Volume 26, Issue 2 August 2019

JIAEE Journal of International Agricultural & Extension Education

AIAEE

A publication of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education

Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2

Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education ISSN 1077-0755 DOI Prefix 10.5191 aiaee.org

The Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education (JIAEE) is the official refereed publication of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education (AIAEE). The purpose of the JIAEE is to enhance the research and knowledge base of agricultural and extension education from an international perspective. Acceptance rates for the past five volumes are: Volume 20 = 21%. Volume 21 = 13%. Volume 22 = 18%. Volume 23 = 12%. Volume 24 = 18%. Volume 25 = 9%.

Articles intended for publication should focus on international agricultural education and/or international extension education. Articles should relate to current or emerging issues, cite appropriate literature, and develop implications for international agricultural and extension education. Manuscripts, or portions of manuscripts, must not have been published or be under consideration for publication by another journal.

For publication in the JIAEE, manuscripts must pass the JIAEE’s double blind, referee process, where peer reviewers evaluate manuscript content and ensure readability. Reviewers are selected from the AIAEE membership. In the double blind, referee process, all references to authors are removed before the manuscript is sent to reviewers. Articles may be submitted for peer review a total of three times before they are no longer acceptable for publication in the JIAEE. Failure to meet the submission formatting guidelines will result in an automatic first rejection.

Two different types of articles are solicited for the JIAEE: Feature Articles and Research Notes.

Feature Article A Feature Article should focus on philosophy, current or emerging issues, and the methodology and practical application of specific research and appropriate technologies, which have implications for developed and developing countries. Conceptual/Theoretical and Methodological manuscripts are also encouraged as submission for feature articles. If applicable, a feature article should report the findings from a fully investigated study. Feature articles are no longer than 20 double-spaced pages, excluding references.

Research Note A Research Note is a concise but complete description of a limited investigation that will not be included in a later manuscript. It serves one of the following purposes: (1) presents initial proof- of-concept results on new ideas or program evaluations, timely issues, or innovative approaches; (2) reports replications or extensions of previously published research that does not merit another full-length manuscript yet provides results that contribute to a greater understanding of the phenomena under study. Research Notes are no longer than 10 double-spaced pages, excluding references.

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Editorial Board and Leadership Team ...... 4

From the Executive Editor ...... 5

Research Notes An Appreciative Approach to Assessing Extension Professionals’ Perceptions of Evaluation ...... 7 Abraham S. D. Tidwell, University of Georgia Alexa J. Lamm, University of Georgia Kevan W. Lamm, University of Georgia Jacqueline H. Tidwell, University of Georgia

Feature Articles The Balance of Theoretical and Practical Skills in Agricultural Technical Schools in Haiti: An Exploration of the Curriculum ...... 14 M. Christelle Calixte, University of Florida T. Grady Roberts, University of Florida J. C. Bunch, University of Florida

What did Aspiring Young Entrepreneurs in Nicaragua Recognize as Agribusiness and Ecotourism Opportunities using Photovoice as a Data Collection Tool? ...... 29 José M. Uscanga, Oklahoma State University M. Craig Edwards, Oklahoma State University Craig E. Watters, Oklahoma State University

The Influence of Gender of Rural Honduran Women’s Participation and Leadership in Community Groups ...... 48 Jera Niewoehner-Green, Ohio State University Nicole Stedman, University of Florida Sebastian Galindo, University of Florida Sandra Russo, University of Florida Hannah Carter, University of Florida Kathy Colverson, University of Florida

Gap Analysis for Future Agricultural Education Research in Eswatini, Swaziland ...... 64 Alfred F. Tsikati, University of Eswatini Marietta P. Dlamini, University of Eswatini Musa A. Dube, University of Eswatini

Social Impact Assessment in the Cooperative Extension System: Revitalizing the Community Capitals Framework in Measurement and Approach ...... 75 Abagail Borron, University of Georgia Kevan Lamm, University of Georgia Carolina Darbisi, University of Georgia Nekeisha Randall, University of Georgia

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Influence of Smallholder Farmer Groups on the Application of Best Horticultural Farming Practices in Kenya ...... 89 Raphael Mwiti Gikunda, Texas Tech University David Lawver, Texas Tech University

Using an International Experience to Bridge the Gap Between Culture and Science Literacy ...... 106 Nathan Conner, University of Nebraska – Lincoln Jeanette Milius, University of Nebraska – Lincoln Christopher T. Stripling, University of Tennessee Jamie Loizzo, University of Florida Debi Doerr, University of Nebraska – Lincoln

Exploring the Purpose of Agricultural Technical Schools in Haiti ...... 121 M. Christelle Calixte, University of Florida T. Grady Roberts, University of Florida J. C. Bunch, University of Florida

Experiences of Cooperating Teachers on Teaching Practice Supervision in Eswatini, Swaziland ...... 138 Alfred F. Tsikati, University of Eswatini Khomb’sile N. Dlamini, Nyakatfo High School

Manuscript Submission Guidelines ...... 150

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Editorial Board

The editorial board consists of the editors, the past editor and other members representing regions of the world.

Editors

Kristina Hains, Executive Editor Alexa Lamm, Managing Editor University of Kentucky University of Georgia 314 Garrigus Building 318 Hoke Smith Building Lexington, KY 40546-0215 Athens, GA 30602 [email protected] [email protected]

Robert Strong Jr., Past Editor Texas A&M University 2116 TAMU College Station, TX 77843-2116 [email protected]

Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education Officers

Wayne Ganpat, President Mary Rodriguez, Secretary Dean, Faculty of Food and Agriculture UWI The Ohio State University Circular Rd., St. Augustine, Trinidad, W.I. 314 Ag Administration Building Columbus, OH 43210 Robert Strong Jr., Past President Texas A&M University Roger Hanagriff, Treasurer 2116 TAMU Texas A&M University - Kingsville College Station, TX 77843 Kleberg Ag Building, Rm. 119 Kingsville, TX 78363 Kristina Hains, President-Elect University of Kentucky Kristin Davis, Member-At-Large 314 Garrigus Building International Food Policy Research Institute Lexington, KY 40546 Pretoria, South Africa

Peyton Beattie Graduate Student Representative University of Florida Gainesville, FL

U.S./World Representatives

Kristin Davis Leslie Edgar International Food Policy Research Institute University of Georgia Pretoria, South Africa Athens, GA, USA

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M. Craig Edwards Assoumane Maiga Oklahoma State University International Livestock Research Institute Stillwater, OK, USA Bamako, Mali, Africa

Wayne Ganpat T. Grady Roberts University of West Indies University of Florida St. Augustine, Trinidad, W.I. Gainesville, FL, USA

Bryan Hains University of Kentucky Lexington, KY, USA

From the Executive Editor

In a song written by the Beach Boys titled “Summer in Paradise,” part of the first verse goes like this: Paradise is a state of mind Where mother nature nurtures and man is kind We need a change now wouldn't it be nice If we could bring back summer Get us back our summer Summer in paradise

Has the summer already flown by? As I have been compiling our August issue for the JIAEE, it occurred to me that this summer has disappeared faster than any one prior. For those of us who are excited about new beginnings (and who run by the academic semester clock) the event of the fall and ending of summer is a good one. For those of us who look forward to less scheduled meetings, more time to work on personal projects, and extra time spent with kids and family, the end of summer and advent of fall is bittersweet. Regardless, for many of us, we are staring into the beginning of a new year. This allows us to start new projects, begin new collaborations, and brainstorm novel ideas for courses, programming and projects. Let’s see what new ideas can come out of August’s collection of articles.

This issue we have a total of ten articles. We begin with a Research Note focused on appreciative evaluation. This innovative technique builds on an organization’s or community’s strengths rather than their weaknesses, through the lens of evaluation. In this article, extension professionals share how they view the role of this method within their own programming.

Within the Feature Research articles, we have a variety of foci and topics covered. We have two different sets of articles focused in the same geographic area. To begin, two of our articles focus on Haiti – more precisely, both articles provide a specialized focus on Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) institutions. In the first article, the balance of practice and theory within Haitian TVET curricula is investigated. The second article focuses more generally on the current situation of TVET institutions in Haiti and explores the overall purpose of TVETs in the Haitian agricultural system.

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Similarly, we also have two articles focused on Eswatini, Swaziland. The first article focuses on the gap in existing literature regarding Agricultural Education research; through the study, themes and gaps are identified that are salient to future research within Ag Education. In the second article, the focus is the experience of cooperative teachers (CT) during teaching practice supervision in Eswatini. Ultimately, researchers found that rapport played an important role in the cooperating teacher and student teacher relationship, and there was certainly a need for future trainings and incentives for participating cooperating teachers.

The topics of culture and leadership played an important role within three of our articles. In the first study, researchers explored how an international study abroad experience in South Africa shaped student perceptions of culture, agriculture and science. In a second study, researchers looked at community leadership and women in two villages in Lempira, Honduras. The findings from this research assisted in providing insight into women’s leadership within the local community, and how gender ultimately effects agricultural engagement. Finally, in a study with farmers in Meru County, Kenya, in-group farmers and non-group farmers were compared, looking at the relationship between group membership and the application of best horticultural farming practices (BHFP).

Innovative topics and techniques were the focus of the two final articles in this issue. Entrepreneurial opportunities for Nicaraguan students were explored through the photovoice methodology; this unique method allowed researchers to gain in-depth information from students, where words might have proven difficult. In another innovative article, researchers looked at how to address needs in community development through social impact, and ultimately how to weave this together with existing efforts in economic impact to present a complete picture.

For many of us, the change in the seasons means new beginnings. We are all doing great things in our local communities. We should continue to listen to the Beach Boys in their famous song:

If we all get together we can make things right And we can bring back summer… Get us back our summer Summer in paradise

Continue all of the good work that you are doing in your communities, universities and organizations. We cannot only work together to “make things right,” but as we undertake new projects, it may provide just the spark we need to energize us all into this new season. I encourage you to read the articles cover-to-cover in this August 2019 edition of JIAEE. Who knows, one of these articles may inspire you to start a new project or program that leads you into next summer!

Warm Regards,

Kristina D. Hains

Kristina D. Hains Executive Editor, JIAEE

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26201

An Appreciative Approach to Assessing Extension Professionals’ Perceptions of Evaluation

Abraham S. D. Tidwell Alexa J. Lamm Kevan W. Lamm Jacqueline H. Tidwell University of Georgia

Abstract Generating timely, honest, and useful feedback is the cornerstone of all extension program evaluation. However, historical evaluation practices, especially in the international agricultural extension context, have relied on models that emphasize external criticism. One model of evaluation that has the potential to shift the focus toward a more collaborative model of evaluation is that of appreciative evaluation. Appreciative evaluation strives towards building on existing strengths rather than criticizing weaknesses with an emphasis on identifying what an organization does well. This research note reviews the results of a recent survey given to a group of extension professionals within a large land-grant institution to examine how extension professionals view the role of evaluation within their programming from an appreciative perspective. Respondents (n = 204) expressed great professional satisfaction in their work delivering programs and a sense of self-worth stemming from the impact they have in their respective communities. Evaluation tools and techniques were enabling forces as they allowed respondents to gather timely data and make adjustments to programs in ways that were reflective of community needs. When asked to identify any structural components of the extension system that improve evaluation practices and procedures, respondents emphasized the importance of both formal and non-formal training opportunities, the development of modular evaluation tools, and collaboration both within extension and their respective community(ies). The results indicated appreciative inquiry methods have the potential to provide valuable feedback about existing programming.

Keywords: appreciative inquiry; extension education; program evaluation

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Introduction what is working well, what supports success, Since the 1960s, evaluation of and how these successes can be used more extension programming world-wide has widely within the program and the broader progressed from being viewed as a system in which it operates (Cooperrider & necessary evil to a core element of effective Whitney, 2005; Preskill & Catsambas, program design and implementation (Patton 2006). Appreciative evaluation, as a 1987). Much of this transition is owed to a conceptual framework, focuses questions on growing agreement that evaluation should (a) what are the most effective activities; (b) be done in collaboration with the users of what are the future possibilities for success; the knowledge resulting from such studies; and (c) existing team synergies and efforts what is commonly referred to now as that support the current and future success of participatory evaluation (Patton, 1987). By the program. The objective of such an involving the user of evaluation knowledge approach is to create collaborative in the process of defining priorities, actors communities of practice; for example, throughout the system can take a realistic Clarke, Egan, Fletcher, and Bryan (2006) assessment of existing program activities, brought together a group of teachers the domains in which they operate (social, involved in science education professional managerial, economic), and make development programming to identify adjustments to improve overall outcomes existing strengths and shared experiences to (O’Sullivan & O’Sullivan, 2002). It is often strengthen future programming. Lamm and questioned then, why extension Lamm (2018) argued that such appreciative professionals across the globe resist or evaluation approaches could refocus choose not to engage in, the practice of international extension evaluation efforts evaluation. and attention on working towards generating Contemporary and historical positive results. This is a critical change in evaluation practices, dating back to the frame of mind; where future action and inception of evaluation (Fitzpatrick, resource allocations emphasize what is Sanders, & Worthen, 2003), focus on going well in a program rather than identifying weak points in existing overcoming issues. Furthermore, an programming with the intent of reducing appreciative approach may prove uniquely barriers to success while improving useful in the context of international efficiency. Identifying ways to overcome extension programming, where limited weaknesses means the weaknesses must be resources, dependence on volunteers, and uncovered and determined to be remedied. the necessity of producing sustainable Those put under the scrutiny of an successes outweigh critiquing program evaluator’s eye often feel fear when it comes failures (Lamm & Lamm, 2018). However, to identifying gaps (Patton, 2006). Perhaps an appreciative approach has not been tested they, or their program, will be questioned within the extension education space to and eliminated as a result. It is this fear that determine its applicability. often turns people away from the practice of evaluation. Purpose & Objectives Recent evaluative efforts have taken The purpose of this study was to a different approach – rather than focusing determine if an appreciative evaluation evaluation on defining what is wrong with a approach could be used to identify what given program, these approaches, known as supported extension professionals’ appreciative evaluation, seek to elucidate engagement in evaluation and, therefore,

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determine the best strategy for furthering same population (extension professionals) engagement in the practice of evaluation. across the state (Blair & Zinkhan, 2006). The following objectives guided the study: The survey responses were then 1. Identify the evaluation achievements typed into a digital format by a third party for which extension professionals verbatim and analyzed with MaxQDA using were most proud. inductive thematic analysis. The inductive 2. Determine what organizational thematic analysis focuses on identifying factors helped to support that emergent patterns in qualitative research achievement. data that is informed by the research question at hand (Patton, 1987). Two of the Methods researchers performed an initial review of all The sample used in this study were results and generated a series of codes based extension professionals in the state of [State] on commonly observed patterns. The in the United States. A simple paper-based researchers then separately conducted a survey was designed to elucidate the word frequency analysis of the responses to successful practices being undertaken by generate a second series of codes. A extension professionals in the context of standard set of codes and overarching evaluating their programming. The survey themes were made, peer debriefed with two followed an appreciative evaluation additional researchers, and verified against approach (Preskill & Catsambas, 2006) the initial survey results to ensure which consisted of two open-ended transferability (Creswell, 2002). In total, questions: (1) Describe one outstanding or seven important themes emerged from the successful evaluation achievement or data. Three pertained to what elements of contribution of which you are particularly ongoing evaluation work extension proud, and (2) What organizational factors professionals perceived were going well, helped to create or support your and four defined what structural achievement? The survey was reviewed by characteristics of the system enabled their two district extension directors and the state success. extension director for face and content validity. The survey was then distributed to Results all extension professionals attending mandatory district meetings throughout the Elements of Ongoing Evaluation Work state, all within the same week (November Extension professionals expressed 2018). Extension professionals filled them significant professional satisfaction in out at the moment while engaged in a developing, executing, and gathering quality discussion about the future of evaluation evaluation data on programs that within the state extension system. The emphasized empowering participants while survey was distributed to 339 extension enabling positive behavioral changes. professionals with 204 surveys completed Common examples included following up with the depth necessary to conduct further with program participants and seeing their analysis (60.2% response rate). As the implementation of agricultural production purpose of this study was to identify best management practices (this was strengths rather than weaknesses of existing referred to in 31 of the written statements); programs, nonresponses were treated as not seeing positive youth development in action directly impacting the objectives of the related to both 4-H and STEM youth research as the sample was drawn from the programming (again, referred to 30 times

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within the responses); the impacts of health program leads to document the personal and and nutrition programming, such as the emotional growth of student participants in a Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program cooking program: “These kids never Education (SNAP-Ed) and the Extension cooked…they seem so much more confident Food Nutrition Education Program (EFNEP) [after participating in the program].” courses, on the eating habits of their program participants (referred to 24 times); Organizational Factors Supporting and the results of training in the practice of Extension Evaluation education (referred to 19 times within the Four themes were identified that written statements). elucidate the organizational factors Study participants also emphasized supporting extension evaluation practices. how much personal worth they garnered They were training (formal and informal), from effectively developing and executing collaboration (local and regional), modular evaluations that got participants engaged in evaluation tools, and mentorship. A vital providing feedback while providing them trait all these themes shared were that the ability to discuss how much their extension professionals emphasized the need participants get out of a given experience. to translate any knowledge or tools garnered As one respondent noted, “I was able to to the specific context under which their make a poster for professional development program was being implemented and based on the one-page evaluation at a evaluated. monthly class series we hosted in our The first theme that emerged was training. county.” Similarly, another respondent According to the study participants, training highlighted the fact that evaluation training was a critical force for enabling their ability helped them understand how to apply to develop and execute sound evaluations of research methods within the context of their their extension programs. Training own master’s thesis work. Through opportunities identified within their evaluation training and application, statements included formal workshops (e.g., respondents were able to create a positive master evaluator class), formal classwork (as impact in their communities and develop part of advanced degrees), and informal critical professional skills (e.g., Excel, learning venues (in particular online videos Qualtrics, etc.). offered by extension evaluation specialists The third theme was that within the system). professionals focused on relevant The second theme that emerged was opportunities to gather timely data (in terms collaboration. In terms of intensity within of community and programmatic needs) and the responses, collaboration emerged as thus allowed to see how the programs they relatively equal to training in its amount of implemented had a positive impact in their influence on their evaluation engagement. communities. As part of an agricultural Extension professionals mentioned program, one participant indicated how they cooperation with their peers at the county, used evaluation as a virtuous cycle for district, and statewide level as a key way to program improvement, “[f]ollowing my generate sound evaluation processes and county Grassmaster's program, I was able to work toward consistent practices across assess the remaining needs of my clients by similar programs. The study participants using a needs assessment survey, which also actively sought out community happened to be forage testing.” Another members to bring into their programs that emphasized how evaluation allowed would create local buy-in and assist in

