Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Godfrey Asea, Julius Serumaga, Zubeda Mduruma, Lydia Kimenye and Moses Odeke

Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa 2014 © 2014 Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa

Correct citation

Asea G, Serumaga J, Mduruma Z, Kimenye L and Odeke M. 2014. Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa. ASARECA (Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa), Entebbe.

Fair use policy This publication may be reproduced with the intention of increasing its availability to those who need it. ASARECA encourages fair use of reproduced material. Proper citation is requested.

Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) Plot 5, Mpigi Road PO Box 765 Entebbe, Uganda tel: +256 414 320212/320556/321885 fax: +256 414 321126/322593 email: [email protected] website: www.asareca.org

Designer: Timothy Maleche, ImageMate, Nairobi, Kenya

ISBN: 978-9970-484-07-2

DISCLAIMER “This document has been produced with funds provided by the African Development Bank, through the Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa, to ASARECA. The contents of this document are the sole responsibility of ASARECA and her implementing partners, and can in no way be taken to reflect the views of the African Development Bank.” The authors Godfrey Asea National Crops Resources Research Institute PO Box 7084, Kampala, Uganda

Julius Serumaga National Crops Resources Research Institute PO Box 7084, Kampala, Uganda

Zubeda Mduruma Aminata Seed Company PO Box 6115, Tanga, Tanzania

Lydia Kimenye Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa PO Box 765, Entebbe, Uganda

Moses Odeke Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in East and Central Africa PO Box 765, Entebbe, Uganda

Table of Contents

Foreword...... vi

Preface...... vii

Introduction...... 1

Soil type and land selection...... 3

Field preparation methods...... 4

Planting...... 6

Weed control...... 10

Some aspects of QPM seed and grain contamination...... 15

Soil nutrient management...... 17

Constraints to QPM production and control measures...... 24

Important features of quality in Qpm...... 32

Harvest and post-harvest management of Qpm...... 33

Value addition...... 43

The role of standards in maize...... 51

Definitions of maize defects...... 52

Essential composition of quality factors...... 54

References...... 56

v Quality Protein Maize Production and Post Harvest Handling Handbook for East and Central Africa Foreword

aize will continue to play a very important increase maize production and productivity and Mrole in the livelihoods of most of the achieve targeted food and nutrition security and population in East and Central Africa (ECA) to household incomes. I would like to thank authors meet households’ needs for food, feed and and all other stakeholders who contributed to the income. The development and release of quality production of this handbook. protein maize (QPM) varieties, which contain high levels of protein has meant that it can be a About ASARECA substitute for the more costly sources of protein for human food such as meat and for fishmeal The Association for Strengthening Agricultural or artificial lysine used in the production of feeds Research in Eastern and Central Africa for poultry and pig enterprises. The handbook (ASARECA) is a not-for-profit sub-regional was developed by NARS institutions in Kenya, organisation comprising 11 countries: Burundi, Tanzania, DR. Congo, Uganda in partnership the Democratic Republic of Congo, Eritrea, with the Knowledge Management and Upscaling Ethiopia, Kenya, Madagascar, Rwanda, South Programme of ASARECA while promoting scaling Sudan, Sudan, Tanzania and Uganda. Its mission out of the QPM technologies in these countries is: To enhance regional collective action in under a project known as “Dissemination of New agricultural research for development, extension Agricultural Technologies in Africa (DONATA)”. and agricultural training and education to promote economic growth, fight poverty, eradicate hunger This handbook is a comprehensive one-stop and enhance sustainable use of resources in ECA. source of information on how QPM is grown using recommended practices to achieve ASARECA brings together scientists and other genetic potential of the varieties. It also contains partners to generate, share and promote management options for economically important knowledge and innovations to solve common diseases and insect pests, post-harvest handling problems in agriculture in member countries and utilization. The practices documented in and contribute to productivity and growth of the this manual are based on practical experience sector. Its partners include farmers, national, of researchers in the region who worked regional and international research, extension, with farmers to identify common problems in and training organisations, public and private production of QPM and to validate the improved sector actors, non-governmental organisations practices presented in it. These can be applied to (NGOs) and development agencies. other types of maize and areas within the region that broadly fall within the same mega-maize environment.

It is my hope that this handbook will be useful to Dr Fina A Opio farmers and extension agents in their efforts to Executive Director, ASARECA

vi Quality Protein Maize Production and Post Harvest Handling Handbook for East and Central Africa Preface

his book was developed under the that limit QPM production and management T‘Dissemination of New Agricultural options to address them. The handbook is Technologies in Africa’ (DONATA) project whose therefore intended for farmers, extension agents purpose was to increase uptake and adoption and agricultural practitioners. The book also of quality protein maize (QPM) technologies provides an opportunity to disseminate and in the Eastern and Central Africa region (ECA). emphasize recommended agronomic practices In ECA, maize is a dominant food and feed as for optimal QPM production. The agronomic well as a source of income for majority of rural practices used in this book are common and can households. In addition to overcoming food be applied by farmers anywhere within the region security concerns in the region, there is potential who are within the same maize agro-ecological to address malnutrition in children and vulnerable environment. groups who are at risk from consuming maize as the main staple food. Quality protein maize We wish to thank collaborating partners and (QPM) contains twice the amount of essential institutions who have contributed to this amino acids required for growth by humans handbook in various ways. In particular, Ms Rose and monogastric animals. It therefore has an Ubwe from Selian Agricultural Research Institute, advantage over normal maize to ameliorate the Tanzania, Mr Charles Bett from Kenya Agricultural effect of malnutrition cost effectively. Research and Livestock Research organization and Dr efforts in the ECA region have developed and Mbuya Kankolongo from INERA, Democratic released a number of adapted and high yielding Republic of Congo and Mr Isaak Mashauri of QPM varieties. However, average farm yields Tanseed International for their valuable inputs. remain extremely low compared to the potential We acknowledge reviewers who generously genetic performance of the varieties. One major reviewed drafts of this handbook and provided reason for the big yield disparity is poor crop useful comments. We also thank Ms Jacqueline management and low use of inputs, especially Nyagahima, Head of Communication and Public fertilizers. Relations, ASARECA, for valuable editorial inputs.

This handbook was developed based on Lydia Kimenye, PhD experience with farmers over the years in a Programme Manager, Knowledge Management simplified manner for the users to identify and Upscaling ASARECA common and major biotic and abiotic constraints

vii Introduction

aize (Zea mays L.) is one of the main can help to reduce malnutrition, improve body crops grown in Eastern and Central immunity and overall health in communities that MAfrica (ECA) as staple food by over 70% are constrained by economic and environmental of the population. It has also become an important factors to access expensive sources of protein non-traditional export crop as well as being used such as meat, fish, eggs, milk and legumes. for animal feed. However, the regional maize Agricultural research efforts in ECA in production is dominated by smallholder farmers collaboration with International Center for whose production is generally characterized by Improvement of Maize and Wheat (CIMMYT) small farm acreage (0.2–2 ha), low yields (1.0 have resulted in development and identification –1.8 MT/ha) and high production costs and of QPM varieties with higher yields and resistance consequently low returns. Supplying maize grain to major biotic and abiotic constraints prevalent with quality characteristics conforming to target in all agro-ecologies. However, it’s critical that markets is vital to increasing consumption and QPM post-harvest handling processes are export value. However, normal maize contains known by farmers in order to minimize losses limited contents of two essential amino acids and ensure food security and maximum benefits namely Lysine and Tryptophan, hence having are achieved. Recent work in ECA has shown low quality of protein. Thus, use of normal that QPM can be used wholly (100%) or as an maize without supplementing with other protein ingredient (30–50% QPM) in preparation of sources will lead to acute malnutrition. Quality composite flours to supplement wheat flour protein maize (QPM), developed from a mutant for bread, cakes, buns and biscuit preparation. maize, contains nearly twice the amount of Lysine Since farmers are able to grow their own maize, and Tryptophan amino acids essential for protein more savings would be made on more expensive synthesis in humans and monogastric animals as wheat flour that is mostly imported. Thus, QPM well as protein bioavailability that rivals milk casein can be a source of income for family and young (Nuss and Tanumihardjo, 2011). Therefore QPM entrepreneurs including women. Promotion of

1 Quality Protein Maize Production and Post Harvest Handling Handbook for East and Central Africa such alternative uses of QPM can stimulate more has also been severely affected by the HIV/ production of this type of maize thus improving AIDS scourge that has had a negative impact communities overall livelihood. This manual on agriculture. Good nutrition is also known provides an insight of QPM quality aspects to ameliorate the conditions of the HIV/AIDS from post-harvest, storage and processing. This victims. Quality protein maize is advantageous information will be useful to researchers involved over normal maize because it contains twice the in improvement and dissemination of QPM amount of essential amino acids that are required varieties, extension and development agents for growth but usually insufficient in humans and responsible for promotion of QPM technologies mono-gastric animals such as poultry and pigs. and farmers who need to improve the quality Under smallholder farmer conditions, increasing of QPM products so as to fetch good prices in dietary protein in maize is similar to raising the markets within and outside the ECA member income, because families benefit from enhanced countries. nutrition without additional field work or spending scarce money on animal sources of protein such Nutrition and QPM utilization as meat and milk. The purpose of Dissemination of New Agricultural Nutrition is the process in which food is Technologies in Africa (DONATA) QPM project consumed, digested and absorbed. It has is to increase uptake and adoption of QPM influence in promoting health, functions of technologies in the ECA region. The ECA region all body processes, preventing disease and has very high malnutrition rates where 32% of improving quality of life. Good nutrition should children under five are underweight for their be combined with moderate levels of physical age, and 45% under height (QPMD, 2006). In activity. Detection of growth faltering in children certain countries such as Malawi, Lesotho and is based on underweight, stunting, wasting and Zambia that derive more than 20% of their daily growth velocity. Usually children under 10 years energy from maize, young children are weaned are expected to have weight and height gain on maize porridge that lacks sufficient protein corresponding to their age. and these results in nutritional disorders such as kwashiorkor (Rolfes, 2009). The ECA region

2 Soil type and land selection

aize can be grown on a wide variety of make a heavy drain on soil nutrients. High yields soils, but performs best on well-drained, are obtained from optimum plant population Mwell-aerated, deep warm and silt loams with appropriate soil fertility, and adequate soil containing adequate organic matter and well moisture. Where possible, it’s advisable to have supplied with available nutrients. Although it soils routinely analyzed in order to know the grows on a wide range of soils, it does not yield characteristics of the soils, levels of available soil well on poor sandy soils, except with application nutrients and get advice from researchers on of required nutrients inform of fertilizers and how to improve soil fertility and/or correct soil good moisture regimes. On heavy clay soils, pH for optimum maize production. deep cultivation and ridging is necessary to improve drainage and aeration. Maize is suited Temperature for off-season cropping in swamps provided The optimum temperature for plant growth drainage is adequate (though planting in swamps and development ranges from 30oC to 34oC. is not always recommended due to its sensitivity The cool conditions at high altitude lengthen to water logging). Maize does not tolerate water the cycle or growing period (up to six months). logging and can be killed if it stands in water for Temperatures below 5oC and above 45oC result at least two days. in poor growth and death of the maize plants. In Maize can be grown successfully on soils general, temperatures in ECA are favorable for with a pH of 5.0–7.0 but a moderately acidic maize production as long as appropriate varieties environment with of pH 6.0–7.0 is optimum. are grown in areas for which they were bred. For Soils with pH outside this range results in nutrient example, highland maize is suitable for highland deficiency and mineral toxicity. Liming and other areas. In ECA, there are varied agro-ecologies soil amendment practices are required for good with potential for maize production provided yields on more acid soils. Maize has a high that appropriate varieties that are adaptable are nitrogen requirement and high yields (of maize) grown.

