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Home , Foxtail millet, Panicum, Panicum hirticaule, Panicum sumatrense, Poaceae, Proso millet

Fox-tail (: )—Abandoned Food in Two Hemispheres1

Daniel F. Austin

Austin, Daniel F. (Center for Sonoran Studies, Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, 2021 N. Kinney Road, Tucson, AZ 85743; e-mail: [email protected]). Fox-tail Millets (Setaria Poaceae)—Abandoned Food in Two Hemispheres. Economic 60(2): 143Ð158, 2006. A survey of anthropological, archaeological, botanical, and historical litera- ture reveals that two species of fox-tail were domesticated in the Old World (S. italica, S. pumila), and one may have been domesticated in the New World (S. parviflora). Others were prehistorically and historically gathered and eaten as sources, including S. liebmannii, S. macrostachya, S. pallide-fusca, S. palmifolia, S. parviflora, S. pumila, S. sphacelata, S. verticillata, S. viridis, and perhaps others. The American species are briefly dis- cussed and compared with the Old World , and a synopsis of food changes is presented.

Cola de Zorro (Setaria: Poaceae)—Una Comida Abandonado en Dos Hemispheros. Una revisión de la literatura antropologica, archeologica, historica y botanica revela que dos especies de mijo (cola de zorro, cola de ardilla) fueron domesticadas en el Viejo Mundo (S. italica, S. pumila), y una especie (S. parviflora) quiza pudo haber sido domesticada en el Nuevo Mundo. Otras especies, tanto prehistoricamente como historicamente, fueron recogi- das como cereales e ingeridas como fuentes de almidon, incluyendo S. liebmannii, S. macrostachya, S. pallide-fusca, S. palmifolia, S. parviflora, S. pumila, S. sphacelata, S. verti- cillata, S. viridis, y quiza otras especies. Las especies Americanas son brevemente compara- das y analizadas con respecto a las plantas del Viejo Mundo, tambien se presenta una sinop- sis de los cambios en la alimentacion. Key Words: Setaria, , change, domesticated, foods, grasses, harvested.

As I climb past the 3,800-foot elevation level records of Florida species being eaten by in the Baboquivari Mountains of south-central people when I studied those plants (Austin Arizona, I begin to see zacate tempranero, or 2004), although now I know that one there has plains bristle-grass (Setaria macrostachya), been eaten. along the slopes. Above 4,200 feet that fox-tail Perhaps I was led astray in part by de Wet’s has disappeared, but still with me is cola de (1995) treatment of the in Smartt and ardilla or Grisebach’s bristle-grass (S. grise- Simmonds’s Evolution of Plants. De Wet bachii) just as it is lower in the Altar Valley said simply that an unidentified Setaria had where I live at 3,200 feet. been used as a cereal in pre-Columbian Mex- Because many animals eat Setaria “” ico; he gave no source. Similarly, Hedrick (caryopses), I have wondered for decades if (1919), Uphof (1968), Purseglove (1972), Coon New World people used these grasses as food. (1974), Hocking (1997), Moerman (1998) and Martin et al. (1951) went so far as saying that Wiersema and León (1999) do not list Ameri- Setaria “. . . top[s] all other weeds in the can species as having been used. Even Fernald [] in food value to wildlife.” They et al. (1958), who consumed and commented on found accounts at the time of 67 and 10 numerous American plants most of us consider mammals that consumed the . I found no inedible, listed and discussed only Old World species. I learned long ago that people in one hemisphere are as likely as those in the other to 1 Received 6 January 2006; accepted 17 February use the same genus of plants (cf. Austin 2004). 2006. The story is much like other discarded wild and