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translating their programming to specific Ready Performance Index] (500 of 3,000 audiences (e.g., teachers). Working with students).” local participants in their community, one respondent was “Developing a three-fold Conclusions, Implications & program with community partners and have Recommendations had success of partners in families learning Despite their location around the to be healthy.” Their collaboration also world, one thing all extension professionals extended back into the extension network as strive to create is relevant programming for they actively sought a “Specialist [research their communities that are attuned to local faculty] to help review the material to make needs and wants. This commitment to sure it stayed within research based relevance extends into the realm of program education.” evaluation as extension professionals seek The third theme that emerged was opportunities to develop evaluation mentorship at both the county and district procedures and practices where their level. Many participants identified community members will provide honest mentorship as crucial for enabling the and timely feedback. As it relates to successful implementation of program application, the results from this study evaluation. Extension evaluation specialists provide insight into the elements of ongoing were also mentioned in this space but not as evaluation work as well as the consistently. They were noted explicitly as organizational factors supporting extension providing scientific expertise on survey evaluation. From a methodological design and implementation. There was some perspective, the results indicated it is mention of receiving mentorship from possible for extension professionals to tenure-track faculty; however, these gather insights using an appreciative individuals appeared to have been seeking evaluation approach when juxtaposed with advanced degrees when receiving this gap-analysis type evaluation model that assistance. focuses on identifying weaknesses (Patton, The fourth theme to emerge was the 2006). use of modular evaluation tools. The study From an applied perspective, the participants expressed a deep appreciation results indicated having professional and recognition that the development of satisfaction in collecting evaluation data is evaluation tools by other units was critical in an important theme associated with the supporting their successful evaluation of behavior. This finding implies that if programs. For example, a series of surveys individuals can feel more personally were developed by several 4-H staff for use connected and invested in the activity, they in 4-H programming. They were commonly are much more likely to persist. An referred to and appreciated by the study associated recommendation would be to participants because they were easy to adapt frame evaluation as a good and impactful set to local program content and evaluation of actions as necessary and essential as any goals. Using these tools, respondents noted of the preceding effort. Extension the ready-made surveys enabled quick professionals should be encouraged to see program evaluation, with one respondent evaluation activities as the final component indicating they were “[g]etting feedback of their hard work, an opportunity to from [a] large sampling of 5th grade demonstrate their professional satisfaction in students of CCRPI [College and Career their efforts and see programs fully through completion. The ethos of professional

11 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 satisfaction is further reinforced through the preliminary. Interview and focus group emergent themes of personal worth and techniques may uncover richer descriptions impact. of the underlying phenomenon (Creswell, In addition to the intrapersonal 2002). Therefore, a recommendation would elements of ongoing evaluation work, four be for future research to replicate the study organizational factors supporting extension using a different qualitative data collection evaluation were also identified; specifically, approach. training, collaboration, tools, and Extension professionals around the mentorship. Although each of the themes globe are being asked to do more with fewer emerged independently, a higher-order or resources (Lamm & Lamm, 2018). meta-theme of education might subsume Therefore, our efforts must be focused on training, collaboration, and mentorship. A the ways to get as much as we can out of recommendation would be to acknowledge every dollar that goes into extension the education meta-theme and consider programming. Appreciative evaluation may using training, collaboration, and mentorship be a powerful tool to provide insights into as unique tactics to accomplish the same what extension professionals are doing right, intended goal. An additional give the impact data needed to show return recommendation is for extension on investment, and refocus extension professionals, especially those with professionals on their successes (and evaluation skills and experience, to make building upon them) rather than fearing what their evaluation tools available for others. is not going well and getting reprimanded as The combination of empowering others a result. Perhaps if evaluation can be through education and providing them with reframed in this way, an increase in the appropriate tools has the potential to evaluation efforts will be obtained as fear is create an environment supportive of reduced. extension evaluation. A recommendation is for future References extension evaluation research to consider a Blair, E., & Zinkhan, G.M. (2006). similar tactic. Focusing on what is going Nonresponse and generalizability in well, and building from a position of academic research. Journal of the strength can be an empowering process Academy of Marketing Science. (Lamm & Lamm, 2018). Although the 34(1), 4-7. doi: results of the current study provide both 10.1177/0092070305283778 applied and methodological insights, some Clarke, H., Egan, Bridget, Fletcher, L., & limitations must be acknowledged. First, the Ryan, C. (2006). Creating case study is limited in scope to one particular studies of practice through extension system. Although the purpose of appreciative inquiry. Educational qualitative research is not generalizability Action Research, 14(3), 407-422. per se (Creswell, 2002), the implications and https://doi.org/10.1080/09650790600 recommendations presented are limited to 847776 only the present study. Secondly, as a Cooperrider, D., & Whitney, D. D. (2005). qualitative study, the results are constrained. Appreciative Inquiry: A positive Although data were collected and revolution in change. Oakland, CA: thematically analyzed in accordance with Berrett-Koehler Publishers. the research objectives, the data were Creswell, J. (2002). Educational research: limited to written responses, making it Planning, conducting, and

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evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall. Fitzpatrick, J., Sanders, J. R., & Worthen, B. R. (2003). Program evaluation: Alternative approaches and practical guidelines (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Lamm, A. J., & Lamm, K. W. (2018). Considering an appreciative approach to international extension evaluation. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 25(4), 74–82. doi:10.591/jiaee.2018.25406 O’Sullivan, J. M., & O’Sullivan, R. G. (2002). Evaluation planning, design, and implementation in a regional sustainable agricultural extension program. Proceedings of the 18th annual conference of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education. Durban, South Africa. 352-359. Retrieved from https://www.aiaee.org/attachments/ar ticle/1285/o'sullivan352-359.pdf Patton, M. Q. (1987). How to use qualitative methods in evaluation. London: Sage. Patton, M. Q. (2006, March 21). Evaluation for the way we work. Nonprofit Quarterly. Retrieved from https://nonprofitquarterly.org/2006/0 3/21/evaluation-for-the-way-we- work/ Preskill, H., & Catsambas,T. T. (2006). Reframing evaluation through appreciative inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26202

The Balance of Theoretical and Practical Skills in Agricultural Technical Schools in Haiti: An Exploration of the Curriculum

M. Christelle Calixte T. Grady Roberts J. C. Bunch University of Florida

Abstract Haiti, with its alarming hunger index, and serious concerns for the population’s food security status, suggests that its agricultural production and productivity are insufficient to guarantee availability of food for the people. Increased productivity supposes the dissemination of best agricultural practices among farmers, and enough qualified extension agents carrying the scientific findings into the rural communities. However, studies in Haiti, have found that the extension activities are mostly conducted by graduates from TVET schools. Meanwhile, little is known about the quality of the training provided in these institutions. This study explored the balance of practice and theory in Haitian TVET curricula. Individual interviews to directors and teachers and focus groups with students explained the role of practical experiences in TVET curriculum by emphasizing on the importance, the purposes and the amount of such practical experiences in the program of study. The various instructional methods used to ensure sufficient practices were also revealed, specifically, participative methods, research and various field activities. Nevertheless, many barriers impede more practices, which were (a) scheduling, (b) lack of resources, (c) students’ attitudes, (d) absence of laboratories in Haiti, and (e) the rural reality and environmental issues.

Keywords: Haiti; experiential learning; technical schools; agriculture

Funding: This study was made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under the cooperative agreement # AID-OAA-A-15-00039. The contents are the responsibility of authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

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Introduction inferred that the provision of skills which Agricultural activities are important address market demands ought to be because farming produces the food included in a TVET program, so as to necessary to human consumption and encourage employment (Mouzakitis, 2010). survival (Moehler, 1997). However, still In a developing country like Ghana, TVET today, in many parts of the world food has been found to provide employable skills insecurity exists (FAO, IFAD, & WFP, to the youth (Darvas & Palmer, 2014). In 2015) both on the national and at the Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) household level (FAO, 2003). In the region, TVET has incurred curricular developing countries, as opposed to modifications to add entrepreneurial and industrialized ones, agriculture is part of organizational skills to the technical (King, normal activities because a high percentage 1993), because there may not be enough of the population is involved in production demands, so employment must be created (Wilkin, 1997). This situation may explain (UNESCO, 2015). However, TVET must why developing countries produce less food provide quality skillset that is linked to the per acre of land per worker (Fuglie & Wang, economy and meets employer’s needs 2012) and why 70% to 75% of the poor of according to UNESCO (2015). This the world live in rural areas (FAO, 2002). organization has also raised concerns about Haiti is a country that faces all of these the link between academic education and obstacles, with an alarming hunger index components of curricula with TVET severity (von Grebmer et al., 2016), with (UNESCO, 2015). In general, TVET’s 25% of the population living in extreme curricula should aim to integrate elements of poverty (WFP, 2018), and 39% of the total participative methodologies and hands-on population living in rural communities experiences (Minghat & Yasin, 2010). The according to FAOSTAT (2018). Since different types of teachers which are GFRAS (2017) found that graduates from involved in TVET, as well as their the technical schools for the most part work contribution in the specific characteristics of in extension in Haiti, it would be important the institutions where they work, is to understand the curriculum of Haitian important to consider when attempting to agricultural Technical, Vocational, understand TVET as an educational system Education and Training (TVET) as it relates (Heikkinen, 1997). Quality of TVET must to the state of agricultural production in the be improved, through the standardization of country. The Ministry of Education has the curriculum and the development of non- reported that TVET has been declining in technical skills, innovative training and the country and quality of private TVET is educational methods, professional not guaranteed (MENFP, 2012). It becomes development for teachers as well as crucial to investigate the curriculum at restoration of TVET’s public image (Basu & Haitian agricultural TVET schools. Majumdar, 2009; Nooruddin, 2017). In reality, TVET is very diverse to respond to a Literature Review variety of curricula needs based on Mouzakitis (2010) defined TVET as clienteles, institutions, employment a type of education which trains people to opportunities and outcomes (King, 1993). work in a particular occupation through suitable and relevant curriculum or enables Theoretical Framework lifelong learning for employed people in that This study was framed using occupation. From this definition, it can be Experiential Learning theory (Kolb, 2014)

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with a focus on more practical experiences participants’ convenience, at their home, situated in realistic settings to provide office or campus; they were audio-recorded context-specific learning and include an and the researcher kept a journal (Yin, enculturation process (Brown, Collins, & 2016). The results analyzed directly from Duguid, 1989; Miller & Gildea, 1987). the audio were not transcribed (Green, Some example practical experiences include Franquiz, & Dixon, 1997), rather researcher internships, field projects, hands-on took notes in English (Ary et al., 2012; laboratory experiments, practicums, Miles et al., 2014). Initials codes emerged educational placements, in-class experiential using the constant comparative method; activities, service learning (Beard & Wilson, axial coding was then used to organize 2013; Cantor, 1997; Kolb, 2014; Roberts, initial codes into themes and sub themes 2006). (Saldaña, 2016). Two peers fluent in English and Creole each reviewed randomly one Purpose teacher note for trustworthiness (Creswell & This study sought to gain insights Miller, 2000). Quotes were pulled directly into the types of skills Haitian agricultural from audio and translated to English. The technicians are receiving at the schools, synthesized versions of directors’ individual more specifically what was the balance of interviews were returned to them for theoretical and practical skills within the member-checking (Cho & Trent, 2006; Haitian agricultural TVET’s curriculum. Hoffart, 1991); three of four gave feedback. To further ensure rigor, the researcher used Methodology triangulation of data sources from students, This study used a basic qualitative teachers and directors as well as method study approach (Ary, Cheser Jacobs, triangulation with interviews, field notes and Sorensen, & Walker, 2012), with semi- observations (Carter, Bryant-Lukosius, structured interviews and focus groups. The DiCenso, Blythe, & Neville, 2014). study sampling consisted of all the cases Most of the directors and teachers within the targeted population of TVET were agronomists; but some were schools in the Ouest department of Haiti technicians as well. They were all male. (Harding, 2013), resulting in four schools, Many were businesspersons or had other one in Montrouis, which was affiliated with teaching positions and only worked part- a university, and three in Petit-Goave. time at the schools. Three of them had Within each school, the sampling method master’s degrees and worked fulltime. All of used was stratified purposeful sampling the students were from rural communities (Ary et al., 2012) with typical cases chosen and nine were women out of 28 students. (Miles, Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014). In They all reported family activity to be each school, the director and three teachers agriculture-related and commerce. Although were interviewed, and a focus group of nine not asked, the age range seemed relatively students was conducted. However, in wide and many had worked and had studied Montrouis (university affiliated) deviant in other fields before. The institutions were cases were selected and one student was technical schools with the agriculture option, interviewed (Ary et al., 2012). The interview except 03 offered other technical options guides were prepared in English, and then and 04 was a university offering bachelor’s translated into French and Haitian Creole; degrees. The program lasted 2 to 3 years, but the interviews were conducted in Creole. 04 had a credit system. The minimal entry The interviews and focus groups occurred at level was 3e (school 01 and 02); school 03

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required seconde and 04 philo. Only 02 had technical curriculum that is that, “for me the INFP recognition and 04 was an accredited essential is practice” in an agricultural university. technic program of study (04-T1). That is because “agricultural sciences are very Findings practical [in nature]” so “we should give Data yielded three themes related to them practice for up to 60-70% and the the balance of theory and practice in the theory could be 30-40% at least” (01-T3), curriculum of agricultural TVET schools in backed up by 01-T2 who says it should be Haiti. The first was the role of practical “70% practice and 30% theory.” D-03 says, experiences in the curriculum. The second “with the experiences we have going in the was instructional strategies used in TVET to field with them, we see that it has many provide practical experiences. The final good beneficial roles, it has a lot of theme focused on barriers to providing more advantages” because, according to 03-T3, practical experiences. “an ounce of practice is worth more than a ton of theory” for them to understand. That The Role of Practical Experiences in the situation is explained by the fact that Curriculum “practice has an extremely important role” All of the respondents thought that because “when you go practice, it means practices are at the core of technical studies, that you go find out that what you’ve seen in as attested by 02-T1: “practice should be 75 writing, what it is exactly” (FG-03). to 90%,” because “practice is the base” (03- Therefore, practical experiences enhance T3) for technical studies. Moreover, learning, as 04-T2 explained, “when you do practical experiences serve many purposes it with your hands, you learn more than in the program of studies, because they are 50%” of the course content. Some teachers an inherent expectation from technicians as also gave it the place it deserves in the well as a competitive advantage for them, course’s learning assessments, 01-T2 “the “the practice tells who you are directly” as practice is graded as well and sometimes the students from FG-01 revealed. Practical practice’s grade weighs more than the experiences also help in preparing them for theories.” Nevertheless, at the end of the their future work in extension and they are day, the point is to prepare the students for the way to ensure best environmental the job market and increase their practices are implemented. Each participant employability. Therefore, according to 01- also evaluated their level of satisfaction with T3 “you can spend a lot of time doing theory current ratio of practice and theory, which and you can even manage to finish the cycle may be summed up by 01-T1’s comment, of studies you’re in but when you get to the “People want to stay in theory; they don’t field, it’s like you’re someone who never want to go to practice.” Three sub-themes really studied the science for real.” As 03-T1 emerged from the data: (a) the importance of pointed out “if I say I’m an agricultural practical experiences, (b) the purposes of technician I must be well-versed in the practical experiences, and (c) the amount of practice, which means that in the field we practical experience in the curriculum. must have minimum 60 to 70% of practice.” The students will have to perform in the Importance of practical field, so they must learn the practical skills experiences. Teachers, students and to be successful in their future jobs as directors gave similar responses about the technicians, “for me, an agricultural importance of practical experiences in the technician should be more practical than

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theoretical; in the training he’s receiving, for technician because an agricultural technician me, it’s supposed to be 60% practice and doesn’t exist on paper.” It is what the 40% theory” says teacher 04-T3. Teachers technical studies are about, “when you talk also understood that it is their responsibility about agricultural technic you see more to provide such needed skills to them while practice than theory” (FG-02). This idea was they are studying or as 03-T2 said “I could supported by a few teachers as well, such as still give them all the theory, but if it doesn’t 03-T1 “being a technician means being more get to the field, for them to not only explore versed in the practice than theory,” or 03-T3 but do themselves, the work has not been “when you see agricultural technicians in completed.” Teacher 03-T2 was the only our culture, you mostly see the field.” That who raised an important point which is because as mentioned during FG-03, elevates the importance of practical “practice is important because without experiences even more in the technical practice you will go nowhere, because as a route. He exposed that the way technicians technician practices are your thing.” were taught in the past was positive, in that Practices are essential to technicians when the agronomist who teaches the course for various other reasons, like the ones goes in the field he should have an related to the types of work in which they agricultural technician accompany him. “I ought to be involved. FG-01 said “and also have 1 or 2 technicians with me in the you cannot produce if you don’t practice.” field;” “they are the monitors” who explain D-04 explained that the practical things to students in the field rather than experiences help students produce real him, the teacher who already explained the commodities such as chicken, tilapia, theory in class. In short, everyone agreed, legumes, pigs, fruits etc. “but this develops “for me practice is one of the greatest pillars entrepreneurship spirit in them as well.” for agricultural technic [...] because practice Practical experiences are important in is the most important in agricultural technic” enabling graduates to be productive (FG-02), because, as D-01 recognized members within the agricultural system “agriculture is an experimental science, it’s through effective entrepreneurship. They the field and it’s the practice.” Nonetheless, should also be involved in the extension FG/E-04 told “but as a technician, they system, helping the farmers produce better. make you do more practice.” This statement, Therefore, according to 03-T2, the which he reiterated throughout the technician’s role is important because of interview, was however, contradicted by “practice and the fact that they’re in the what the dean and all three teachers revealed field, close to the farmers.” 03-T1 thought about the school’s program not making a “the technic focus means the field; the difference between students from either technician has to, for the most part, work in route, bachelor or technical. the field, practice and provide his knowledge in a technical manner in the Purposes of practical experiences. field.” Directors and students shared the Practical experiences have multiple same vision for technicians in the extension purposes. For one, it seems to be a system as well, as attested by D-04 “you consensus “practice makes a technician a need to be facing reality and in contact with technician, if you don’t practice you may go the field.” In focus group FG-03, a student teach or something else” as students from revealed that “we must do the practices, so FG-01 explained, or in FG-02 “with more we may be able to execute them for practice you’ll become a good agricultural beneficial results not only for ourselves but

18 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 for the benefice of the whole [agricultural] you must have the guarantee that you will community.” A student in FG-01 exposed succeed.” that, “I can’t come with a bunch of French Finally, technicians are competitive [words]” to the farmers as this is not helpful on the job market because of their technical to them at all. The extension activities of skills and are sometimes hired instead of technicians can also help enforce better agronomists. 01-T2 gave an example of his practices with the farmers. As explained by former student who was one in a group of D-01 “we go in the field” to make three agronomists recruited in the experimental comparisons between parcels, organization to do the same job and with the for example with different types of “same respect.” 02-T2 also said, “The fertilizers, and prove that the synthetic ones technician is all about practice, that’s what are not necessarily the best ones to use. they believe in;” he went on to add, “In Practical experiences in the whatever project that exists in whatever curriculum are also necessary because “it institution, they want technicians more than helps with learning,” 04-T2 revealed, “if you they do agronomists, because the technician only listen and you never use what you’re is more practical.” So, inherent to the listening to, you won’t remember.” As 04- technician and his program of study there T1 explained “it is in practice that you must be practical experience, because it is learn” because he stated, students from ultimately a competitive advantage, even previous cohorts who have not had the compared to agronomists. Students were practicum he taught, consider that they have aware of that situation as well, like in FG- not learned anything. Teacher 01-T1 03, someone supported that “the technician explained how class content is chosen so does more practice than the agronomist; the that on the “short term give them [the technician is more practical than the students] a fast-paced and operational agronomist.” They also said that “if you take training.” The reason that the training must more theory now, and you don’t practice, be “straightforward with fast techniques that it’s like you feel you’re not a technician can be implemented in the field” (01-T1), is anymore.” Another student in FG-03 because “an agricultural technician is reported what an agronomist told him someone who is very practical” (FG-03). “sometimes technicians compete with However, there is a need to integrate better agronomists and win because of practice.” practical experiences in the curriculum. After all, “when you’re in the field that’s Teacher 01-T1 said “we can’t stay stuck when you feel you are directly in the with students on the traditional; we go profession for real” (FG-03). further with them to show them there are ways in which things can be improved.” Amount of practical experience. In This situation is also linked to their future the focus groups, the amount of practice roles within the system, as mentioned deemed necessary ranges between 60 to earlier; because, “there’s a method called 80% across groups and inside each hand in the dough, you are not a technician individual group as well. However, most if you can’t apply this method.” As focus groups were reluctant to give a technicians, they must learn how to realize number on what the actual balance between the activities themselves, because “as a practice and theory looked like, but in FG- technician you should never engage in an 02, a student ventured to say that reality activity that has no guarantee, you will fail; might be around 50% of each in her opinion. However, another student quickly disagreed

