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Significant Dates International Shortwave Propaganda Broadcast

1921 The earliest documented licensed shortwave broadcaster from the United State began as a 1921 “garage gimmick” of engineer Frank Conrad, evolving into Westinghouse- operated station 8XK (also 8XS and later W8XK), using a 40-kW transmitter in east used to relay KDKA programming.

1922 Radio established a transmitter station RV-1 in the Moscow region.

1923 General Electric builds shortwave stations W2XAD and W2XAF in Schenectady, New York.

1923 With the encouragement of the US Navy, RCA setup a station in called Radio Corporation of China, RCC. It was not a radio station run by Chinese citizens and was shut down by the Northern Chinese warlords before 1927.

1924 Crosley’s W8XAL (originally 8XAL and eventually WLWO) first went on the air as an experimental station using 10-kW with a non-directional antenna.

1925 March began in Japan. They soon opened relay stations in Liaotung in 1925, Korea in 1927 and Taiwan in 1931.

1925 NBC/RCA began shortwave programming using a 25-kW transmitter in Bound Brook, N.J., with the call sign W3XAL.

1926 The passed a resolution preventing nations from making radio broadcasts which might have a political religious or spiritual content damaging to international relations.

1926 February JOAK (Tokyo Central Broadcasting) began shortwave transmissions to amateur radio hams overseas, asking them to write in if they had received the transmissions, which were made on 30 and 35 meters shortwave. These transmissions were principally directed towards Australia and the West Coast of the .

1927 Feb 23 The bill creating the Federal Radio Commission was signed into law by President Calvin Coolidge. The FRC regulated all broadcasting in the United States.

1927 The began regularly scheduled shortwave broadcast beyond its own borders.

1928 NHK, Nippon Hoso Kyokai (Japan Broadcasting Corporation) formed domestic radio stations into a national shortwave network using 5-kW transmitters. The Sendai Central Broadcasting station focused on the Japanese community in California.

1928 The first major Chinese radio station established with a legitimate infrastructure was the Central Broadcasting System in 1928 by the Nationalist Party. The Communist Party of China , CPC, then established the Yan'an Xinhua Broadcasting Station in 1940.

1928 Holland begins shortwave broadcast. Version 4/17/2021 Page 2 of 25

1929 Soviet Union begins shortwave broadcast targeting , the Americas, the Middle East and Japan. Initial languages were English, French and German (with additional ones by 1939).

1931 France began broadcasting to French colonies in , Africa, and the West Indies.

1931 In the late 1920’s started to jam the programs of Radio Komintern. In 1931 the USSR jammed Romanian radio.

1932 BBC, Italy and Great Britain began shortwave broadcast.

1932 ITU ITU adopted its current name, the International Union, to reflect its responsibility for total oversight of communications on a global basis.

1932-34 The League of Nations called on all countries to use radio "to create better mutual understanding among peoples.”

1933 Aug. 18 Volksempfanger Josef Goebbels introduces the German radio Volksempfanger model VE301.

1934 Belgium began shortwave broadcasts to the Congo.

1934 Austria jammed German radio.

1934 June 19 FRC>FCC The Federal Communications Commission replaces the Federal Radio Commission to regulate radio communications.

1935 June 1st Japan began using shortwave propaganda to promote its worldwide propaganda with English and Japanese directed to the United States. Additional languages were soon added, and broadcast extended to Europe, South America and the Pacific region using 50-kW on 14.6 MHz. Their broadcast showed little resemblance to the propaganda of Nazi , but more to the propaganda of wartime BBC. Many broadcasts contained a high degree of "truth," although "selective truth" favorable to Japan. The exception was the propaganda issued by the Army and Navy Ministries, which was less truthful.

1935 By 1935, was devoting considerable effort to warn the rest of Europe about the dangers of German national socialism.

1935 Germany begins barrage of radio transmissions in Spanish to Latin America attempting to get several countries to go to war with the United States. A new model Volksempfanger was introduced.

1935 August Japanese criticism of the American government began with shortwave broadcast about possible war with America resulting from the American policy in the Pacific.

1935 October Japan’s shortwave broadcast moved from 14.6 MHz using call sign JVH to 10.66 MHz with call sign JUN.

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1936 January 1st Japan formed its own , Domei, to provide news from a Japanese perspective. They stopped using news reports from established news agencies that gave the news from a British or American viewpoint.

1937 CBS - W2XE installs new 10-kW RCA transmitter in Wayne, New Jersey and was used broadcast to South America, eventually becoming WCBX in 1939.

1937 Denmark, NBC and CBS (W2XE) began in international shortwave broadcast with 10- kW transmitters. CBS used a pair of Vee (half Rhombic) antennas aimed at Europe and South America.

1938 April 1 28 countries signed a League of Nations convention entitled "Concerning the use of International Broadcasting in the cause of Peace." The agreement prohibited the radiation from their territories of broadcasts detrimental to good international understanding, of warlike and subversive propaganda and of false news, and to promote cultural and peaceful relations with other countries. Germany and Italy did not sign the agreement.

But this effort did little to stop the worsening propaganda war of the late 1930s. The Middle East was the scene of the first full-scale "war" between democratic and fascist stations.

1938 German Goebbels concentrates all radio operations to Zeessen with , mediumwave and shortwave transmitters. They now have 1000 employees, announcers, musicians, writers and engineers

Germany employed sympathetic foreigners or those who had lived overseas extensively, such as: Chicago-born known on air as “Paul Revere” Iowa born-and-raised defector Fred W. Kaltenbach (who opened each of his programs with “Greetings to my old friend, Harry in Iowa” William Joyce as “Lord Hee Haw” Edward Delaney “E.D. Ward” Former London Daily Mail correspondent Jane Anderson “Georgia Peach” Former Chicago Tribune correspondent Donald Day, Robert Best “Mr. Guess Who” Constance Drexel and Prof. Max Otto Koischwitz “Jim” and “Mr. OK” Mildred Gallars from Maine “Axis Sally”

1930s late began jamming German broadcast using their Italian service.