Economic Botany, 60(2), 2006, pp. 143Ð158. © 2006, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A. 144 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60 domesticated foods (cf. Nabhan 1985, Smith European names have now subsumed both Se- 1992, Austin 2004). taria and as does the Arabic word dokhn and the cognate dokhan in Hebrew Old World Species (Tables 1, 2). Today, about the only well-known human Literature records the pivotal of the food among Old World species is S. italica. “Five Grains of ” that are thought to date However, that and other species are used in Eu- from emperor Chin-nong in 2700 B.C. when he , , and Asia (Table 1). Setaria italica commanded that subsequent emperors sow was cultivated as an important food across them in a public ceremony each year (de Can- southern until the early 20th century. dolle 1886; Ho 1969; Hsuan 1974; Davidson Since then it has declined in importance there, 1999). Although the number varies from five to but remains an essential food for home con- nine, and the kinds listed sometimes include sumption in parts of , China, Korea, and more than one genus under a single name, the Japan (Purseglove 1972; Facciola 1990; de Wet “grains” usually cited are su (,Setaria 1995; Ahanchede et al. 2004; Leff et al. 2004; italica), chi (,Panicum miliaceum), keng (, Rengalakshmi 2005). sativa; dozens of words are used for , Setaria italica has been in cultivation for including tao, , which is rice growing in the about 8,000 years in China. The first records field or paddy, cf. Hsuan [1974]), mai (, come from ca. 6000 B.C. in the Peiligang and Triticum), and shu (,Glycine,now huang tou, Cishan contexts, the oldest farming cultures in , yellow bean or ta tou, , great bean). northern China’s Yellow River Valley (Henan Cultivated S. italica is not as old in India as Province) (Li and Wu 1996; Zohary and Hopf in China, but seeds gathered from wild plants 2000; Shelach 2000). Soon afterward, the are in archaeological sites dating from about species emerged farther south as the principal 2800 cal B.C. in the states of Karnataka and cereal in the of the 5th and Andhra Pradesh (Fuller et al. 2004). They are 4th millennia B.C. in Hunan Province (Ho nearly as old in the Harappan area of northern 1969; Li 1970; Ebeling 1986; Crawford et al. India and Pakistan, where they date to 2400 2005). B.C. (Weber 1998). Even less known in the Millet was such an important food in China Western world than the “Five Grains of China” that the name of the legendary ancestor of the are the Navadhanyam (nine grains) of India. Chou tribe in the highlands was based on the This is a mixture, particularly of ten-nai, . He was called Hou Chi, which means varagu korali, adipul, kuthirai val pul, ku- “Lord of the Millets” (Ho 1969). rakkan, pani-varagu, samai, thirivaragu, and There was either a wider application of Chi- pil samai (binomials in Tables 1, 2). This nese words employed to indicate grains from mixture is used in daily foods (P. Kamthe and Setaria and Panicum, or confusion in the older N. Jeyakumar, pers. comm. Nov. 2005), and literature. Perhaps both occurred as they do given as pujas (offerings for adoration) at with the English word “millet,” now used to in- shrines and temples in both India (e.g., Shiva dicate an array of genera (Table 2). Ho (1969) temples in 2005) and the United States commented on the ancient broad application of (e.g., Sri Shiva Vishnu Temple 2005, Sri the Chinese names to Panicum and Setaria. Al- Venkateswara Temple 2005). though the modern name of Setaria is su (), Setaria italica is somewhat younger in Eu- the old scribes sometimes used both chi () rope and the . Recovered grains and shu ( ) for that grain. The modern use re- date from the Bronze Age (2000 B.C.) in stricts those two names to different cultivars of Greece, Italy, Switzerland, , and Yu- Panicum. Most literature says there are no an- goslavia, and in more recent sites there and in cient common names for Setaria in European some other countries (Nesbitt and Summers languages, but Fuchs in 1542 [2003] and 1988; Marinval 1992; Zohary and Hopf 2000; Cooper (2005) thought that Greek elymos and Kroll 2000; Arobba et al. 2003). Miller and meliuh originally applied to Setaria italica. Smart (1984) found Setaria, presumably this Certainly, the way Dioscorides, Galen, and species, in the village of Milyan, Iran, in mod- Pliny discussed and compared it with millium ern hearth sweepings and household debris. (Panicum), it sounds like Setaria. Either way, They also identified Setaria in burned dung in 2006] AUSTIN: FOX-TAIL MILLETS (SETARIA) 145

Table 1. Some Setaria species used by people historically and currently in various parts of the world.1

BINOMIAL USES COMMON NAMES S. italica (L.) Europe to Asia: Edible ; for- awa ( , Japanese), boermanna (Boer’s manna, P. Beauvois age crop (de Candolle 1886, Afrikaans, ), Borstenhirse (bristle Watt 1889, Wiser 1955, Burkill grass, German), bottle-grass, dari (Turkey), 1966, Ho 1969, Hsuan 1974, durra (from Arabic durah, durrah), dukhn (- Marinval 1992, de Wet 1995, bic), faang haang maa (dog tail , Thai- Manandhar 2002). land), fox-tail [German, Hungarian, Italian, Food examples: Seeds in Korea Russian] millet, giers (Afrikaans, South Africa), made into alcoholic beverages fox-tail [Italian] bristle-grass, gal (Persian), such as dong dong ju (a country kangni [ka´ngu, kakun] (, from kungu´ ), , takju, and yakju [kangu], ), kaguno (Nepali), khaao (Facciola 1990, Cho Yeun and faang (white straw, Thailand), khre (Tibetan, B. Pemberton, pers. comm. Nov. ), lebelebele (Sotho, South Africa; see 2005); in Japan to make awa also ), milho-painc¸o (millet-panicum, okoshi cakes (Kitajima pers. Portuguese), millet d’Italie [de oiseaux] (Italian comm. Nov. 2005). In the Comi- [] millet, France), pigeon-grass, riz alle- batore District of India this is mand (German rice, France), ro´kafarku´ko¨les still the primary grain, eaten in- (fox-tail millet, Hungarian; muhar in old sto- stead of rice. Used to make ries), rumput ekur kuching (cat’s tail grass, gruel, especially for pregnant Malay Peninsula), se˘koi (Malay Peninsula), su and lactating women (Renga- ( ; also chi ; shu, ; liang, grain, food; lakshmi 2005), and a primary and siao mi, , little seed), tana-ha´l (tana, ingredient in Navadhanyam grass, hal, rice, Sinhalese, Sri Lanka), ten-nai (Kamthe, pers. comm. Nov. [thina, thinai] (small grass, Tamil, India, Sri 2005). Lanka) S. intermedia Roth India: Reddy (2003) found that arranki gaddi (Telugu), birali (Hindi), dodda anta ex Roemer & farmers in the Gujarat/Rajasthan purlai hulla (), kari ottai hulla (Kan- Schultes (syn. area used the grass as . nada), landgar (Marathi), pandar (Marathi) S. tomentosa Although they did not plant it, (Roxburgh) they harvested and ate the Kunth) grains. Arora (1991) lists the species as one of the widely dis- tributed “cereals and millets.” S. liebmannii : Seri ate the seeds into the cola de [la] zorro [zorra] (fox tail, because the E. Fournier 1980s (Felger and Moser 1985). spike resembles the upright tail of a Bitter seeds used to treat tooth- fox, San Luis Potosı´, Sonora), cola de ardilla ache. among Guarijı´o (squirrel tail, Guarijı´o, Sonora), haya´s guasia and Mayo (Yetman and Van De- (Sonora, Mayo) wee ok (fox tail, Huastec, San vender 2001, Yetman 2002). Luis Potosı´), ziizil (Seri, Sonora) S. macrostachya Mexico: A pre-Columbian and his- [plains, summer] bristle-grass, fox-tail [wild] mil- Humboldt, toric Mexican cereal (Callen let, hasac (Seri, Sonora), ne-kuuk-suuk (neh, Bonpland & 1967a, b, Smith 1967, Felger animal’s tail, k’uk’uk, young part of a plant, Kunth and Moser 1985). sak, white, Maya, Yucata´n), xica quiix (globular Food examples: Seri toasted things, Seri, Sonora), zacate tempranero [tem- grains, ground them, and ate prano] (early grass, Arizona, Chihuahua, So- them as gruel. nora) S. pallide-fusca Africa: Grain harvested by the buis (Nepali), cat’s tail grass (Fiji), laki davangel (Schumacher) Xasonga [Kasonke] of Burkina (dog’s trail, Fulani, Mali), pura barra (dove’s Stapf & Faso (Chevalier 1913 in Dalziel grass, Manya [Mandingo], Gambia), gundul C.E. Hubbard 1937, de Wet 1995). (Arabic), ko-tsubu-kin-enokoro (small grain [S. pallidifusca] Asia: Used for fodder in Nepal golden Setaria, Japan; enokoro may be a cor- (Manandhar 2002). ruption of inu, dog, and koro, diminutive; “inu” refers to both dogs and foxes), k’yasuwar rafi (k’yasuwar , Hausa, Nigeria), yaa haang maa khaao (white dog tail grass, Thailand) 146 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60