19 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 with her, and says that for him, it is “at least 60%.” Nevertheless, D-04 revealed, “I am 70% of practice.” It can also be inferred that personally very satisfied with the results” of FG/E-04 felt the practice he got was the reversed pyramid experiment that has insufficient, because he practices on his own been going on for 7-8 years because “I find volition with a few institutions to students to be more practical.” D-02 even complement his training. The teachers, for claimed that “here they [students] do more the most part, did not think they are able to practice than theory” because “the technical include the sufficient amount of practice in schools are 80% practice and 20% theory, their courses. 01-T1 bluntly stated that, in but we do 50% theory and 80% practice, agricultural education at all levels, which means we increase it.” “currently there’s almost no practice the way things are done right now;” students Instructional Methods sometimes spend their whole study cycle Many teachers revealed different and never go on the field.” However, he instructional methods they use to ensure that agreed that “at the technical level this there is a balance in the curriculum, starting happens a little bit but not as it should.” This with various (a) participative methods, (b) moderate view is the most shared among research assignments, and (c) field activities. teachers. 04-T3 claimed that “for the courses I teach, it’s not 60/40, but I could say 70% Participative methods. There are a theory and 30% practice;” 02-T1 managed few ways in which teachers include to do less than his ideal 75-90%, having participative methods in their teaching. For only “50 to 70% practice” in his courses. instance, teacher 04-T2, who taught a For teacher 01-T3 “with a lot of sacrifices it practicum, said his classes do not have [balance between practice and theory] may lectures in them, “they’re very interactive, be 50/50.” 04-T2 thought that sometimes [he] takes each person’s opinions.” Then the learning is insufficient without the practice students got to compare methods in the because students are amazed at how much demonstration parcels and he derives the easier it is than expected when they do conclusion through the results. 03-T1 practice, which is why he feels that “practice claimed to “use participative methods; my should be superior to theory.” However, students must participate in the class, speak some still feel that they have managed to and tell what they know [...]; I am a guide.” give the students what is needed. According He also taught by questioning the students to 01-T3, “you should do more practice than rather than lecturing because he is not the theory but mostly in Haiti, you do more only one who possesses knowledge. Others theory than practice” but “with our weak avoided the classic exams, for example, in means we offer the students an adequate 02-T2’s course, “the final may be an training.” 03-T1 claimed that “by assignment or a workshop,” 01-T2 who gave evaluations that we have conducted, we “objective and subjective” exams, and 03- estimate that the students have cumulated T3, who said some exams are “interviews enough practical knowledge to become and case studies,” with role-play and agricultural technicians.” On the other hand, simulations “I play the role of the peasant.” the directors, in general, were more 03-T1 innovated in the grading, by making optimistic than the teachers were. As D-03 the students grade each other after an admitted, practice must be “75-80% […] but assignment, and he served as a jury during up to now we are at 60-75%; or D-01 “I’ll this process. 04-T2 said “we give students say [it is] 50/50 but practice should be the freedom to self-evaluate in what they’ve

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learned.” Teacher 04-T3 made groups of Sometimes it really is just about visiting students present whole chapters of the what exists and allow students to see with course content. He explained, “I dispense their own eyes. Like 01-T3, who said “for 50% lectures and the students basically do example we go out with them, we visit the other 50%, or I do 40% and the students farms with them.” This idea was supported do 60%.” “It’s almost like debate sessions” by students in FG-01 “sometimes after two where the students also do oral presentations weeks of theory, on the third week, he [the and “it allows students to learn better.” teacher] programs and tells us let’s practice; so, we go visit a farm […]; each trip is Research. Conducting their own always different.” Sometimes it is more the research was said to help students learn description of an ideal than reality, like 01- better. According to 03-T1 “we accentuate T1 expressed, “we must do a lot of visits, on assignments, particularly research look at each production sector […] and assignments, practice assignments” because propose recommendations to help the sector students remember more from research advance.” Other times the teacher precisely assignments than with lectures in classroom, mentioned taking the students to do active students “find more personally with observations in the field because of the type research” than lectures. Many teachers of course or because of the lesson need. As however (04-T3; 02-T3; 03-T1; 01-T2; 01- examples, 03-T1 said “I go to the field with T3), mentioned giving research assignments them to show them the different systems in to students. For example, 01-T2 said “we the Haitian peasantry,” 03-T1 who said “we also teach them to do research,” 04-T3 said draw from the science and go in the field to “I push the students towards research,” and make observations,” and 03-T1 who also 01-T3 said “we send them to do research as said “agroforestry is more based on well.” 03-T3 added “for homework, I mostly observations.” In other times the make them do research.” Research was observations preceded more active practices therefore, viewed as a positive tool for like 02-T2 revealed “my courses have more learning. However, in only one of the focus visits in them” in which the students observe groups (FG-01) research was mentioned then get to realize the practice themselves. “sometimes he [the teacher] just throws the He was not the only one mentioning subject out there and sends us to do practices of that sort. 03-T1 also claimed his research, and I appreciate that.” The students students “also go in the field and do the in general refrained from speaking about practice.” Other teachers preceded the methods when prompted. practice not with observation but with demonstrations. For instance, 04-T2 said “I Field activities. Most teachers (04- do a demonstration” first before they are T2; 04-T3; 02-T1; 02-T2; 03-T1; 03-T2; 03- released to do the assignment. T3; 01-T1; 01-T2; 01-T3) and a few Demonstrations were also used by 02- students mentioned field trips and visits as a T1who integrated practical experiences way to integrate practical applications to through visits, trips and demonstrations and course content. According to 04-T3, “for the 01-T2 who mostly visited and did courses I teach, […] it’s field visits,” and in demonstrations with the students. These FG-02 they expressed that “they [teachers] trips and visits took place in farms and other mostly go out with us in the field.” What private businesses; like D-01 stated “we also happens in these trips vary among teachers visit farms, we see some farmers,” and 03- and according to the type of course.

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T3 added “we have trips to private students do not pay him tuition. The teachers enterprises.” are “friends” and “volunteers.” He went on to say that “the tools for practice I buy them Barriers to More Practical Experiences with my own money.” However, the schools However, many obstacles were also have to work around that issue, because revealed that get in the way of successful according to 01-T3, “most students, I won’t integration of practices in the program of say all of them, but most of them live in study. Sub-themes under barriers included very precarious conditions, therefore scheduling, resources, student attitudes, automatically, if you ask them to contribute laboratories, and the rural realities in Haiti. financially and pay the school you’ll see them run away” therefore, “what you should Scheduling. This problem was offer them you cannot.” 01-T1 admitted that mentioned by a few teachers. 03-T2 said “the training we know we should give them ideally, “after each class you’d have a trip is not the one they’re getting because there with the students, but when the students go are too many constraints.” But 04-T3 out for them it’s a day of work. So, if the disagreed completely “I don’t know about course lasted 2 hours, the trip is a whole day all professors, but I don’t have many of work, from 8 am to 4 pm.” This situation constraints when I need to travel” with is problematic because “I have always students. D-02 also mentioned the financial desired to make my courses 60% practice constraints from students who do not pay and 40% theory, but it would require that the tuition. Nevertheless, they did not seem to courses I conduct them only in the field, but have difficulties providing practice and the way the schedule is established, the theory they claim to give at the school. students may have two different courses in However, a school seemed to have fewer the same day, so it can become more issues than all the others and 04-T1 revealed difficult to travel with the students” (04-T3). that “we have a farm, it’s 10 hectares” and a 04-T3 concluded, “maybe [it is] relative to dormitory. D-04 explained “upon creating how the schedule is set up, it makes it the university, we already had 10 hectares of difficult for my courses to be more practical land.” (…) so schedule organization can be a handicap to having more practical courses.” Student attitudes. When the inability to have more practice is not due to Resources. Many participants (D-01; the students not paying tuition and fees, it is D-03; 04-T1; 04-T2; 04-T3; 03-T2; 01-T1; about their attitude. 03-T2 revealed that 01-T3) expressed that the school lacked in “when the students go out a lot, they find it resources to realize more practices because tiring; so that becomes a constraint to make students do not pay tuition. 03-T2 revealed more practice.” Since it depends on that in another school he taught in, “the trip students’ attitude, the last cohort spent more also requires a contribution from students” than 60% of the time in the field he further but only 2 out of 4 may show up and so it explained. Students seemed to agree on the may be difficult to go financially, but also fact that it is also their responsibility. In FG- because he would have to make up for the 03 this idea came out that “sometimes us as other two. That is because “the technical students, sometimes by laziness, we don’t school is quasi free of charge [for students]” put ourselves in condition to assimilate (01-T1). The director D-01 agreed that he properly.” FG-02 students disagreed to the does not pay the teachers because the amount of practice they received at the

22 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 school. One student argued for 70%, instead the process of rebuilding. It is a university, it of the 50% proposed by another, claiming has more resources in general, like that “I don’t know if the other students dormitories, land as well, a credit system adapted them [the field trips] like me,” which has many advantages for students, but somehow suggesting that it varies across they must pay tuition. students. This idea was welcomed by the group and the disagreeing student as well. Rural reality & the environment. 03-T2 bluntly says that “it may not be 50/50 Teachers 01-T1 and 01-T3 felt concern for because the students [...] have a phase where the type of information students get as it they’re more or less lazy.” Once they get out relates to the reality they will have to deal of the phase, more trips can occur. In with. 01-T1 acknowledged, “I conserve a conclusion, as D-03 put it one way or little bit of rusticity [in the course] because another, it is on the students, “not everybody of the way animal breeding is done in learns the same, not everybody has the same Haiti.” For example, pure improved breeds will” and it can happen that only 50% of the cannot survive in rural Haitian conditions, students show up. If they are asked to “pay therefore, they must be mixed with local little fees” to participate in the expenses “of breeds to “meet the condition of traditional the big trips, they are not that interested.” animal husbandry” Haitian farmers currently practice. He went on to clarify that “we’re in Laboratories in Haiti. A big a country where it is important to learn how obstacle is the lack of infrastructure like to use what is available” like, the use of laboratories. Simply put, “there are no local plants rather than synthetic products as laboratories” according to 01-T3. Even pesticides. 01-T3 taught “how to manage the though he recognized that “they [the environment better” in his course. Then agricultural technical schools] should have a again, D-01 stated that “in the school we laboratory because some work can’t be done don’t encourage the chemical fertilizers too without a lab.” 04-T2 felt that “a lab can’t be much.” It seems that the need to respect something you imagine.” However, D-01 Haitian reality is closely connected to clarified “we have a lab problem, here [in protecting the environment. 04-T2 explained Haiti] there are no labs” because “these that, in his course, students realized things require a lot of money, we don’t have demonstration parcels experimenting about money to do them.” Laboratory equipment natural versus synthetic pesticides, he cost more than having land parcels for concluded with them if the “insects did not demonstrations. There was at least one attack yours, and insects did not attack mine, teacher who did not complain about the so why should I use the chemicals?” A few laboratory situation, 04-T3 “when I need to directors and many teachers (03-T1; 03-T2; go to a lab for the students to make analyses D-02) mentioned that the course content is on soils, I just send a pro forma to the lab elaborated based on what other technical under the university’s name and they take schools are doing and the INFP required care of it.” This collaboration with external courses, but as 03-T2 expressed, “also you laboratories was confirmed by D-04 “while take into account what exists where you are, rebuilding all the labs, we try to associate with examples taken from the places where with experimental farms that have big labs you do the practices.” Unfortunately, such as USAID.” This institution had adapting to Haitian reality sometimes also laboratories, but they were destroyed during means not having access to resources. Like the 2010 earthquake and they have been in 03-T2 explained, because “there are less

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agricultural enterprises, you find less had farms for practice. Nevertheless, they all entrepreneurs in the zone,” so he has less collaborated with external entities to have trips to businesses in his entrepreneurship access to resources for students, including course than desired. internships after the program has been completed. A study in seven African Conclusions, Recommendations & countries revealed that educators in the post- Implications secondary agricultural training must increase Agricultural TVET schools in Haiti practical learning activities through want to focus on practical issues as part of students’ interaction with production entities their mission, without neglecting the such as private agribusinesses, farmer theoretical aspect. A number of participative organizations, NGOs, or other, preferably instructional methods emerged as a way to with internship or other types of student ensure sufficient amount of practice was placement in those institutions (Rivera, covered during the training. However, there 2006). seemed to be real obstacles, financial Teachers at agricultural TVET mostly, to achieving the ideal ratio of schools used a variety of instructional practice and theory. The constructivist methods to help students gain practical approach in education posits that experiences. These included participative curriculum, as well as teaching methods and methods, research assignments, and field tools should enhance learners solving activities. Many recognize the necessity to problems, through various participative find new approaches to teach agriculture to practices, which are conducive to all sorts of students focusing on different learning styles interactions among students and their and problem solving (Coorts, 1987). Many subsequent engagement (Doolittle & Camp, teachers referred to participative methods, 1999; Powell & Kalina, 2009). research and other instructional methods like The relevance of practical reversed pyramid, they were experimenting experiences in TVET schools was expressed with the students to enhance their learning. through the importance of practical Freer (2015) suggested the reinforcement of experiences, the purposes of practical entrepreneurial mentality in students through experiences, and the amount of practical participatory and experiential learning experience in the curriculum. It has been methods such as debates and discussions, recognized that there is a need for practical teamwork and problem solving, etc. experience within the curriculum in Sustainable development in the curriculum agricultural education, such as work requires, creativity, and participative experience on campus farms and teaching methods focused on hands-on greenhouses, hands-on training, and experiences, visits to factories, field-work, internships (Albert, Roberts, & Harder; laboratory work, and internships (Minghat & 2017; Coorts, 1987). The findings are Yasin, 2010). consistent with this proposition. However, Participants revealed several barriers practice was found insufficient in the to providing practical experiences for majority of cases because of lack of students. These included scheduling, resources. A general lack of resources for resources, student attitudes, laboratories, and agricultural education and extension in Haiti the rural realities in Haiti. Facing the reality has been previously noted (Albert, et al., of the real-world is what situated learning 2017; Pierre, et al., 2018). With the refers to as the enculturation process through exception of the university, no other schools the integration of symbols or mental

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representations stored in memory, which Recommendations for practice is that cannot be complete or accurate, nor the curriculum may benefit from a better applicable in real life if they are only learned coordination between two ministries, in school setting (Brown et al., 1989; Vera because some agricultural TVET institutions & Simon, 1993). A few teachers mentioned are under the Ministry of Agriculture and scheduling conflict that do not accommodate others report to the Ministry of Education. extensive practical activities in the field. As the required skillset becomes more This situation was not reported as frequently complex, it may be essential for these as the serious financial lack that these students to interact with other schools face. Similar to studies in seven concentrations, therefore, TVET learning African countries, this study revealed that centers integrated with extension activities, administrators and educators pointed out may be proposed as a solution, which will inexistent laboratory equipment, computers, allow students learning through real life financial sponsorship of students, experiences. Learning centers may also help instructional farms, student lodging, and in catering to some of the financial insufficient teaching materials and staff difficulties the schools face and their development (Rivera, 2006). Another study subsequent lack of infrastructure and on African agricultural TVET also found resources, because the state may be able to that it faced financial problems, due to lack provide a general access to these resources, of resources, obsolete teaching materials, which all options can utilize with proper and farm equipment (Atchoarena, Wallace, scheduling. Green & Gomes, 2003). Rivera (2006) identified six critical areas for post- References secondary agricultural education and Albert, B., Roberts, T. G., & Harder, A. training, which are government policy and (2017). Career development funding, stakeholder representation, influences of employees working in appropriate teaching methods, curriculum Haiti’s agricultural extension and relevance, and institutional linkages. advisory services. Journal of Ultimately, what is sought is more access to International Agricultural and laboratories, teaching farms, libraries, Extension Education, 24(2), 107- computers, availability of internet 121. doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24208 connectivity, equipment, communication Ary, D., Cheser Jacobs, L., Sorensen, L. K., technology, and better facilities (Rivera, & Walker, D. A. (2012). 2006). Introduction to research in education Recommendations for research (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth would be to realize an in-depth comparison CENGAGE Learning. of the curricula in TVET schools in this and Atchoarena, D., Wallace, I., Green, K., & other geographic departments of Haiti. It Gomes, C. A. (2003). Strategies and could also be helpful to gather more institutions for promoting skills for information about the INFP regulations and rural development. In D. Atchoarena processes for certification of TVET schools. & L. Gasperini (Eds.), Education for On the other hand, the ministry of rural development: Towards new Agriculture also has EMAs, which this study policy responses. A joint study did not include. At this point, it would make conducted by FAO and UNESCO sense to understand their cursus better as (pp. 239-302). Paris, France: IIEP. well. Retrieved from

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http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/00 Darvas, P., & Palmer, R. (2014). Demand 13/001329/132994e.pdf and supply of skills in Ghana: How Basu, C. K., & Majumdar, S. (2009). The can training programs improve role of ICTs and TVET in rural employment and development and poverty alleviation. productivity? Washington, DC: In R. Maclean, D. N. Wilson (Eds.), World Bank Study. Retrieved from International handbook of education https://openknowledge.worldbank.or for the changing world of work (pp. g/handle/10986/18866 1923-1933). Dordrecht, The Doolittle, P. E., & Camp, W. G. (1999). Netherlands: Springer-Science Constructivism: The career and Business Media. doi: 10.1007/978-1- technical education perspective. 4020-5281-1_130 Journal of Career and Technical Beard, C., & Wilson, J. P. (2013). Education, 16(1). Retrieved from Experiential learning: A handbook https://ejournals.lib.vt.edu/JCTE/arti for education, training and coaching cle/view/706/1017 (3rd ed.). London, UK: Kogan Page FAOSTAT. (2018). Haiti. Rome, Italy: Limited. FAO. Retrieved from Brown, J. S., Collins, A., & Duguid, P. http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#count (1989). Situated cognition and the ry/93 culture of learning. Educational Food and Agriculture Organization. (2002). Researcher, 18(1), 32-42. Retrieved Anti-Hunger Programme: Reducing from hunger through agriculture and http://www.jstor.org/stable/1176008 rural development and wider access Cantor, J. A. (1997). Experiential learning in to food [PDF file]. Rome, Italy: higher education: Linking classroom FAO. Retrieved from and community [PDF file]. ERIC ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/004/y715 Digest. Retrieved from 1e/y7151e00.pdf http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED40 Food and Agriculture Organization. (2003). 4948.pdf Food security: Concepts and Carter, N., Bryant-Lukosius, D., DiCenso, measurement. In Trade reforms and A., Blythe, J., & Neville, A. J. food security: Conceptualizing the (2014). The use of triangulation in linkages (Ch. 2). Rome, Italy: FAO. qualitative research. Oncology Retrieved from Nursing Forum, 41(5), 545-547. http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y467 Cho, J., & Trent, A. (2006). Validity in 1e/y4671e00.htm#Contents qualitative research revisited. Food and Agriculture Organization, Qualitative research, 6(3), 319–340. International Fund for Agricultural Coorts, G. D. (1987). Updating today’s Development, & World Food college curriculum for tomorrow’s Program. (2015). The state of food agriculture. NACTA Journal, 31(2), insecurity in the world. Meeting the 20-21. 2015 international hunger targets: Creswell, J. W., & Miller, D. L. (2000). Taking stock of uneven progress Determining validity in qualitative [PDF file]. Rome, Italy: FAO. inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39(3), Retrieved from 124-130. doi: http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4646e.pdf 10.1207/s15430421tip3903_2