3 Field preparation methods

Conventional methods scale) on hire basis or owning them. Due to high purchase cost, lack of spare parts in the rural There are many methods of land preparation for areas and high fuel cost, even hiring them is not growing maize, including the following: affordable to most farmers. • Hand hoeing; Walking tractor—This is an appropriate and • Animal traction (oxen plough); proven technology for small and medium scale • Conventional tractor; farmers. It is fuel efficient and cost effective, though it might not be efficient on heavy soil • Walking tractor; and because of the their low power. The tractor is • Conservation tillage multi-purpose and easy to use. However, most farmers are not aware of the benefits of this Hand hoeing—In ECA countries, the majority of type of tractor, probably because it is still new maize farmers are small scale and use hand hoes technology on the market. for land preparation. The method is slow and labour intensive. Conservation tillage—This method is used by large and medium scale farmers. In this system, Animal traction—This involves the use of oxen maize is grown with minimal cultivation of the to plough the land. With this method the farmer soil. The stubble is not completely incorporated is able to open more land and plant more maize and thus contributes to run off control. It as compared to hand hoe. It is however not allows timely planting at a reduced cost of land appropriate where soils are heavy and terrain preparations. Weeds are controlled using cover is steep. It also requires the acquisition and crops or herbicides rather than by cultivation. management of the oxen (figure 1). Fertilizers and lime are either incorporated earlier Conventional tractors—These are mainly used in the production cycle or placed on top of the by progressive farmers (large and medium soil at planting.

4 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 1: Using oxen to plough land

Field management practices from large soil clods. Well prepared seed bed will allow uniform and rapid germination and A fairly rough seedbed is preferable since it crop establishment, hence creating a relatively enhances water infiltration and prevents water weed-free environment. However, a fine seedbed run off to a greater extent than a fine seedbed, has the risk of soil erosion (especially when the while allowing germination and seedling field is on a slope), silting and soil compaction emergence to take place. When planting is to which often leads to poor aeration. For proper be done by hand, each seed can be placed at germination, maize requires moist soil. This the correct depth of about 5 cm by hand even should be taken care of no matter what type of on a rough seedbed. With machine planting, a land preparation to be used. fine seedbed is necessary to avoid interference

5 Planting

hen planning to grow maize crop, there the varieties has been taken into account by the are three major considerations to be breeders when they categorized them as early Wtaken into account. These include: maturing (85–90 days), medium maturing (105– 115 days) and late maturing (120–150 days). The i. When to plant; information regarding maturity groups of maize ii. Depth of planting; and varieties should be taken into consideration by iii. Plant population. farmers when choosing a variety for cultivation. I. When to plant However, time to plant is not such a critical factor when one has irrigation facility in place. Usually the first season rains normally start in mid-February or March and end in June, while Calendar of activities the second rains start around mid-August to It is important that a calendar of activities is drawn December. Planting is generally recommended to with farmers so that all activities from planting to be done at the onset of rain but since maize is a harvesting are clearly indicated and carried out robust crop, dry planting can be done when rain according to schedule. is expected. In dry planting, seeds are placed in dry soil when rainfall season is one or two weeks As shown in Table 3, maize production takes to start. Dry planting is advantageous because it place at different times of the year in the different spreads out the planting duration hence enabling districts of Uganda. This therefore ensures a the farmers to open up more land. Delayed stable supply of maize throughout the year. planting in relation to the onset of rains will lead The peak harvest seasons are given as January to reduced yield. When maize is planted late, the —March and July—August. This crop calendar critical growth period at flowering will coincide with is just indicative but may also be used in other drought that will make the crop become stressed ECA countries with similar agro-ecologies to that and lead to poor grain filling. The suitability of of Uganda. However, breeders and extension

6 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa Table 1: Example of maize production calendar in Uganda

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 1st Rains 2nd Rains Iganga 2nd 1st 1st Harvest Harvest Planting 2nd Planting Mbale Planting Harvesting Kapchorwa Planting Harvesting Kasese 2nd 1st 1st Harvest Harvest Planting 2nd Planting Masindi 2nd 1st 1st Harvest Harvest Planting 2nd Planting Uganda Peak Harvest Peak Harvest workers in other ECA States with different agro- between rows and 60 cm (2 feet) between hills is ecologies from that of Uganda are encouraged to recommended. With this spacing the amount of draw-up appropriate crop calendar(s) related to seed required will be 25 kg per hectare or about rainfall pattern in their respective countries. 10 kg per acre. However, spacing between hill II. Depth of planting within a row is dependent upon variety maturity groups. For example, when planting an early The first step in planting is to determine seed maturing maize with a population of 2 seeds viability (if this was not indicated on seed bag) by per hill, an intra-row spacing of 40 cm (between conducting a simple germination test using any hills) is appropriate; while intra-row spacing for one of the following materials: saw dust; sand, intermediate and late maturing varieties is in the or news papers. This operation will help the range of 50–60 cm (between hills). farmer to know the status of seed at least few days before the actual planting of the maize crop. Plant populations that are higher than the optimum will lead to competition among the Planting depth depends on the moisture level maize plants resulting into thin plants that will of the soil where depth of 2–3 cm is adequate give low yield. Lower plant populations will result for moist soil and 5–10 cm is recommended for into low yields (though with bigger cobs) due to dry planting. Deep seed placement under dry reduced number of ears per unit area. It might planting is recommended so that seed germinate be appropriate under intercropping but may lead only after adequate rains. However, the depth to increased weed intensity when maize is under of planting should be uniform to allow uniform monocropping system. The maize crop should be seedling emergence, crop establishment and planted in rows to allow for easy field operations plant growth. like weeding, field inspection as well as facilitate III. Plant population harvesting. Without planting in rows, a farmer will never achieve an optimum plant population. The recommended spacing for planting maize is 75 cm (2½ feett) between rows and 30 cm Methods of planting (1 feet) between hills when planting one seed per hill. When plant population of 2 seeds per Planting of maize can be done either by hand or hill is desired, a spacing of 75 cm (2½ feet) mechanically.

7 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 2: Well-planted maize field a) Hand planting • Make holes with 2 or 3 strokes of the hoe to a depth of at least 10 cm to allow for fertilizer, Hand planting is the most commonly used soil, seed and the final covering. method in most ECA countries. If properly used, the method can produce excellent results • Place the fertilizer at the bottom of the hole because it gives a proper and uniform plant and make sure it does not get spread over the stand. The general planting procedures usually soil surface where it will be wasted. include the following: • If you are using corrosive fertilizer like The field is marked out using a string at an inter diammonium phosphate (DAP) and urea, row distance of 75 cm (1½ feet) apart; another place the fertilizer and cover lightly with soil string for intra-row spacing between hills marked to prevent damage to the seed. Most other at 30 cm. This is only true for plant population fertilizers can be placed in the hole with the of 1 seedling per hill. The marking of strings seed without separating them with a layer of for planting early maturing maize varieties at soil. population of 2 seedling/ hill will be 75 cm and • Place the seed and make the final covering 40 cm between rows and hills, respectively. with the soil. Make sure that the seed is well Similarly, spacing between rows and between hills placed in a hole to ensure good contact with within rows for an intermediate/a late maturing moisture. All seeds must be well covered. variety is 75 cm and 60 cm, respectively. With experience, farmers can estimate the distance b) Mechanical planting without the string. This type of planting has the advantage of being After marking of the field has been concluded, quick, and if well supervised will give excellent then; results. However, if it is poorly supervised, it will give poor to disastrous results. This method allows • Divide the field team into three for the planting of a large acreage within pre-determined following activities: planting period. A compatible spacing with other • Holing out (digging of holes along the 30 cm mechanical operations like fertilizer application mark on the string); and weeding can be implemented. Check the • Placement of fertilizer and its covering; and machine well before the anticipated planting date • Planting and final covering. to make proper adjustment.

8 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 3: Marking of the field using strings

lways read the operator’s manual and • Count the number of seeds dropped by the seek advice from the suppliers for planter over a measured length in the field Aeffective usage. Every season, make sure at a set driving speed. The number can be that the planter is calibrated to avoid making multiplied to get total number dropped per costly mistakes. Below are some guidelines for hectare. The correct operating speed (e.g. 5 calibration: km/h) is normally indicated in the operator’s • Each planter must be tested separately. manual. • Select plates that will allow the largest seed of Supply of seeds your seed sample to go through. Make sure the plate does not allow two seeds at a time. To ensure near-perfect to perfect plant stands in a maize field, missing stands can be replanted • After determining an optimum plant from the remaining seeds. This process is termed population, choose a cog set that drops 10 as gap filling. This operation should be carried –15% more than the desired seed rate. out 5–7 days after planting (since maize seedling • Make sure that the driving wheel drops seeds takes up to 5 days to emerge). in the furrow opener.