Table 1. Continued

BINOMIAL USES COMMON NAMES S. palmifolia Asia: Harvested as cereal in the hailans pitpit (highlands “grass” [pitpit also is the (J. Ko¨nig) Stapf (Burkill 1966), and name of , which in English is part of a religious festival of “coastal pitpit”], Tok pisin, Papua-New Guinea), new rice harvest (Conklin 1967). lachang (Malay Peninsula), liya´han (Ifugao, cooked as green vegeta- Philippines), mai (Agarabi, Papua-New Guinea), ble in New Guinea. Sections of palm-grass (Okinawa), reli tana (reli ?, tana, the stem of the young plant are grass, Sinhalese, Sri Lanka), -kibi (like steamed in a tube and Panicum miliaceum, Japanese, Okinawan), yaa then eaten (von Reis-Altschul kaap phai (grass with bamboo, Thailand) and Lipp 1982, French ca.1986, de Wet 1995). S. parviflora Mexico: Seeds historically eaten Amerika-enokoro-gusa (American Setaria herb, (Poiert) (Callen 1963, 1967a, b). Japanese, Okinawan), cepillo de fregar botellas Kergue´len (syn. United States: See text. (bottle brush, Puerto Rico), deshollinador (the S. geniculata husker, Puerto Rico), ehtill week ok (like fox (Lamarck) tail, San Luis Potosi, Huastec), knot-root fox- P. Beauvois) tail, pajita cardosa (little thistle grass, Chihua- hua), rabo de gato (cat tail, Cuba), rabo de zorro (fox tail, Puerto Rico), yellow bristle- grass, zacate amarga (bitter grass, Mexico, Swallen 2226 NY) S. pumila (Poiret) India/Asia: Cultivated and domes- cat-tail millet, haang maa (dog tail, Thailand), juk Roemer and ticated for grains in eastern and (Sudanese), kin-enokoro-gusa (golden Setaria Schultes (syn. western Ghats, India; gathered herb, Japanese, Okinawan), korai [kora, korali] S. glauca of from wild plants elsewhere (Bengali, Deccan, Hindi, India and - authors, (Watt 1889, Datta and Banerjee desh), kuching-kuchingan (Java), nakakora (Tel- S. lutescens 1978, Prasada Rao et al. 1987, ugu, India), pajo´n blanco (big white grass, (Weigel ex de Wet 1992, 1995, Kimata et Dominica Republic), pigeon grass, bandra Stuntz) al. 2000, Dekker 2003). (Hindi, India), rumput jolong-jolong (rumput, F.T. Hubbard) Food examples: Seeds in Navad- grass, Java), varagu korali (varagu, firewood, hanyam, and to prepare anna korali, ear of corn, Tamil; called firewood be- (boiled grains), roti (unleavened cause the straw is burned after the seeds are bread), sankati (porridge), and harvested), yellow grass [fox-tail], z’herbe qui- ganji or peja (gruel) (Kimata et quitte (lowly herb, Haiti) al. 2000, Kamthe pers. comm., Nov. 2005). S. sphacelata Africa: Harvested as wild cereal ba´ba´ch´ıı´ (also a name given to , (Schumacher) (Purseglove 1972, Prasada Rao Hausa, Nigeria), golden , oulounikou M.B. ex et al. 1987, de Wet 1995). (dog’s tail, Bambara, Mali), pasto gusanillo (lit- Stapf & tle worm grass, Honduras), wicco wunduho C.E. Hubbard (monkey’s tail, Fulani, Nigeria) S. verticillata (L.) Africa: Seydel (775 NY) recorded bur bristle-seed (South Africa), dora-byar [byara] P. Beauvois “Die Samen, von den Eingebore- (Bengali, India), e˜mo˘ eˇiyeˇ (bird’s bur, Nigeria), nen durch Reiben zwischen den kebbe tioffe´ (kebbe bur grass, Fulani, Mali), Haenden von den Borsten be- pega-pega (stickers, Cuba), rough bristle-grass, freit, liefern gekocht eine meh- se´norna (adhering to the foot, Bambara, Mali), lige Feldkost” (The seeds, after ‡areb (Nama, South Africa), zaratsuki-enokoro- being separated from the bristles gusa (rough Setaria herb, Japanese, Okinawan), by the natives by rubbing them yaa haang krarok (squirrel tail grass, Thailand) between the hands, yield—if cooked—a floury food). Topnaar people of Namibia use seeds in porridge and to brew (van Wyk and Gericke 2000). See also Dalziel 1937. 2006] AUSTIN: FOX-TAIL MILLETS (SETARIA) 147