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Freer, T. J. (2015). Modernizing the Kolb, D. A. (2014). Experiential learning: agricultural education and training Experience as the source of learning curriculum. Blacksburg, VA: and development, (2nd ed.). Upper InnovATE. Retrieved from Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education https://innovate.cired.vt.edu/wp- Inc. content/uploads/2015/09/Thematic- Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, Study-Modernizing-AET- J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: Curriculum_112415_-FINAL.pdf A methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). Los Fuglie, K., & Wang, S. L (2012). Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications Productivity growth in global Miller, G. A., & Gildea, P. M. (1987). How agriculture shifting to developing children learn words. Scientific countries. Choices: The Magazine of American, 257(3), 94-99. Retrieved Food, Farm and Resource Issues, from 27(4). http://www.jstor.org/stable/2497948 Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services. 2 (2017). Haiti. Retrieved from Minghat, D. A., & Yasin, R. M. (2010). http://www.g-fras.org/en/world- Sustainable framework for technical wide-extension-study/central- and vocational education in america-and- Malaysia. Procedia Social and thecaribbean/caribbean/haiti.html#ex Behavioral Sciences, 9, 1233-1237. tension-providers doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.312 Green, J., Franquiz, M., & Dixon, C. (1997). Ministère de l’Education Nationale et de la The myth of the objective transcript: Formation Professionnelle. (2012). Transcribing as a situated act. Vers la refondation du système TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 172-176. éducatif haïtien : Plan opérationnel doi: 10.2307/3587984 2010-1015 : Des recommandations Harding, J. (2013). Qualitative data du groupe de travail sur l’éducation analysis: From start to finish. Los et la formation [Towards the Angeles, CA: SAGE. Rebuilding of the Haitian Education Heikkinen, A. (1997). Education or training? System : Operational Plan 2010- Changes in vocational teachers’ 1015 : Recommendations of the conceptions of their work. Working Group on Education and Cambridge Journal of Education, Training]. Port-au-Prince, Haiti: 27(3), 405-423. doi: MENFP. 10.1080/0305764970270309 Moehler, R. (1997). The role of agriculture Hoffart, N. (1991). A member check in the economy and society. In K. procedure to enhance rigor in Hathaway & D. Hathaway (Eds.), naturalistic research. Western Searching for common ground. Journal of Nursing Research, 13(4), European Union enlargement and 522-534. agricultural policy. Rome, Italy: King, K. (1993). Technical and vocational FAO Agricultural Policy and education and training in an Economic Development Series. international context. The Vocational Mouzakitis, G. S. (2010). The role of Aspect of Education, 45(3), 201-216. vocational education and training doi: 10.1080/0305787930450302 curricula in economic development. Procedia Social and Behavioral

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Sciences, 2, 3914–3920. doi: http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/00 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.616. 24/002439/243932e.pdf Nooruddin, S. (2017). Technical and Vera, A. H., & Simon, H. A. (1993). vocational education and training for Situated Action: A symbolic economic growth in Pakistan [PDF interpretation [PDF file]. Cognitive file]. Journal of Education and Science, 17, 7-48. Retrieved from Educational Development, 4(1), 130- http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10 141. Retrieved from .1207/s15516709cog1701_2/pdf http://journals.iobmresearch.com/ind von Grebmer, K., Bernstein, J., Prasai, N., ex.php/JEED/article/view/1345/255 Amin, S., Yohannes, Y., Nabarro, Pierre, A., Calixte, M. C., Moore, K., D., Towey, O., Thompson, J., Bunch, J. C., Koenig, R., Delva. L., Sonntag, A., & Patterson, F. (2016). & Roberts, T. G. (2018). Haitian Synopsis: Global hunger index, agricultural faculty preparation for Getting to zero hunger. Washington, their academic roles. Journal of DC: IFPRI. doi: International Agricultural and 10.2499/9780896292284 Extension Education, 25(1), 24-38. Wilkin, J. (1997). The role of agriculture in doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25103 the economy and society: Group Powell, K. C., & Kalina, C. J. (2009). discussion and a commentary. In K. Cognitive and social constructivism: Hathaway & D. Hathaway (Eds.), Developing tools for an effective Searching for common ground. classroom. Education, 130(2), 241- European Union enlargement and 250. agricultural policy. Rome, Italy: Rivera, W. M. (2006). Transforming post- FAO Agricultural Policy and secondary agricultural education Economic Development Series. and training by design: Solutions for World Food Program. (2018). Haiti. Sub-Saharan Africa [PDF file]. Retrieved from Retrieved from http://www1.wfp.org/countries/haiti http://siteresources.worldbank.org/IN Yin, R. K. (2016). Qualitative research from TAFRREGTOPTEIA/Resources/Pos start to finish (2nd ed.). New York, t_Secondary_Ag_Ed_final.pdf NY: The Guilford Press. Roberts, T. G. (2006). A philosophical examination of experiential learning theory for agricultural educators. Journal of Agricultural Education, 47(1), 17-29. doi: 10.5032/jae.2006.01017 Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for qualitative researchers. London, UK: SAGE Publications. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2015). UNESCO TVET strategy 2016-2021: Report of the UNESCO-UNEVOC virtual conference [pdf file]. Retrieved from

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26203

What did Aspiring Young Entrepreneurs in Nicaragua Recognize as Agribusiness and Ecotourism Opportunities using Photovoice as a Data Collection Tool?

José M. Uscanga M. Craig Edwards Craig E. Watters Oklahoma State University

Abstract Interest in entrepreneurship education by scholars and practitioners as a way to overcome poverty is growing. Yet little is known about how entrepreneurship can be a successful approach to achieving prosperity in resource-poor conditions. Entrepreneurship has been mainly associated with the view of entrepreneurs as super humans capable of solving all problems, especially if operating in resource-rich contexts. This qualitative study’s purpose was to explore, through photovoice methodology, the entrepreneurial opportunities involving agribusiness and ecotourism that Nicaraguan students recognized in their communities. Photovoice allowed the researchers to gain in-depth information from students who expressed in images what may have been difficult to explain in words. The students recognized different opportunities linked to their contexts as expressed through photos documenting local assets and materials. The study participants also indicated interests in doing social good, which suggested a more societally oriented view of entrepreneurship. The poor, including youth often marginalized, were able to recognize business opportunities in concert with their economic conditions. Opportunity recognition may be one of the more promising ways to overcome poverty. Its facilitation holds implications for agricultural, tourism, and rural development curricula and educational programming.

Keywords: entrepreneurship education; opportunity recognition; photovoice; resource constraints; youth

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Introduction “encompasses the activities and processes According to The World Bank undertaken to discover, define, and exploit (2016), about one billion people live under opportunities in order to enhance social the global poverty line of $1.90 USD per wealth by creating new ventures or day and mainly populate developing managing existing organizations in an countries. The lack of economic innovative manner” (p. 118). The mission of opportunities to overcome poverty in many social entrepreneurship is to create nations is evident: most people live in economic wealth but also social wealth underserved areas, share the adverse (Elkington & Hartigan, 2008; Keohane, consequences of poverty and social 2013; Lasprogata & Cotten, 2003; Mair & marginalization, and have a mixture of Noboa, 2003; Martin & Osberg, 2007; Zahra needs (Zahra, Korri, & Yu, 2005). Attention et al., 2008). It seeks to balance the to these issues is usually the focus of relational and economic spheres of society government-based efforts and many (Elkington & Hartigan, 2008; Perrini, 2006). impoverished people have largely hoped that Social entrepreneurs operate in diverse governments will solve their socioeconomic fields such as education, environment, problems (Mack & Pützschel, 2014). health care, and human rights, among others However, “[g]overnment alone is clearly not (Mack & Pützschel, 2014). the answer” (Dees, 2007, p. 25). Multi- sectorial approaches should be considered to Recognition of Entrepreneurial combat the multifaceted phenomenon of Opportunities poverty (Van Praag & Ferrer-i-Carbonell, Most research on entrepreneurship 2007). The rise of for-profit businesses in has been conducted in resource-rich developing countries represents an approach contexts, and mainly in the so-called to overcoming poverty; for example, many developed countries (Baron, 2004; Baron & context-appropriate businesses have been Ensley, 2006; Singh, 2001; Timmons, exploited in resource-poor settings through a Muzyka, Stevenson, & Bygrave, 1987; web of local businesses and other Zahra et al., 2005). However, multinational entrepreneurial corporations have pursued social endeavors (Hahn, 2009; Seelos & Mair, entrepreneurship opportunities in developing 2007). countries by linking local resources and Nonetheless, the conception of the people’s abilities (Prahalad, 2005), and by entrepreneur as a heroic man or super creating partnerships with local governments human who pursues for-profit businesses in and non-governmental agencies to foster formal, resource-rich economies has economic development (Zahra et al., 2008). dominated the thinking of many In most cases, however, the aggregate entrepreneurship thought-leaders (Banerjee contribution of these local businesses is far & Duflo, 2012; Williams & Nadin, 2013). away from solving the endemic poverty An interest, however, by scholars and found in their communities (Hahn, 2009). practitioners on social impact, other than Recognizing business opportunities only revenue, has emerged recently, e.g., based on perceived resources is the social entrepreneurship (Chell, 2007; Mair foundational phase of the entrepreneurship & Martí, 2006; Perrini, 2006; Zahra et al., process (Baron, 2006). Opportunity 2005; Zahra, Rawhouser, Bhawe, Neubaum, recognition is conceived as a cognitive & Hayton, 2008). According to Zahra et al. process (Baron, 2004), i.e., the moment in (2008), social entrepreneurship which the entrepreneur recognizes an

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opportunity to create a new venture (Singh, & Carovano, 1998). Photovoice can equip 2001). “[O]pportunity recognition occurs in people to consider making necessary a single step: entrepreneurs observe various changes according to their unique situations events or changes, and, upon examining (Goodhart et al., 2006; Strack, Magill, & them, recognize links or connections McDonagh, 2004). “It entrusts cameras into between them that then suggest new the hands of people to enable them to act as business opportunities” (Baron, 2006, p. recorders, and potential catalysts for change, 110). Understanding the phenomenon of in their own communities” (Wang & Burris, opportunity recognition in regard to 1997, p. 369). potential business ventures by local people in constrained socioeconomic conditions is Photovoice expands the genre of vital to alleviating poverty. participatory needs assessment. From the people, their Photovoice as a Participatory Diagnostic visions, and their words, we can Tool for Understanding Social begin to assess real local needs, in Phenomena the hope that the divergent An approach for understanding perspectives of . . . professionals and social phenomena, such as community laypeople will converge to exert a issues, is participatory diagnosis (Wang & more effective impact on a Burris, 1997), e.g., local citizens community’s well-being. (Wang & collaborating with experts in formal Burris, 1997, p. 385) meetings. However, participatory diagnosis has some limitations, including (1) people In a review of peer-refereed perceiving they are in a trusted environment literature about photovoice, Catalani and and free to express their concerns without Minkler (2010) concluded: “There is negative consequences, and (2) experts increasing evidence that photovoice can be honestly listening, understanding, and used as a participatory tool for engaging considering people’s concerns (Wang & communities as partners in a CBPR Burris, 1997). Using visual images such as [community-based participatory research] photos as an aid in participatory diagnosis is process” (p. 447) and can help researchers viewed as more effective than traditional “to reach hard-to-reach communities and approaches by some researchers (Harper, engage them in a meaningful, action- 1988; Wang & Burris). Photos can enhance oriented research process” (p. 448). To that and enrich our understanding of social aim, photovoice has been used effectively to phenomena (Harper, 1988). In addition, a involve people in participatory action higher level of credibility can be expected in research (Delgado, 2015; Findholt, Michael, research involving photos compared with & Davis, 2011; Strack et al., 2004; Wang & only words because photos are more about Burris, 1997), including the participation of showing than telling, and their content may youth. be more difficult to modify (Delgado, 2015; Tracy, 2010). Photovoice is a data collection Photovoice in Youth Research method involving photography, which Because youth represent the future, empowers people to more openly express their perspectives are vital for a themselves and allows the telling of their community’s well-being, especially stories through photographic images (Wang, regarding strategies to improve local 1999; Wang & Burris, 1997; Wang, Yi, Tao, economies and overcome poverty. Foster-

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Fishman, Law, Lichty, and Aoun (2010) about obesity from the views of high school stated that “youth are both able and eager to students, Findholt et al. (2011) concluded think critically about their community and that “the photographs and stories produced the data generated in a PAR [Participatory by the youth generated excitement and Action Research] process” (p. 82). garnered attention in ways that our Photovoice has been extensively used in traditionally gathered data did not” (p. 189). research involving youth in a broad range of Moreover, these authors highlighted the settings (Brazg, Bekemeier, Spigner, & potential of photovoice to serve as a catalyst Huebner, 2011; Catalani & Minkler, 2010; for social change by such an approach Chonody, Ferman, Amitrani-Welsh, & inviting the participation of different Martin, 2013; Delgado, 2015; Denov, decision makers from their respective Doucet, & Kamara, 2012; Findholt et al., communities. 2011; Graham et al., 2013; Strack et al., 2004). It has the potential to explicate issues Poverty & Inequality in Nicaragua and conditions affecting youth and their As of 2014, about 30% of the communities. Brazg et al. (2011), who population of Nicaragua lived in poverty studied substance abuse, concluded that by (Instituto Nacional de Información de using photovoice “youth explained the Desarrollo, 2015). Nicaragua’s average importance of factors that do not appear to annual GDP per capita in 2014 was $1,825 have been included in the literature or in the USD and its citizens averaged about six local community assessment” (p. 508). years of formal schooling (The World Bank, Photovoice allowed Chonody et al. to 2015). In the last few decades, the nation understand nontraditional perceptions of experienced a boom in emigration to Costa violence from the viewpoints of youth: Rica and the United States, especially of its young people (Hobbs & Jameson, 2012). . . . Interestingly, one of the themes Youth in Nicaragua are at great risk, e.g., that emerged from the discussion high rates of gang membership (Maclure & groups was love as Sotelo, 2004; Rodgers, 2006), suicidal a cause of violence. One of the expression (Medina, Jegannathan, obvious problems with such forms of Dahlblom, & Kullgren, 2012), as well as behavior is that it substance abuse and HIV risk behaviors merely perpetuates the cycle of (Prado et al., 2007). Innovative approaches violence as retaliation leads to are needed to address these issues. additional reprisals and so on. (Chonody et al., 2013, p. 97) Nicaragua’s Agricultural Sector & Emprendedora Technical High School Youth in urban Detroit used In 2014, 42% of Nicaragua’s photovoice to document the need to address population was rural and agriculture economic devastation in their community represented about 20% of its national GDP and created environmental degradation (The World Bank, 2015). These numbers are countermeasures as a result (Graham et al., relatively high compared to most nations of 2013). Likewise, Denov et al. (2012) Latin America. Moreover, as of 2015, the asserted that photovoice was a useful agriculture value added per worker was method for exploring and documenting post- $3,762 USD (The World Bank, 2015). war life and social reintegration of child Entrepreneurial ventures involving soldiers in Sierra Leone. In their findings opportunities in agriculture and the

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environment exist in Nicaragua, including other entrepreneurship topics. Their learning enterprises led by youth. includes many hands-on activities in real- In 2012 the non-governmental world settings. The school has an organization Opportunity International agricultural operation on site where students created the Emprendedora Technical High gain experience in growing and marketing School in Granada, Nicaragua to serve low- its products. An eco-hotel was under income rural youth (Opportunity construction in 2015, as supported by International, 2017). The school is located in Opportunity International, where tourism a rural area between the cities of Granada students would learn and practice skills in and Diriomo. Emprendedora is a five-year the hospitality industry (D. Campos, high school, including grades 7 through 11. personal communication, October 22, 2015). All students take the same courses in grades 7, 8, and 9; during grades 10 and 11 they Theoretical Framework enroll in courses related to their technical Ajzen’s (1987, 1991) theory of interests. The goal of Emprendedora is to planned behavior (TPB) served as the prepare leaders who can respond to the theoretical framework for this study. Ajzen needs of their communities (Opportunity hypothesized that behavioral beliefs, International, 2017). Students receive normative beliefs, and control beliefs play a general and vocational education which critical role in influencing the intentions of includes learning entrepreneurial skills. Two individuals; and intentions antecede technical strands or focus areas are available subsequent actions. An individual’s to the students: sustainable agriculture and behavioral beliefs, i.e., specific attitudes sustainable tourism. In sustainable toward a given behavior, are expected to agriculture, Emprendedora focuses on the predict the likelihood of a person executing production and commercialization of related actions. Normative beliefs refer to certified organic fruits and vegetables how members of a social system view the mainly for the local market. For sustainable behaviors in question. Moreover, tourism, the school prepares students to start individuals’ perceived abilities to environment friendly tourist attractions successfully perform given behaviors featuring natural resources (D. Campos, precipitate their control beliefs (see Figure personal communication, October 22, 2015). 1). For this study, Ajzen’s TPB served to Other than only the traditional frame an understanding and interpretation of instruction, such as math and science, students’ attitudes, views on subjective students in Emprendedora also learn norms, and perceptions of control regarding business planning, sustainability, micro- opportunity recognition and, thereby, finance, administration, marketing, and indicated their intentions to be production and commercialization, among entrepreneurs.

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Figure 1. Theory of Planned Behavior Diagram.