1938 Federal Communications Commission (FCC) accepted the Frequency Allocation Bill of the Cairo Conference in and distributed new frequencies.

1938 Japan is now broadcasting shortwave into Europe, South America, Eastern and western United States, Hawaii, Java, Australis, the Straits Settlements and China using 50-kW. In addition, Japan broadcast to China in English, Japanese, French and Chinese using a 10-kW mediumwave transmitter with call sign XGOA.

1938 July NBC, Westinghouse and General Electric pooled their resources and established two networks – one for Europe and one for Latin America. NBC’s outlet in Bound Brook, N.J. (W3XAL) relayed five daily broadcasts in German.

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1938 Fifty percent of German household have a Volksempfanger receiver which totaled over 8 million receivers.

1939 Mongolian, Manchu and Russian languages were added to Japanese broadcast.

1939 From their studios at Naven, Germany, and from ten short-wave transmitters located near Berlin at Zeesen, Nazi broadcasters were sending 12 hours of short-wave broadcasts to the United States each day. According to U.S. analysts, Nazi propaganda sought to split Americans from their leaders and pit labor against management, blacks against whites, and Gentiles against Jews.

1939 The BBC set up a large scale monitoring service that continued throughout the named BBC Monitoring (BBCM). Alongside the BBCM in Caversham, Berkshire, England is a US monitoring organization called Open Source Enterprise (OSE), which was and today is part of US Intelligence.

During the Cold War over 60 people at BBCM followed Soviet radio broadcasts, TV and wire agency reports 24/7, including Radio Moscow’s shortwave output in over 80 languages. OSE concentrated on China and BBCM kept track of the USSR, although OSE always translated Soviet newspapers. Today BBCM handles all open source media from 25% of the world while OSE handles the remaining 75%.

1939 CBS Queens, NY was the first sponsored foreign propaganda broadcast listening station. They monitored 24 countries and provided linguists for translations.

1939 July W8XAL>WLWO W6XBE>KGEI The Federal Communications Commission converts the licenses of the shortwave stations from experimental to commercial to allow commercials to support their operation and were given regular call letters. Power limit was increased to 50-kW and directional antennae were required. They could now sell commercials but were expected to promote “international good will.” W8XAL became WLWO Cincinnati. W6XBE became KGEI (GE International).

1939 November Princeton University set up the Princeton Listening Center in its School of Public Affairs. Lloyd Free of Princeton became the first Director of the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service in 1941.

1940 The Lithuanian language broadcasts of the Vatican radio was jammed by the USSR.

Japan’s NHK broadcast radio was the most effective media for increasing the consciousness of people abroad about the greatness of the Japanese Empire.

The Communist Party of China , CPC, establishes the Yan'an Xinhua Broadcasting Station.

Japan’s NHK began its first broadcast course to foreigners wanting to learn Japanese and was aimed at English speaking people and soon extended to Spanish speaking people.

XGRS was a Shanghai China-based radio station broadcasting on both shortwave and medium wave which was owned and operated by the German government in Japanese-occupied China during World War II. Originally established as a German- Version 4/17/2021 Page 5 of 25

language station designed to provide news and information to German residents of China in 1940, it began broadcasting a multilingual program schedule with alternating broadcasts in English, German, Chinese, Russian, Japanese, and .

1940 Spring Japanese Jazz A jazz group NORO (New Order Rhythm Orchestra) was introduced into the regular Japanese broadcast schedule replacing most of the unpopular classical music programs.

1940 April 26 WLWO 75-kW WLWO increases power to 75-kW, 50% above its license limit and becomes the country’s most powerful shortwave transmitter.

1940 May WLWO Secret WLWO was completely taken over by the government and began broadcasts into South America in English, Portuguese, and Spanish. Crosley then establishes a chain of local radio stations in 10 Latin America countries to rebroadcast WLWO programs.

This 10 country network was a secret cover operation for the government to communicate with their spy network. A special teletype from Washington, D.C. printed copy in the WLWO studio to be read with no editing. Government written, produced and hand delivered songs and jingles were broadcast at specific UTC times. A special government agent remained at the station fulltime to assure that certain songs were aired at pre-arranged UTC times.

Employees of the station were not aware of the secret operations. Many years later most employees never learned about the covert operations, but a few did.

Because of the secret operation, WLWO was completely funded by Nelson Rockefeller’s CIAA (Office of the Co-coordinator of Inter-American Affairs) and President Roosevelt. By August 1941 money also came from the COI, forerunner of the OSS.

The broadcast included advertising but WLWO had no advertising staff. This fact was confirmed in an interview with former Crosley staffer Blanche Underwood.

Post cards from listeners in Europe and South America asked about the advertisements and wondered why they could not buy those products in countries where the broadcasts were heard.

President Roosevelt encouraged his friends in industry to help support these broadcasts. JELL-O volunteered to help sponsor WLWO but was rejected because the product contained 60% sugar at a time when sugar was rationed. However, offers were accepted from Hershey Chocolate, Planters Peanuts, Johnson Wax, Firestone Tire and Rubber and large tobacco companies to buy commercials supporting WLWO. The commercials were produced and written by the government to contain information for the spy network.

1940 July Japan now had a complete across East Asia, which served to promote Japanese propaganda on both medium and short-wave. NHK conducted a "Grand Tour" of countries on the Pacific rim and Asia to monitor the reception quality and clarity of broadcasts from Japan. Conclusion were that reception was haphazard, Version 4/17/2021 Page 6 of 25

indistinct, and inferior to those of the BBC in both reception and content. A survey of reported a huge audience, but reception was weak and ineffective.