Table 1. Continued

BINOMIAL USES COMMON NAMES Asia: Used for fodder in Okinawa and the Ryukyu Islands (Walker 1976). India: Seeds eaten. S. viridis (L.) Europe, Asia: Seeds harvested for almorejo (from amorejo, diminuitive of amor,to P. Beauvois centuries before S. italica was love, because of the sticky , Spanish), Bor- domesticated (Li and Wu 1996); stenhirse [Borstenhirz] (bristle grass, German), still eaten boiled, roasted, or enokoro-gusa (Setaria herb, Japanese, Okina- ground into flour (Facciola 1990). wan), fox-tail [, wild] millet, green Chinese call this simply bristle-grass [fox-tail], milha-verde (green mil- (gao wei cao, dog tail grass) to let, Portuguese), mushigawa-gusa (gusa herb, distinguish it from cultivated S. Okinawan), neko-jarashi (cat frisking [grass], italica. Other species are gao Japanese, Okinawan), pigeon-grass, se´taire verte wei cao with various modifiers. (green setaria, French) 1 Sample common names are given from different parts of their ranges to indicate the regard with which people hold them. Single word names are typically simple and cannot be further translated. Reduplicated words are often plural forms. Proveniences are not given for English names as they tend to be traded throughout the world by speakers of that language. For more common names, see Hubbard (1915) and Porcher (1997–2000). the “ancient” village of Milyan. During Roman parviflora), used, but at least one of the species times, S. italica as food was particularly associ- I passed in the Baboquivari Mountains also was ated with Pontus (on the Black Sea), Thrace eaten (Table 1). (Balkan peninsula north of Aegean), the Po val- MacNeish, writing in Kaplan and MacNeish ley in northern Italy, and with Elymian Sicily (1960), published the first piece of the record (Purcell 2003). by noting fossil plants in the Ocampo region of Historically, it was thought that the grain was Tamaulipas, Mexico, although they listed the brought into cultivation in China and then remains as the similar Panicum. A short while traded west into Europe. There is a growing later, Callen (1963, 1967a, b) reported that C.E. body of data suggesting that the species was Hubbard at Kew had identified the material in perhaps domesticated in multiple localities 1961 as Setaria and not Panicum. Moreover, across its wide Old World range (Blumler 1992; the plants they discussed were the widespread Wang et al. 1995; Li et al. 1998; Schontz and American S. parviflora, long known as S. genic- Rether 1999; Le Thierry d’Ennequin et al. ulata (Gandhi and Barkworth 2003). Hubbard 2000; Benabdelmouna et al. 2001; Fukunaga et (in Callen 1967a) wrote that the plants were a al. 2002a, b; Fukunaga and Kato 2002). larger-seeded form than the wild types. Both De Wet (1992, 1995) considered S. pumila to Hubbard and Callen interpreted the large seeds have been domesticated in southern India. as being from domesticated plants. These grains While the wild plants are harvested across trop- appeared in the 14C-dated 4000Ð3500 B.C. lev- ical Africa and Asia, they are grown as a do- els at the Ocampo Caves, and from the Sierra mesticated crop only by hill tribes in eastern de Tamaulipas Caves at ca. 3000 B.C. (See and western Ghats (de Wet et al. 1979; Kimata Postlogue for caveat on dating.) The grass was et al. 2000; Dekker 2003). There seem to be no still present in 50% of the at 1400 archaeological data on this species, and sparse B.C. modern literature on its use. Callen (1967a) concluded that Setaria repre- sented the “first New World cereal.” In spite of American Species that claim, few subsequent references have dis- It is now clear that American Setaria species cussed this early food. Ebeling (1986) and were consumed as food in several parts of their Lentz (2000) seem to be among the few biolo- ranges. Not only was the most widespread gists who have discovered Callen’s (1967a) species, rabo de zorro or knot-root fox-tail (S. , while more anthropologists and archae- 148 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60