Purpose & Research Questions existing resources to business Although other studies have opportunities? addressed the importance of exploring 3. What was learned about the use of resources available for potential business photovoice as a data collection method opportunities in resource-rich contexts, less in regard to aspiring youth entrepreneurs evidence exists about how entrepreneurship and opportunity recognition in a can be a successful approach to achieving resource-constrained context? prosperity under meager socioeconomic conditions (Seelos & Mair, 2007; Procedures Wennekers, Van Wennekers, Thurik, & Reynolds, 2005; Zahra, Gedajlovic, Recruitment of Study Participants Neubaum, & Shulman, 2009). In addition, Emprendedora is a technical high opportunity recognition is usually school in Nicaragua where students receive considered essential to successfully general and vocational education. It was exploiting new business ventures (Baron, selected to conduct the study because of an 2006; Baron & Ensley, 2006; Timmons et existing relationship with faculty members al., 1987). The purpose of this qualitative of Oklahoma State University who had study, therefore, was to explore, through provided the institution technical expertise photovoice, the entrepreneurial opportunities on entrepreneurship. Students in grade 10 Nicaraguan high school students recognized from the two technical areas, sustainable in their communities. Three research agriculture and sustainable tourism, were questions guided the study: purposively selected to participate in the 1. Which business opportunities study. Tenth grade students were chosen were recognized by aspiring youth because of their expected higher knowledge entrepreneurs as they considered existing of entrepreneurial skills compared to resources in their communities? students in the lower grades. Because the 2. What were the aspiring youth school started in 2012, no students entrepreneurs’ rationales for linking

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populated grade 11 in 2015. The school’s students’ photographs and answers to enrollment was 96 students during the study. written prompts for such. A meeting between researchers and Students’ personal characteristics students was arranged by the school’s and information about their business ideas principal; 35 students attended the meeting were collected before the taking of photos from a total of 47 students in grade 10, or (Delgado, 2015; Wang & Burris, 1997). For about three-fourths of the class. A the written statements about business ideas, comprehensive description of the research students were asked to consider their process was provided to the students, i.e., existing resources regarding potential voluntary participation, risks associated with entrepreneurial opportunities. A modified participation, no penalties or retaliation for version of the SHOWeD guide not participating, their right to leave the recommended by the Metropolitan Area study at any time, and protection of Planning Council (as cited in Delgado, students’ privacy. The need to gain parental 2015) was provided to students to frame the consent for students willing to participate in analysis about their business ideas. The the study was emphasized. The researchers SHOWeD guides youth “in articulating their were available to answer questions from the thoughts and reactions” (Delgado, p. 139). students or their parents, school staff, or The original guide consisted of five Opportunity International staff. The students questions or prompts. A panel of experts on were provided assent and consent forms; participatory research helped adapt the those who assented also submitted their guide’s questions to this study’s context. parents’ consent before participating in the The modified framing questions were study. The time in the school year of data included: (1) What motivates you to do this collection may have affected students’ business idea? (2) What would be the impact participation and the study’s response rate of this business idea? (3) How does this because it occurred on a religious holiday business idea relate to your life? (4) Why weekend in Nicaragua. Further, when data should this business idea exist? and (5) were collected, the students had finished What would you change in your surrounding their school year; they met only for the environment for this to be a feasible purpose of the study on a Friday and were business idea? requested to submit their photos the To collect visual data, students were following Monday. These conditions asked to take 5 to 10 photos (Delgado, 2015) represent potential limitations of the study. of resources in their communities they considered important for implementing Data Collection achievable business ideas. The students had The study’s research protocol was two options for taking the photos; either use pilot tested with Spanish-speaking, Hispanic their mobile telephones or use disposable students in the United States before being cameras provided by the researchers. The administered to the students in Nicaragua; students were asked to respond to a writing modifications were made, as warranted. prompt for each photo, and to do that Data collected thereafter included three immediately after recording the images types: (1) students’ personal characteristics (Delgado; Wang & Burris, 1997). The through a paper-based survey questionnaire; writing prompt question was “Why is this (2) students’ written statements about their photo important for your business idea?” pre-existing business ideas using questions They also numbered, dated, and named their adapted from the SHOWeD guide; and (3) photos. Training was provided on how to

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use the disposable cameras. The students were embedded throughout the study such as had two days to submit photos and answer worthy topic, significant contribution, and the writing prompt. The digital photos taken meaningful coherence (Tracy, 2010). To with students’ mobile telephones were ensure rich rigor, both interpretivist and copied to a data storage device, and the constructivist theoretical perspectives disposable cameras were collected for film supported the understanding of opportunity development. recognition by the study’s aspiring youth entrepreneurs (Delgado, 2015). Information Data Coding & Analysis was gathered from several sources to The analysis of photos was interpret and construct reality, including the facilitated with supporting data about the students’ and the researchers’ viewpoints students’ personal characteristics, written (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008). The main statements regarding business ideas, and postulation was that the observations were written responses to the prompt for each of related, and interdependent, to the observers their photos (Delgado, 2015; Emerson, and their contexts in regard to interpreting Fretz, & Shaw, 1995). The written data were and constructing the study’s reality (Crotty, transcribed verbatim and translated from 1998). Therefore, the researchers’ realities Spanish to English by the lead researcher. influenced the meaning of the study’s Data analysis followed qualitative purpose, research questions, and procedures; guidelines, including open coding to identify likewise, the students’ realities were significant statements and patterns reflected through the data they provided and supporting the visual evidence (Creswell, their related interpretations of such. 2013; Saldaña, 2009). The principle that Regarding sincerity, the investigators were “coding is not just labeling, [but] it is facilitators of the research process linking” (Saldaña, 2009, p. 8) was followed. (Delgado, 2015; Wang & Burris, 1997), i.e., Similarities, differences, frequencies, as Schoorman and Bogotch (2010) stated: sequences, correspondence, and causation “[R]esearch is not done on members of the were among the criteria considered when community but [rather] with them” (p. 262). looking for patterns in the information from Ongoing communication between the different sources of data (Saldaña, 2009). researchers and stakeholders was maintained During the open coding process, patterns throughout the research process. At the end emerged that led to the creation of themes to of data analysis, a debriefing meeting answer research question two (Creswell, (Delgado, 2015; Wang & Burris, 1997) 2013; Patton, 2002; Ryan & Russel Bernard, occurred between the researchers and 2003; Saldaña, 2009; Yin, 2009). Data were stakeholders, which included the school’s analyzed several times and presented to principal and a local staff member of knowledgeable researcher colleagues for Opportunity International. Findings of the confirmation of the emergent themes study were presented to and discussed with (Bloomberg & Volpe, 2008; Chenail, 2011). the stakeholders. This practice is particularly important in photovoice which has as its Considerations for Quality Qualitative ultimate goal change to occur from and Research within the community (Delgado, 2015; Wang The eight big-tent criteria & Burris, 1997). To address credibility, recommended by Tracy (2010) for achieving triangulation occurred by comparing and excellent quality in qualitative research were contrasting the various data (Lincoln & followed in this study. Some of the criteria Guba, 1985). Further, having multiple

36 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 researchers allowed collaboration in professional and personal relationships in analysis, member reflections, and checking Nicaragua. This background may have for inter-coder reliability, i.e., multivocality influenced how he interacted with the (Tracy, 2010). Regarding resonance, we study’s participants and introduced bias into aimed to provide sufficient and detailed the research process by influencing the information about the study for readers to study’s design, results, and interpretations. draw their own conclusions (Lincoln & One co-author taught Hispanic students as a Guba, 1985) about transferability of the teacher of high school agriculture in Texas study’s findings. and has mentored two Hispanic doctoral An Institutional Review Board (IRB) students working to earn doctoral degrees in protocol observing Oklahoma State agricultural education; one student whose University’s and Nicaragua’s laws and study involves aspects of entrepreneurship regulations was submitted and approved development. His work in Latin America before data collection to address ethical has been rather limited. The other co-author concerns. The study’s consent and assent is an associate professor of entrepreneurship, forms were prepared in English and leads an institute for global social translated to Spanish at an appropriate entrepreneurship, and provided professional reading level for students and their parents. development for teachers and school leaders The students were assigned numeric at Emprendedora technical high school in identities to maintain their anonymity and Nicaragua prior to the study. the confidentiality of the students’ responses. Findings & Discussion Fifteen females and five males Researchers’ Reflexivity provided photos; 12 in tourism and eight in “One model [of reflexivity] is to agriculture. The mean age of students was include a separate section in which authors 16 years, and the median annual family declare their position . . . [however, income was $3,210 USD for an average i]ntegrating your reflexive commentary family of six members. The students’ family within the analysis may be a better way of incomes ranged from $622 to $7,778 USD demonstrating how the researcher’s (see Table 1). Female participation was involvement affected the research process” higher than males even though the class (Shaw, 2010, pp. 241-242). Reflexivity was ratio was almost evenly divided. Family embedded during the study which elucidated incomes were higher for students who opted the research process and helped to ensure to use their mobile telephones to take photos that a reflexive approach was followed than for those who used disposable cameras, (Shaw, 2010). The lead researcher’s i.e., $4,226.29 versus $2,419.55 (see Table reflexivity requires unique explanation 1). Students taking photos with disposable because of his background and involvement cameras reported either not owning a mobile in data collection. In contrast to the other telephone with photo capabilities or not researchers, the lead researcher’s culture is owning a mobile telephone at all. In similar to the students, e.g., mother language addition, the participation rate was higher and diet. He is also a Latin American and for students who used disposable cameras to from a rural part of Mexico and has worked take their photos than of those who used to deliver extension services to agriculturists personal mobile telephones, i.e., 11 versus 9 there. In addition, he had previous (see Table 1).

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Table 1 Selected Personal Characteristics of Aspiring Youth Entrepreneurs in Nicaragua Family’s Student Technical Annual Family Photo Number Business Idea Age Sex Option Income Members Device 1 Crafts (wood scraps) 15 F Tourism No answer 6 Mobile 2 Crafts (woven plastic) 16 F Tourism $4,444 5 Mobile 3 Bakery 16 F Tourism No Answer 5 Disposable 4 Juice bar 15 M Tourism $1,333 3 Mobile 5 Paintings (panel) 15 F Tourism $2,222 5 Disposable 7 Crafts and paints 16 F Tourism $7,778 4 Mobile 8 Organic fertilizer prod. 16 F Agriculture $622 3 Disposable 9 Pineapple prod. 17 M Agriculture $2,000 6 Disposable 11 Coconut oil prod. 15 F Agriculture $622 9 Mobile 13 Organic fertilizer prod. 16 F Agriculture $1,600 7 Disposable 14 Hibiscus prod. 15 F Tourism $5,333 5 Disposable 21 Sale of fresh fruits 16 F Tourism $2,222 6 Disposable 22 Bakery 15 M Tourism $1,481 5 Disposable 23 Lamb prod. 16 M Agriculture $889 5 Disposable 24 Chiltoma pepper prod. 16 F Agriculture $3,556 4 Mobile 27 Library 16 F Tourism $5,407 6 Disposable 28 Butterfly farm 15 F Tourism No Answer 6 Mobile 30 Dragon fruit prod. 17 F Agriculture No Answer 4 Disposable 32 Juice bar (smoothies) 15 F Tourism $4,444 6 Mobile 33 Chicken meat prod. 16 M Agriculture $7,407 9 Mobile Note. “F”= female; “M”= male. Income is shown in USD: $27 Nicaraguan Cordobas = $1 USD.

Research Question #1. Which business organic fertilizer, pineapple, coconut oil, opportunities were recognized by aspiring chicken, lamb, and chiltoma pepper, a local youth entrepreneurs as they considered bell pepper (see Table 1 & Figure 2). existing resources in their communities? Tourism students presented ideas such as craft shops, bakeries, juice bars, a library, and a butterfly farm. Agriculture students indicated business ideas about

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Figure 2. Photos representing business opportunities recognized by aspiring youth entrepreneurs in Nicaragua. Tourism: a) crafts (carpentry-scraps); b) crafts (woven plastic); and c) a juice bar. Agriculture: d) coconut oil production; e) chiltoma peppers; and f) chicken meat.

a

d

b

e

c f

Figure 2. Photos representing business opportunities recognized by aspiring youth entrepreneurs in Nicaragua. Tourism: a) crafts (carpentry-scraps); b) crafts (woven plastic); and c) a juice bar. Agriculture: d) coconut oil production; e) chiltoma peppers; and f) chicken meat.

Recycled materials were among the important for your business idea?” – in one resources students considered relevant to of her photos (see Figure 2a.), Student #1 their business ideas. Student #1 identified stated: “It’s important because these are the carpentry scraps as one of the most carpentry-scraps with which we can work to important resources for her business idea. In make crafts.” response to the prompt − “Why is this photo

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Although the exercise of taking potential business ideas. Data from the photos stressed the importance of students modified questionnaire, supported by considering existing resources in regard to students’ personal attributes and written their business ideas, they were not prevented prompts for the photos, revealed the themes. from documenting other potential raw materials or inputs. However, in general, Theme #1: Motivated to help students did not photograph large companies themselves and their families by or well-known brands, but instead exploiting the need for a service or documented locally available assets and product in their communities. This theme materials. A majority described their ideas emerged from students’ answers to “What as production-oriented enterprises, and a few motivates you to do this business idea?” emphasized marketing or advertising. A Student #27 stated: “To help my family small number indicated exporting to other financially and learn to self-sustain me.” countries or creating large companies. Student #4 said: “personal growth, help my Student #30 said: “The dragon fruit has family, income, support of my parents.” And great potential for exports, and for making Student #22 replied: “[I]t would be very dragon fruit jelly.” In response to the prompt important because it would bring prosperity − “Why is this photo important for your to my family and I will take this product to business idea?” − Student #9 stated: “I need people.” the product (pineapple) to start my commercialization and sell it in the markets Theme #2: Meet the needs of of my country, and then export to other producers and consumers by providing a countries.” The opportunities were related to quality service or product for their the students’ study options (see Table 1). communities. To arrive at this theme, Student #8 expressed: “What motivates me students’ responses were analyzed to the for this business idea is that I'm studying question “What would be the impact of this agriculture and I know the importance of business idea?” Comments included: “my compost and I like doing that.” These business would be an easier access to findings support Zahra et al. (2009) results organic fertilizer for big farmers” (Student on the influence of immediate context in the #8); “producer[s] connected to the country's exercise of opportunity recognition by markets and offer a quality product to the entrepreneurs. This conflation of what public” (Student #9); “satisfaction of students learned in school with the consumer needs, and generate income for recognition of income-generating the country and owner” (Student #14); “this opportunities in their communities is idea would be good for the community important for Nicaragua with much of its because of the provision of work; it will population rural and agriculture about 20% have a good impact on the consumer of the nation’s GDP (The World Bank, because there is no company [now] that is 2015). responsible for production” (Student #24); and “the product will provide vitamins to Research Question #2: What were the people” (Student #33). aspiring youth entrepreneurs’ rationales for linking existing resources to business Theme #3: Identification with opportunities? products and services through personal Four themes emerged from students’ experiences. Students’ responses from two rationales for linking their local resources to questions supported this theme: a) “How

40 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 does this business idea relate to your life?” rationales. For example, Student #28, an and b) “Why should this business idea aspiring butterfly farm owner, said: “What I exist?” Regarding how the ideas related to would change is the culture, the way of life their lives, students said: “because I can of the people in the community, as I would paint and it is an art for me, it is a gift that recycle and help nature.” Student #21 saw God has given me and I would like the need to provide children with fresh fruit, everybody to know what I do” (Student #5); and contended that a child she photographed “I have lived in a family that practiced their “will not be healthy since he does not own businesses and I know where and how consume fruits because they are not at his to negotiate” (Student #22); “because it is fingertips.” something that I have some knowledge about and it’s something of easy access” Research Question #3: What was learned (Student #27); “[i]t relates to my life about the use of photovoice as a data because my family use to have a beef collection method in regard to aspiring business and while delivering I noticed that youth entrepreneurs and opportunity buyers demanded more chicken than beef” recognition? (Student #33). Regarding rationales for the Guidelines for taking the photos existence of their business ideas, several caused some anxiety because the students students explained: “it should exist because wanted examples of resources they could youth and people eat junk food every day photograph for their business ideas, but and they stop[ped] eating healthy food” Delgado (2015) warned about conditioning (Student #21); “because this product is expressibility, i.e., limiting students’ highly demanded in my area and if it exists creativity to a given example. Therefore, people will buy it and they will not have to instead of examples, the students were get it from a far distance” (Student #22); “it encouraged to think deeply about existing should exist because the product I will offer resources and then take photos of what they is very viable and demanded by Nicaragua” considered important. In this way, (Student #24); and “because it is a viable everything was a possibility; so, the way to contribute to the household and collection guidelines for photovoice should national economy” (Student #33). be clear but not restrictive. The pilot test aided in focusing but not narrowing the Theme #4: Recognition of the need exercise’s guidelines for collecting data and for change if their entrepreneurial goals students taking photos of business are to be achieved. Students insights to the opportunities and complementary resources question − “What would you change, in your (Chenail, 2011; Delgado, 2015). Having a surrounding environment, for this to be a facilitator, the school’s principal, who feasible business idea?” – supported this understood the local context (Wang & theme: “offer products in the communities, Burris, 1997), aided in overcoming potential where they need to improve their yields and obstacles such as building trust with the quality of their crops” (Student #13); participants. Providing disposable cameras “[w]hat I would change is the demand that to facilitate photo collection allowed some exists in Nicaragua, if not increasing students to participate in the study who demand elsewhere and create greater might not have due to lacking mobile publicity of this hibiscus product” (Student telephones capable of taking photos. #14). Creating social wealth via social entrepreneurship also emerged from the

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Conclusions, Implications & recognized a variety of entrepreneurial Recommendations possibilities being linked to their situational Opportunity recognition contexts (Baron, 2006; see Table 1). Some demonstrated the students’ behavioral also expressed strong interests in doing intentions to become entrepreneurs (Ajzen, social good suggesting a more societal 1987, 1991; see Figure 1). This intention improvement than traditional, profit-oriented was shaped by their behavioral, normative, view (Zahra et al., 2009). and control beliefs toward entrepreneurship. The poor are able to recognize Behavioral beliefs included aspects of social business opportunities in concert with their entrepreneurship as represented by the economic conditions, and do not need to be attitudes of some students who perceived super humans (Banerjee & Duflo, 2012; their business ideas were good actions to Williams & Nadin, 2013) to do that. take while also improving their Opportunity recognition (Baron, 2004; communities. As for normative beliefs, the Singh, 2001) may be one of the more students perceived that members of the promising ways to overcome poverty; its social system, such as family members, facilitation holds implications for positively valued their business ideas. agricultural, tourism, and rural development Concerning control beliefs, the students curricula and educational programming, expressed the confidence to execute especially regarding youth education and business ideas, and perceived themselves to their learning experiences. For instance, Bell be knowledgeable about entrepreneurship (2015) described improved development of and capable of relying on local assets to skills when students actively participated in execute their aspirations. the entrepreneurial process. Moreover, Elert, These positive attitudes, views on Andersson, and Wennberg (2015) found a subjective norms, and perceptions of control significant and positive impact of high regarding opportunity recognition indicated school students’ entrepreneurship education a strong intention from students to become experiences on their long-term entrepreneurs. The more favorable a entrepreneurial performance. This study’s person’s attitudes and perceptions of results suggest support for Elert et al. subjective norms, and the greater an findings. By aiding students’ in recognizing individual’s perceived control, the stronger context-appropriate businesses, such may his or her intentions are to perform a given become important economic lifters of behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Photovoice allowed communities with endemic poverty. the researchers to gain in-depth information Additional research should be from students who expressed in images what conducted on how the recognition of may have been difficult to convey in words income-generating opportunities leads to the (Delgado, 2015). Having multiple sources establishment of businesses by high school of data also provided a triangulated students in Nicaragua and in similar understanding of the phenomenon’s contexts. The study’s higher female complexities (Emerson et al., 1995; Patton, participation supports the recommendation 2002). In addition, the students showed a by Wang and Burris (1997) about using high capacity to identify opportunities and photovoice in action research with the aim how to pursue such, and they were able to of empowering women. Having a local connect the dots (Baron, 2006). Aspiring research facilitator is recommended in young entrepreneurs in Nicaragua identified studies involving photovoice. It is also opportunities on which to capitalize and recommended to provide participants with

