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Surgery for Scar Revision and Reduction: from Primary Closure to Flap Surgery Rei Ogawa

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Surgery for Scar Revision and Reduction: from Primary Closure to Flap Surgery Rei Ogawa Ogawa Burns & Trauma (2019) 7:7 https://doi.org/10.1186/s41038-019-0144-5 REVIEW Open Access Surgery for scar revision and reduction: from primary closure to flap surgery Rei Ogawa Abstract Scars are the final result of the four processes that constitute cutaneous wound healing, namely, coagulation, inflammation, proliferation, and remodeling. Permanent scars are produced if the wounds reach the reticular dermis. The nature of these scars depends on the four wound healing processes. If the remodeling process is excessive, collagen degradation exceeds collagen synthesis and atrophic scars are produced. If the inflammation phase is prolonged and/or more potent for some reason, inflammatory/pathological scars such as keloids or hypertrophic scars can arise. If these pathological scars are located on joints or mobile regions, scar contractures can develop. When used with the appropriate timing and when selected on the basis of individual factors, surgical techniques can improve mature scars. This review paper focuses on the surgical techniques that are used to improve mature scars, burn scars, and scar contractures. Those methods include z-plasties, w-plasties, split-thickness skin grafting, full-thickness skin grafting, local flaps (including the square flap method and the propeller flap), and expanded flaps, distant flaps, regional flaps, and free flaps. Keywords: Scar,Keloid,Hypertrophicscar,Scarcontracture,Surgery,Z-plasty,W-plasty,Localflap,Expander,Perforatorflap Background stronger collagen is laid down, thereby generating the Cutaneous wound healing involves four overlapping mature scar. The nature of this scar is shaped by the sequential stages, namely, coagulation, inflammation, four wound-healing processes. For example, if the proliferation, and remodeling. Scars are the endpoint of remodeling phase is excessive, collagen degradation these processes. Whether significant scarring occurs exceeds collagen synthesis and atrophic scars are seems to depend on the depth of the cutaneous wounds: produced. Moreover, if the preceding inflammation when Dunkin et al.[1] subjected normal human skin to phase is prolonged and/or more potent for some reason, elective linear incisions of variable depth, they found inflammatory/pathological scars such as keloids or that permanent scarring did not occur when the skin hypertrophic scars form. Notably, if these pathological injury was less than 0.57 mm deep (i.e., about a third of scars are located on joints or mobile regions, they can the thickness of the dermis). However, deeper dermal develop into scar contractures. injuries did result in permanent scars. Thus, perma- This review paper focuses on the surgical techniques nent scars are only produced if wounds reach the that are used to improve mature scars, burn scars [3], reticular dermis. and scar contractures. It should be noted here that while Deep cutaneous wounding disrupts the normal struc- the methods discussed in this paper can be used to treat ture of the reticular dermis [2]. During wound healing, pathological scars such as keloids [4], these methods this tissue is replaced by collagen, which is produced by must be accompanied by postoperative adjuvant thera- fibroblasts in the proliferation phase: this is known as pies; otherwise, there is a large risk of scar recurrence. granulation tissue. Thereafter, during the remodeling phase, collagen synthesis becomes matched by collagen degradation, the granulation tissue is reorganized, and Review Z-plasty or w-plasty incisions and primary suturing Zig-zag incision and suture strategies, including z-plasty Correspondence: [email protected] Department of Plastic, Reconstructive and Aesthetic Surgery, Nippon Medical and w-plasty, are good for releasing linear scar contrac- School, 1-1-5 Sendagi Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8603, Japan tures and tension [5, 6]. A major benefit of z-plasties is © The Author(s). 2019 Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated. Ogawa Burns & Trauma (2019) 7:7 Page 2 of 8 that segmented scars mature faster than long linear scars and the wounds left after burn scars are removed for (Fig. 1). This is because vertical scars that run along the reconstruction. However, these split-thickness skin grafts long axis of the body part are placed under greater skin (STSG) tend to develop severe secondary contractures tension than horizontal scars that lie perpendicular to and should therefore be followed by secondary scar the long axis. This tension prolongs the inflammatory reconstruction with full-thickness skin grafts (FTSG), stage of wound healing, which in turn causes scar hyper- which are much less prone to such contractures (Fig. 3) trophy. Interspersing