1940 August OCCCRBAR The Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, later known as the Office for Inter-American Affairs, was a United States agency promoting inter-American cooperation (Pan-Americanism) during the 1940s, especially in commercial and economic areas. It began as OCCCRBAR (Office for Coordination of Commercial and Cultural Relations between the American Republics) with Nelson Rockefeller as its head, appointed by President Roosevelt.

1940 October WLWO Fire A suspicious fire broke out in the WLWO tuning house, which conveniently led to an increase in security. A special guardhouse seventy-five feet high was built, a high metal fence encloses the grounds which are patrolled by a staff of twelve guards twenty-four hours/day, and a battery of floodlights illuminated every foot of the grounds day and night. The security was motivated because of the secret government operations of WLWO.

1940 Sept. 24 DCB (Defense Communications Board) began with FCC Chairman James L. Fly as Board Chairman, and Chief Signal Officer (Army), Director of Naval Communications, Assistant Secretary of State in Charge of the Office of Transportation and Communications, Assistant Secretary of the Treasury in Charge of Treasury Enforcement Activities, and Chief of Communications (Coast Guard) as members. The agency was renamed Board of War Communications, 1942.

1940 November Radio Tokyo Japan officially names its shortwave broadcast as Radio Tokyo.

1940 Dec. 30 Chinese XNCR The first used radio in the Yanan Shaanxi Province in March 1940 with a transmitter imported from Moscow using the call sign of (XNCR) Xinhua New Chinese Radio. XNCR went on the air from Yanan on December 30, 1940 with announcements, war bulletins.

XNCR transmitted to a larger geographical area after 1945 and its programs became more regular and formalized with broadcasts of news, official announcements, war bulletins, art, and literary programs.

The station moved to in 1949 and renamed the (CNR), formerly translated as the Central People's Broadcasting Station(CPBS), following the founding of the People's Republic of China.

1940 CBS moves its Wayne, New Jersey transmitter to Brentwood, Long Island.

1941 San Francisco World’s Fair closes and General Electric moves broadcasting to their new 50-kW transmitter site in Belmont, CA.

1941 There were about 40 radio broadcast stations in Shanghai China by 1941.

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1941 February 1 COI and the COI’s Foreign Information Service (FIS) initiated broadcasts in German, French and Italian using to London and relayed by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC).

1941 February 21 President Roosevelt allocated $150K to create the Foreign Broadcast Monitoring Service (FBMS) under the authority of the FCC. The mandate of the FBMS was to record, translate, transcribe and analyze shortwave black propaganda radio programs that were being beamed at the United States by the Axis powers.

By October 1941, the first monitoring stations were established in Portland, Oregon, Texas, Maryland and Puerto Rico. Eventually stations open in San Francisco, Silver Hill, Maryland, London, Stockholm, Algiers, the island of Kauai in Hawaii, and eventually Guam.

The Hallicrafters SX-28 was the favorite receiver and used almost exclusively in the F.C.C. Radio Intelligence Division (R.I.D) counter-espionage work

In December 1942, the name changed to FBIS (Foreign Broadcast Intelligence Service) growing to 20 monitoring stations. In addition to 350 in-house FBIS personnel the agency hired over 700 independent contractors. Many of the F.B.I.S. monitors had been amateur radio operators before the war.

1941 Early COI begins to use KGEI and WLWO for “suggested topics” and news and information. A special teletype from Washington, D.C. printed copy to be read with no editing.

The laws of the United States prohibited the establishment of an official Government radio voice. President Franklin Roosevelt was aware of the problem but was not eager to engage in debate with Congress over what seemed to be a Constitutional issue (things would change after Pearl Harbor).

In 1941, President Franklin D. Roosevelt established the U.S. Foreign information Service (FIS) for the purpose of communicating America’s ideas abroad.

By December, the organization had made its first broadcasts to Asia from a commercial studio in San Francisco.

On February 01, 1942, the FIS broadcast its first program to Europe, using transmitters of the British Broadcasting System. The program was in German and began with the words “Here speaks a Voice from America VOF.” The phrase was used on all subsequent broadcasts. Without a formal decision or declaration, the VOF eventually drifted to the name “ VOA.”

1941 May 27 President Franklin Roosevelt declared “an unlimited national emergency” to cope instantly and decisively with any attempt at hostile encirclement of the Western Hemisphere.

1941 July 11 COI and FIS President Roosevelt established a new agency, Coordinator of Information (COI), headed by Colonel William Donovan a New York attorney.

FDR’s primary speech writer on foreign affairs, Robert Sherwood, was named to head the Foreign Information Service (FIS), a sub-agency of the COI. Version 4/17/2021 Page 8 of 25

Prior to America's entry in the war, Robert Sherwood began planning the first broadcasts. But Sherwood and COI's head, William Donovan, had divergent view on how the overseas broadcasts should be overseen and their focus.

Sherwood was convinced that America's image would suffer if it tried to emulate the Axis methods of disseminating lies and deceit; instead, the U.S. propaganda broadcasts should stick to facts and “let the truth eventually prevail.”

Donovan desired a black propaganda service, under the military, intended to subvert the hostile target countries while the wordsmith, Sherwood, wanted a white decentralized entity under civilian control that would disseminate positive messages about the United States.

At the same time the Joint Psychological Warfare Committee was formed.

1941 July 30 CIAA President Roosevelt he established the Office of Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, known as the CIAA, which, in cooperation with the State Department, was to utilize governmental and private facilities, including radio, to further the national interest.

CIAA was headed by Nelson Rockefeller to collect relevant national security data for the President. However, it had a significant covert role as a propaganda and covert intelligence agency (it would be succeeded by the OSS (Office of Strategic Service) the predecessor of the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency).

1941 August CIAA and the COI began broadcasting using station WLWO who was already broadcasting in Spanish, Portuguese, and English by 1940.

1941 August The United States placed economic sanctions on Japan, which included an embargo on oil exports (which was 80% of their supply chain) and froze Japanese assets.

