’s women’s soccer is professionally run 1 2 3 4 5 13.15 South African women’s soccer teams compete internationally 1 2 3 4 5 13.16 Sponsors support women’s soccer 1 2 3 4 5 13.17 South African government supports women’s soccer 1 2 3 4 5
14. Women’s soccer challenges To what extent do you agree with the following women’s soccer challenges? SD= Strongly Disagree | D= Disagree | N= Neutral | A= Agree | SA= Strongly Agree SD D N A SA 14.1 Women’s soccer fixtures are not released in sufficient time to plan 1 2 3 4 5 attendance 14.2 There is not sufficient funding available to develop women’s soccer 1 2 3 4 5 14.3 There are not appropriate leagues for all ages of women to play in 1 2 3 4 5
127 14.4 Women’s matches are not played at convenient times on the 1 2 3 4 5 weekend 14.5 The venues where women’s matches are held are not well 1 2 3 4 5 maintained 14.6 Security is not adequate where women’s soccer matches are played 1 2 3 4 5 14.7 Women’s soccer teams don’t attract skilled coaches 1 2 3 4 5 14.8 Playing soccer is not supported for girls at school level 1 2 3 4 5
Section C
This section reviews your motivations to attend South African women’s soccer matches.
15. To what extent do you agree with the following factors when it comes to decision making about attending a women’s soccer match? SD= Strongly Disagree | D= Disagree | N=Neutral | A= Agree | SA= Strongly Agree SD D N A SA I decide to attend women’s soccer matches because…………. 15.1 I have an understanding of soccer 1 2 3 4 5 15.2 I appreciate the quality of the soccer teams playing 1 2 3 4 5 15.3 Soccer matches are opportunities to socialise with other people 1 2 3 4 5 15.4 I feel a personal sense of achievement when the team does well 1 2 3 4 5 15.5 Soccer matches are a great change of pace from what I regularly do 1 2 3 4 5 15.6 I go to matches with family 1 2 3 4 5 15.7 An individual player’s ‘sex appeal’ is a big reason to watch 1 2 3 4 5 15.8 I enjoy watching players who are physically attractive 1 2 3 4 5 15.8 I go with friends 1 2 3 4 5 15.9 Interacting with other fans is a very important part of being at matches 1 2 3 4 5 15.10 I like to talk to other people sitting near me during the match 1 2 3 4 5 15.11 I like to watch the skilled performance of the teams 1 2 3 4 5 15.12 Going with a group leads to improved social relations 1 2 3 4 5 15.13 I enjoy eating the food which is sold there 1 2 3 4 5 15.14 I can boast about being there to my friends 1 2 3 4 5 15.15 I can tell everyone about the match live from the venue on social media 1 2 3 4 5 15.16 I have a favourite team I support 1 2 3 4 5 15.17 A match is fun to be at 1 2 3 4 5 15.18 I want to watch famous teams playing 1 2 3 4 5 15.19 I know a woman soccer player 1 2 3 4 5
16. To what extend do you agree with the following statements about women’s soccer and the 2010 FIFA World Cup? SD= Strongly Disagree | D= Disagree | N=Neutral | A= Agree | SA= Strongly Agree SD D N A SA 16.1 I now attend women’s soccer matches because of the 2010 FIFA World Cup 1 2 3 4 5 16.2 I believe that women’s soccer projects have improved due to the hosting of 1 2 3 4 5 the 2010 FIFA World Cup 16.3 I can now identify myself with women’s soccer due to the FIFA 2010 World 1 2 3 4 5 Cup 16.4 I am convinced the 2010 FIFA World Cup left a positive legacy for women’s 1 2 3 4 5 soccer
Thanks for your co-operation in completing this questionnaire
128 Appendix B: Interview Schedule
I would request your support to participate in a research study as part of a Masters in Tourism Development. This study is being conducted by myself, Paulina Ngubeni, a Master’s of Tourism candidate in the Faculty of Management, School of Tourism and Hospitality (STH) at the University of Johannesburg. Your participation is greatly appreciated.
Background Information: The purpose of this study is to explore the challenges in developing women’s soccer in Gauteng. The study also intends to find out what are some of the legacies that the 2010 FIFA World Cup, which was hosted in South Africa, left behind for women’s soccer. The research will be used for the master’s thesis, which will appear in the University library and for academic research articles and conference papers.
The one-on-one interview will make use of the questions (below) and will take approximately 40-60 minutes of your time. Where possible I would like to meet with you face-to-face. The interview will be recorded on my cell phone.
Please advise a date, time and place that would be convenient to meet. I am in Johannesburg so can only do face-to-face meetings in Joburg – any outside of Joburg would be telephonic.
Confidentiality: The recordings from this interview will be kept private in a secure file. In any sort of report that might be published, the researcher will not include any information that will make it possible to identify a participant thereby ensuring anonymity. Research records will be kept in a secure file; only the researcher(s) will have access to the records. A copy of the final thesis will be available to yourself on request.
Voluntary Nature of the Study: Your participation in the study is voluntary and you are free to withdraw at any time.
129 Risks and Benefits of being in the Study: There are no physical risks and no benefits to participating in the study.
Contacts and Questions: The researcher’s supervisors are Prof T. Tichaawa [email protected] and Dr P. Thomas [email protected]
Thank you
Paulina Ngubeni
Email: [email protected]
130 Qualitative Interview Protocol
Introductions Self-Introduction (Interviewer) Self-introduction (interviewee) Consent to record (Interviewer)
Section A: Demographics 1. Date and place of interview: 2. Title of respondent: 3. Current role of respondent in female soccer: 4. Gender and Age: 5. Number of years with organization/ team: 6. Contact cell/ office number for follow up
Section B: Questions 1. What historical changes have you seen in the last 10 years in government, fan and female player support for the game? 2. What historical changes have taken place in improving match fixture opportunities? 3. What historic changes in government support (funding, school involvement etc.) have you seen and what is still needed? 4. Why do you think that women’s soccer is not given the same promotion in media as that of men’s soccer? 5. Do you experience resistance from parents or the community in terms of allowing girls to play soccer? 6. What are the challenges you currently experience in fielding a women’s team as a women’s soccer coach? 7. What do you think can be done to overcome these challenges? 8. How do you think the 2010 FIFA World Cup has assisted in attracting women and girls to play soccer? 9. What projects are being developed to develop South African women soccer players?
What are your views about possible opportunities for the future of women’s soccer in South Africa (locally and internationally).
131