Table 2. Some of the “millets” eaten by people.1

MILLET From Middle French millet (in Old French by ca. 1256). In English by about 1425, ultimately from Latin millium, having a thousand grains. Cog- nates: miglio (Italian), milho (Portuguese), millo [mijo] (Spanish) OTHER MILLETS Guinea millet (gold deflexa (Schu- animal , paguiri (Songhai, Mali), yague´ yague´ from the region macher) C. E. Hubbard ba (Bambara, Mali) made into coins ex Robyns (syn. called guineas; in deflexa) English by 1664) Fundi [millet] exilis (Kippist) acha [achcha] (Hausa, Niger), fondo (Guinea-Bis- (fundi in English Stapf sau), fonio (Bambara, Malinke´, Mali, Senegal), by 1858), hungry funde (Dominican Republic), fundi [fundungi] rice (hungry rice, Creole, Sierra Leon), petit mil (little millet, French), po (Dogon, Mali) Sawa millet (sawa colona (L.) adipul (adi, summer [June to August], pul, grass, from Hindi), jun- Link Tamil, India, Sri Lanka), bulo (Uganda), chargari gle rice (in En- (Fulani, Niger), giratana (giri, parakeet, tana, glish by 1886) grass, Sinhalese, Sri Lanka), hie ( , Japanese), ko-hime-hie (small delicate Echinochloa, Japa- nese), padi burong (bird’s millet, Java), sawa [sama, sawa´nk] (Hindi), sami-dhan (Echinochloa grain, Bengali), sawuk (Urdu, Sind), telebun (Sudan), wase-bie (early maturing Echinochloa [ ], Japanese), wimbi (Swahili) Japanese millet, Echinochloa crus-galli bai ( , Chinese), ba´o’ba´o’ (Ifugao, Philippines), barn-yard grass (L.) P. Beauvois bharti (Hindi), inu-bie (dog [false] Echinochloa [millet] (in En- [ ], Japanese), kuthirai val pul [kurirai val pul] glish by 1843) (kuthirai, , val, tail, pul, grass, Tamil, India, Sri Lanka), maratu (ma, big, aratu, backbone, Sinhalese, Sri Lanka) The cultivated form sometimes called E. fru- mentaceum is hu nan bai zi ( , south lake millet’s son, Chinese) Finger millet coracana (L.) kurakkan (Tamil, Sinhalese, India, Sri Lanka), man- (branches of in- Gaertner dal (Punjabi), mandwah (Persian), marua´ (Ben- florescences re- gali), nangli (Urdu, Sind), ra´gi [ra´jika, ragee] semble fingers) (Sanskrit) [millet] (teff in tef (Zuccarini) taf (Tigrigna, Ethiopia), tahf (Arabic), tef [t’ef] English by Trotter (Amharic, from an older teffa, lost, because the 1790), love-grass grains are so small, Ethiopia), tafi (Oromo, Ethio- pia), mil e´thiopien (Ethiopian millet, French) Sauwi millet (from J. shimcha (Tohono O’odham, Arizona), heshmicha the Guarij´ıo sa- Presl var. millaceum [sˇimcˇa] (Cocopa, Arizona), sagui [sauwi, sahu´ı] gui; in English (Vasey) Beetle (syn. P. (Guarij´ıo, Sonora) by 1940s) sonorum) (from Panicum miliaceum L. chena (Hindi), chi ( ; one variety is shu, ), Russian proso by china´ [china] (Bengali, Sanskrit), dokhan (He- 1917), broom- brew), dokhn (Arabic), kegchros (Greek), kibi ( , corn [common, Japanese), ko¨les (Hungarian), kosaejb (Arabia), little] millet mene´ri (Sinhalese, Sri Lanka), millium (Latin), proso (Russian, but an ancient Slav word, Poland, ), (Lithuanian), pani-varagu (pani, dew, varagu firewood, because the straw is burned, Tamil), varikora (striped grass, Tamil) 2006] AUSTIN: FOX-TAIL MILLETS (SETARIA) 149

Table 2. Continued

OTHER MILLETS (continued) Sama millet (from Roth ex [hin] mene´ri (hin, small, mene´ri, proso, Sinhalese, Tamil samai), Roemer and Schultes (syn. Sri Lanka), kungu (Hindi), ku´tki (Hindi, Pun- little millet P. miliare of authors) jabi), samai [sama, shamai] (to cook, Tamil, In- dia, Sri Lanka) Kodo [khodo] mil- scrobiculatum L. amu (Sinhalese, Sri Lanka), hai-suzume-no-hie let (probably (creeping sparrow’s Echinochloa, Japanese), ka- from Javanese pie (Mende, Sierra Leon), kodoan (Java), o˘ka`nli kodoan) (Yoruba, Nigeria), tumbia jaki (donkey’s belly, Hausa, Niger), thirivaragu (thiri, wick, maybe from shape of grains, varagu, firewood, because straw burned; also translated as “twisted grass” by Rengalakshmi 2005, Tamil, India, Sri Lanka) (from Pennisetum glaucum L. Richard babala (Afrikaans), ba´jra [bajri, bajera] (Hindi, the white, almost- (syn. P. americanum, P. ty- Punjabi, etc.), emeye (Yoruba, Nigeria), gero globular grains, phoides) (Hausa, Niger), jadouri (Fulani, Cameroon), in English by ca. kambu (Tamil, from Dravidian *kampa, loan- 1890) word in Sinhalese, India, Sri Lanka), manna (Afrikaans; allusion to , the original European “manna”), mattari (Ma- lay), pearl [African, bulrush, candle, cattail, spiked] millet, pedda-gantee (pedda, bird, gan- tee, grain, Telegu, India), unyaluthi (Zulu) Sorghum millet (L.) Moench African [black, great, Indian, Turkey] millet, ama- (sorghum proba- (syn. S. frumentaceum, S. vul- bele (Zulu), baba (Yoruba), cholam (Tamil), dao- bly from Italian gare) dhan (god’s grain, Hindi), broom [Guinea] sorgo, based on corn, durrah (Arabic), graansorghum (grain Latin suricum sorghum, Afrikaans), imphee (from imfe,or granum, grain possibly from Swahili, wimbi, Natal), kafir from Syria; in (from Arabic kafir,infidel), mtama (Swahili), English by 1597) jagong (Malay), jowar [joar] (Bengali, Hindi, Punjabi, etc.), kao-liang (tall grain, China), ma- bele (Sotho, South Africa), milo (from maili, Sotho), nami-morokoski (common sorghum, Japanese), zu´rna (Sanskrit, from Arabic dhura, durrah) Browntop millet Urochloa ramosa (L.) T. Q. chusara mata [gusara mata] (Orissa, India; the Nguyen (syn. Brachiaria ra- weedy type, not cultivar), pedda sama (pedda, mosa, Panicum ramosum) bird, sama, Echinochloa, Telegu, India), pil sa- mai [pil same](pil, grass, samai, to cook, Tamil, India) 1 Common names are taken largely from de Candolle (1886), Watt (1889 [1972]), Dalziel (1937), Burkill (1966), Walker (1976), Dassanayake et al. (1994), de Wet (1995), and Van Wyk and Gericke (2000). The Arabic dokhn and Hebrew dokhan are listed only under Panicum miliaceum, although in practice they are used to indicate several of the more widespread millet genera. See de Wet (1992) for details on origins and cultivation regions.