1941 October Germany set up a foreign broadcast listening operation similar to FBIS with post in Denmark, France, Hungary, Italy and . They monitored 37 languages from more than 40 countries with its 700+ workers.

The German military also setup listening post near Berlin and Nuremberg using 3,000 workers.

1941 Fall Robert Bauer, Giorgio Padovano and Edward Beck broadcast war news to Europe from WLWO and are photographed together as the “Three Musketeers.” Photo was discovered in a closet at the VOA Museum with other VOA-Bethany memorabilia.

1941 November Japanese Navy began using overseas broadcasts to send coded messages during newscasts regarding the outbreak of war. If war became inevitable broadcast would be given during the regular program in the form of a weather forecast in the middle and at the end of a regular transmission. Messages were coded as follows:

East wind, Rain - War has begun between Japan and the United States. Burn all important documents.

North wind, Cloudy - War has begun between Japan and the Soviet Union. Version 4/17/2021 Page 9 of 25

Bum all important documents.

West wind, Fair - War has begun between Japan and Britain. Burn all important documents.

1941 Late Foreign nationals in Japan were on Radio Tokyo, like German-American Fred Kaltenbach, broadcasting English to America's Mid-West under the name of Lord Hee-Haw. American POWs working on Japan’s "Zero Hour" and "Hi no Maru Awd" were allowed considerable freedom in producing entertainment slots for programs. The news segments, however, were authored by Japanese writers.

1941 Dec. 3 China forms an international radio broadcast known first as Radio Peking then Radio Beijing and now as China Radio International (CRI).

1941 Dec. 7-8 ''West wind, Fair" message was read on overseas Japanese broadcast on the night of December 7th and 8th. "Go Climb Mount Niitaka," was the code for the Navy to start the attack on Pearl Harbor.

1941 Dec. 7 Pearl Harbor attacked by Japanese planes using Honolulu radio station KGMB (500 watts on 590 kHZ) as a navigational aid. The station had been broadcasting a special all-night program of music as a navigational to a flight of US Army B- 17 bombers, in-bound from the West Coast.

1941 Dec. 15 GE’s KGEI (standing for "GE International") at Belmont, CA is leased by the COI, making it the first international station under direct government control. Their reinforced concrete building with 3-foot-thick walls, ceilings and floors was built to address the possibility of bombing attacks. Three "curtain" antennas for 19, 25 and 49 meters, were aligned with the capitals of Latin America and Asia.

1942 Early NBC (National Broadcasting Company) had established an elaborate monitoring post at Bellmore, Long Island, NY to log the broadcasts of other nations.

1942 Feb. 1 OWI begins broadcasting radio programs, leasing time on shortwave stations that are picked up by the BBC and relayed to Germany using four RCA 50-kW transmitters. The first broadcast was called “Stimmen aus Amerika” (Voices from America).

The time slots that the BBC assigned to VOA were not ideal – German and French in the middle of the afternoon and Italian too late in the evening. The VOA, therefore, decided to lease as private short wave transmitters to assemble a powerful signal to reach the target areas directly at more suitable times.

Ten stations were: NBC Bound Brook, NJ, WNBI CBS Brentwood, NY, WCBX and WCRC General Electric Schenectady, WGEA and WGEI and San Francisco, KFEI. Westinghouse Boston, WBOS Crosley Cincinnati, WLWO. Worldwide Broadcasting Foundation Scituate, MA (Boston area), WRUL.

Additional shortwave transmitters were installed at various locations in California and brought into service as soon as possible to give international coverage to the Pacific and Asia regions as well as to Australia and New Zealand.

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Islais Creek, KWID (May 1942) and KWIX (1945) Bolinas, CA KRCA and KRCQ and Belmont, CA, KGEX Palo Alto, CA, Mackay KROJ and KROU.

A third transmitter, KROZ, was quickly commandeered for the surrender broadcasts in August 1945.

Sherwood handled the dissemination of domestic information and foreign propaganda. He recruited the noted radio producer John Houseman, who because of his Romanian birth at the time was technically an enemy alien to develop an overseas radio program for broadcast to the Axis powers and the populations of the territories they had conquered, which eventually became known as of America.

Sherwood testified to a Congressional committee in February 1942 that the shortwave broadcast launch efforts were hampered by a lack of political mandate in the field of political warfare, psychological warfare, and confusion of his agency's relationship with the State Department, Army and Navy.

Houseman, in describing the VOA German broadcast of February 11, 1942 says that it “went out live on all the frequencies we possessed – over Long Island, Schenectady and Cincinnati transmitters,” in other words, over the NBC, General Electric and Crosley transmitters – six 50-kW transmitters with a total power of 300- kW. Houseman adds that on the next day “the British Ministry of Information rebroadcast it from England on several of their medium wave stations from an acetate recording flown over by bomber.” (He probably meant BBC rather than Ministry of Information and he does not say at what hours they were broadcast.)

Within the next two years broadcast would swell to more than 40 languages and hundreds of hours of broadcasts per week with 3,000 employees.

1942 Feb. 22 Members of WLWO staff and broadcasters take the night train to New York for Voice of America broadcasts.

1942 Feb. 23 OWI inaugurates new radio studios on Park Avenue in New York City. John Houseman named as head of radio programming in NY. The “Three Musketeers” from WLWO broadcast in New York for first day on February 23.

1942 May 5 Test transmissions begin on KWID from Islais Creek CA with 100 kW, the country’s new most powerful shortwave transmitter. Soon the station broadcasts in 10 languages, 20 hours per day with programming from the OWI San Francisco studios.

1942 June 13 OSS, OWI and OWIOB Donovan's desire to use propaganda for tactical military purposes and Sherwood's emphasis on what later became known as public diplomacy were a continuing source of conflict between the two men.

President Roosevelt split the functions and created two new agencies: The COI becomes the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) ), a predecessor of the CIA (Central Intelligence Agency). The FIS becomes the Office of War Information (OWI) headed by Elmer Davis, a predecessor of the USIA (United States Information Agency).