vertical scars with horizontal scars [7]. However, FTSGs survive less well than STSGs disrupts the tension on the vertical scars, thereby because of the increased diffusion distance and the ensuring the rapid switch from the inflammatory phase longer time that these grafts need before they achieve of wound healing to the proliferative and remodeling complete revascularization. phases. This also explains why zig-zag incision and Skin grafts can be fixed with negative pressure wound suturing significantly reduces the risk of pathological therapy devices as well as with the traditional gauze scar development when a scar is located on a joint. tie-over method [8]. We have also used external wire Ideally, the triangular flaps of the z-plasty should not frame fixation for skin grafts, particularly for those on include scars. This is because while healthy skin extends the eyelid, the perioral area, and the digital joints [9]. readily after surgery, thereby effectively releasing tension, In recent years, we presented a new surgical approach scarred skin is much less extensible. Moreover, inclusion for the revision of deliberate self-harm scars [10]. This of scarred tissue in the flaps increases the risk that the approach is called the isotopic skin graft technique and edges of the flaps become necrotic. it involves harvesting a thin STSG (6–8/1000 in.) from The main advantage of the w-plasty is the broken line the affected area, excising the wide dermal scar, and then effect, namely, the fact that zig-zag scars are less visible placing the graft back onto the harvest site. The graft is because they reflect light more poorly than linear scars. so thin that it does not include the reticular dermis. This Consequently, the indication for w-plasties is a scar on ensures that hypertrophic scars will not develop (Fig. 4). flat surfaces of the face such as the cheek or the area between the lower lip and the jaw (Fig. 2). However, Local flaps z-plasties are more suitable for scars on the forehead Various local flaps are useful for releasing scar contrac- and nasolabial area because it is easy to design a z-plasty tures. Moreover, because local flaps expand naturally after so that the incision line matches the skin creases or folds surgery, they are not prone to postsurgical contractures. in these areas. W-plasties are not suitable for scars on By contrast, skin grafts do not expand, which means that major joints such as the axilla and elbow. skin grafting tends to generate secondary contractures that result in circular pathological scars around the grafted Skin graft skin. Local flaps can be traditionally classified as advance- Skin grafts are useful for replacing particularly large ment flaps, rotation flaps, and transposition flaps. These scars. Powered dermatomes allow the surgeon to rapidly flaps should preferably have skin pedicles because harvest large areas of the skin that can then be used to although it is technically easier to transfer island flaps to cover large recipient sites, including primary wounds the recipient site than skin-pedicled flaps, they release Fig. 1 Reconstruction of scar contractures by using multiple z-plasties. a Preoperative view. b Design of the z-plasties. c Immediate postoperative view. d Eighteen months after surgery. A major benefit of z-plasties is that segmented scars mature faster than long linear scars Ogawa Burns & Trauma (2019) 7:7 Page 3 of 8 a d b e c Fig. 2 Resection and w-plasty of a scar between the lower lip and the jaw. a Preoperative view. b Design of the w-plasty. c Intraoperative view. d Immediate postoperative view. e Twelve months after the operation. The indication for w-plasty is a scar on the flat surfaces of the face such as the cheek and the area between the lower lip and the jaw contractures less effectively. The postoperative extensibi- lip (Fig. 6) and other sites as long as it can be harvested lity of the flap should be considered when determining as a perforator-pedicled propeller flap [13]. which flap design is optimal for the individual patient. With regard to the skin-pedicled flaps, the square flap [11] Expanded flaps method is particularly useful for reconstructing major Expanded healthy skin near the recipient site is the ideal joint scar contractures because these flaps can theoreti- material for scar reconstruction because it matches the cally extend by threefold (Fig. 5). recipient site in terms of both color and texture (Fig. 7). When burn injuries are extensive, it can be difficult to For example, if the scars are on the anterior neck, ex- design traditional flaps. In this case, propeller flaps can panders can be implanted into the anterior chest wall. be an excellent alternative. The original propeller flap Moreover, if the scars are on the forearm, several small [12] uses intact skin in the fossa of the elbow or axilla expanders can be implanted simultaneously: where they that is elevated on a central subcutaneous pedicle.
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