9 Weed control

weed may be defined as any plant that narrow-leaf weeds, or with a mixture of both. is growing where it is not wanted (Altieri If crops are kept weed-free during the early Aand Letourneau, 1982). Thus, in a crop stages of plant growth, yields will not be affected field, all plants other than the crop(s) planted in significantly. At later stages the maize plants will the field are weeds. Weeds if not controlled can be well established and out-compete the weeds. cause significant yield losses. Therefore, weeds Although early weeding is critical to producing a in the maize fields should be controlled for the good yield, weed control at later stages is also following reasons: important in preventing the weeds from flowering • Weeds compete with maize crop for nutrients, and producing seeds, which would increase water, light and space. weed load in subsequent seasons. Harvesting maize fields is also easy if the crop is weed free. • Some weeds can be poisonous to both Weeding of a maize field at least twice (at 4 and humans and livestock. 8 weeks after planting) are required to keep the • Weeds can harbor pests and diseases that may field weed-free until harvest. It is important to attack crops, and interfere with harvesting. note that the first weeding can be done manually • If weeds are not controlled properly crop (by hand hoe) but the second one (8 weeks yields will be reduced by up to 50%. after planting) could be carried out by use of herbicides to avoid root damage. Weed competition The most critical period of weed competition Farmers and weeds is during the first 4 to 6 weeks after seedling Farmers should become familiar with the types emergence. Weeds thrive better than the maize of weeds present in their fields. For instance, crop under marginal environmental conditions, broadleaf weeds should be distinguished from including moisture stress (drought stress). A grasses. The farmer needs to learn which weeds maize field may be infested with broad-leaf or are annuals (i.e. with life span for only one

10 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa season) or perennials (i.e. live for more than roots and stems e.g. couch grass. Mechanical one year). This will help in designing appropriate weeding only cuts off the top parts while the control measures for the weeds, especially in the bottom parts of the weeds continue consuming application of chemicals. nutrients and water meant for the maize plants. These weeds should be controlled early before Types of weeds the beginning of the season as later attempt to control them will damage the crop, especially the Weeds can be categorized as annual and roots. perennial. • Annual weeds Methods of weed control These types complete their life cycle within one (i) Prevention—Practices that prevent the season; e.g. black jack. The seeds they produce introduction, propagation, and spread of will germinate even faster than the maize crop and weeds. For example: destroying the weeds are able to survive by producing a lot of seeds that before they set seeds, planting weed-free will germinate in the next season. After planting seed, using clean equipment on the farm, and the maize, usually annual weeds will germinate keeping the field margins clean to prevent faster than the rate at which maize seeds will weed invasion. germinate. They interfere with the growth of the crop during the critical period within first three (ii) Cultural—Cultural practices such as crop weeks. One of the most notorious weeds in rotation, intercropping and mulching help to maize production is Striga (figure 4). Striga spp. control weeds. are parasitic weeds that attack mainly cereals like (iii) Manual—Practices whereby human energy maize and other crops such as sorghum, millet is directly utilized to remove the weeds. This and upland rice. In Uganda, there are two species involves hand weeding using hoes or pangas, of economic importance; Striga hermonthica and hand pulling, hand slashing and push-type Striga asiatica. Yield losses attributed to Striga in weeders. However, hand weeding is so slow maize can go up to 100% at farm level (Kanampiu and labor intensive that may make weeds and Friesen, 2004). catch up with maize crop. • Perennial weeds (iv) Mechanical—This involves the use of These are weeds that are always in a maize garden farm tools and implements such as hoes, all the time every year. They multiply through cultivators, pangas, and a clean seedbed

Figure 4: Severely infested Striga fields

11 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

preparation to control weeds. In addition Weed Management) as no one weed control to clean seedbed preparation, it is usually method can meet the needs of any crop all necessary to take other measures of weed the time. control such as inter-row cultivation. Weeding should be done twice or three Advantages of using herbicides times and it must start as early as possible • Saves time in controlling weeds. because a young maize plant is very sensitive to weed competition. It should start when the • Reduces the chance of damaging roots. crop is about 7.5 cm high but once the crop • Helps in controlling perennial weeds that are is about 45 cm tall, weeding should not be difficult to control by cultural and mechanical necessary except in a few cases where there methods. are favourable conditions for weed growth. • Decreases the amount of tillage and allows At 45 cm, the leaves of vigorous maize plants a farmer to benefit from the advantages of will start covering the ground to suppress reducing tillage operations. weeds. In addition, weeding after this stage will destroy the root system. For successful Disadvantages of using herbicides inter-row cultivation, farmers should note the following: • All herbicides are poisonous. If they are not handled and used carefully, can be harmful • Start inter-row cultivation when the weeds to man, non-target plants and pollute the are still in their seedling stage. environment. • Do the cultivation when there is moisture • Some herbicides have long term residual in the field. effects and thus may damage crops grown on • Where possible, carry out inter-row the same field the following season. cultivation when the sun is hot so that • The use of herbicides requires technical skills weeds die immediately after cultivation. acquired through training and guidance. Weed control using mechanical methods The advantages of using herbicides outweigh has several disadvantages such as cost and disadvantages. Thus, farmers are encouraged to distance to cover given fragmented land use herbicides where applicable and safeguard tenure systems. against disadvantages through: (v) Chemical—Involves the use of herbicides • Sticking to recommended herbicides for selected for the soil, crop, weeds and stage maize and recommendations for their safe of crop development. For instance, after the use. maize seed has been planted, atrazine (pre- emergence herbicide) can be applied to kill • Good understanding of the type, functions the weeds before they emerge. Atrazine, and purpose of the different herbicides on usually applied immediately after planting, the market. This information can be obtained controls most annual broadleaf weeds and from the manufacturer as per label and some annual grasses. It is recommended for stockists of herbicides, National Agricultural use on soil with more than 35% clay. Research Institutes, Department of Crop Science at Universities, Agricultural Extension For successful weed control it is best to Officers and other relevant Agricultural carry out the procedure when the weeds Institution in ECA dealing with herbicides. In are still small, before competition sets in. It order for farmers to have good understanding is recommended to use a combination of on herbicide use, they should: the methods to reduce weeds (Integrated

12 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 5: A stockist shop that handles herbicides

• Make efforts to visit stakeholders highlighted planting cover crops, using mulch, crops rotation, above and intercropping.

• Attend field days, workshops and seminars Plant spacing—Plants spaced closely will develop a dense cover quickly and shade the weeds that • Visit demonstrations that stockists use to try to grow and compete with the maize crop in educate farmers on proper use of herbicides the field. However, plant spacing should not be too close since this causes negative competition • Read the label on each package of herbicide between the maize plants. The ideal spacing will before use and follow the instructions as depend upon conditions in which the crop is indicated. grown. Closer spacing is possible in favorable The most commonly used herbicide for maize is growing conditions including fertile soils and Lasso plus Atrazine applied at the rate of 5 litres adequate moisture, whereas in drought-prone per ha (2 litres per acre) at the time of planting, environments and soils with low levels of nitrogen will control grasses and broad leafed weeds (Low N), wider spacing is advisable. effectively. Gramoxone, and Glyphosphate (2,4- Cover crops—Growing cover crops that develop D) at 1 litre/ha can also be used for control of quickly will help to suppress weeds before they broad leaf weeds before maize is 45 days old. grow. Some cover crops (such as black oats) Perennial weeds are controlled by application of control weeds by producing chemicals that 3 litres of Glyphosate per hectare. prevent weeds from growing. Cultural practices for weed control Mulching—Covering the soil with mulch makes it difficult for weeds to grow because they do not Cultural methods of weed control use practices have enough space or light required for growth. common to good land and water management. Mulch should, however, be selected carefully. These include planting clean seed free from Mulch should not include flowers and seeds of weeds, planting crops at the right spacing,

13 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa weeds, otherwise they may introduce more weed Chemical methods seeds into the field. This method of weed control makes use of Crop rotation—Rotating crops helps to break the herbicides. A herbicide is any chemical that has life cycle of certain weeds and pests common to phytotoxic properties, which make it suitable for a particular crop. Use of Mucuna beans (velvet use as an agricultural chemical for weed control of bean) in rotation with maize, particularly in a field weeds. However, there are resistant weed types infested by spear grass (Imperata cylindrica) for each herbicide. Therefore farmers should not helps to reduce the population of the spear grass. expect 100% kill of all the weeds by application/ use of herbicides.

14 Some aspects of QPM seed and grain contamination

roduction of QPM seed is not different from 2. Foundation Seed—is the increase of the the production of normal maize seed. The breeder’s seed in a reasonable quantity that Psame stick standards (isolation distances, can be use for demonstrations and adoption maintenance of parental lines, etc) of maize seed studies. The responsibility of the seed production must be followed (Beck, 1999). The production rests with the seed companies only additional requirement to meet the standards and breeders. The QPM foundation seed for QPM seed is that the seed produced must be producers should ensure that they produce sent to the laboratory for tryptophan and protein their seed from fresh stock of breeder’s seed analysis to ensure that the values are above the (in case of open pollinated varieties) and required minimum. from fresh stock of parental lines (hybrids). Brief description of QPM seed classes Quality check is maintained by sending representative bulk sample of the foundation 1. Breeder’s Seed—is the seed produced by the seed for regular protein quality analysis. breeder in a small quantity (from a small plot), 3. Certified/commercial seed—is the increase either by use of isolation (distance, time) of foundation seed. The responsibility of or hand pollinations. In order to ensure the production of this class of seed rests with protein quality and endosperm modification seed companies with supervision of seed of seed productions, it is recommended inspectors. Use of isolation plots is the most that QPM breeder’s seed be produced in preferred method employed in the production half-sib isolation blocks (Vivek et al., 2007). of certified seed. Some seed companies work The responsibility of the breeder’s seed with contract growers or progressive farmers production rests with the breeder. to produce certified seed.

15 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

In order to produce good quality QPM grains, field near/next to a normal maize field does farmers are advised to buy seeds from reputable not completely change the entire harvest QPM seed companies or agricultural institutions to normal maize but rather induces levels of dealing in seed production. Care must be taken contamination ranging from 0 to 11%. Also, when choosing a source for QPM seed for farmers do not lose the entire benefit of QPM production of quality grains. under normal farming conditions where normal

maize farms may be in the vicinity (Vivek et al., QPM contamination in farmer’s fields 2007). Studies (Ahenkora et al., 1999; Twumasi-Afriyie et al., 1996b) have shown that planting a QPM

16 Soil nutrient management

Soil fertility Loss of soil fertility Properties of a fertile soil In farming, soil fertility may be lost through many

ways. Some of the ways are as a result of the Soil fertility is defined as the ability of the soil to farmer’s activities while others may be out of his produce and sustain high yields indefinitely. The control. Some of the common ways in which soil properties of a fertile soil that can support the fertility may be lost include the following: growth and yield of a good maize crop include the following: • Soil erosion where the top soil is blown or washed away by wind or water. • Good depth that affords plant roots greater volume to exploit. • Soil capping which involves formation of an impervious layer of soil on the surface of the • Good drainage to avoid water logging. soil which obstructs rain infiltration, leading to • Good aeration to promote healthy root runoff. development and functioning. • Development of hard pans a short distance • High water holding capacity. Maize needs below the surface of the soil. Hard pans may moisture that is evenly distributed throughout be caused by repeated ploughing at the same the growing season with the highest depth. requirement at tasseling. • Loss of organic matter through rapid oxidation • High level of nutrients. Maize has high nutrient by soil micro-organisms due to unduly too requirements, and the nutrients should be in frequent cultivations. a form that is available to the growing plants. • Leaching in which rainwater removes mineral • Optimum soil pH—maize grows well in the salts from the top to the lower layers of soil soils with pH ranging from 5 to 8. where they become unavailable to crops.