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Office of War Information consolidated the functions of OFF (Office of Facts and Figures) OWI's direct predecessor) and the OGP (Office of Government Reports) and the Division of Information of the Office for Emergency Management.

Studios were set up in New York and San Francisco to produce round-the-clock programs for foreign consumption.

In addition, the Office of War Information Overseas Branch (OWIOB) was created.

1942 Mid By now, KGEI’s studio quickly overflows with linguists for Japanese, Chinese, Tagalog and various Chinese and Filipino dialects, so OWI studios temporarily move to new facility being built for KSFO.

Now the US had 14 privately owned shortwave transmitters with another 58 in Britain. In contrast, Germany had 68 under direct control and hundreds more with the Italians and other occupied countries. Japan had 42 under direct control. China had ?

1942 Fall In a drastic effort to remedy this situation, the Board of War Communications called a conference in Washington, D.C., at which all international radio licensees, equipment manufacturers, representatives of the Federal Communications Commission, Office of the Coordinator of Inter-American Affairs, Department of State and others, studied the psychological warfare situation.

1942 Nov. 1 OWI leases all shortwave transmitters except WRUL. OWI ultimately seizes WRUL by executive order, owned by Worldwide Broadcasting Foundation in Scituate, MA.

The stations are CBS WCBX, WCDA and WCRC, Brentwood L.I., NY Crosley’s station WLWO, Cincinnati. General Electric’s WGEO and WGEA, Schenectady, NY, and KGEI San Francisco, NBC had WRCA and WNBI, Boundbrook, NJ Westinghouse, WBOS, Boston Worldwide Broadcasting’s had three transmitters WRUL, Boston and Associated Broadcaster’s KWID

The CBS broadcasts were relayed to over 76 domestic radio stations in South America, each station contracted to relay for at least one hour a day.

NBC had more than 100 local stations in in South America, including 31 in Mexico, relaying its broadcasts.

1942 December Crosley breaks ground for superpower VOA shortwave station.

1943 Because Japan never signed the 1929 Geneva Convention, they used American POWs to broadcast Japanese propaganda. Japanese officials posing as Red Cross members covertly obtained information from prisoners for use in propaganda.

1943 Crosley installs WLWK (a second WLWO type transmitter) in Mason, OH.

NBC construction began in1943 with the installation of two 50-kW Federal Telegraph Co. transmitters. Rhombic antennas targeted Japan, Australia and the Philippines.

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GE’s KGEI receives new 100 kW General Electric transmitter and goes on the air with KGEX.

KWID receives new 50-kW transmitter and goes on the air as KWIX. A Press transmitter is installed in Palo Alto and becomes KROJ. CBS adds two new transmitters, WOOC and WOOW to its Brentwood L.I. shortwave plant.

1943 October 17 BBC transmitter plant at Woofferton England begins operation with six 50-kW RCA transmitters. Originally the site was called OSE 10, Overseas Station Extension 10. Broadcasting on 4 MHz - 26 MHz to Europe, Russia, North/Central Africa, Middle East, and South America. The site had exceptional broadcast characteristics because the water table in just 11 inches below the surface and provides good ground reflection from the antennas.

1943 December Crosley has his first VOA shortwave transmitter WLWL on air before the building is completed.

1944 Germany has distributed 15 million Volksempfanger radios.

1944 Japan now broadcasts to 15 target areas in 33 languages. The music of Jazz was previously banded in Japan but by using American POWs in the production of programs the Japanese created truly ''Western-style'' broadcasts.

1944 January 1 OWI converts the old NBC studios as its headquarters and moves in.

1944 July 1 VOA Bethany station begins full time broadcasting.

1944 August 1 Japan reduced the power of its relay stations to minimize Allied nations from using the signal as a navigational aid.

1944 Sept. 23 Crosley holds the official dedication ceremony for the OWI transmitter plant in Union Township, Butler County, Ohio. It was named the Bethany Relay Station.

1944 November Japan broadcast from its occupied territories with fifteen transmissions for 33 hours a day, in twenty languages. The complete Radio Tokyo schedule was as follows:

Transmission 1 Western United States 00.00-03.40 (3 hours 40) Transmission 2 India 00.00-01.45 (1 hour 45) Transmission 3 Middle East 02.00-03.40 (1 hour 40) Transmission 4 Europe 04.00-07.00 (3 hours) Transmission 5 Eastern United States 07.15-09.15 (2 hours) Transmission 6 South America 09.30-10.30 (1 hour) Transmission 7 India and Middle East 10.45-11.45 (1 hour) Transmission 8 Western United States 12.00-17.00 (5 hours) Transmission 9 Europe 17.15-20.00 (2 hours 45) Transmission 10 Australia and the Central 17.15-19.15 (2 hours) & Western Pacific Transmission 11 China 19.30-21.15 (1 hour 45) Transmission 12 South America 20.15-21.15 (1 hour 30) Transmission 13 Thailand, , Burma 21.30-23.40 (2 hours 10) Version 4/17/2021 Page 13 of 25

Transmission 14 Philippines and Indonesia 21.30-23.40 (2 hours 10) Transmission 15 Eastern United States 22.00-23.40 (1 hour 40)

1944 November CBS station in Delano, CA (just North of Los Angeles) goes on the air with KCBA, KCBF and KCBR.

1944 Dec. 27 NBC station in Dixon, CA (just North of San Francisco) goes on the air with KNBA, KNBC. The following year two more RCA transmitters were added, KNBI and KNBX and KRHO goes on the air from Honolulu, HI.

The original Federal transmitters were radio telegraph (CW) systems and were fed by separate Federal modulators. One modulator fed two transmitters (which is what Crosley did in July at Bethany station) which was possible because they shared common programs. Federal later built a 200-kW transmitter for Dixon.