ologists cite his study (e.g., Flannery 1973, Coe The same year that Callen’s paper appeared, 1994, cited below). Although most have a companion report was published by Smith thought that the seeds of American Setaria were (1967). His study was of all the plant materials food only for wildlife, they were in fact the found in the Tehuacán Valley archaeological dominant cereal for many New World humans sites during research initiated by Richard S. for at least 1,500 years. MacNeish (cf. Byers 1967). Smith identified S. 150 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60

Fig. 1. Two of the Setaria species known to be eaten in the . (Left) S. macrostachya Humboldt, Bonpland & Kunth. From Gould (1951). Artist: L.B. Hamilton. (Right) S. parviflora (Poiert) Kerguélen. From Leithead et al. (1971). Artist: Unknown.

macrostachya in most of the cave levels in both Prehistoric use of the genus has now been ex- caches and in the refuse. The species was the tended from Tamaulipas and Tehuacán to only cereal present in levels radiocarbon dated people farther north and south in Mexico, the at 5500 B.C., but declined in importance by southwestern and eastern United States, and the about 4500 B.C. following the rise of Caribbean. None of those reports speculate on ( mays) cultivation. Although the Setaria the species or how many species were con- had been eaten in quantity, there was no in- sumed. crease in seed size. People in central and southern Mexico are Following 4500 B.C., S. macrostachya de- thought to have been gathering and eating seeds creased in importance and was rarely used in of Setaria between 6000 and 8000 B.C. (Brum- the valley by the time of the Spanish entrada fiel 2003–2004). Brumfiel specifically noted the (Smith 1965, 1967). Callen (1967a) reported Coxcatlán Cave in Tehuacán that was reported these grass seeds present in 71.5Ð77% of copro- by both Callen (1967a, b) and Smith (1967). lites from the earlier levels in Tehuacán. Be- Flannery (1986) assumed that the genus was tween A.D. 700Ð1500, Setaria had dropped to being used in the Guilá Naquitz of Oaxaca in 20% in his samples, and continued to decline his model, although there were no archaeologi- up to the Spanish arrival. cal remains as a basis for that view. If Setaria Setaria parviflora in Tamaulipas, on the other was used in Oaxaca, it extends the use of the hand, was a more important part of the human genus markedly to the south during this period. diet much later (Callen 1967a, b). Some have Both S. macrostachya and S. parviflora grow in explained the difference by noting that maize Oaxaca, although there are other American did not appear in Tamaulipas until about 2200 species (Zuloaga et al. 2003). B.C. Since maize arrived later than in the Reinhard et al. (2003) found Setaria seeds in Tehuacán valley, Setaria remained an important the digestive tract of a desiccated body from the cereal for longer in Tamaulipas. Río Grande river border between Coahuila, Mex- 2006] AUSTIN: FOX-TAIL MILLETS (SETARIA) 151 ico, and Texas. The individual was carbon-14 occur to the south and east (Barkley 1977, dated to have died about 1,150 years ago (A.D. 1986). is distinguished with 850). Not far away, another dried body in the difficulty from S. macrostachya, and they some- lower Pecos River region of southern Texas had times grow in mixed populations (Emery 1957; Setaria seeds in its intestines (Turpin et al. 1986). Roeminger 1962). The grains appeared to have been processed with The only known site with Setaria in the a mortar and pestle, and the remains were radio- Caribbean is on San Salvador Island, Bahamas. carbon dated between A.D. 1080Ð1220. There are Newsom and Pearsall (2003) included the site eight native species in the area: S. adhaerens, S. in the Ostionoid culture series that lasted from grisebachii, S. leucopila, S. macrostachya, S. 4000Ð5000 B.C. to ca. 200 B.C. These authors parviflora, S. scheelei, S. texana, and S. villosis- suspected that this genus, and others, may have sima (Correll and Johnston 1970). historically been used more often, and that ab- Huckell and Toll (2004) record that Setaria sence from some records does not mean an ab- inflorescences and seeds were found in the Sal- sence of use. The low grass frequency may not ado culture sites in the Tonto Basin of central have been due only to sampling error, but also Arizona east of Phoenix. These sites are from complicated by poor preservation and handling the Classic period that began in A.D. 1250. techniques within wet tropical areas (Berman There are at least two native species in that re- and Pearsall 2000). The native species now in gion, including S. leucopila and S. parviflora. the Bahamas are S. macrosperma and S. parvi- Perhaps S. grisebachii and S. macrostachya are flora, although only the latter is documented also there, although no specimens in the from San Salvador (Correll and Correll 1982). herbaria at the University of Arizona or Arizona There appear to be records of only two his- State University verify that. toric American tribes consuming seeds of Se- Bonzani et al. (2002) found a few carbonized taria. Castetter and Bell (1951) wrote that a few Setaria grains in the Hart Site (Big Sandy Cocopa on the Colorado River were growing River, Lawrence County) in eastern Kentucky. and eating seeds of the alien S. italica in the The Hart site is part of the Late Archaic through 1930s and 1940s. For some unexplained reason, periods, with different segments 14C Doebley (1984) reported the plants as S. viridis, dated from 1600 B.C. to A.D. 600. Although although the voucher (Castetter 2755, 20 Sep- Setaria and other plants were present in level tember 1932, UNM) is S. italica. Otherwise, F24 (upper), the majority of materials were Doebley (1984) reconfirmed that the Cocopa from Chenopodium (62 grains vs. 5 of Setaria). were devoted agriculturists who also consumed The only native species now in Kentucky is S. the grains of numerous kinds of wild and culti- parviflora (Browne and Athey 1992). vated grasses. Crawford and Smith (2003) found archaeo- Recently, the Seri of the Sonora coastal re- logical data on Setaria uses among people