17 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

• Crop removal which breaks the natural cycle maize must include a good leguminous crop and prevents nutrients contained in the (soybean, groundnut, cowpea) for improving crop from returning to the soil that provided the nitrogen level of the soil. Nitrogen is them. Supply of available nutrients is thereby obtained from the air by legumes, which fix depleted. The soil is therefore like a bank it with help of bacteria in their root nodules. from which deposits have been withdrawn Groundnuts, soya bean and to some extent and need replenishment. common beans fix nitrogen. Maize grown • Weeds which compete with crops for after a leguminous crop will benefit from this nutrients. nitrogen. • Change in soil pH associated with incorrect • Minimum disturbance of soil e.g. zero tillage use of certain fertilizers which sometimes to conserve its organic matter content and changes in the soil pH. moisture. • Burning: burning of bush, grass or crop • Soil conditioning e.g. by liming or using acidic residues before cultivation exposes the land fertilizer as may be appropriate to maintain and leads to soil erosion. During burning, the soil pH heat destroys several plant nutrients in the • Weed control to reduce depletion of nutrients soil whereas some essential elements are lost by weeds in the form of gases. Burning also destroys • Use of both organic and inorganic manures useful soil organism. • Moisture conservation by use of mulches • Toxicity due to accumulation of salts, micro- • Erosion control nutrients such as manganese, iron, aluminum, boron, molybdenum, fluorine, etc, can poison Organic manures and chemical the plants if present in excess. fertilizers Methods of improving soil fertility Materials added by farmers to replace those lost from the soil are called soil fertility amendments. There are many ways of improving soil fertility. These can be classified into two main groups: The most important and common methods of maintaining and/or improving soil fertility include • Organic manure; and the following: • Inorganic fertilizers. • Improvement of nutrient-retaining ability Organic manures of a soil by adding organic manures (green manure, farm yard manure, etc.) to the soil. Organic manures are the fully decomposed organic matter and are derived from plant and • Improve drainage by breaking down surface animal residues. The organic manures are further capping and hard pans of the soil using classified into the following groups: implements. (1) Farmyard manure (FYM) • Practice crop rotation. Crop rotation means growing different crops in an ordered (2) Compost manure sequence on the same field. The objectives (3) Green manure of crop rotation are to conserve soil, maintain (4) Organic mulches nutrient balance in the soil, control weeds, diseases and pests by growing a variety of Where possible, farmers are encouraged to use crops, which have significantly different organic manures because they maintain soil growth habits, nutrient requirements, pests structure, improve water holding capacity and and diseases in sequence. A good rotation of improve aeration in addition to providing the

18 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa majority of nutrients required for plant growth. In Nitrate (CAN) as well as (N-P-K) which is sold comparison to inorganic fertilizers, farmers can as 25-5-5 and 17-17-17 that also supply other make their own organic manures or obtain from nutrients. The source of phosphorus commonly local sources at affordable prices as compared to used in Uganda is Diammonium Phosphate (DAP) inorganic fertilizers. which is 48% phosphorus and 18% nitrogen. Methods of application of organic Other sources of phosphorus are Single Super fertilizers Phosphate (SSP) and also Triple Super Phosphate (TSP) which can supply phosphorus Calcium and Surface application before planting- where some Sulphur. No deliberate efforts are being quantities of organic manures are put in different made to apply potassium except for the amount parts of the field ear marked for maize planting supplied in the application of N-P-K which has and spread uniformly. The manure is then varying amounts of nutrients depending on the ploughed down so that it well incorporated into formulation. For example, 17-17-17 NPK means the soil before planting. that a bag of the fertilizer has 17% nitrogen, Spot application- where properly decomposed 17% Phosphorus and 17% Potassium. Nutrient manure is either applied around the maize plants combinations of NPK are usually indicated on the or between the rows of maize plants. The manure bag. is then incorporated into the soil during weeding. Method of application of inorganic fertilizers Inorganic fertilizers Three methods are used to apply fertilizer. These are mineral fertilizers containing high These are: broadcast, drill application and point quantities of plant nutrients. The inorganic application. fertilizers provide specific chemicals, which may Broadcast application is when the fertilizer be lacking in the soil. In order to obtain maximum is applied all over the area. This is good for yield of the maize crop, it is advisable to use the nutrients such as phosphorus that stay in one correct rate, type and method of application of place for a long period of time, especially when it the fertilizers. is incorporated into the soil. The fertilizer applied Nitrogen is commonly supplied not only by the this way will benefit all the crops planted in the application of Urea but also Calcium Ammonium area and would be suitable in situations where

Table 2: Types of inorganic fertilizers commonly used in maize production Source N (%) P (%) K (%) Nitrogen Urea 46 DAP 18 48 CAN 27 Phosphorus DAP 18 48 SSP 18 TSP 46 Muriate of potash 60 Sulfate of potash 52

19 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa maize is planted in a mixture with other crops. The Rate of application of Inorganic main disadvantage is that it is spread too thinly Fertilizers and would not be sufficient if the farmer can only The amount of fertilizer to be applied will depend applies small amounts. However, broadcasting of on the initial soil fertility, the expected yield and fertilizers will encourage weed growth especially other factors that affect crop production. If the where weeds are controlled by weeding using soil is fairly fertile, the additional fertilizer will be hand hoeing. It is advisable to determine the less than in the case where the soil fertility has rate of fertilizer(s) to be applied before the actual been used up. application is carried out. Yield of one ton (1000 kg) of maize grain The drill method is when the fertilizer is applied takes from the soil 24.3 kg Nitrogen, 10 kg of as a drill in the seed fallow. It has the advantage phosphorus and 21.14 kg of Potassium. Thus, if in that little fertilizer is applied but has the a yield of 4 tons of maize is expected, the fertilizer disadvantage of the fertilizer not benefiting the application should aim at 97.2 kg of nitrogen, crops that are not planted directly along the seed 40 kg of phosphorus and 85.6kg of potassium. fallow/ line. Fortunately, a fair percentage of these minerals Point application is where fertilizer is applied in are being supplied by the soil. the vicinity of the plant, this could be around the At smallholder farmer level, the general plant or under the seed or with the seed in the recommendation is to apply one bottle-top cover same hole. It has the advantage of applying the of DAP per hill at planting and apply 2 bottle tops fertilizer where the plants can use it, and little of Urea at about 6 weeks after germination. This fertilizer will cover a large area. This method of rate of application is recommended for spacing fertilizer application mostly benefits the crop. of 75 cm (2.5 feet) between rows and 60 cm (2 It is efficient and commonly used by small feet) and two plants per hill. scale farmer in Uganda. DAP is applied in the seed hole, lightly covered with soil after which The rates above are just indicative. The amount the seed is dropped in the same hole before will vary depending on the plant population and covering. DAP is covered with soil because of soil fertility at the beginning of the season. In areas its corrosive nature that would otherwise kill the with reasonable levels of soil fertility, one might seed. Single and Triple super Phosphate can be find that there is no need to apply DAP. In some applied in the same seed hole and covered in cases one cap of urea per hill might be sufficient. one operation. Nitrogen fertilizers are applied at Since fields differ in fertility, it is recommended the base of the plant and incorporated into the that farmers together with researchers carry soil. Incorporation is necessary to avoid loss as out some trials on a smaller area to determine runoff and loss to the atmosphere in case of most the rate at which they can apply fertilizers to nitrogen sources. their crops. The extension staff will be helpful in

Table 3: Fertilizer recommendation for a smallholder farmer Fertilizer type Application rate using bottle top cap Rate (kg per ha) Rate (kg per acre)

DAP—one cap per hill 94.22 38.13

Urea—2 caps per hill 144 58.28

20 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa conducting such field trials. Farmers will require Soil testing services of extension staff to help them estimate the appropriate area for a given quantity of In order to precisely target correcting nutrient fertilizer(s) to be applied. deficiencies, soils should be tested. This is done at the appropriate soil testing laboratories. Although its merits outweight demerits, inorganic Quick indicative results can be obtained using a fertilizer(s) is expensive and might not appear simple-to-use ‘soil testing kit’ developed by the affordable by most small scale farmers. It is Soil Science department of Makerere University. important to make decision as to whether it is These services are available to the farmers on necessary for all the farmers to apply inorganic request. fertilizers. Although the stockists normally sell fertilizers in 50 kg bags, some distributors The importance of micronutrients package it in smaller weights such as 1 or 2 kg to maize growth which is more affordable and farmers can at least get part of the field fertilized, especially if they are Crop growth depends on, among other things, able to identify the poor spots within the field/ available soil nutrients. Both macro- and plots in good time during growing season. micronutrients are essential for plant growth and if a plant does not get enough of a particular The above rate is for the small scale farmers who nutrient it needs, the deficiency symptoms will normally apply fertilizer per hill. In the case of show in the general appearance of the plant. larger farmers, it is vital that the rate of fertilizer to Macronutrients are those elements needed in be applied as determined after the soil has been large amounts by the crop, and large quantities tested by qualified soil scientists. Then rates can have to be applied if the soil is deficient in one or be recommended for a particular farm based on more of them. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and the soil analysis results. potassium (K) are the ‘primary macronutrients’ Time of application of inorganic and these form the basis of NPK fertilizer fertilizers compounds. The ‘secondary macronutrients’ are calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulfur Nitrogen moves in the soil with water and will be (S). Fertilizers containing these elements are easily lost by sinking deeper into the soil where available on the market but not many in east and roots will not get it. It should therefore be applied central Africa use these fertilizers. Meanwhile, near the time when the plant needs it most. This micronutrients are those elements required in explains why only a little quantity of nitrogen is very small quantities. Despite being needed in applied at the time of planting and the bulk of small quantities, micronutrients are essential for it supplied 6 weeks later when the plants are the overall performance and health of the maize beginning to need it most. Phosphorus does not crop. They include iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), move in the soil, which means, it can be applied zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), and at planting during the season (supplied by DAP). boron (B). This is convenient especially as it is required for the development of the root system. It should Sources of macro and be incorporated, as much as possible, in the soil micronutrients for even distribution in the root zone. However, Potassium moves in the soil (similar to nitrogen) Plant nutrients are normally abundant in the soil. and, should therefore, be applied when the plants However, due to cropping practices and poor soil need it most before flowering. management, soil reserves have been depleted