42 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 the research materials needed for a study, Management Science, 52(9), 1331– e.g., disposable cameras, when their 1344. Retrieved from economic status may limit participation. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20110608 Although the study’s findings should not be Bell, R. (2015). Developing the next generalized beyond the sample, some generation of entrepreneurs: Giving transferability may exist to similar settings students the opportunity to gain (Creswell, 2013). In that regard, social experience and thrive. The entrepreneurship warrants consideration for International Journal of Management agricultural as well as tourism education and Education, 13(1), 37-47. rural development, especially for youth in doi:10.1016/j.ijme.2014.12.002 resource-constrained communities. Bloomberg, L. D., & Volpe, M. (2008). Completing your qualitative References dissertation: A roadmap from Ajzen, I. (1987). Attitudes, traits, and beginning to end. Thousand Oaks, CA: actions: Dispositional prediction of Sage Publications. behavior in personality and social Brazg, T., Bekemeier, B., Spigner, C., & psychology. Advances in Experimental Huebner, C. E. (2011). Our Social Psychology, 20, 1-63. doi: community in focus: The use of 10.1016/S0065-2601(08)60411-6 photovoice for youth-driven substance Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned abuse assessment and health behavior. Organizational Behavior promotion. Health Promotion and Human Decision Processes, Practice, 12(4), 502-511. 50(2), 179-211. doi:10.1177/1524839909358659 doi:10.1016/07495978(91)90020-T Catalani, C., & Minkler, M. (2010). Banerjee, A. V., & Duflo, E. (2012). Poor Photovoice: A review of the literature economics: A radical rethinking of the in health and public health. Health way to fight global poverty. New Education and Behavior, 37(3), 424- York, NY: PublicAffairs. 451. doi:10.1177/1090198109342084 Baron, R. A. (2004, August). Opportunity Chell, E. (2007). Social enterprise and recognition: A cognitive perspective. entrepreneurship: Towards a In Academy of Management convergent theory of the Proceedings (Vol. 2004, No. 1, pp. entrepreneurial process. International A1-A6), Academy of Management. Small Business Journal, 25(1), 5–26. doi:10.5465/AMBPP.2004.13862818 doi:10.1177/0266242607071779 Baron, R. A. (2006). Opportunity Chenail, R. J. (2011). Interviewing the recognition as pattern recognition: investigator: Strategies for addressing How entrepreneurs “connect the dots” instrumentation and researcher bias to identify new business opportunities. concerns in qualitative research. The The Academy of Management Qualitative Report, 16(1), 255-262. Perspectives, 20(1), 104-119. Retrieved from doi:10.5465/AMP.2006.19873412 http://nsuworks.nova.edu/tqr/vol16/iss Baron, R. A., & Ensley, M. D. (2006). 1/16 Opportunity recognition as the Chonody, J., Ferman, B., Amitrani-Welsh, detection of meaningful patterns: J., & Martin, T. (2013). Violence Evidence from comparisons of novice through the eyes of youth: A and experienced entrepreneurs. photovoice exploration. Journal of

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Rodgers, D. (2006). Living in the shadow of http://data.worldbank.org/country/nica death: Gangs, violence and social ragua order in urban Nicaragua, 1996–2002. The World Bank. (2016). Global monitoring Journal of Latin American Studies, report 2015-2016: Development goals 38(2), 267-292. in an era of demographic change. doi:10.1017/S0022216X0600071X Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved Ryan, G. W., & Russel Bernard, H. (2003). from Techniques to identify themes in https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/ qualitative data. Field Methods, 15(1), handle/10986/22547 85-109. Timmons, J. A., Muzyka, D. F., Stevenson, doi:10.1177/1525822X02239569 H. H., & Bygrave, W. D. (1987). Saldaña, J. (2009). The coding manual for Opportunity recognition: The core of qualitative researchers. Los Angeles, entrepreneurship. Frontiers of CA: SAGE. Entrepreneurship Research, 7, 109- Schoorman, D., & Bogotch, I. (2010). What 123. is a critical multicultural researcher? A Tracy, S. J. (2010). Qualitative quality: self-reflective study of the role of the Eight “big-tent” criteria for excellent researcher. Education, Citizenship and qualitative research. Qualitative Social Justice, 5(3), 249-264. Inquiry, 16(10), 837-851. doi:10.1177/1746197910382257 doi:10.1177/1077800410383121 Seelos, C., & Mair, J. (2007). Profitable Van Praag, B. M., & Ferrer-i-Carbonell, A. business models and market creation (2007). A multi-dimensional approach in the context of deep poverty: A to subjective poverty. Amsterdam, The strategic view. The Academy of Netherlands: University of Management Perspectives, 21(4), 49- Amsterdam. Retrieved from 63. doi:10.5465/AMP.2007.27895339 http://www.iae.csic.es/investigatorsMa Shaw, R. (2010). Embedding reflexivity terial/a71312152653archivoPdf62069. within experiential qualitative pdf psychology. Qualitative Research in Wang, C. (1999). Photovoice: A Psychology, 7(3), 233-243. participatory action research strategy doi:10.1080/14780880802699092 applied to women’s health. Journal of Singh, R. P. (2001). A comment on Women’s Health, 8(2), 185–192. developing the field of doi:10.1089/jwh.1999.8.185 entrepreneurship through the study of Wang, C., & Burris, M. A. (1997). opportunity recognition and Photovoice: Concept, methodology, exploitation. Academy of Management and use for participatory needs Review, 26(1), 10-12. assessment. Higher Education & doi:10.5465/AMR.2001.27879266 Behavior, 24(3), 369–387. Strack, R. W., Magill, C., & McDonagh, K. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/1090198 (2004). Engaging youth through 19702400309 photovoice. Health Promotion Wang, C., Yi, W. K., Tao, Z. W., & Practice, 5(1), 49–58. Carovano, K. (1998). Photovoice as a doi:10.1177/1524839903258015 participatory health promotion The World Bank. (2015). Country database. strategy. Health Promotional Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved International, 13(1), 75–86. from doi:10.1093/heapro/13.1.75

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Wennekers, S., Van Wennekers, A., Thurik, R., & Reynolds, P. (2005). Nascent entrepreneurship and the level of economic development. Small Business Economics, 24(3), 293-309. doi:10.1007/s11187-005-1994-8 Williams, C. C., & Nadin, S. J. (2013). Beyond the entrepreneur as a heroic figurehead of capitalism: Re- representing the lived practices of entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 25(7-8), 552- 568. doi:10.1080/08985626.2013.814715 Yin, R. K. (2009). Case study research, design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Zahra, S. A., Gedajlovic, E., Neubaum, D. O., & Shulman, J. M. (2009). A typology of social entrepreneurs: Motives, search processes and ethical challenges. Journal of Business Venturing, 24(5), 519-532. doi:10.1016/j.jbusvent.2008.04.007 Zahra, S. A., Korri, J. S., & Yu, J. (2005). Cognition and international entrepreneurship: Implications for research on international opportunity recognition and exploitation. International Business Review, 14(2), 129-146. doi:10.1016/j.ibusrev.2004.04.005 Zahra, S. A., Rawhouser, H. N., Bhawe, N., Neubaum, D. O., & Hayton, J. C. (2008). Globalization of social entrepreneurship opportunities. Strategic Entrepreneurship Journal, 2(2), 117-131. doi:10.1002/sej.43

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26204

The Influence of Gender on Rural Honduran Women’s Participation and Leadership in Community Groups

Jera Niewoehner-Green Ohio State University

Nicole Stedman Sebastian Galindo Sandra Russo Hannah Carter Kathy Colverson University of Florida

Abstract Throughout Latin America, increasing women’s leadership has been part of many development efforts. However, extensive research on this topic, especially with rural indigenous women, is limited in the literature. Barriers and opportunities for women to participate in leadership within their communities and local organizations may be related to economic, psychological, and social factors that influence their personal empowerment. This study used mixed methods to explore multiple perspectives of community participation and leadership of two Lenca villages in the western department of Lempira, Honduras. The findings from this study provide insight into structural constraints on women’s leadership in the community, and how gender affects engagement in agriculture. The importance of this research is its applicability to agricultural extension pracitionners working in rural communities where participation in traditional gender roles may create gaps in women’s opportunities to engage in decision-making around agriculture, participate in community development, and be valued as leaders. For communities whose livelihoods rely on agriculture, understanding barriers to women’s participation can aid extension practitioners working to increase food security, as women play key roles in both agriculture and in supporting their families.

Keywords: gender, women, agriculture, leadership, participation

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Introduction to women’s participation can aid the work of Evidence suggests that rural women agricultural extension practitioners whose in developing countries have played a aim is to increase food security and reduce pivotal role in agriculture for decades poverty. (Lastarria-Cornhiel, 2006; Satio & In small farmer sectors, women work Weidman, 1990). However, they have often in crop and livestock activities as well as been excluded from participating in rural collect, process, cook and sell food, organizations and from receiving extension indicating that women contribute support that could increase access to significantly to food security in rural areas services, productive resources, and of Honduras (Guillen Soto, 2013). However, bargaining power (Colverson, 1995; Tanwir recent work by Feed the Future’s & Safdara, 2013; Todaro & Smith, 2012). A Horticulture Innovation Lab in Western myriad of barriers to rural women’s Honduras revealed that gender norms are participation in groups have been identified deeply entrenched and can limit institutional including: time constraints due to support of rural women as well as their involvement in domestic tasks (Antwal & participation in community development and Bellurkar, 2016; Meinzen-Dick, Behrman, household decision-making (Larson, 2017). Pandolfelli, Peterman, & Quimsumbing, Local organizations working with Feed the 2014; Mudege, Nyekanyeka, Kapalasa, Future projects in Honduras identified the Chevo, & Demo, 2015), low levels of need to engage women in more leadership education and self-confidence roles in agriculture and the community as a (Fonchingong, 2006; Meinzen-Dick et al., strategy for closing gender gaps in these 2014), and constraints related to traditional areas (Colverson et al., 2016). By providing gender roles and social status in more training and support for women in organizations and communities (Gotschi, leadership, the social norms that limit Njuki, & Delve, 2008; Meola, 2013; women’s opportunities can shift, yielding Mudege et al., 2015). For Latin America, more access to economic opportunities and increasing women’s leadership has been part increased decision-making in the home and of many development efforts, but extensive community. Understanding women’s lived research on this topic, especially with rural experiences and how they see their roles in indigenous women, is limited in the the home, community, and as leaders, is literature. For Honduras, increasing necessary to create programs and leadership women’s participation in agricultural and opportunities that women are comfortable community organizations is particularly adopting. In this study, both quantitative and salient due to socioeconomic issues that qualitative methods were employed to disproportionately affect them such as understand rural women’s empowerment in poverty, violence, and education (Guillen agricutlture and gender norms around Soto, 2013; Ronderos, 2011; UNDP, 2016). community participation and leadership. Projects that have promoted equal participation of both men and women, Literature Review including those who have involved women Previous research on the economic, in the adoption of innovations, can be social, and psychological dimensions of catalysts for the empowerment of women rural women’s lives provided insight into the and increase productivity and income factors considered influential in their (Ashby et al., 2009; Tanwir & Safdara, empowerment and ultimate participation in 2013); therefore, understanding the barriers groups and leadership. Structural economic

49 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 constraints such as time spent on domestic The aforementioned scholarship on tasks, lack of control over finances and rural women’s participation in groups and decision-making, male-dominated extension leadership indicates that targeted services, and dependency on men due to engagement can empower women and limited access to, and control over, increase their economic standing, productive resources have been documented confidence, independence, and community as influencing women’s participation in engagement. Specific to agriculture, agricultural groups (Alkire, Meinzen-Dick, empowering women through closing gender Peterman, Quisumbing, Seymour, & Vaz, gaps in assets and increasing their ability to 2013; Antwal & Bellurkar, 2016; make decisions on what to plant and which Fonchingong, 2006; Gotschi, Njuki, & animals to rear can increase productivity and Delve, 2008; Mudege et al., 2015). Yet, with self-esteem (Alkire et al., 2013). Although, increased access to training and extension there has been an observed feminization of services, as well as the creation of female the agricultural sector due to women’s dominated agricultural cooperatives, increased responsibility for subsistence opportunities for women to participate and farming (Deere, 2005), the evidence of engage in leadership have been found to be continuing gender bias in access to successful (Ferguson & Kepe, 2011; Meola, extension services and gender-specific 2013). Social norms such as women’s constraints in technology adoption has been inability to speak in groups, lack of support well documented (Rasaga, 2014). by husbands, gendered exclusion from Understanding women’s state of organizations, and gender imbalances in empowerment across various dimensions social settings can also be barriers for offers insight for agricultural extension women in rural communities (Gotschi et al., pactitioners as they work to close gender 2008; Klein, 2016; Mudege et al., 2015; gaps in services and opportunities. Torkelsson, 2007). Whereas, higher levels of Identifying contextual variables such as the trust in groups, support of the husband, or social acceptability of women’s agricultural more autonomy in the home may result in and leadership roles, women’s economic more participation by women (Klein, 2016; needs and decision-making power, as well Meola, 2013; Weinberger & Jütting, 2001). as what they need from extension services, The psychological factors of low self-esteem can deepen the impact of projects for and self-efficacy due to lack of education women and their families. and skill development have emerged as barriers to women’s participation in groups Conceptual Framework and leadership (Fonchingong, 2006; In the context of development Meinzen-Dick et al., 2014). However, research, gender can be understood as a targeted business, leadership, and sociocultural relationship, referred to as the agricultural training for rural women as well roles and meanings assigned to men and as engagement in entrepreneurial and women (Moghadam & Senftova, 2005). relationship-building activities increased Lorber (1994) referred to gender as a social their capacity and confidence of working in institution of which human beings organize groups, their self-esteem, and enhanced their their lives, through the process of learning independence (Chhoeun, Sok, & Byrne, how to be women and men. The process of 2008; Ferguson & Kepe, 2011; Rewani & gender thus creates social differences Lalhumliana, 2014). between men and women, as well as a stratification system in which gender ranks

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men above women in status and competence order to sell agricultural products; their roles (Lorber, 1994; Ridgeway & Correll, 2004). in household decision-making over Gender was an organizing principle for the resources; and their access to extension study to identify how women’s participation services that enable them to increase their differed from men’s in both agriculture and productivity through time-saving the community. Understanding that gender innovations. The domain of social crosscuts development work, the study was empowerment is derived from social capital also conceptualized utilizing dimensions of theory that explains how an individual’s women’s empowerment to identify factors relationships and networks along with social influencing their participation in leadership. norms and trust can provide some type of Broadly stated, empowerment refers benefit for the individual (Lin, 1999; to the expansion of freedom of choice and Putnam, 2000). Social capital can also be action to shape one’s life (Narayan-Parker, articulated as a community’s personal and 2005). Empowerment can also be described institutional relationships and networks, and at the individual or group level as people’s how these enable both increases to an capacity to make choices and then transform individual’s social ties, access to resources, those choices into desired actions and and collective action (Woolcock, 1998; outcomes (Alsop, Bertelsen, & Holland, Woolcock & Narayan, 2000; Lin, 1999). 2006). Structural constraints and Thus, women’s social relationships, the opportunities should be attended to when norms relating to familial support and conceptualizing empowerment within gender within the community, gendered development work as Sen (1999) asserted group organization, and the social trust that freedoms, such as political, social, and between women farmers and partners or economic are interrelated, and a freedom of extension practitionners were included as one type may advance others. Moghadam factors that may influence women’s and Senftova (2005) conceptualized participation in the leadership roles. Finally, empowerment by addressing it, “as a multi- the domain of psychological empowerment dimensional process of civil, political, has foundations in the self-efficacy work of social, economic, and cultural participation Bandura (1995, 1997), who argued that and rights” (p. 390). For the purpose of this perceived self-efficacy, or the belief that one study, the focus was on the economic, can do something, influences one’s choices, social, and psychological dimensions as they aspirations, effort levels, perseverance, and were considered to encompass many of the resilience. This was later integrated into the factors that influences women’s concept of leadership self-efficacy, which participation and leadership in rural asserts that if a person has confidence that communities. she can make a difference and believes in Economic empowerment can refer to her abilities, she will be more likely to take women’s control over income in the on leadership roles (Komives, 2009). household and decision-making related to Factors in this domain encompass women’s assets as well as access to employment, leadership self-efficacy, self-confidence in markets, and assets (Narayan, 2005). leadership abilities, motivations to Economic empowerment factors identified participate, as well as the perceived risks, for the study as influential in the agricultural barriers, and achievements related to context include: how women’s time is leadership. divided between productive and The authors’ framework was reproductive tasks; their access to markets in intended to measure rural women’s ability

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and freedom of choice to not only and leadership. The researcher sought to participate in local groups and organizations discover common factors that influence but also engage in leadership roles. For women’s participation, as well as any smallholder farming communities, this correlations among variables between participation and engagement was related to women who do participate and those who do their empowerment in agriculture and not. Qualitative data provided supportive community development as both impact information for quantitative efforts, and was their ability to act in that context. thus considered to be embedded within the study (Creswell, 2009). Purpose & Objectives The Western departments of To provide a deeper understanding Honduras, one of which comprised the study of the spaces for rural women leaders, the area, are part of the Feed the Future zone of primary purpose of this study was to explore influence. USAID (2011) identified this factors that influence participation in groups population as particularly vulnerable to and leadership roles of rural Honduran environmental and economic shocks as well women in the Western department of as to the cycle of poverty. Women have Lempira. Specifically, the study sought to been identified as a subgroup with which to (1) describe the economic, psychological, work, to avoid further marginalization and and social factors of empowerment that maximize development efforts (USAID, influence women’s group and leadership 2015). Therefore, the study’s target participation and (2) describe the risk, population was rural women who identified barriers, and opportunities that affect as Lenca, one of the nine indigenous women’s ability to participate in leadership communities in Honduras living in the roles. western department of Lempira. The Lenca were chosen so as to focus on one cultural Methods group since social norms and customs that A transformative, mixed-methods influence women’s participation were design was used to frame the study. This assumed to be more consistent within the design is framed within a transformative group, reducing the amount of variation in theoretical perspective in order to explore the study. The study participants lived in inequalities or bring about change in an areas served by non-profit and governmental underrepresented group (Creswell & Plano organizations, hereinafter referred to as Clark, 2011). Within a transformative partner organizations, working with the design, the data collection for these two Integrating Gender and Nutrition within strands can occur concurrently (Creswell & Agricultural Extension Services Plano Clark, 2011), thus quantitative and (INGENAES) project supported by USAID qualitative aspects of the study occurred in as part of the Feed the Future initiative. A the same phase. Quantitative and qualitative sampling frame of potential communities data were collected through researcher and was compiled from census data indicating enumerator administered surveys, and which municipalities were primarily Lenca additional qualitative data were collected in the department of Lempira. Two Lenca through four focus groups. The survey communities were identified in different research explored the dimensions of rural zones in Lempira: Posa Verde and San women’s empowerment in agriculture in Antonio. Apart from the population being order to identify barriers and opportunities Lenca, these communities were also chosen related to women’s participation in groups due to their dependence on subsistence