in gion along the Gulf of California ate both S. the northeastern United States. The quantity of liebmannii and S. macrostachya, although the seeds was small, with the highest being part of latter was a more abundant and important the 10% grass seeds (without counting maize) species (Felger and Moser 1985). This was still in the late precontact Iroquoian Seed-Barker an important food for the Seri in the 1980s site on the northwestern end of Lake Ontario (Table 1). As with several other plants, the Seri radiocarbon dated ca. A.D. 1500. Grains were seem to have retained a number of the old foods also found in the Memorial site in central long after they were abandoned by more accul- Pennsylvania dated A.D. 800Ð1350. The only turated and/or agricultural groups (cf. Austin native American species known from the north- 2004). east are S. magna and S. parviflora (Fernald Thus, it is known that Setaria was gathered 1950; Hitchcock and Chase 1950). and consumed by people from southern Canada Adair (2003) found that the genus had been and New England south to the Bahamas and eaten in the Correctionville phase of the Oneota southern Mexico. The American species known in northwestern Iowa ca. A.D. 1000 among the to be eaten are S. liebmannii, S. macrostachya, Northeastern Plains Village sites. There are no and S. parviflora. Both former species were native species currently known from that re- eaten into the 1980s by the Seri of Sonora, and gion, but both S. leucopila and S. parviflora S. parviflora has been recorded only in archaeo- 152 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60 logical sites. It is compelling that S. parviflora is involved is that the whole plant or occurs in all of the places where Setaria is at least parts of it grow larger. Many of the known in archaeological context. Superficially, commercially important plants are polyploids, that suggests that the species may have been the including , cotton, tobacco, , one eaten most widely across its North Ameri- , and potatoes (Raven and Johnson can range. However, in comparison to other 1996). An alternate possibility is that it repre- species in those areas, it would be more effi- sented a “pre-domesticated” stage as discussed cient to harvest from S. leucopila, S. macros- by de Wet (1992), Smith (2005), and others. If perma, S. magna, or others when available, be- the materials from the Tamulipas sites have cause they are larger plants bearing more been preserved, they should be studied in more grains. A more reasonable hypothesis is that the detail. various cultural groups gathered grains from all available species. Changes in Importance It is easy to understand why indigenous No one knows why Setaria has been popular American people gathered and ate Setaria in some periods and not in others. Typically, grains. Each plant produces numerous seeds there are multiple factors involved with differ- that may be collected by simply cutting or ent foods. breaking off the spikes, and the grasses are Davidson (1999) thought that the Old World often abundant at least locally. Both S. liebman- Setaria was becoming less popular because nii and S. parviflora are said to have bitter seeds “The flavour of the seeds is less good than that (Table 1), although those of S. grisebachii and of common millet [Panicum miliaceum].” As a S. macrostachya that I have eaten are not. It is European, perhaps he was just voicing local harder to understand why S. parviflora may preference for their “native” Panicum, because have been domesticated. the Chinese favor their “native” Setaria. This Setaria parviflora is an unlikely domesti- should not suggest that Panicum is any more cate—spikes are smaller than other species, native than Setaria in southeastern Europe, but spikes have relatively few grains, and plants are it may be that people think that. perennial. Although comparable figures are not Panicum was domesticated in China by about available for S. parviflora, the similar and 5000 B.C., and between 5000 and 4000 B.C. in related S. pumila produces about 180 seeds Europe (Ho 1969; de Wet 1995; Zohary and per panicle (Dekker 2004). Numbers in S. Hopf 2000). By comparison, Setaria cultivation macrostachya are probably more nearly like in Europe dates to about 2000 B.C., but both those of S. viridis that produces 350Ð12,000 have been there much too long for people to re- seeds per panicle. member any differences in origin. Besides, both There are two possible advantages for using are native as wild plants in Europe. S. parviflora: 1) like few other American Perhaps more pertinent is why Setaria con- species, it tends to be weedy around humans tinued being popular in Europe until about 50 (Vélez 1950, Dekker 2003), and 2) it comprises years ago and then declined abruptly. Global- a polyploid series (2n=36, 72, tetraploid and ization is a more likely part of the reason for octaploid, Dekker 2004). Weeds are a notorious the recent change than simple grain preference. part of human diets. If indeed Setaria was do- Until comparatively recently, foods were grown mesticated, maybe the perennial S. parviflora and consumed locally even in many parts of was handled as an annual in cultivation as some Europe (cf. Nabhan 2002). Now many foods other genera are now. are shipped so widely and inexpensively that De Wet (1992) and Dekker (2003, 2004), they are more easily obtained from distant among others, accepted “an unidentified Se- sources. Moreover, there is pressure everywhere taria” that earlier authors called S. parviflora as on local farmers to grow for which there a domesticated species without obvious hesita- is a greater monetary return (e.g., Maikhuri et tion. Others remain skeptical. No one seems to al. 2001, Swaminanthan 2002, Saxena et al. have addressed the simple possible answer that 2004). There is even a cultural stigma associ- the large-seeded Setaria noted by Callen ated with some of the old foods. They are often (1967a) might have been from octaploid wild considered the food of poor or backward people plants. One of the things that happens when and eating them conveys that image. 2006] AUSTIN: FOX-TAIL MILLETS (SETARIA) 153