21 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa in many arable soils and nutrient deficiencies Symptoms of soil nutrient have been linked to low maize yields. Overall, deficiencies in maize fertilizer application rates by farmers are very rare Symptoms of nutrient deficiencies in maize in most areas in ECA. Many farmers assume that most soils are fertile for the time being, hence do show in the general appearance as well as not need any additional nutrients. Micronutrient the colour of the plant. Typical symptoms are fertilizers are rarely used by farmers except in small (stunted) plants, pale green leaves, and few cases (commercial farmers). Deficiencies spotting or striping on leaves. If the symptoms of magnesium, sulfur, zinc, boron, copper, and are not reversed, grain yields can be severely manganese are on the increase in the recent affected. Field assessment is usually the first past, probably due to effects of climate change. step to take in order to identify symptoms of The problem is more acute on sandy soils, which soil nutrient deficiencies in a growing maize make up a large portion of agricultural soils in the crop. Deficiency symptoms of most elements region. Specific fertilizer formulations can be used are unique; however, in some cases, where to replenish declining soil stocks. However, use there is no clear distinction, a specialist should of micronutrient fertilizers requires consultations be involved to help identify the problem. Some with specialist to advice on effective application disease symptoms are quite similar to nutrient and proper management of the fertilizers, since improper use (e.g. excess doses) can result in deficiencies (e.g. striping or spotting), so it is poisoning/ killing of the crop. important to clearly differentiate between the two symptoms. Besides declining natural reserves in soil, and inadequate fertilizer use, nutrient deficiencies Boron (B) is one of the micronutrient deficient are compounded by the prevailing conditions in acute quantities in arable soils on smallholder. in the soil environment. For example, if soil is The deficiency may easily be mistaken for iron too acidic (pH < 4.0) or too alkaline (pH ≥ 7.0), deficiency where there is a general stunted some nutrients in the soil solution will become growth and leaves fail to uncurl properly. unavailable for uptake by the maize crop. All However, without boron, leaves may fail to micronutrients, except molybdenum, are more emerge altogether. Boron availability is reduced soluble in acid conditions. Thus, care should be under low rainfall/drought conditions or in soils taken when using liming materials as over-liming low in organic matter. Farmers maintaining high (increasing pH) can make them unavailable to the levels of organic matter in their fields normally do crop. not face boron deficiencies. Micronutrient deficiencies are usually apparent Iron (Fe) deficiency symptoms are characterized on the new leaves of maize since it is during the by a stunted growth and yellow stripes between development of new tissue that they are most green veins along the entire length of the leaf required. Some symptoms of soil micro nutrient blade. However, in most maize systems of deficiencies in maize crop are given below: southern Africa, iron deficiency is rare because Zinc (Zn) deficiency symptoms may appear of its general abundance in most soils. within the first two weeks after crop emergence Molybdenum (Mo)—a typical deficiency symptom as a broad band of yellowing tissue on one or is noticed in dwarfing growth. Maize crop grown both sides of the leaf midrib (leaf centre). These in soils with low levels of molybdenum develops symptoms may be reversed by using zinc sulfate yellowing of older leaves and younger leaves fertilizer. usually fail to unroll

22 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Manganese (Mn) has a deficiency symptom of It is important to note that the extent and dwarf growth which is similar to Mo. Some of its severity of nutrient hunger symptoms can be unique deficiency symptoms include the failure addressed by a variety of fertilizers, which may of maize seed to germinate entirely. be applied basally (for macronutrients) or as foliar applications (in the case of micronutrients). Copper (Cu) is an important micronutrient for maize production. Its deficiency symptoms may be induced by excessive application of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers. Typical symptoms include a general yellowing (chlorosis) of younger leaves. In older leaves, leaf tips curl like pig tails and die and yellowing may also be apparent at the lower end of leaves. Sulfur (S)—hunger symptoms in maize are similar to those of nitrogen and it is easy to mistake symptoms of the two macronutrients. Plants show a pale green colour that generally appears first on the younger leaves. Magnesium (Mg)—Inadequate supply of Mg appears as definite and sharply defined series of yellow/green streaks on all leaves due to a general loss of green colour which starts with the bottom leaves and later moves up the stalks to the upper leaves. Leaf veins remain green, Figure 6: Symptoms of nutrient resulting in a distinct striped appearance. elements in the maize leaf

23 Constraints to QPM production and control measures

he main reasons for the stagnation or Characteristics of some important decline in QPM production include pests diseases of maize and diseases, competitive weeds, extensive T 1. Grey leaf spot use of unimproved maize seeds, depletion of soil fertility, erratic rainfall, prevalence of, little The disease is caused by Cercospora zeae- improvement in agronomic and post-harvest maydis, C. sorghi var maydis. This disease, technologies, and limited use of yield-enhancing also known as Cercospora leaf spot, and is purchased inputs such as fertilizers and other characterized by lesions beginning as small, agrochemicals. In addition the farmers experience regular, elongated brown-gray necrotic spots a lot of loss in seed and grain due to poor post growing parallel to the veins. Minimum tillage -harvesting handling. practices have been associated with an increased incidence of GLS. Development of the disease Important diseases and pests of is favoured by extended periods of leaf wetness maize and cloudy conditions, and can result in severe leaf senescence following flowering and poor The leading foliar pathogens of maize include: grain filling. Cercospora zeae-maydis, causal agent of gray leaf 2. Northern leaf blight spot (GLS); Exserohilum turcicum, causal agent The disease is caused by Exserohilum turcicum. of Northern Leaf Blight (NLB); maize streak virus Early symptom is the lesion (burn like) that (MSV); insect pests (store pests, stem borers) as normally appear on lower leaves and increase in well as parasitic weeds (Striga). number as the plant develops, and can lead to

24 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa complete burning of the foliage, characterized by slightly oval, water-soaked, small spots produced on the leaves. These grow into elongated, spindle-shaped necrotic lesions. Development of the disease later in the season (after grain filling stage) might not cause heavy yield losses to QPM.

Figure 8: Foliar symptoms of Turcicum leaf blight

Maize lethal necrosis (MLN) A new disease of maize that appeared in the farmers’ fields in Kenya in 2011 has since spread to Uganda, Tanzania and South Sudan. This disease can cause up to 100% loss hence threatening food security and income. The Figure 7: Foliar symptoms disease is difficult to control for two reasons: manifested by infected grey leaf spot 1. It is caused by a combination of two viruses. 2. The vectors that transmit the disease-causing 3. Maize streak virus viruses may be carried by wind This disease is caused by a virus and transmitted over long distances. by Cicadulina spp. Leafhopper. The leafhopper transmits the virus for most of its life after feeding The disease was first identified in the USA in on an infected plant. Symptoms begin within a 1976 (Niblett and Claflin, 1978). MLN is caused week after infection and consist of very small, by the double infection of maize plants with round, scattered spots in the youngest leaves. maize chlorotic mottle virus (MCMV) and any of The number of spots increases with plant growth; the cereal viruses in the Potyviridae group, such subsequently enlarge parallel to the leaf veins. as sugarcane mosaic virus (SCMV), maize dwarf Fully elongated leaves develop chlorosis with mosaic virus (MDMV), or Wheat streak mosaic broken yellow streak along the veins, contrasting virus (WSMV). MCMV or SCMV produce milder with the dark green colour of normal foliage. symptoms when they infect maize alone; in Severe infection causes stunting, and the maize combination, these two viruses rapidly produce plants can die prematurely without developing a synergistic reaction that seriously damages or ears. kills infected plants.

25 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 9: Foliar symptoms of maize streak virus disease

Typical symptoms of MLN • Necrosis of young leaves in the whorl before • Mild to severe mottling on the leaves, usually expansion, leading to a symptom known as starting from the base of young leaves in the “dead heart” and eventually plant death. whorl and extending upwards toward the leaf • Premature drying of cobs and tip die- tips. back result in no pollen production and • Stunting and premature aging of the plants. subsequently poorly filled cobs.

• Dying (known as “necrosis”) of the leaf Prevention and control MLN margins that progresses to the mid-rib and • Plant certified seed produced from MLN free eventually the entire leaf. areas

Figure 10: Foliar symptoms MLND and other virus diseases of Maize

26 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 11: Premature Figure 12: Leaf necrosis Figure 13: Diffuse mosaic drying of cobs and dead heart symptoms

Figure 14: Whole field infected with MLND

• Rotate maize with non-cereal crops like beans, season; this creates a break between maize sweet potato, sunflower, Irish potato. crops and interrupts the disease cycle. • Do not plant a new maize crop near an • Scout fields at least once a week to identify infected field. Wind-blown insect vectors can diseased plants transmit the disease from the infected field to • Uproot and burn all plants showing symptoms the new crop immediately • Plant maize at the onset of the main rainy • Do not move diseased plant materials far from season, rather than during the short rain the field

27 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 15: Maize ears infected by ear rot

• Weed fields regularly to eliminate alternate General field management practices hosts for insect vectors, especially grasses. for disease control in maize • Boost plant growth and vigor by: planting at onset of rains, applying manure, basal and • Rotate diseased fields to non-cereal crops topdressing fertilizers (like sunflower, soybean) for at least one year. • Control insect vectors using appropriate Never plant QPM after a diseased maize crop. insecticide. Treat seed with Imidacloprid 350 • Bury infected debris soon after harvest to g/L (Gaucho), followed by insecticide spray enhance breakdown of the residue so that the with Imidacloprid 100 g/L + β-cyfluthrin 45 fungus dies in a short period of time. g/L (Thunder) at the rate of 0.3 l/ha starting • Because moisture on leaf surfaces is important at 1 or 3 weeks after emergence (WAE) throughout the disease cycle, efforts should • Use maize varieties that are tolerant or be made to avoid practices that extend dew resistant to MLN periods. Therefore, irrigation should not be scheduled during late afternoon or early Ear rot evening, especially after outbreaks have Ear rots are commonly found in hot, humid already occurred. maize-growing areas. Maize ears show characteristic development of irregular bleached • With GLS, other cultural practices appear to areas on husks. These areas enlarge until the have little effect on gray leaf spot development. husks become completely dried, although the However, fungicides are important for the plant is still green. If husks are removed, ears spot control of GLS. appear chaffy and bleached, with a white, cottony • Avoiding mechanical damage to plants will growth between the kernels. Stem borer injury in reduce plant injury, which is the primary the ear often increases incidence of this disease. means of infection by the fungi. Stenocarpella maydis produces the mycotoxin • Control of insect damage (e.g. maize stem diplodiatoxin and S. macrospora produces borers damages) will also limit plant injury. diplodiol, both harmful to birds.