1945 OWI added additional transmitters at MacKay Wireless KROU and KROZ. The RCA point-to-point facility in Bolinas, Calif. added KRCA and KRCQ. By the end of 1945, 17 west coast transmitters air OWI programming from the San Francisco studios.

1945 OWI concludes there is no Japanese broadcaster named Tokyo Rose; the name is strictly a GI invention. The name was applied to at least two lilting Japanese voices on the Japanese radio, Myrtle Lipman and Ruth Hayakawa. Government monitors listening 24 hours a day have never heard the words Tokyo Rose over a Japanese controlled station.

1945 May In Japan an allied air raid destroyed the factory which supplied vacuum tubes for NHK’s short-wave transmitters. The stockpile lasted about three months and it is not clear what happened beyond that time because Japan realized they could not continue the war much longer. WWII ended in September.

1945 September 2 World War II ends.

1945 September 2 Vietnam makes its first Vietnamese-language radio broadcast from its national radio station VOV, Voice of Vietnam, aka Radio Hanoi. By 1978 all radio stations were combined into the Voice of Vietnam, which officially became the national radio station.

1945 September 3 General Douglas MacArthur announced all radio transmissions from Japan in foreign languages to cease after midnight. Only Japanese and broadcast were allowed.

1945 September 12 President Harry Truman signed an order abolishing the OWI. At the time of its demise, it operated a network of 30 transmitters, including several in North Africa. The shortwave services were transferred to the State Department’s new O.I.I. – Office of International Information.

The VOA moved into purgatory under a State Department unit called the Interim International Information Service (IIIS). Many of the staff left for other jobs, assuming VOA would cease broadcasting at the end of the year.

Private broadcasters were reluctant to get back into the business of shortwave. CBS, NBC and Crosley would continue to provide government programming under contract

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until 1961 when plant ownership was taken over by the VOA. Most private station employees then became government employees.

1946 The name "Voice of America" was apparently first used for the coordinated international broadcasting services in February 1942. However, it was not used consistently in all language services and for all types of programs, and there is some question as to whether the overall broadcast service ever, during World War II, bore an official designation of "Voice of America." Many magazine articles and newspaper reports used that title, but William Benton claims to be the "father" of its official use, which, he states, did not come until 1946. See Sydney Hyman, The Lives of William Benton(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1969), pp. 331-2. Interestingly, the VOA's signature tune in this early period was "Yankee Doodle," which was later dropped in favor of "Columbia the Gem of the Ocean," but restored in 1967.

1946-1947 VOA’s future was doubtful. Private broadcaster did not want to be involved with government sponsored broadcast. The Associated Press and United Press, which had provided their wires services output free to VOA during the war, cut off copy to any U.S. government stations, even if they were willing to pay for it.

1946 VOA installed a relay station on the northwest tip of Africa in the Tangier International Zone. The site used 25 RCA transmitters and 42 rhombic antennas. The site served as a link in the New Your-Moscow and the New York-Bombay circuits

1947 Sept 11 China’s XNCR shortwave station inaugurates an English language broadcast for a Chinese political and cultural perspective to the world at large.

1948 VOA extends its reach into the by installing six Marconi BD272 250-kW shortwave transmitters at the BBC. It provided a stronger shortwave broadcast signal into the Eastern Bloc than any other western shortwave broadcast transmitter during the years of Soviet jamming.

1948 February USSR began an extensive cold war jamming operation targeting VOA and BBC broadcasts. Eventually their jamming developed into the greatest jamming network in the world lasting more than 40 years with more than 3000 jamming transmitters in 85 cities and satellites.

Transmitters ranged in power from 1 to 20-kW (typically 10-15-kW) with 10 to 20 transmitters per station. Typical antennas were multi-wire broadband dipoles, suspended vertically or at 45 degrees.

1949 China shortwave station XNCR moves from the Taihang Mountains to the capital, Beijing, China’s capitol, in northern most China when the People's Republic of China was formed.

1950 July 4 Radio Free Europe RFE began broadcasting to satellite countries around the Czech Republic and completed its first broadcast aimed at Czechoslovakia. Soon it was transmitting to most of the Soviet-dominated countries and in 15 languages. The station was funded by the U.S. Congress through the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). However, CIA involvement was kept secret until the late 1960s for fear of Soviet retaliation.

1951-1956 RFE distributed more than 350,000 balloons over the skies of Central Europe carrying over 300 million leaflets, posters, books, and other printed matter. Version 4/17/2021 Page 15 of 25

1952-1964 VOA’s US Coast Guard Cutter Courier operational at the island of Rhodes Greece.

1953-1999 USIA, US Information Agency was established. The transmitters were still being leased from the networks and commercial broadcasters, and they continued to be the station licensees, responsible for operating and maintaining the sites. All costs were reimbursed by the federal government. At the close of the in 1952, the huge operating costs briefly came into question and the House cancelled funding for the leases of shortwave stations except those being operated by NBC, CBS and WLW. KGEI reverted to a civilian operation managed and programmed by General Electric. KWID and KWIX were closed and sold. However, by 1953 the Cold War was raising its head and full VOA funding was soon restored. The Dixon site got two new GE 100- kW transmitters and new towers supporting two large Sterba curtain arrays that were rated up to 500-kW.

1953 VOA longwave broadcast began from near Erching, Bavaria, Germany using a 1,000,000 watts on 173 kH and ended in 1073

1953 March 1 Radio Liberty (RL) broadcast began and targeted the Soviet Union.

1954 VOA HQ moved from New York to Washington DC.

1962 January The USIA/VOA take direct ownership of the three transmitter plants. Bethany, Delano and Dixon.

1963 VOA relay station in Morocco ends operations.

1963 February VOA Greenville, NC comes online.

1963 Nov 1 Government leases of VOA shortwave stations were formally terminated. VOA took ownership of the three transmitter plants Dixon and Delano CA and Bethany, OH facilities.

