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BROTHERS IN ARMS? Discourse analysis of Serbian and Montenegrin identities and relations as constructed in Politika and Pobjeda front page articles during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999 By Tatjana Radanovi Felberg A thesis submitted to the Department of Literature, Area Studies and European Languages at the Faculty of Humanities, University of Oslo, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Ph.D Supervisor Dr. Ljiljana Šari University of Oslo Oslo, February 2008 © Tatjana Radović Felberg, 2008 Series of dissertations submitted to the Faculty of Humanities,University of Oslo No. 362 ISSN 0806-3222 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without permission. Cover: Inger Sandved Anfinsen. Printed in Norway: AiT e-dit AS, Oslo, 2008. Produced in co-operation with Unipub AS. The thesis is produced by Unipub AS merely in connection with the thesis defence. Kindly direct all inquiries regarding the thesis to the copyright holder or the unit which grants the doctorate. Unipub AS is owned by The University Foundation for Student Life (SiO) The cover illustration is based on a photograph of two ceramic figures showing a Montenegrin on the left and a Serb on the right. These were popular souvenirs sold in Serbia and Montenegro after 2000. Contents CONTENTS I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS VI GENERAL NOTES VIII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS IX LIST OF FIGURES X LIST OF TABLES XII 1. INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 AIMS AND SCOPE OF THE RESEARCH 2 1.2 CORPUS 7 1.3 LITERATURE REVIEW 9 1.3.1 MEDIA AND THE WARS IN THE FORMER YUGOSLAVIA 9 1.3.2 NATO BOMBING AND THE MEDIA 10 1.3.3 RELATIONS BETWEEN SERBIA AND MONTENEGRO 11 1.4 IDENTITIES, RELATIONS AND EVENTS 11 1.5 OVERVIEW OF THE THESIS 13 1.6 ROLE OF THE ANALYST 15 PART I 17 2. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 19 2.1 COMMUNICATION AS A JOINT ENTERPRISE 21 2.2 A BLEND OF THEORETICAL APPROACHES 23 2.3 PERSPECTIVES ON SOCIETY: LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY 25 2.3.1 LANGUAGE, POLITICS, IDEOLOGY AND MEDIA 26 2.4 PERSPECTIVES ON LANGUAGE 28 2.5 SOCIO- COGNITIVE LINGUISTICS 29 2.5.1 DISCOURSE MODELS 31 2.5.2 CATEGORIZATION 32 2.5.3 FOREGROUNDING AND BACKGROUNDING 33 2.5.4 METAPHOR THEORY 34 2.5.4.1 Types of metaphors 35 2.5.4.2 Metaphors in political discourse 36 2.6 CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS 37 2.5.1 ORDERS OF DISCOURSE 38 2.7 SOCIAL SEMIOTICS 39 2.8 SUMMARY 40 i 3. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 42 3.1 ANALYTICAL STEPS AND ANALYTICAL MODEL 42 3.2 ANALYSIS OF NEWSPAPER TEXTS 44 3.2.1 PARTICIPANTS AND RELATIONS 45 3.2.2 SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL SITUATEDNESS 47 3.2.3 VISUAL ANALYSIS 48 3.2.3.1 Visual representation 48 3.2.3.2 Participants in interpersonal relations 49 3.2.3.3 Front page composition 52 3.3 ANALYSIS OF CONTEXT 55 3.4 DISCOURSE MODELS – A BRIDGE BETWEEN TEXT AND CONTEXT 55 3.5 SUMMARY 56 PART II 57 4. CONTEXT 59 4.1 SOCIO-COGNITIVE APPROACH TO CONTEXT 61 4.2 THE ANALYST’S CONTEXT MODEL 63 4.3 POLITICS: MACRO-CONTEXT MODEL 65 4.4 POLITICS: MICRO-CONTEXT MODEL 67 4.4.1 CENTRAL PARTICIPANTS – FROM ALLIES TO ENEMIES 69 4.4.2 KEY TOPICS DURING THE NATO BOMBING 71 4.5 MEDIA: MACRO-CONTEXT MODEL 74 4.5.1 RESTRICTING THE MEDIA 75 4.5.1.1 Media in the crossfire 77 4.6 MEDIA: MICRO-CONTEXT MODEL 77 4.6.1 NEWS CONVENTIONS 78 4.6.2 AUTHORS’ CONCEPTION OF THE READERSHIP 83 4.6.3 AUTHORS’ PREOCCUPATIONS 84 4.7 SUMMARY 85 5.0 ORDERS OF DISCOURSE: POLITICS AND MEDIA 87 5.1 POLITICAL LANGUAGE IN THE ONE-PARTY POLITICAL SYSTEM 89 5.1.1 BUREAUCRATIZATION OF POLITICAL LANGUAGE 92 5.2 POLITICAL LANGUAGE IN THE MULTI-PARTY POLITICAL SYSTEM 92 5.3 POLITICAL MEDIA LANGUAGE DURING THE NATO BOMBING 95 5.3.1 MEDIA CONSTRAINTS 96 5.3.2 DICHOTOMIES IN POLITIKA AND POBJEDA 97 5.3.3 POLITIKA’S AND POBJEDA’S SOCIAL LANGUAGE 99 5.3.3.1 Nominalization 102 5.3.3.2 Categorization levels 104 5.4 SUMMARY 107 PART III 109 6.0 VISUAL FRAMING OF IDENTITIES AND RELATIONS 111 6.1 FRONT PAGE – PRIVILEGED SPACE 112 ii 6.1.1 FRONT PAGES IN POBJEDA AND POLITIKA 114 6.1.2 FRONT PAGE PLACEMENT OF ARTICLES AND PHOTOGRAPHS 116 6.1.3 MEANING POTENTIALS OF DIFFERENT FRONT PAGE LAYOUTS 118 6.2 PARATEXTS (HEADLINES AND CAPTIONS) – PRIVILEGED TEXT 119 6.2.1 PARATEXTS 119 6.2.1.1 Headlines 120 6.2.1.2 Headlines vs. nuclei 121 6.2.1.3 Captions 121 6.3 PARATEXT FUNCTIONS 122 6.4 TYPOGRAPHY OF GLOBAL AND LOCAL PARATEXTS IN POLITIKA AND POBJEDA 123 6.4.1 GLOBAL PARATEXTS IN POLITIKA 123 6.4.2 GLOBAL PARATEXTS IN POBJEDA 124 6.5 LOCAL PARATEXTS 125 6.6 TEXTUALITY IN THE LOCAL PARATEXTS 128 6.6.1 HEADLINE LENGTH 128 6.6.2 NOUN PHRASES VS. FULL SENTENCES 129 6.7 PARATEXT AND VOICES SELECTION 130 6.7.1 VOICES IN NASLOV 132 6.7.2 NASLOV TO BODY TEXT RELATIONS 134 6.7.3 PODNASLOV 135 6.7.4 PODNASLOV TO BODY TEXT RELATIONS 135 6.7.5 CAPTIONS 136 6.8 QUALITY AND MEASURE IN PARATEXTS 137 6.9 PHOTOGRAPHY AND FRAMING 138 6.9.1 PHOTOGRAPHY IN POLITIKA 139 6.9.1.1 Position Miloševi 139 6.9.1.2 Miloševi - with others 140 6.9.1.3 Miloševi - personal sphere 143 6.9.1.4 Miloševi - peace talks 145 6.9.1.5 Esthetics in Politika 147 6.9.2 PHOTOGRAPHY IN POBJEDA 147 6.9.2.1 ukanovi - alone 147 6.9.2.2 ukanovi - in meetings 148 6.9.2.3 ukanovi - abroad 150 6.9.2.4 Esthetics in Pobjeda 151 6.9.3 AUTOCRATIC VS. DEMOCRATIC IDENTITIES 151 6.10 GENRE AND FRAMING 152 6.10.1 MEDIA GENRES IN POLITIKA AND POBJEDA 153 6.10.2 NEWS, REPORTS AND INTERVIEWS 