Yet, even that can not be the whole source of least in the developed world, smaller farms con- change. Panicum miliaceum is a more temper- tinue being engulfed by large corporation- ate species while Setaria italica is more tropi- owned agribusinesses or turned into housing cal, and until the recent mixing of these cultures developments. Businesses as producers are pro- and sharing of their foods, many Europeans gressively controlling and altering the germ- tended to reject stronger tastes. There are local plasm that is cultivated everywhere (Warman differences within all regions, but some groups 2003; Parry 2004). The result is a narrow germ- in Asia prefer strong tastes, whether from plasm base grown in the farming areas and ge- different grains, chiles (Capsicum) and other netic erosion on small farms and in the wild. spice mixtures, bitter gourd (Momordica cha- There will be continuing changes in future rantia), seaweed, fermented fish and soy condi- foods as large businesses dictate the majority of ments, or whatever local variations are avail- available resources. able. There are even distinctive flavors to the fermented beverages made from different grains Postlogue on Dates that played more important roles in the past More recent studies of maize using AMS (Fredriksson 1984; Appa Rao et al. 1998). All techniques (e.g., Long et al. 1989, Smith 2005) those factors, and probably others, are part of indicate that the dates at Tehuacán should be change. 1,500 to 2,500 years later than originally re- All cultures tend to prefer what they are ac- ported. The “corrected” dates are not used for customed to and resist new foods. It sometimes Setaria because they are not available. takes hundreds of years for new foods to be ac- However, simply shifting the dates is not cepted. For example, S. parviflora was still in enough. As Gayle Fritz says (pers. comm. Jan. 50% of the Tamaulipas coprolites in 1400 B.C., 2006), “Some items hadn’t been displaced although maize had been eaten there since 2000 much if at all, but so far all of the dated corn B.C. (Callen 1967a). Similarly, S. macrostachya and beans had been disturbed” in Tehuacán. in Tehuacán was still in 20% of the samples by Smith (2005) pointed out that parts of Coxcat- A.D. 700, almost 3,000 years after maize use lan cave were more disturbed than others. With- began in 2200 B.C. (Callen 1967a). out direct dating of the paleofeces from the A similar slow change in foods occurred in “1400 B.C. zone” of Tamaulipas and the “A.D. eastern . Maize was present in 700 zone” of Tehuacán, there is no way to be the Mississippi Valley of Illinois between 170 sure of the dates of those samples. If this was B.C. and A.D. 60 (Riley et al. 1994). According done, they might even turn out to be older than to Fritz (2000a), “Middle Woodland farmers ap- previously thought. Without a new dating of parently did not perceive maize to be a superior materials from both sites, we cannot know the food, since they ate very little of it.” It was not chronological sequence. Happily, Fritz’s stu- until after A.D. 1200 that Zea assumed ascen- dent Kevin Hanselka is working on doing just dancy over the native seed crops (Fritz 2000b). that. Callen (1967a) speculated that the wealthier Regardless of the exact dates of materials in classes in Mexico had shifted to eating maize those two Mexican sites, it seems certain that a while the poorer people continued eating the wide array of people in a diverse series of lan- old food. That divergence in foods is docu- guage groups were eating the Setaria seeds mented in the Mississippi Valley people (Fritz from historical contact times into the deep past. 2000a). There maize became prominent only Moreover, data from the United States indicate with the rise of Mississippian chiefdoms and that they were eating Setaria long after maize what has been argued to be a demand for sur- was being grown. plus crops to fill the granaries. An impoverished maize-dominated farming system became “en- Acknowledgments trenched in the Central Valley by A.D. 1400,” Mary Adair, Gary W. Crawford, Richard S. and the old cultigens were largely abandoned Felger, Suzanne Fish, Lawrence Kaplan, David (Fritz 2000a). L. Lentz, Paul E. Minnis, Lee A. Newsom, Perhaps the world is undergoing yet another Deborah M. Pearsall, John R. Reeder, Bruce D. shift in grain use that is parallel to those from Smith, Thomas R. Van Devender, and David ancient Mexico and the Mississippi Valley. At Yetman all offered data, ideas, and views on 154 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 60 historical and modern plant uses. Jane Mygatt genes. Theoretical and Applied Genetics facilitated study of the Castetter specimen at 103(5):668Ð677. UNM. Kaoru Kitajima and Lianfen Qian were Berman, M. J., and D. M. Pearsall. 2000. Plants, kind enough to provide Japanese and Chinese people, and culture in prehistoric central Ba- characters in electronic format. Gehan Jaya- hamas: A view from the Three Dog Site, an early Lucayan settlement on San Salvador Island, Ba- suriya translated the Sinhalese names. Prajakta hamas. Latin American Antiquity 11:219Ð239. Kamthe and Nirmala Jeyakumar provided In- Blumler, M. A. 1992. Independent inventionism and dian translations and data on modern use of recent genetic evidence on plant . these grasses. Cho Yeon and Bob Pemberton Economic Botany 46:98Ð111. provided information on Korean uses. Eckart Bonzani, R. M., R. Jefferies, and J. Kerr. 2002. 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