1964 Mid The six 50-kW transmitters leased by VOA from the BBC in Wooferton, England ,were increased to 250-kW watts each.

A land-based transmitting station erected on the island of Rhodes, in Greece, replaced an earlier ship-board transmitter.

1965 VOA Bethany, Delano and Dixon plants modernize each with three 250-kW Collins 821A1 transmitters and two Continental 617A transmitters.

1968 March 28 VOA’s Bangkok Relay Station, costing $120 million, was dedicated. Under an agreement between the Thai and U.S. governments, the Voice of America gave the station to Thailand, but could operate it under a 25-year renewable lease. According to UPI the station used seven 500-kW transmitters broadcasting in 18 languages to listeners throughout Asia and the Pacific. Conflicting information exist between UPI and VOA. The VOA facilities reports just one 1 MW transmitter

1969-1972 Russia broadcast more program hours than the VOA and used more languages (84) than any other international broadcaster.

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1970s Early China becomes the world's third largest international broadcaster.

1971 The CIA ended its involvement in Radio Free Europe’s financing and operation in 1971, Funding for RFE and RL moved from the CIA to the Board for International Broadcasting (BIB) who received funds from congress who distributed them with oversight. By 1976 Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty merged and became RFE/RL. Despite the termination of CIA involvement in Radio Free Europe, the Soviet Union continued jamming the station until 1988.

1972 The Voice added many new high-power (more than 200-KW) transmitters over the past ten years, going from two in 1961 to 45 in 1972. But so have other nations. The worldwide totals for 200-KW" transmitters for the same dates were 16 and 185.

1972 April 17 Kavala Greece Relay Station became operational.

1975-1979 VOA Satellite network established to transfer VOA program material from HQ to Bethany, Dixon, Delano and Greenville.

1976 July 12 VOA charter was signed.

1976 Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty merged and became RFE/RL.

1977 VOA Okinawa Relay Station ended broadcast. There were several shortwave transmitters and one medium wave on 1174 kH at 1,000,000 watts beaming programs into Communist China.

1978 All Vietnamese radio stations were combined into the Voice of Vietnam, which became the official national radio station. Broadcast used medium wave, shortwave and FM from eight cities with a transmitter power ranging from 500-kW, 200-kW, 100- kW and 50-kW.

1979 VOA Dixon CA station closed.

1979 BBC adds four additional Marconi Auto Tune 300-kW shortwave transmitters because of the conflicts in South East Asia, Vietnam, etc.

1983 VOA Dixon station reopened transmitting programs to South America.

1984 VOA contracted with COMSAT to develop a satellite interconnect system that would connect all relay stations directly to HQ in Washington DC.

1985 The Office of Cuba Broadcasting was formed with programs relayed through VOA’s Greenville , Bethany Ohio and California transmitting stations.

1985 VOA facilities include: Studios – 32 in Washington, DC; 2 in New York City; 1 in Chicago; 1 in Los Angeles; 1 in Miami. Master Control – located in Washington, DC. Domestic Transmitters – 30 located in Delano and Dixon, California, Greenville, North Carolina and Bethany, Ohio.

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Overseas Transmitters – 78 located in England, Federal Republic of Germany, Greece, Liberia, Morocco, the Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Antigua, Costa Rlca, and Botswana. Power: total of all 109 transmitters, 21,520 -kW watts. (includes Marathon, Florida) . Satellite Circuits – 21 commercial circuits are used to feed VOA overseas relay stations which in turn beam programs on Medium wave and Short wave frequencies to listeners in the Middle East, Europe and the East Asia and the Pacific areas. Personnel count was above 2000 in the United States with an additional 820 foreign nationals abroad. Budget – $161.3 million.

1988 VOA Dixon station closed ten transmitters. Aeronautical Radio, Inc. (ARINC, a division of Rockwell-Collins) leased the Dixon site and operated an aeronautical trans-Pacific HF service there. Globe Wireless leased the Rio Vista receive site for its HF maritime data communications service.

1989 November Three original WWII Crosley SWT-1 transmitters were shut down at VOA Bethany and asbestos removed from building. Eventually they were replaced with three new 250-kW Asea Brown Boveri SK 53 C3 transmitters in 1991.

1990 Radio Liberty had become the most listened-to Western radio station broadcasting to the Soviet Union. During the era in the Soviet Union, RFE/RL benefited significantly from the Soviet Union's new openness. Gorbachev stopped the practice of jamming their broadcasts, and dissident politicians and officials could be freely interviewed by RFE/RL for the first time without fearing persecution or imprisonment.

1990 October USIA establishes the Bureau of Broadcasting BOB which includes the VOA and two other broadcast services, WorldNet television and film service and the office of Cuba broadcasting Radio and TV Marti. Radio Marti was to break the Cuban government's control of information in Cuba (and to) tell the truth to the Cuban people.

Cuba immediately constructed a 500-kW station targeting the North American continent to counter the new American aggression.

1991 VOA Bethany commissions three new 250-kW Asea Brown Boveri SK 53 C3 transmitters.

1991 VOA establishes office of affiliate relations and audience analysis.

1993 Radio Moscow becomes Voice of Russia, VOR.

1994 April 30 The International Broadcasting Act became law. The legislation established the International Broadcasting Bureau (IBB) within the United States Information Agency (USIA), and created a Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG) with oversight authority over all non-military U.S. government international broadcasting.

1994 Nov. 14 VOA Bethany station closed.

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1995 RFE/RL moved its headquarters from Munich to Prague. The Clinton Administration reduced funding significantly and placed the service under the United States Information Agency's oversight.

1996 Radio Free Asia, RFA, was formed targeting six 6 countries (China (Mandarin, , Tibetan, and Uyghur), Burma, Vietnam, , , and ) and had the second largest audience after the VOA. RFA was set up to diminishing Chinese Communist control. RFA has no relationship to an earlier attempt in the 1950s (funded by the CIA) the Committee for Free Asia, CFA, which ended in 1971.