28 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 16: Termite damage in QPM field

• A well-balanced fertilizer regime will reduce occurs at an early stage of crop growth. Damage disease severity. High levels of nitrogen after physiological maturity will lead to grains of fertilization encourage plant growth (making poor quality because after lodging, the ears are the plant succulent) and hence increase exposed to soil contamination. disease attacks. However, application of Control phosphorous reduces disease incidence. • Several plants have been identified which • Management of overwintering infected crop could be used as trap or repellent plants residue will reduce the amount of available in a ‘push-pull’ strategy. Those plants that inoculum at the onset of the subsequent appear particularly promising are Napier growing season. grass (Pennisetum purpureum Schumach), Stem borers Sudan grass (Sorghum vulgare sudanense Stem borers are the most important insect pests Stapf.), molasses grass (Melinis minutiflora of economic importance in the QPM production Beauv.), silver leaf desmodium (Desmodium fields, followed by the termites. (Please write one uncinatum Jacq.) and greenleaf desmodium paragraph on the most important types of stem (Desmodium intortum Urb.). borers and some control measures; a picture of • Dusban (Chloryrifos): Dusban kills by contact. damaged maize crop will be helpful) About 20–40 ml of dusban dissolved in 10- Termites 20 litres of water is sufficient to kill a termite mound/antihill. Other chemicals for the Various species of termites attach maize and control of termites include terminator, dusban damage is particularly noticeable during drought , pyrinex, troban, endosulphan, malataf. seasons or in areas with erratic rainfall. They destroy the roots and the base of the stem • Regent 3-G (Fipronil): This is used where there leading to lodging. Destruction continues even are no mounds in the garden. Mix 50 gm with on fallen plants. In extreme cases, damage can two litres of water and apply to locations of lead to almost 100% yield loss especially if it feeding termites. Apply to several locations

29 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

within the field infested by termites. The of maize plant. Once germinated, the weed Fipronil kills the worker due to excitement, establishes parasitic attachments with the root of leading to over working and exhaustion, then the host and starts deriving all its nutrients from eventually death. The queen stops feeding the host. and dies of starvation. The control of Striga is a special case and • Imidacloprid systemic insecticide is also an expensive for farmers to manage; Striga tolerant important agrichemical for the control of QPM varieties can be useful. Generally, Striga termites. infested fields should be avoided. However, Striga Striga infestation may be minimized by planting The main species of Striga that reduce maize legume crops in rotation with maize. production significantly in ECA is Striga hermonthica. Generally, Striga spp. produce Post-harvest losses numerous tiny seeds (50,000–500,000 seeds Inadequate maize production facilities and per plant). The seeds are normally dispersed by inappropriate methods for seed and grain wind, water, livestock, man, farm machinery and storage are the major causes of seed and grain contaminated crop seeds. Once shed, the seeds insecurity among rural farmers. This impairs can stay viable in the soil for up to 20 years. The the maintenance of sufficient and safe seed seeds normally germinate only in response to production compounded with poverty, and chemical stimulants exuded by the host roots insufficient technical and financial support.

Figure 17: Two different drying methods used by small-scale farmers

30 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa Maize weevil (Sitophilus zeamais) Sources of maize grains infestation Maize weevils the unwanted insect pests in most • Cross infestation from neighbouring lots of of the storage areas. Maize weevils are small stores. and easy to kill, but they can complete their life cycle quickly. Adult females start laying eggs • Migration from waste or rubbish. almost immediately. Once they start production • Hiding places in stores e.g. cracks. activities in a storage structure, their population • Use of infested bags. is sure to blossom into a problem which will need attention. Maize weevil is a primary pest and the • Introduction of infested lots. damage to maize is caused by adult feeding and A high rate of reproduction and short larvae tunneling within the grains. development period enable the maize weevils to cause important damage by rapidly developing from a small number of individual insects to a large mass. There are genetic differences among maize varieties with regard to resistance to storage pests. Where possible, farmers should select resistant varieties to weevil attacks and other storage pests. Control • Harvesting maize at the right field moisture. Weevils can only breed in grain with moisture content of more than 9.5% t and at temperatures within the range 13–35°C. • Apply storage insecticides. Figure 18: Maize weevils on infested • A routine fumigation of storage facilities. maize ear • Proper construction and maintenance of the stores.

Figure 19: Harvesting at proper moisture content and insecticides used for the control of store pests

31 Important features of quality in Qpm

uality of QPM products is usually an The first impression of the consumers agreement of farmers, traders and about the quality of a QPM product begins Qprocessors on the criteria to use with its appearance (grain size and colour) from post-harvest, marketing and which determine visual attractiveness of processing of the QPM grain. It is important finished QPM products. Consumers in that QPM must be safe and suitable for human ECA prefer white QPM for food while feed consumption and livestock feeding. It should manufacturers prefer yellow QPM with high be free from abnormal flavours, odours, and levels of carotene which is important for living insects. Buyers also prefer grain with chicken production. Organoleptic aspects the moisture content not exceeding 14% by like mouth feel (texture) and flavour of the mass in accordance with US 98 standard. finished products like QPM cakes and bread The effects on grain quality thus start from are important to the consumers. Based on harvesting of the QPM through transporting the texture required by different consumers, and to storage. Yields should be optimized 100% QPM can be used in preparation of once the plant reaches physiological products or as an ingredient (30–50%) maturity. This is when the kernel has the in preparation of composite flours to maximum content of dry matter. Therefore, supplement wheat flour for bread, cakes, post-harvest handling processes harvesting, and biscuit. Hence, quality aspects of QPM drying, shelling, treatment and storage are preferred by consumers may be determined very important in terms of minimizing losses by sensory evaluations of different food not only in quality but also in quantity. products containing different proportions of QPM flour.

32 Harvest and post-harvest management of Qpm

Harvesting • Ears begin to droop (hanging downward) on the stalk Maize is a non-perishable commodity that can be stored for a long period of time in • The grain acquires a glossy surface and unprocessed form without undergoing rapid hard with floury texture when bitten deterioration. Therefore, QPM shelf life can through. greatly be increased by manipulating the • The kernel shows a black layer at the prevailing ambient temperatures, relative bottom when peeled humidity, moisture content, storage pests The chemical components and nutritive and diseases to obtain high quality grains. values of QPM are susceptible to change The optimum time of harvesting QPM is after immediately the grain is harvested. In physiological maturity when the moisture addition, subsequent operations such as content is about 20–35%. Different QPM storage and processing may also cause varieties take different times at different changes and need to be carefully considered. agro-ecological zones (AEZs) to attain Generally, harvesting must be done when physiological maturity (usually between 90- the conditions are dry to avoid rotting, 180 days). There are several indicators that germination of the grain and mold growth. show the crop has attained physiological Harvest of QPM does not have a strict maturity and these include: specific time like other crops because maize • Yellowing of most of the leaves and some does not shatter. Most farmers prefer to start drying up harvest maize when the moisture content • Maize stalk and husk turn yellow and of the grain is between 18–20%. Prior eventually brown to harvesting, farmers must prepare the

33 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 20: Dry maize ready for harvesting following before commencing the actual b) Field drying and late harvesting system harvest QPM crop in the field: where QPM is left to dry in the field for • Clean the store by removing old grain and 4 – 7 weeks beyond maturity, either on dirt from place where the ears will be put stalks, stacks or heaps. after harvesting. Recommendations during harvesting • Harvesting tools, carts, wheel barrows, • Harvest QPM after physiological maturity; bags and baskets must be cleaned to avoid leaving the QPM to stay too long avoid infestation of new maize grains by in the field as this will increase post insects. -harvest losses due to lodging, damages • The drying place, e.g. crib or equipment by termites and birds. must be cleaned and disinfected. • Complete all harvest processes within • Harvest is mostly done by hand; enough a short time to reduce the risk of post- labour force should be involved to harvest harvest losses. and carry the ears from the field to the • Do not throw ears in dirty places which drying place soon after harvest. can be sources of contamination. While Harvest of QPM can be done manually or harvesting, put the ears in a clean mechanically; there are two types of harvest container like basket, bag, etc. systems namely: • During harvesting, sort out ears infested a) Timely harvesting system where QPM by insects, or those with discoloured is harvested timely after attaining grains. Put together only the good looking physiological maturity to minimize post ears with well filled grains. maturity losses in the field.

34 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 21: Bending down the upper part to speed up drying process

• Transport the ears to the drying place livestock consumption. Thus, drying is an as soon as possible and put them in important operation before storage so as to improved cribs to start drying process. keep down grain moisture content, relative • Do not heap the ears in any open spaces humidity (RH), hence ensure quality grains outside as this will expose them to all the for marketing and final use. The QPM grain dangers of post-harvest losses. must be dried soon after harvesting to prevent germination, growth of bacteria and fungi. In Post-harvesting activities addition, drying retards the development of mites and insects considerably. However, if After harvesting, all the materials such as drying is carried out too rapidly and at high baskets, bags, etc, used during harvest temperatures, it will induce the formation of must be cleaned and stored properly, away stress cracks, and discoloration, which will from sources of contamination and insect affect the efficiency of dry milling and other breeding places. processes. Drying Drying methods Drying can be done manually or by use Drying is the systematic reduction of crop of fully mechanized operations. In most moisture to safe levels of 12–13% suitable tropical countries, drying is sped up by for storage. Drying is one of the key post- bending down the upper part of the plant harvest operations since all other operations holding the ear, a practice that also prevents depend on it. Wet grains go bad and attract the kernels from becoming soaked when it insects and mould. High moisture content rains. Similarly, in northern Tanzania, after causes damage through fungal growth/ physiological maturity, the upper part is cut infestation and aflatoxin poisoning, thus to feed the animals and the ears are left on making the grains unfit for both human and the plant to dry.