154 6.10.3 FUNCTIONS OF MEDIA GENRES 154 6.11 SUMMARY 156 7.0 INHABITING THE ‘THEATER OF WAR’ 159 7.1 ADDRESSES-TO THE NATION AND CITIZENS 161 7.2 CODING AND RECEIVING TIME 162 7.3 VISUAL FRAMING 163 7.4 BUILDING PARTICIPANTS’ IDENTITIES 165 7.4.1 ‘US’ IN POBJEDA: 166 7.4.2 PERSONAL PRONOUNS AS IDENTITY-BUILDERS IN POBJEDA 167 7.4.3 CITIZENS, PEOPLE, GENERATIONS IN POBJEDA 168 7.4.4 GOVERNMENT ORGANS, POLITICAL SUBJECTS, GOVERNMENT LEADERSHIP, PARTIES 170 7.4.5 BUILDING CLOSENESS 171 7.5 ‘US’ IN POLITIKA 172 iii 7.5.1 PERSONAL PRONOUNS IN POLITIKA 173 7.5.2 CITIZENS, NATIONS AND NATIONAL COMMUNITIES AND THE ARMY 174 7.5.3 BUILDING CLOSENESS 177 7.6 THEM-CATEGORY 177 7.6.1 ‘THEM’ IN POBJEDA 177 7.6.2 ‘THEM’ IN POLITIKA: 178 7.6.3 THEM VS. THEM 179 7.7 DISTANCING THEM 180 7.7.1 RATIONALITY VS. IRRATIONALITY IN POBJEDA 181 7.7.2 TRUTH AND LEGALITY VS. LIE AND ILLEGALITY IN POLITIKA 183 7.8 GEOPOLITICAL ENTITIES – SPATIAL INDEXICALS 185 7.8.1 KOSOVO IN POLITIKA AND POBJEDA 186 7.8.2 MONTENEGRO IN POBJEDA AND POLITIKA 188 7.8.3 SERBIA AND YUGOSLAVIA IN POLITIKA AND POBJEDA 189 7.9 @UKANOVI AND MILOŠEVI FROM AND ON HISTORY 190 7.10 DISCOURSE MODELS (DMS) 193 7.10.1 DEFENSE WAR DISCOURSE MODEL 193 7.10.2 NEUTRAL MEDIATOR DISCOURSE MODEL 194 7.10.3 DMS AND CONNECTIONS WITH POSSIBLE POLITICAL ACTIONS 194 7.10.3.1 Before the NATO-bombing 195 7.10.3.2 During the NATO bombing 195 7.10.3.3 After the NATO-bombing 196 7.11 SUMMARY 196 8. BUILDING IDENTITIES: FRIENDS AND FOES 198 8.1 OPPOSING NEW WORLD ORDER VS. PRESERVING MONTENEGRO 198 8.2 BUILDING ALLIANCES 204 8.2.1 US-CATEGORY = IN-GROUP 204 8.2.1.1 Narod and graani 205 8.2.1.2 Narod in Politika 206 8.2.1.3 Narod in Pobjeda 207 8.2.1.4 Graani in Politika: Passive with responsibility 208 8.2.1.5 Graani in Pobjeda: Passive with obligations 209 8.2.2 FRIENDS OF FRY (SERBIA) IN POLITIKA 211 8.2.3 FRIENDS OF MONTENEGRO IN POBJEDA 213 8.2.4 DEVELOPING US AND THEM 216 8.2.4.1 NATO vs. Us in Politika 216 8.2.4.2 Albanian ‘separatist movement’ in Politika 217 8.2.4.3 United Nations in Politika – Deus ex machina 217 8.2.4.4 NATO and Miloševi in Pobjeda 219 8.3 DEVELOPMENTS IN DISCOURSE MODELS 221 8.3.1 DEFENSE WAR DM AND NEUTRAL MEDIATOR DM 221 8.3.2 ONE COUNTRY DM VS. TWO COUNTRIES DM 222 8.3.3 YUGOSLAVIA DM IN POLITIKA 223 8.3.4 UNITY DM IN POBJEDA 226 8.3.4.1 Politically based unity 226 8.3.4.2 Religiously based unity 227 8.3.5 SEPRATION DM IN POBJEDA 228 8.3.5.1 Conceptualizing Montenegro 228 8.3.5.2 Democracy vs. autocracy 230 8.3.5.3 Historically based difference 233 8.3.5.4 Differences in legality 235 8.4 SUMMARY 235 iv 9.0 LEAVING THE THEATER OF WAR 238 9. 1 MILOŠEVI AND MAROVI3: THEMATIC STRUCTURE 240 9.2 NAROD VS. GRAANI REVISITED 242 9.2.1 HEROES (POLITIKA) VS.
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