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agriculture and the partner agencies’ Communication, The International Center, familiarity with them through extension and the Institute of Food and Agricultural activities. Access to these communities was Sciences Global Office. This panel included also a selection factor, as no public a native Spanish speaker who reviewed each transportation was available and four-wheel phase of the instrument. The instrument was drive vehicles were required. Partner pilot-tested with 10 rural women in Western agencies assisted the researcher in visiting Honduras with similar education levels and the communities in order to conduct the communities as the target population. Due to study. comprehension issues with several A paper-based questionnaire constructs, the questionnaire was revised to administered to female heads of household aid understanding and reduce administration utilized open- and close-ended items to time to under one hour. The only latent scale collect data for descriptive and evaluative in the instrument measured leadership purposes, primarily yielding the quantitative competency and due to the small group of data for the study. The literacy level of the pilot-test participants the reliability target population and lack of technological coefficient was assessed after full access informed the use of face-to-face, administration of the questionnaire. The orally-administered questionnaires. The leadership competence scale was found to be questionnaires were based on well- reliable with a post hoc Cronbach’s alpha of established instruments to gather data on .78. Other scales were analyzed individually economic, social, and psychological factors for descriptive purposes. The questionnaire that can influence group participation and also included open-ended responses that leadership, thus content validity is provided qualitative data. considered high. Questions related to Random, cluster sampling was used household decision-making around in this study to identify households. In both production and income generation, influence communities, the layout of households was on decision-making, time allocation, and established and the population was used to individual leadership and influence in the create clusters. The clusters were randomly community were adapted from the Women’s sampled, with all units measured in each Empowerment in Agriculture Index (WEAI) cluster. The populations of both (Alkire et al., 2013). The Sociopolitical communities equaled 140 households. Fifity Control Scale (SPCS-R) (Peterson et al., questionnaires were planned to be collected 2006) was used to measure perceived due to time and transporation constraints and leadership competence, related to forty-nine total questionnaires were psychological empowerment, and was the completed by female heads of household. only latent variable measured using a Likert- Focus groups were the main type scale. Finally, Grootaert and Van qualitative method for collecting descriptive Bastelaer’s (2002) questions from the Social data, along with supporting data collected Capital Assessment Tool were adapted to via open-ended responses from the explore factors of social empowerment that questionnaire. A focus group protocol was included confidence and solidarity in the created including instructions for community. interviewers/focus group facilitators, Face validity was established by an questions related to leadership and expert panel consisting of faculty from [a empowerment from the literature, and land grant University] representing the probes. Participants for the focus group were Departments of Agricultural Education and sampled purposively based on their

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willingness to participate, age range, marital 5.5. Female focus group participants status, and participation in community included women from a range of groups. Four focus groups of 6-8 demographic attributes including: age, participants, one female and one male per education, and marital status. Male focus community, were facilitated after the group participants were either husbands of surveys had been completed. female focus group participants or other Quantitative data from the married or single members of the questionnaire were entered into the community. They also represented different Statistical Package for Social Sciences age ranges and education levels. (SPSS) version 22 software yielding descriptive and inferential statistics. Factors that Influence Women’s Descriptive statistics were reported for the Participation & Leadership respondents’ demographic data and for data from the economic, psychological, and Economic. Women’s roles, how they social portions of the questionnaire. spend their time, and their access to Qualitative data from both the focus groups extension services were factors that and open-ended responses from the influenced women’s capacity to participate questionnaire were examined using in and contribute to growth processes that Harding’s (2013) thematic analysis process may influence their economic for using codes to analyze focus group data. empowerment. Women’s self-identity and The recorded focus group discussions were responsibility as a caregiver arose through transcribed, summarized, and initial both the focus groups and questionnaire categories identified. Codes were written findings. The majority of households (73%, alongside the transcripts with a revision of a N=49) included children or grandchildren list of categories to follow. Themes and under the age of 11, ranging from one to findings were explored in each category four per household. Both men and women in relating to gender, leadership, and the focus groups discussed how the empowerment constructs and integrated with woman’s role was to take care of the the quantitative data from the questionnaires children and home, limiting their ability to during analysis. leave for meetings and trainings. In addition to childcare, women Results participated heavily in other reproductive activities, with survey respondents (N=49) Demographic Characteristics of reporting that they engaged in cultivating Respondents crops for family consumption, raising Questionnaire respondent animals, fetching water, fetching wood, demographics are hereto presented. The age cooking, caring for others, cleaning, and range of respondents was 21 to 72, with an sewing. Table 1 displays the average time average age of 42. Most respondents had spent on these activities and represents the either no education (35%) or incomplete entire sample. The activities with the highest primary education (45%). The majority of numbers of respondents were cooking, respondents were either married (63%) or raising animals, caring for others, and cohabitating with their partner (22%). The fetching wood. Apart from raising animals, number of household members ranged from these activities also had the highest mean 2 to 11, with an average household size of hours spent on the task.

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Table 1 Time Allocation for Reproductive Activities (N=49)

Variable n Minimum Maximum M SD Growing family crops 32 0.5 8 2.23 1.61 Raising animals for consumption 45 0.25 3 0.93 0.64 Fetching water 18 0.25 2 0.67 0.41 Fetching wood 34 0.5 12 2.96 2.65 Cooking 47 0.5 6 3.10 1.30 Caring for others 35 0.5 12 3.09 3.14 Cleaning 29 0.5 4.0 2.20 1.06 Sewing/weaving 18 0.5 8 1.75 1.81

Agriculture was referenced across that they did regularly engage in agricultural focus groups, emphasizing its importance to activities. Decision-making within the participants’ livelihoods. San Antonio household was analyzed to aid in women discussed the ability to grow crops understanding where women’s contributions and train others in agriculture as something are valued. Here, respondents also reported that they valued. This group discussed that is higher levels of decision-making input for was the men’s responsibility to tend to household gardens and raising animals, crops, whereas women were responsible for although fewer respondents participated in the house. Few women reported selling livestock for income. See tables 2 participating in agricultural training; thru 4 for decision-making related to however, the aforementioned data revealed agriculture within their households. Table 2 Women’s Decision-making in Agriculture – Household Garden (n=47) Type of decision Self Spouse Joint Other household member n % n % n % n % What to grow 10 21.2 19 40.4 17 36.2 1 2.1

Table 3 Women’s Decision-making in Agriculture – Crops to Sell (n=22)

Type of decision Self Spouse Joint Other household member n % n % n % n % What to grow 3 13.6 13 59.0 6 27.3 n/a n/a What to sell 3 13.6 9 40.9 10 45.5 n/a n/a How to use 2 9.0 12 54.5 8 36.4 n/a n/a income

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Table 4 Women’s Decision-making in Agriculture – Livestock (n=45)

Type of decision Self Spouse Joint Other household member n % n % n % n % What to raise 26 57.8 5 11.1 13 28.9 1 2.2 What to sell 15 33.3 3 6.7 10 22.2 1 2.2 How to use 11 37.9 5 17.2 12 41.4 1 2.2 income

Psychological. Self-confidence and a women’s focus groups; they specifically sense of self-efficacy are important named marriage as a barrier. Posa Verde precursors to action and may explain why respondent Juanita noted “I am a single individuals with similar abilities and mother, but in many cases, I have seen many resources differ in actions on their own homes that the obstacle they have is that the behalf (Narayan-Parker, 2005). Self- man says, ‘No you are not going to leave, confidence in leadership abilities was you are not going to be a leader in the discussed in focus groups as a barrier to community, and there this is what I order’.” leadership and group participation, Beyond marriage, Posa Verde and San specifically in relation to public speaking Antonio women, as well as San Antonio and participating in meetings. In the San men, commented on how men were more Antonio focus group, Patricia stated, “we courageous than women in regard to have never been accustomed, so we feel fear leadership, and this perceived lack of to be in a position.” San Antonio women courage served as a barrier to women taking emphasized being timid and the need for on those roles. This was related to the ability training as constraints to holding leadership to leave the house or community as well as positions. Quite different from the San to physical strength. As Jorge from San Antonio group, Posa Verde women Antonio commented, “It is the importance of discussed their identities as leaders after a man, like they said, of a man, more they had reflected on the characteristics, responsible over all because it’s up to them abilities, and resources that their leaders to leave their place for another region or the exemplified. Daniela from Posa Verde same region.” The courage or importance of stated, “A woman is always able to perform males and their proclivity for leadership the role of a leader, in the abilities and roles may also be explained by their characteristics.” Posa Verde women physical strength in relation to external discussed how men and women were equal, threats to safety. As mentioned in the male but that men had the leadership roles. In this San Antonio group: way, women conceptualized leadership to include the social, spiritual, and maternal Sometimes they do this responsibilities that women carried out in (choose men) because the the community. men always feel more Gender roles emerged again as a courage in ability to travel barrier to engaging in leadership during both out of the community.

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Therefore, a woman feels those roles. The discord between perceived like…it is not that she cannot, ability and opportunity was illuminated but she feels fear during the through the quantitative results from the time that we go out to all leadership competence scale. The scale these places, there is always measured levels of agreement for statements this problem of crime. (Luis) related to working in groups, serving in leadership roles, and participating in Vulnerability of women traveling leadership tasks. Women reported low levels outside of the community, coupled with of participation in leadership roles (n=36), their daily tasks within the home, give little yet higher levels of leadership competencies opportunity to engage in activities beyond such as leading with their ideas (n=38), their village. As a result, women may be trying new and challenging tasks (n=35), forced to rely on men’s leadership even if and problem-solving (n=39). Table 5 they are thought to be capable of serving in displays frequencies for each scale item.

Table 5 Frequencies for Leadership Competency Scale Items (N=49) Scale item Always Almost Almost Never always never I am often a leader in groups 8 5 14 22 I would prefer to be a leader rather than a follower 20 3 10 16 I would rather have a leadership role when I am 20 5 11 13 involved in group work I can usually organize people to get things done 15 9 9 14 Other people usually follow my ideas 23 15 7 4 I find it very easy to talk in front of a group 20 7 13 9 I like to work on solving a problem myself rather than 27 12 6 4 wait to see if someone else will do it I like trying new things that are challenging to me 24 11 5 9

Social. The domain of social to, and communicate with, people outside empowerment is presented in the conceptual the community in order to collaborate and framework as the network of relationships network with institutions if one was to among people within and outside of a accomplish this type of work. Survey community, the available resources resulting questions that explored women’s social from this network, and the social norms networks were included in the group around gender and groups. Across the focus membership sections. The group with the groups, participants discussed community highest level of participation from connectedness as something an individual respondents was the church (n=39) with the needed in order to become a leader. This next highest being the water users’ group manifested as being supported by the people (n=19), and the school-parent group (n=18). and, inversely, supporting the people in the More gender parity was reported in the community. Specific to the female focus religious group and parent group with 86% groups, both Posa Verde and San Antonio and 95% reporting equal male and female women discussed how leaders should travel participation respectively.

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San Antonio women and men, as how we are going to sort it well as Posa Verde men, discussed the need out. (Clara) for a women’s group. Women in San Antonio also felt that a men’s group that Therefore, participants acknowledged the could work with a women’s group would be need for women’s representation and beneficial when it comes to completing organized groups as both a space to engage projects for the community. Further, the in the community as well as support creation of an agricultural collective for men livelihoods through agriculture. However, in and women, wherein the women are valued the men’s groups women’s opportunities in equally, was an expressed idea: agriculture were limited to home gardens without mention of commercial crops or If you believe that there livestock. should be a collective to Trust, as another factor of the social grow corn and beans, a dimension of empowerment, was reported vegetable garden, a half a for outside community groups with whom hectare of carrots, it is a goal women interacted. Table 6 depicts responses that all of the group is going for the following groups: local government to speak. The men and the officials, teacher and school officials, women have the same value extension technicians, police, and employees to question each other how of NGOs. The highest level of variability in we are going to do things, trust was in local government officials with trust levels much higher for other groups.

Table 6 Levels of trust with groups engaged in community (N=49) A lot of trust Some trust Little trust No trust

n % n % n % n % Local government officials 15 30.6 8 16.3 12 24.5 14 28.6 Teacher/school officials 37 75.5 8 16.3 3 6.1 1 2.0 Extension technicians 30 61.2 9 18.4 7 14.3 3 6.1 Police 30 61.2 11 22.4 5 10.2 2 4.0 Employees of NGOs 28 57.1 10 20.4 9 18.4 2 4.0

Conclusions, Recommendations & leadership participation and gender roles. In Implications particular, the barriers to leadership related Gender roles crosscut each of the to the gendered division of labor and access economic, psychological, and social to opportunities were apparent. The gender domains of empowerment. Women’s division that emerged in the data related to freedoms around participation in community decision-making over use of income and groups and leadership appeared to be tied domestic responsibilities aligns with closely to their perceived domestic and previous women’s economic empowerment familial responsibilities and abilities. Male research from other developing countries participant statements in the focus groups (Alkire et al., 2013; Antwal & Bellurkar, also supported these beliefs around women’s 2016; Fonchingong, 2006; Gotschi et al,

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2008; Mudege et al., 2015). The amount of that agricultural knowledge specific to crops time women are required to spend in the was thought to be held primarily by men. home taking care of reproductive tasks and Also relating to economic empowerment, working on productive tasks, as well as how both women and men valued leaders having much free time they have available, can technical abilities related to crops and being influence how they are able to participate in able to teach others. Women discussed community activities. Women in Posa Verde needing additional training in agriculture and San Antonio reported higher decision- and expressed the desire to obtain it. The making power over their home gardens and higher levels of trust with extension raising livestock and less over commercial technicians may demonstrate that women crops. Therefore, an entry point for women’s had fairly positive interactions with them. leadership in agriculture using this approach Therefore, those engaged in extension can be through animal husbandry. Their efforts should also identify ways to engage higher levels of autonomy in this area women in horticultural production, while indicate social acceptance for their decision- supporting how their contributions could be making roles. Becoming experts in this area more highly valued in this domain. could increase their assets and their However, attending to the accepted social leadership abilities as they teach others roles of women in agriculture is also about best practices. However, domestic important for extension practitioners. responsibilities may still present challenges Resistance to engagement in trainings may to participating in trainings. These tasks be due to gender norms in the community; have also been documented in the literature therefore, gender sensitive trainings where as barriers to increasing women’s economic women may be able to participate with their empowerment through participation in partners and given opportunities to engage agricultural groups. In this study, both focus rather that women’s only trainings, may be group and quantitative data clearly reflected an option. For example, in San Antonio, women’s primary responsibilities for female focus group respondents discussed childcare and other domestic the possibility of an agricultural collective responsibilities. Thus, developing training for both men and women. Assessing the for women must be purposive in that receptivity of mixed gender groups when extension technicians should engage in working in communities can present the community visits and talk with a wide opportunity for extension services to help variety of people before beginning create this type of organizational structure. programming to understand local power Leadership skills, relating to the dynamics and gender norms. This will psychological empowerment domain, support extension efforts in designing including managing people and speaking in trainings that cater to these unique groups were also discussed as needs in the dynamics, leading to trainings that take focus groups. Leadership competency scale women’s time and ability to reach meeting items indicated that women had self-efficacy locations into account. Doing so will allow in areas of leadership, yet opportunities to extension practionners to further incorporate practice and gain self-confidence were women into their outreach efforts, increasing lacking. Creating opportunities for women women’s opportunities for leadership and to lead a discussion, teach others a new skill, engagement. or share their ideas are ways in which to Although animal husbandry presents create more inclusive spaces for practicing an opportunity, focus group data revealed leadership. In addition, the female Posa

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Verde focus group saw themselves as having Leader with Associates Cooperative Agreement No. leadership abilities and characteristics in AID-OAA-LA-14-00008 [www.ingenaes.illinois.edu]. The work was made possible by the generous support their roles with family, friends, and church; of the American people through USAID. The contents therefore, supporting and building upon are the responsibility of the authors and do not those leadership identities can increase necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United engagement and participation in groups. For States government. both female focus groups, the participants indicated that the discussion itself served as References a way to connect with their leadership Alkire, S., Meinzen-Dick, R., Peterman, A., abilities, learn about leadership, and Quisumbing, A., Seymour, G., & participate in a way they had not before. Vaz, A. (2013). The women’s There is evidence of how women’s only empowerment in agriculture index. spaces, either through formal training or World Development, 52, 71-91. self-help groups, can provide an opportunity doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2013.06.007 to work together, share experiences, increase Alsop, R., Bertelsen, M. F., & Holland, J. their self-esteem, and become less (2006). Empowerment in Practice: dependent on men (Chhoeun et al., 2008; From Analysis to Implementation. Oberhauser & Pratt, 2007; Mudege et al., Washington, DC: World Bank. 2015). In both communities, public meetings Antwal, P. N., & Bellurkar, C. M. (2016). tended to be male dominated, apart from the Gender perspectives in use of church and parent groups, limiting the extension services in Maharashtra. psychologically safe public spaces available Agriculture Update, 11(2), 148-153. for women. Men and women from both doi:10.15740/HAS/AU/11.2/148-153 communities expressed the formation of a Ashby, J., Hartl, M., Lambrou, Y., Larson, women’s group as opportunities for G., Lubbock, A., Pehu, E., & increased engagement for women. Ragasa, C. (2009). Gender in Agricultural knowledge and the agriculture: Investing in women as availability of resources were valued in the drivers of agricultural growth. communities; therefore, there are many Washington, D.C., World Bank. opportunities for extension to work with Retrieved from men and women. However, extension https://www.ifad.org/documents/101 practionners must be aware of how gender 80/8b9edb41-bef6-4e6d-a487- norms in communities can influence who is 01a0286972e3 able to participate in and benefit from Chawla, S., Dennis, D., Ochs, V., Sen, P., projects. Establishing trust and support Vallejo, C., & Walsh, D. (2017). emerged as important to increasing Increasing the civic and political participation for women leadership roles and participation of women: the power of expert knowledge and Understanding the risk of strong resources should not be ignored for those resistance. USAID: Research and working in poor, subsistence farming Innovation Grants Working Paper communities. Series. Retrieved from https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/f This research article was produced as part of the iles/documents/2496/Increasing_the_ United States Agency for International Development Civil_and_Political_Participation_of (USAID) and US Government Feed the Future _Women_- project “Integrating Gender and Nutrition within Extension and Advisory Services” (INGENAES). _Understanding_the_Risk_of_Strong _Resistance.pdf

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26205

Gap Analysis for Future Agricultural Education Research in Eswatini, Swaziland

Alfred F. Tsikati Marietta P. Dlamini Musa A. Dube University of Eswatini

Abstract From the late 1970s to the early 1980s, agriculture educators began to use research as a way of verifying, creating, disseminating and applying new knowledge. However, existing literature is inconclusive on research themes covered and yet to be covered in Agricultural Education in Eswatini. Thus, this study sought to identify themes and gaps for future research in Agricultural Education in Eswatini. This was a qualitative study employing desk review in data collection. Trustworthiness of the content analysis guide was ensured through the use of experts from the Department of Agricultural Education and Extension (AEE) at the University of Eswatini (UNESWA). Data analysis was performed using frequencies and percentages. Findings of the study revealed that in Agricultural Education, gaps existed in the following thematic areas: primary themes - programme delivery methodologies and curriculum programme planning; and secondary themes- creative thinking and problem-solving; innovative instructional technologies; teaching basic and academic skills; professional staff development; educational methodologies for teaching and learning; professional preparation and competence; and needs of future agricultural workforce. The study concluded that research conducted in Agricultural Education in Eswatini is imbalanced in both primary and secondary research themes. Therefore, the Department of AEE at UNESWA must establish a research agenda to ensure that the research conducted is thematically balanced.