35 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 22: The local cribs

1. Traditional drying methods—there are stringed up into bunches and then several traditional methods of drying suspended. maize and these include: • Ears with or without husks are tied and • De-husked ears are spread on bare hung above fire places in the kitchen. ground to sun dry. • De-husked ears stored in round farm • De-husked or ears with husks are structures or rectangular slatted wall placed in poles or tree branch to dry; farm structures. ears in the husks (sheaths) may be

Figure 23: An improved crib within the homestead

36 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 24: Drying and cleaning maize seed on plastic sheet

Drying maize on plastic sheets or local mats • To improve efficiency, the partially dried is a common practice with farmers who are grain is stirred and mixed with the new trying to keep maize off the ground during layer. drying period. Therefore, this method is time Portable batch dryers consuming and labour intensive as it involves lots of grain handling. Farmers must avoid • These types of dryers are mobile and can drying the QPM on the ground because the be moved from place to place. grain that is in contact with the ground will • The dryers operate with heated air absorb moisture and pick up dirt, insects etc. between 60°C to 82°C. Disadvantages of drying maize on mats or Continuous flow dryers plastic sheets or tarpaulins include: • Dryers with a continuous flow of QPM • The grain must be watched while it dries. grain through heated and unheated • At night or when it rains, the grain must sections so that it is discharges both dry be brought under shelter. and cool conditions. The equipment is the central point in grain storage depots • Risk of contamination from soil dusts, or seed companies. stones, animal droppings, fungal and insect infestation. Threshing/shelling • Losses from birds, poultry and domestic This is the removal of maize grains from the animals, resulting into contamination and cob and winnowing. The ears must be dried losses in quantity. well before shelling as it is difficult to shell 2. Improved drying methods at a moisture level content above 25%. The most efficient shelling is achieved when the Layer drying grain has been dried to 13–14% moisture • Harvested QPM grains are placed in a bin content. Traditionally, shelling is done by one layer at a time. hand but it is a tedious labour intensive

37 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa operation with low productivity (output of 10 • Hand-held devices of various designs and – 25 kg/hour). outputs

Advantages of shelling • Small rotary hand sheller • Reduce required storage capacity. • Free standing manually operating sheller • Facilitate effective application of • Pedal operated air screen grain cleaner insecticide. Storage • Reduce grain susceptibility to large grain During storage, the QPM grain like normal borer (LGB), maize weevils and other maize grain must remain dry, cool and store pests. clean. Storage period can be extended for Low-cost shelling equipment is available and up to 2 years without significant reduction in can reduce much of the current high and quantity and quality. However, the majority tedious labour requirements. These include of farmers sells off their QPM grains cheaply the following: soon after harvesting due to financial needs

Figure 25: Various types of hand-held maize shellers

Figure 26: Free standing manually operating sheller

38 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa as well as anticipated losses in stores and Improved storage structures later buy food at exorbitant prices. There are many improved storage structures The important emphasis in any maize grain that can extend the storage duration of storage system is to maintain the stored QPM grains until when market prices are grains in good condition so as to avoid favorable. Examples of improved storage deterioration both in quantity and quality. facilities include metal silos, store rooms/ QPM grains can be stored either on cobs warehouse. or shelled in various storage structures or containers for different lengths of time. The A good long-lasting storage structure should storage period can be for short-term (4–5 have the following features: months), season-long (6–9 months) and • Maintain an even, cool and dry storage long term (>9 months). environment. Objectives of storage facilities • Should not allow re-wetting of grain by • To service a marketing and trading system either moisture migration or rain. from rural to national level. • Offer protection from storage loss agents • To supply food to the farm household such as insect pests, rodents, moulds, from one harvest season to the next. birds and thieves. • To save food for household until next • Be simple and inexpensive to construct harvest. using locally available materials and skills. • To provide carry-over in case of crop • Be easy to operate, clean and repair. failure and natural disasters. Good hygiene is the basic requirement for • To preserve seed for planting the next successful storage at farmer level. Farmers season. must strive to undertake hygiene measures because they are simple, effective and cheap. • To preserve the quality of grains from deteriorating for a long period of time. Hermetic bags • To keep food grains away from rains and These bags are commercially available at unfavourable temperature fluctuations. affordable prices and help to keep grains in storage for a long period. These bags work There are two main types of storage structures by excluding oxygen that will make it difficult for maize: traditional and improved storage for insect pests to survive and those that structures. manage to get in will die. Traditional storage systems • Outdoor storage structures where maize Metal silos ears are stored in traditional granaries. The metal silo is airtight cylindrical equipment used for storing and preserving grains. Metal • Indoor storage facilities where maize ears silos can protect grains from rodents, fungi, are stored in a specific store-room, either insects and thieves. The silos can keep QPM hanged above a fire place or grain stored for up to 3 years without being attacked by in small containers such as guards, tins, large grain borer or weevils. The metal silos etc. are made in different sizes that can store 400, • Underground storage facility- is a ground 800, 1200 or 2000 kg. Another advantage of dug structure lined with straw and thick the metal silos is that they can be kept inside plastic sheets. the house such that thieves cannot steal

39 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure: 27: GrainPro ‘superbags’ MaskAgrik ‘smartbags’ IRRI bag easily and neither can there be destruction • Currently, all buyers require bagging from vermin. Losses in QPM grains can be before dispatch of the maize grains. reduced to minimum levels through adoption • The transport system available is more of the metal silo technology. The DONATA suited to transporting bagged than bulk QPM project is currently disseminating the grains. QPM technologies with the use of metal silos for efficient grain storage at household • Bagged grain is easily quantified when level. The technology will provide farmers receiving, dispatching or checking the with a reliable storage option to enable them stock. store enough QPM grains for the family’s • Bag storage requires less capital consumption and sell the surplus later in the investment than bulk storage. season at relatively better prices. • Bag storage is easy to manage, cheap and Store room and warehouse - bag storage of efficient. shelled grains in well designed store rooms • The bag system involves little risk in long is the most suitable method of storing maize term storage system. grains in the tropical countries of ECA. Although a bulk system of storage also exists, bag storage is more appropriate for small scale farmers because of the following reasons:

Figure 28: Metal silos for improved household storage

40 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Fig 29: Bag storage in store room

Store positioning 14oC and above 42oC development of insect pests generally does not take place. Most • The store should be located on a raised storage pests die at temperatures below site with good drainage to ensure that 5oC and above 45oC. The optimum relative there is no stagnant water in or around humidity for most storage maize pests lies at the store. around 70%, the minimum being 25–40% • Set up the store with the longitudinal and the maximum 80–100%. Very few side on an East-West axis (less radiation species of storage insect pests are able to on the building) or exposed to the main survive in extremely dry conditions. The wind direction. This creates balanced climatic conditions in ECA region obviously temperature conditions thereby reducing favor rapid development of insects that the danger of condensation. cause increase damage to maize in storage. • Locate the store on firm soil with good road connections to enable easy Storage insect pests for QPM grains are transportation. not able to develop quickly or multiply • Crop residue may be used as fodder, fuel successfully in very dry conditions. Their rates of development below 11.5% moisture Conditions favouring storage pest and content are distinctly slower, and at moisture contents below 8% many fail to breed at all. methods of control Moisture contents of 12–18% favour rapid Insect pest populations in stored maize are increase in insect pest population, especially influenced by availability of food, relative under conditions of suitable temperature humidity, temperature and moisture content and favourable relative humidity conditions. of the grains. Temperatures of 27oC to 31oC Therefore, the moisture contents of maize in are optimal for development of pests in store should be below 13.5% to avoid insect stored maize grains. At temperatures below attacks. 41 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa There are various techniques of controlling • “Actelic” 1% use 100 g for 90–100 kg storage insect pests of maize including: QPM grain is most effective for weevils and moths. • Indigenous methods mostly used by farmers, but not always effective, are the • A mixture of Actellic and Permethrin use of ash, and smoke. super dust is effective for most storage • Use of appropriate chemical products pests including large grain borer.

42 Value addition

alue addition refers to any handling or for QPM farmers. Currently, there is high operational activity that increases the demand for technologies that can reduce Vvalue of product. It aims at increasing the cost of production of processed goods returns or profit through provision of a in order to make businesses competitive solution to a product through the marketing among farming communities and QPM chain. Value addition may not necessarily users. Therefore, women and youths can involve physical transformation of a product/ employ themselves by establishing small change of form. Although it has a cost and enterprises to prepare and sell the QPM ultimately increases the cost of the product, foods and snacks. Introduction of the QPM value addition is important in increasing snacks during Farmer Field days, Agricultural shelf life and usefulness of QPM products, shows, in Mother Child Health Centres and improves taste, increases uniformity, school feeding programs has attracted a lot reduces bulkiness hence easier to transport of interest and demand for QPM. In addition and store. It also guarantees confidence and to its significance in human health, QPM is satisfaction/visual in consumers. Hence, known to play an increasingly important role value addition requires creating awareness in reducing the protein supplement in pig for the market to accept/demand the product and poultry feed when used as an ingredient. at the value and should be profitable. The aggregate value or level of processing Development and support for commercial QPM can be of different levels and level QPM processing and value addition is complexities, ranging from levels I to III. a strategy to alleviate marketing constraints • Level I involves simple operations such at farm level. Processing has potential for as washing, cleaning, ginning, roasting, enabling QPM to attain an industrial status classification, bulk packing and storage that would help to create more employment, improve nutrition and increase incomes • Level II includes more complicated processes such as refrigerating, milling,

43 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa cutting, mixing, dehydration, cooking and Transportation and storage values include: packaging. – Transport cost; • Level III involves operations such as – Storage cost; and extraction, distillation, and freezing. – Labour cost. Value addition of QPM includes some aspects QPM food processing facilitates eating, easy of post-harvest handling namely cleaning, sorting, grading, drying, packaging, packing digestibility, easy absorption and utilization and labeling. QPM processing can be by the body systems. The following QPM achieved through milling, boiling, roasting, products can be produced, marketed and deep frying, baking, cooking, steaming, utilized: fermentation, extrusion and enzymatic • QPM flour packed in 1, 2 and 5 kg packs; processes. • QPM germ; Processing of QPM products values include: • QPM oil; – Milling as straight flour; • QPM snacks such as cakes, biscuits, – Composite flour/enriched flour; bread, chapatis, cookies and cornflakes; – Packing and labeling; • QPM products like porridge mix flour recommended for feeding children – Flour fermentation and manufacture of who are malnourished under the age alcoholic products; of five. Also the composite flour is – Starch and glucose manufacture; and recommended for weaning children and – Manufacture of animal feed. lactating mothers.