1997 All relay stations were connected via satellite to VOA HQ in Washington DC.

1999 Oct. 1 The IBB and BBG were established as independent federal government entities through the Foreign Affairs Reform and Restructuring Act. The IBB was an administrative vehicle under the BBG containing VOA, Radio and TV Martí, the Office of Engineering and Technical Services, and a number of support services.

2003 The most active jamming countries are China, Cuba, Iran and Vietnam. Jamming signals were also traced to North Korea, South Korea, Morocco, Saudi Arabia and Mianmar. Cuba and Iran were involved in satellite television jamming.

2004 The Middle East Broadcasting Networks, MBN, were formed targeting the Middle East and North Africa.

2005 BBC upgraded the Marconi transmitters to Brown Boveri SK 55, 500-kW transmitters.

2008 Delano station closed

2010 VOA and RFE/RL launched a new Russian-language TV news program called , Current Time. The program provided audiences in countries bordering Russia with a balanced alternative to the disinformation produced by Russian media outlets that was driving instability in the region. The broadcast expanded to become a 24/7 digital and TV stream for Russian-speaking audiences worldwide.

2013 Voice of Russia was dissolved and merged with RIA Novosti to form Radio international news agency.

2014 April 1 Voice of Russia ceased shortwave and European mediumwave radio broadcasts.

Assembled by Leland L. Hite – April 2021 National Voice of America Museum of Broadcasting 8070 Tylersville Rd. (GPS use Crosley Blvd.) West Chester, OH 45069 513-777-0027 www.voamuseum.org [email protected] Open every Saturday and Sunday 1 - 4 PM

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Disclaimers and Definitions

This article is not exhaustive. The documents and statements the author has gathered might not be accurate despite his best efforts to ensure accuracy and authenticity. Time, distance, and ideological differences tend to cloud the memories of past events. For security reasons, some agencies (including the VOA) admitted they deliberately instructed authors to skew dates and events during WWII and the Cold War.

This document occasionally refers to propaganda in various ways as used in shortwave radio broadcasting beginning in the early 1920s. Propaganda was categorized as black, white, or gray; as fast or slow; and as propaganda of the deed.

White propaganda espoused to tell the truth without bias, to identify the sources or sponsors of information, and to specify where the sources were located. Examples are the VOA and BBC.

Gray propaganda was not attributed to the sponsor, concealed the real source, and contained big lies and biases, but it occasionally identified sponsors or sources and locations.

Black propaganda consisted of big lies, contained biases, and misrepresented identities and locations; for example, the German program “The Voice of Free America” was identified as originating from the Midwestern U.S.

Fast propaganda was designed to exert a short-term impact on public opinion. It could be carried by radio, newspapers, or speeches; today, it is carried by television, video, email, or the .

Slow propaganda cultivated—and still cultivates—public opinion over time through media such as books, cultural exhibitions, and educational exchanges seeking to influence ideas and attitudes.

Propaganda of the deed consisted of actions taken for their psychological effects on various populations. Such propaganda can still be inculcated through educational or cultural exchanges, economic aid, disaster relief, disarmament initiatives, international agreements, the appointment of an investigating commission, legislation, and other policy initiatives (those employed primarily for the effects they have on public opinion). An example of propaganda of deed is James Doolittle’s raid on Japan. The mission was pointless from a military point of view but exerted considerable psychological impact.

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Greenville, NC became the largest USA VOA transmitting facility. Some of the station details are listed below:

Land area is 2,715 acres (1099 hectare). Over twenty six miles (forty two kilometers) of 300 ohm open rated at 500- KW. Sixteen dipole curtain arrays, average antenna gain 17 dBi. Twenty rhombic antennas, antenna gain 15 dBi. Two of the dipole curtain arrays can slew azimuth and take off angle. Three Continental Electronics 420A 500 -kW Doherty modulated transmitters. Three General Electric 4BT250A1 250-KW high level plate modulated transmitters. One Brown Boveri Company (BBC) SK55C3 500-KW PSM transmitter. One AEG Telefunken S4005 500 -kW PDM transmitter. Antenna switch matrix connects any of the eight transmitters to any of the thirty-six antennas.

During WWII VOA broadcast from the following private stations: General Electric: KGEI, KWID and KWIX (SW) west coast. CBS, Delano, CA (North of Los Angeles) KCBA, KCBF and KCBR.(SW) CBS, Brentwood, NY, WCBX, WCRC, WCDA, WOOC and WOOW. NBC, Dixon, CA (North of San Francisco) KNBA, KNBC. (SW) Dec. 24, 1944, KNBI and KNBX. (SW) added in 1945. NBC, Honolulu, HI, KRHO. NBC, Bound Brook, NJ, WNBI and WRCA General Electric, Schenectady WGEA, WGEI, WGEO, WGEA General Electric, San Francisco KFEI, KGEI, KGEX. Crosley, Cincinnati WLWO and WLWK. MacKay Wireless, Palo Alto, CA, KROU, KROZ and KROJ. RCA Bolinas, CA, KRCA and KRCQ. Westinghouse, Boston, WBOS. World Wide Broadcasting, Scituate, MA, 3-Tx at WRUL Associated Broadcaster’s KWID

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Goldmanis, Māriss. “Explaining the Mysteries of Numbers Stations.” War on the Rocks, May 24, 2018. Māris Goldmanis is a historian, co-founder and editor of numbers station.com and an avid numbers stations researcher.

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“How Radio Became a Cult in its Early Years in Germany.” DW Akademie, December 22, 2020. Hyatt, David. “Is America Losing Its Voice.” American Diplomacy June 2013. David Hyatt is a former VOA bureau chief in Bangkok covering Southeast Asia and the Pacific, and deputy chief in London covering Europe and the Middle East.

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March 7, 2014.

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