Figure 30: Fresh delicious QPM salad

44 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 31: Roasted fresh QPM being sold in the market

Fresh QPM grain processing • Boiled fresh QPM is liked by many people in the cities in ECA. • Preparation of fresh QPM grain mixed with beans (kande). QPM is suitable for use as ingredient in • Porridge ‘uji’ of crashed fresh QPM. various food products to improve taste and nutritive value. A typical example of QPM • Preparation of fresh delicious QPM salad. ingredient in food products is “Kande”. It • Roasted fresh QPM are sweeter and is prepared from QPM grain for the whole nutritious. It offers high potential niche family. This has been used for school business for women and youths. children, orphaned children in centers as

Figure 32: Orphan children feeding on Kande at Mgolole, Morogoro, Tanzania

45 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 33: QPM food

Figure 34: Many QPM enterprises have been set up in the region

46 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 35: The CEO of TANSEED introducing the Tanzanian Minister to various QPM product exhibition shown in Figure 27, taken at Mgolole Orphan • Birth day cakes; and Centre in Morogoro, Tanzania. • Send off/ wedding cakes. Plain or spiced QPM porridge suits people of As shown in Figure 30 below, the all ages and in all environments Tanzania Minister of Natural Resources Preparation of cakes from a uniquely and Environment, Dr Mwandosya, being blended QPM + wheat flour for business introduced to the various QPM cakes by and ceremonies include: the chief executive officer (CEO) of TanSeed International during the 2008 “NANE NANE • Queen cakes; AGRICULTURAL SHOW” in Morogoro, • Cup cakes; Tanzania.

47 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa Preparation of Stiff porridge ‘Ugali’ with feeds production. It is more economical to QPM for improved nutrition and digestibility. use diets incorporating QPM as it can lead to QPM processing provides wide selection progressive reductions in the use synthetic of traditional ugali style to meet needs and feed additives. QPM will reduce the use preferences of wide consumers in ECA. of fish meal and imported synthetic amino acids. This will reduce the cost of the feed, • 100% QPM ugali; making the feed more profitable. It will also • QPM + Cassava ugali; improve the commercial poultry industry • QPM + sorghum ugali; and which will provide a sustainable market for • QPM + finger millet ugali. QPM grain in the region. QPM in livestock feeds Implication of using QPM in animal feed Protein of high quality is required in the preparation of feeds; hence large amounts • It improves the quality of the feed of fish meal are always used. Worldwide, because of its superiority to normal maize about 70% of the maize produced is in its amino acid balance and nutrient utilized in livestock feed. Fifty percent of the composition. commercial poultry feeds consist of maize. • It will reduce the additional requirements In addition synthetic amino acids mainly of lysine and tryptophan. lysine and methionine which are imported, • It has been demonstrated that chickens must be added to poultry feed. fed QPM grow faster and lay more eggs. Quality protein maize is superior to • More QPM will find a ready market in the normal maize in its amino acids (lysine Livestock Feed Industry especially for and tryptophan) balance and nutrient yellow QPM composition, and improves the performance • It has been proved to more profitable to of livestock and poultry. Since QPM contains use QPM as this will reduce the use of fish 50 % more lysine and tryptophan than normal meal and synthetic lysine. maize, it is useful in the commercial livestock

Figure 36: QPM feeding to pigs in Busia, Uganda

48 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 37: Poultry fed on QPM Bran at Kamuli Uganda

Figure 38: Chickens fed with QPM and Non QPM in Mweneditu IPTA in DRCongo

Figure 39: Chickens fed with QPM and NON QPM in Ogum group IPTA in Lira Uganda

49 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa

Figure 40: Various QPM food products

50 The role of standards in maize

romotion of standardization and of maize is offered on the basis of variety, grading of agricultural commodities wholesomeness, appearance, colour, Pis an important aspect of agricultural presence of foreign matter, damaged grains, marketing. The agricultural commodities broken grains, admixture of inferior variety, are heterogeneous and hence it is very moisture, harmful contaminants, etc. A essential to grade these commodities as per quality grain is that which meets the end standards to command better prices both user’s specifications with respect to range of at domestic and international market. Sale pre-determined quality and safety standards.

51 Definitions of maize defects

Damaged or blemished grains: Grains Discoloured kernels: Kernels materially which are insect or vermin damaged, stained, discoloured by excessive heat, including diseased, discoloured, germinated, frost that caused by excessive respiration (heat damaged, or otherwise materially damaged. damage) and dry damaged kernels. Kernels may appear darkened, wrinkled, blistered, Insect or vermin damaged grains: kernels puffed or swollen, often with discoloured, with obvious weevil-bored holes or which damaged germs. The seed coat may be have evidence of boring or tunneling, peeling or may have peeled off completely, indicating the presence of insects, insect giving kernels a checked appearance. webbing or insect refuse, or degermed grains, chewed in one or more than one part Germinated kernels: Kernels showing of the kernel which exhibit evident traces of visible signs of sprouting, such as cracked an attack by vermin. seed coats through which a sprout has emerged or is just beginning to merge. Stained kernels: Kernels whose natural colour has been altered by external factors. Frost damaged kernels: Kernels which This includes ground, soil or weather appear bleached or blistered and the seed damaged kernels, which may have dark coat may be peeling, germs may appear stains or discolourations with a rough dead or discoloured. external appearance. Mouldy kernels Diseased grains: Grains made unsafe for Maize grains with visible mycelia growth on human consumption due to decay, moulding, its tip or surface. or bacterial decomposition, or other causes Immature/shriveled grains: Maize grains that may be noticed without having to cut the which are underdeveloped, thin and papery grains to examine them. in appearance.

52 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa Broken kernels: Maize and pieces of maize than maize (that is cereals, pulses and other which when tested according to ISO 5223- edible legumes). Test sieves for cereals, shall pass through a Foreign matter: All organic and inorganic 4.5 mm metal sieve. material (such as sand, soil, glass) other than Other grains: Other grains are edible maize, broken kernels and other grains. grains, whole or identifiable broken, other Filth: Impurities of animal origin.

53 Essential composition of quality factors

General quality factors Specific quality factors

Maize shall be free from foreign odours, Moisture content moulds, live pests, rat droppings, toxic or Moisture content of lots of clean and dry noxious weed seeds and other injurious maize grains shall not exceed 13.5 % by mass contaminants as determined from samples as determined from samples representative representative of the seed lot. Maize shall be of the seed lot in accordance with EAS 285. of a reasonably uniform colour according to Grades type, be whole and clean. Maize grains shall be classified as Grade 1 or 2 according to the limits indicated in the Table below. Table 4: Factors used to measure quality of maize grain Defects Maximum limits Grade1 (% m/m) Grade 2 (% m/m) Foreign matter 0.5 1.0 Inorganic matter 0.25 0.5 Broken grains 2.0 3.0 Pest damaged grains 1.0 3.0 Rotten & diseased grains 2.0 4.0 Discoloured grains 0.5 1.0 Moisture 13.5 13.5 Immature/Shriveled grains 1.0 2.0 Filth 0.1 0.1 Total Defectives Grains 4.0 5.0 Aflatoxins in accordance with ISO 10 ppb incl max 5 ppb 10 ppb incl max 5 ppb 16050 B1 B1

54 Quality protein maize production and post-harvest handling handbook for East and Central Africa Toxic or noxious seeds or deleterious or substances in amount(s), Maize shall be free from toxic or noxious which may constitute a health hazard. seeds such as Datura, Striga, etc. Packing Undergrade maize Maize, when not handled in bulk, shall be Maize, which does not come within the packed in new bags or similar acceptable requirements of grades 1 and 2 of this hand protective containers, which shall safeguard book and is not a reject shall be termed the hygienic and other qualities of the maize. as undergrade. Undergrade maize can be The containers including packaging material sorted out to either grade 1 or 2. shall be made of only substances, which are safe and suitable for their intended use. Reject Maize Maize, which is mouldy, musty, chemically Labeling or otherwise hygienically objectionable The following information shall be provided: rendering it unfit for human consumption. • The name of the product to be declared Contaminants on the label shall be “maize”. Maize shall be free from heavy metals • Crop year—the year in which the crop in amounts within the limits of Codex was produced. Alimentarius Commission. • Type and grade. Hygiene • Include a statement of genetically Maize shall be prepared, packed, stored, modified organism (GMO) status. transported and distributed under hygienic • Net contents in kilograms (kg). conditions. • Name and address of the producer, When tested by appropriate methods packer, distributor, importer or vendor of of sampling and examination, maize the food. grains shall be free from pathogenic • Country of origin of the maize. microorganisms, substances originating from microorganisms, or other poisonous • Lot identification.

55 References

Ahenkora K, Twumasi-Afriyie S, Sallah Rolfes SR, Pinna K and Whitney E. 2009. PYK and Obeng-Antwi K. 1999. Protein: amino acids. In: Rolfes SR, Pinna Protein nutritional quality and consumer K and Whitney E, eds. Understanding acceptability of tropical Ghanian quality normal and clinical nutrition. Belmont, protein maize. United Nations University California, USA. p198. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 20: 354– Vanlauwe B, Kanampiu F, Odhiambo GD, 360. De Groote H, Wadhams LJ and Khan ZR. Altieri MA and Letourneau DK. 1982. 2008. Integrated management of Striga Vegetation management and biological hermonthica, stemborers, and declining control in agroecosystems. Crop soil fertility in western Kenya. Field Crops Protection 1: 405–432. Research 107:102–115. Beck D. 1999. Management of maize seed Twumasi-Afriyie S, Ahenkora K, Sallah production fields. In: CIMMYT, ed. Maize PYK, Frempong M and Agyemang A. seed production manual. CIMMYT, 1996b. Effect of extraneous pollen Nairobi, Kenya. from normal maize in adjoining fields on the nutritional quality of quality Kanampiu F and Friesen D. 2011. Striga protein maize.12th South African Maize weed control with herbicide coated Breeding Symposium, Pietermaritzburg, maize seed. CIMMYT, Nairobi, Kenya. South Africa. Nuss TE and Tanumihardjo SA. 2011. Vivek B, Krivanek A, Palacios-Rojas N, Quality protein maize for Africa: Closing Twumasi-Afriyie S, Diallo A. 2007. the protein inadequacy gap in vulnerable Breeding quality protein maize (QPM): populations. Advances in Nutrition 2: Protocols for developing QPM cultivars. 217–224. CIMMYT, Mexico DF, Mexico.

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Association for Strengthening Agricultural ISBN: 978-9970-484-07-2 Research in Eastern and Central Africa (ASARECA) Plot 5, Mpigi Road, PO Box 765, Entebbe (Uganda) Tel: +256 414 320 212/320 556/321 885 Fax: +256 414 321 126/322 593 Email: [email protected] Website:www.asareca.org 9 789970 484010484027484034484041484058484065484072