Keywords: Agricultural Education, primary themes, research project, research thematic areas, secondary themes, University of Eswatini

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Introduction 1). Since the 1990s, rapid growth in research Agricultural Education is relatively a and publishing activities in Agricultural young discipline that emerged in the early Education has resulted in a plethora of 1900s (Williams, 1991). In Africa, Agricultural Education literature Agricultural Education emerged in the (Radhakrishna & Jackson, 1992b). Thus, 1920s (Paterson & Arends, 2004) and in Myers and Dyer (2004) concluded that the Eswatini emerged in 1973 (Gooday, 1974). institutional demands of research, teaching, Late in the 1970s to the early 1980s, extension, and service, faculty often allow agricultural educators started believing in one area to suffer to meet the expectations of both knowledge and facts coming from another. If research suffers, then every empirical investigation. Agricultural aspect of the Agricultural Education Education research became a way of discipline suffers. Moore (1987) found that verifying existing knowledge; creating new some thematic areas in Agricultural knowledge; and for disseminating and Education doctoral research had been well applying that knowledge. The current focus researched while others had not; thus of Agricultural Education across the globe is concluded that research in Agricultural on research. Generally, the future of Education lacked focus. Agricultural Education depends on the Ball and Knobloch (2005) asserted development and application of new that it is critical for practitioners to examine knowledge through research (Silva-Guerrero the knowledge base of the field to allow the & Sutphin, 1990). It further depends upon profession to reflect upon actions and many variables; and one of them of which is ultimately improve the discipline. Newcomb acquisition and application of new (1993) pointed at the need for Agricultural knowledge generated from research (Dyer, Education research to become more focused, Haase-Wittler & Washburn, 2003). coordinated and conducted passionately. In the past, it has been difficult to Shinn, Briers and Baker (2008)’s expression appraise the impact of Agricultural of the need to focus the Agricultural Education research, and it was equally Education discipline, examine its knowledge difficult to perceive its potential (Williams, base, and review its literature is a call to use 1991). Generally, Agricultural Education a holistic approach to examine research in research has been described as too shallow Agricultural Education. to develop essential understanding; focused Few specific calls in Agricultural on ancillary areas, and often unrelated to Education have been made to examine the what is already known (Mannebach, 1981; essence of its research; yet, there is a need to Miller & Warmbrod, 1982; Warmbrod, understand where the discipline has been 1987; Newcomb, 1978). In Thailand, and to allow the profession to better Traimongkolkul and Tanpichai (2005) found understand where to focus research efforts in that Agricultural Education was not focused, the future. A need arose to re-examine thus recommended that a national forum be Agricultural Education in a future that has formed to revitalise the total system of already happened (Edgar, Edgar, Briers & Agricultural Education. Rutherford, 2008). Edgar et al. (2008) posed Moore (2006) posited that it is clear this question: How can we be sure where we that agricultural educators are not “driving” are headed with our research; if the direction the profession; they spend their time is not adequate and appropriate; and if we “dabbling in esoteric research that does not are unclear as to where we have been? have much relevance to the real world” (p.

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A need also exists to analyse the 1989; Silva-Guerrero & Sutphin,1990). dimensions of Agricultural Education in Tsikati, Dlamini and Dube (2019) found that holistically and suggest strategies to focus research conducted by post-graduate the discipline and prepare it for the future. students in Eswatini covered mainly Understanding research occurring in programme relevance and effectiveness, and Agricultural Education can assist the knowledge base for teaching and learning. discipline and other integrated Contrary, some authors reported that specialisations to more fully focus literary Agricultural Education research was lacking contexts and further strengthen the regarding the following primary themes: discipline. Edgar et al. (2008) argued that planning learning experiences (Mathonsi, lack of understanding the depth and type of 2000); evaluation (Mathonsi, 2000); research occurring in Agricultural Education effective instructional structures (Miller & meant that researchers in the discipline were Madou-Bangurah, 1993); educational unable to determine what futuristic research programme and effectiveness (Buriak & should be done. Structuring and identifying Shinn, 1989); and efficient information a research agenda can be valuable for: (i) delivery systems (Buriak & Shinn, 1989). maintaining compatibility with the national Tsikati, et al. (2019) found that curriculum priorities of the educational system; (ii) programme planning and delivery guiding research investments and (iii) methodology primary themes were under- communicating priorities to agencies and researched by post-graduate students in organisations which have national Eswatini. responsibilities to plan and budget for Regarding secondary themes, some research (Buriak & Shinn, 1993). Buriak and scholars reported that the following were Shinn further asserted that a need was covered in Agricultural Education research: apparent for “researching to research.” This philosophical concerns and policy related was a line of inquiry to focus the profession issues (AAAE, 2005; Crunkilton, 1988 ); on salient problems that are significant to analysis of innovations (AAAE, 2005); the future of Agricultural Education. creative thinking and problem solving (Luft, Existing literature reveals that some scholars 2002; Silva-Guerrero & Sutphin,1990); found that the following primary themes faculty development (Edgar et al., 2008; were covered in the research conducted in Radhakrishna & Mbaga, 1995); evaluation Agricultural Education: programme of teaching programme (Radhakrishna & relevance and effectiveness (American Mbaga, 1995; Silva-Guerrero & Association for Agricultural Education Sutphin,1990); recruitment (Radhakrishna & [AAAE], 2005); programme evaluation Mbaga, 1995); innovative instructional (AAAE, 2005; Edgar, Briers & Rutherford technology (Silva-Guerrero & 2008); instructional programme delivery Sutphin,1990); educational methodologies in approaches (Edgar et al., 2008; teaching and learning (Silva-Guerrero & Radhakrishna & Mbaga, 1995); programme Sutphin,1990); instructional resources development and improvement (Crunkilton, 1988); and individual (Radhakrishna & Mbaga,1995; Schmidt, achievement – basic skill development Lynch & Frantz, 1988); curriculum and (Crunkilton, 1988). Tsikati et al. (2019) instructional development (Crunkilton, found that faculty and staff development, 1988; Moore, 1987; Silva-Guerrero & evaluation of teaching or programmes, and Sutphin, 1990); evaluation of agriculture individual achievement were the most teaching and teachers (Buriak & Shinn,

66 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 researched secondary themes in Agricultural to focus on areas that have not been Education. adequately researched. Secondary themes reported to have been under-researched in Agricultural Purpose & Objectives Education were: teaching competence of The purpose of the study was to high school and university faculty (Buriak & identify themes and gaps for future research Shinn, 1989); teaching and learning in Agricultural Education in Eswatini. The (Mathonsi, 2000); education technology objectives of the study were to: (Buriak & Shinn, 1989; Miller & Madou- 1. Identify research themes covered by Bangurah, 1993); evaluation of teaching or agricultural education students’ programmes (Miller & Madou-Bangurah, research conducted at UNESWA; 1993); and effectiveness of instructional and strategies and learning characteristics 2. Determine research gaps that exist in (Buriak & Shinn, 1989). Also, Tsikati et al. agricultural education students’ (2019) reported that the following secondary research conducted at UNESWA. themes were under-research in post-graduate theses in Eswatini: educational Theoretical & Conceptual Framework methodologies for teaching and learning; The study was framed using the innovative instructional technologies; dimensions articulated by Buriak and Shinn history, philosophy, future and policy in (1989) in Agricultural Education research Agricultural Education; teaching basic and (see Figure 1). The figure presents the academic skills; and creative thinking and research areas that should be covered in problem-solving. Agricultural Education. The innermost In Eswatini, students enrolled for a circle represents the mission of Agricultural Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Education. The second circle presents the Education at UNESWA are required to Agricultural Education research problem undertake research projects. Studies areas grouped into four research problem conducted on focusing research themes and areas. Finally, the outermost circle gap analyses for future Agricultural represents the research activities for each Education research in Eswatini are problem area in Agricultural Education. inconclusive. The researchers observed that The problem research areas were treated as generally, research projects conducted to the primary research themes in this study. synthesise and analyse research output in Thus, the primary research themes are: (i) Agricultural Education at the University of knowledge base for teaching and learning; Eswatini did not identify gaps to which (ii) curriculum programme planning; (iii) future research could be focused. Thus, a delivery methodologies; and (iv) great need existed to identify research gaps programme relevance and effectiveness. for future Agricultural Education research The research activities were treated priorities in Eswatini. The future of as secondary themes in the study. Thus, each Agricultural Education in Eswatini depends primary theme has secondary themes. on the development and application of new Buriak and Shinn (1993) revealed that the knowledge through appropriate and relevant knowledge base for teaching and learning research. Agricultural educators will be able has the following secondary themes: to target specific areas as they build the creative thinking and problem solving, Agricultural Education discipline. Also, individual achievement, and professional Agricultural education students will be able preparation and competence. Curriculum

67 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 programme planning entails teaching basic Finally, programme relevance and and academic skills; and needs of future effectiveness involves the history, agricultural workforce. Then, delivery philosophy, future, and policy in methodologies relate to educational Agricultural Education; faculty and staff methodologies for teaching and learning; development, and evaluation of teaching or and innovative instructional technologies. programmes.

Figure 1. Theoretical framework (Buriak & Shinn, 1993).

Moore (1987) recommended that in Agricultural Education (Silva-Guerrero & research in Agricultural Education should be Sutphin, 1990). balanced across the themes; Eswatini is no exception. In this study, research thematic Methodology gaps were established by comparing the The study was qualitative and a researched thematic areas in Agricultural census employing desk review in data Education undergraduate research projects at collection of Agricultural Education under- the University of Eswatini against the graduate research projects (n=370) thematic areas [primary and secondary] completed from 2008 to 2017. Research adapted from the study by Buriak and Shinn projects were considered to be in (1989). Gaps that existed in the research Agricultural Education if they related to the output were also reported by Edgar, et al. teaching of agriculture [both education and (2008a). The gap is a pointer to the research extension]. The researchers sought areas or topics that are yet to be researched permission in writing to collect data from

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UNESWA Library and permission was in to one primary theme and one secondary granted by the Senior Assistant Librarian at theme. Luyengo Campus at the University of The research projects were analysed Eswatini. A total of 206 research projects manually, using tally marks which were found to be focused in Agricultural converted into frequencies and percentages. Education were analysed. The structural dimensions for research in Trustworthiness and rigour were Agricultural Education postulated by Buriak addressed using credibility, transferability, and Shinn (1993) were used to identify the dependability and confirmability. Two research themes and gaps in agricultural experts from the Department of Agricultural education students’ research. Education at UNESWA reviewed the content analysis guide used for data Findings & Discussion collection to address issues of credibility. The experts added items and removed some Research Themes in Agricultural from the content analysis guide. For Education instance, the researchers removed items on Table 1 presents the number of inferential analysis such as t-test and research projects covered by each of the analysis of variance as suggested by the primary research themes expressed in experts as they felt the study was getting percentages. The findings revealed that wide open. Dependability was ensured by a programme relevance and effectiveness detailed description of the implementation (n=103, 50.0%) was the main primary of the research methodology. Transferability research theme covered by Agricultural was ensured by providing sufficient Education students’ research at UNESWA. contextual information about students’ The second primary theme that is commonly research conducted at UNESWA and thick addressed by Agricultural Education description of the thematic research areas in students’ research was knowledge base for Agricultural Education. Finally, teaching and learning is (n=59, 28.6%). confirmability was assured through audit Similarly, existing literature indicates that in trails. The content analysis guide was United States of America, programme divided into four primary themes; which relevance and effectiveness is the primary were sub-divided into secondary themes. theme that was well researched (AAAE, Each primary theme had check boxes where 2005; Edgar et al., 2008). Radhakrishna and the researchers ticked to indicate for the Mbaga (1995) and Schmidt, Lynch and primary and secondary themes. Each Frantz (1988) found that programme research project was carefully assessed and development and improvement were also categorized into the appropriate primary and well covered. Tsikati, et al. (2019) found secondary theme. Both primary and that research conducted by post-graduate secondary themes were mutually exclusive: students covered mainly programme that is, each research project was classified relevance and effectiveness, and knowledge base for teaching and learning.

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Table 1 Primary Research Themes Addressed by Students’ Research Projects in Agricultural Education at the University of Eswatini Primary themes f % Programme relevance and effectiveness 103 50 Knowledge base for teaching and learning 59 28.6 Curriculum programme planning 24 11.7 Delivery methodologies 20 9.7 Total 206 100

Data in Table 2 present the number Education (n=35, 17.0%). Existing literature of secondary research themes addressed by reveals that the following secondary themes students in Agricultural Education at were covered in agricultural education UNESWA expressed in percentages. The research: philosophical concerns and policy table depicts that the most commonly related issues (AAAE, 2005; Crunkilton, addressed secondary research theme by 1988); evaluation of teaching programme students’ research in Agricultural Education (Radhakrishna & Mbaga, 1995; Silva- at the University of Eswatini is evaluation of Guerrero & Sutphin, 1990); and individual the programme (n=53, 25.9%). Other achievement (Crunkilton, 1988). Tsikati et secondary research themes that were al. (2019) found that evaluation of teaching adequately addressed by students’ projects or programmes and individual achievement in Agricultural Education were: student were the most researched secondary themes achievement (n=37, 18.0%) and history, in Agricultural Education by post-graduates philosophy, future and policy in Agricultural students at UNESWA.

Table 2 Secondary Research Themes Addressed by Students in Agricultural Education at the University of Eswatini Secondary themes f % Knowledge base for teaching and learning Professional preparation and competence 21 10.2 Individual achievement 37 18.0 Creative thinking and problem solving 1 0.0 Curriculum planning Needs for future agricultural workforce 19 9.2 Teaching basic and academic skills 5 2.4 Delivery methodologies Educational methodologies for teaching and learning 16 7.8 Innovative instructional technologies 4 1.9 Programme relevance and effectiveness Evaluation of teaching or programmes 53 25.9 History, philosophy, future and policy in Agricultural 35 17.0 Education Faculty and staff development 15 7.3 Total 206 100

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Gaps in Agricultural Education innovative instructional technologies; and Table 1 depicts that the least covered creative thinking and problem-solving as primary research themes revealing gaps are most under-researched secondary themes in programme delivery methodologies (n=20, post-graduate students’ theses in Eswatini. 9.7%) and curriculum programme planning (n=24, 11.7%). Williams (1991) attributed Conclusions, Implications & the imbalance in the research conducted in Recommendations Agricultural Education to the fact that it is A primary conclusion drawn from generally a young discipline. Agricultural this study is that research conducted by Education is also a young discipline in Agricultural Education undergraduate Africa (Paterson & Arends, 2004) and in students in Eswatini in both primary and Eswatini (Gooday, 1974). The findings of secondary research themes is imbalanced. this study are consistent with the salient Gaps in the research themes as adapted from literature regarding the following secondary Buriak and Shinn (1989) used as theoretical themes: planning learning experiences framework of the study were evident in the (Mathonsi, 2000); educational programme following primary themes: programme and effectiveness (Buriak & Shinn, 1989); delivery methodologies and curriculum and efficient information delivery systems programme planning. Secondary themes (Buriak & Shinn, 1989). Similarly, Tsikati, which lacked research were: creative et al. (2019) found that the most under- thinking and problem-solving; innovative researched primary themes by post-graduate instructional technologies; teaching basic students in Eswatini were: curriculum and academic skills; professional staff programme planning and delivery development; educational methodologies for methodology. teaching and learning; professional Table 2 also revealed research gaps preparation and competence; and needs of in the following secondary themes: creative future agricultural workforce. thinking and problem-solving (n=1, 0%); The implication of the findings is innovative instructional technologies (n=4, that a need exists for periodic assessment of 1.9%); teaching basic and academic skills institutional research to determine gaps in (n=5, 2.4%); professional staff development research to ensure that research is directed to (n=15, 7.3%); educational methodologies the targeted thematic areas. The periodic for teaching and learning (n=16, 7.8%); assessment of institutional research can also needs of future agricultural workforce help in directing limited resources and time (n=19, 9.2%) and professional preparation to address most needed research. The and competence (n=21, 10.2%). The findings of the study also imply that the findings of the study on under-researched future of Agricultural Education including secondary themes are consistent with Eswatini depends on the development and literature on: teaching competence of high application of new knowledge generated school and university faculty (Buriak & through the thematic research areas (Dyer, Shinn, 1989); teaching and learning Haase-Wittler & Washburn, 2003; Silva- (Mathonsi, 2000); and educational Guerrero & Sutphin, 1990). Moore (2006) technology (Buriak & Shinn, 1989; Miller & noted that some agricultural educators spend Madou-Bangurah, 1993). Similarly, Tsikati their time “dabbling in esoteric research et al. (2019) reported educational that does not have much relevance to the methodologies for teaching and learning; real world” (p. 1). Also, Agricultural

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Education research has been cited as too methodologies used in teaching and shallow to develop essential understanding, learning and the curriculum in focused on ancillary areas, and often education will be stagnated. unrelated to what is already known (Silva- 4. The Department of Agricultural Guerrero & Sutphin, 1990). The study Education and Extension at the unveils the need for more focused and University of Eswatini must establish coordinated student projects in Agricultural a research agenda to ensure balanced Education. A need also arose to understand research in Agricultural Education. where the discipline has been, to allow the The research agenda should indicate profession to better understand where to and emphasize the status of research focus research efforts in the future. Edgar et to be conducted on the pertinent al. (2008) argued that there was a need to re- thematic areas. Also, the researchers examine Agricultural Education in a future should collaborate with Agricultural that has already happened. In Eswatini, Education stakeholders in identifying focusing and directing Agricultural priority research thematic areas. This Education research is imperative for its initiative will ensure adequate proper growth as the discipline is still young coverage of all relevant research (Gooday, 1974). The use of the dimensions themes. Similarly, other countries by Buriak and Shinn (1989) to establish having Agricultural Education can gaps in thematic areas researched in also develop their own research Agricultural Education student projects in agenda if they do not already have it. Eswatini implies that the global community of researchers must also embrace. Based on the findings of the study References the following recommendations were made: American Association for Agricultural 1. A need to periodically (e.g. every 5 Education. (2005). Editorial policy. years) analyze research based on the Journal of Agricultural Education, themes that are covered in 46(1), 91. Agricultural Education is evident. Ball, A. L., & Knobloch, N. A. (2005). A This will ensure that the research document analysis of the conducted in the discipline is well pedagogical knowledge espoused in coordinated and directed. agriculture teaching method courses. 2. Researchers in Agricultural Journal of Agricultural Education, Education in Eswatini need to exert 46(2), 47-57. more effort towards research on Buriak, P. & Shinn, G. C. (1989). Mission, thinking or problem-solving skills initiatives, and obstacles to research and innovative instructional in Agricultural Education: A national technologies as they are important Delphi using external decision contemporary issues. makers. Journal of Agricultural 3. Researchers in Agricultural Education, 2(4), 14-23. Education in Eswatini also need to Buriak, P. & Shinn, G. C. (1993). focus their research on programme Structuring research for agricultural delivery methodologies and education: A national Delphi curriculum programme planning. If involving internal experts. Journal of research conducted in these themes Agricultural Education, 34(2), 31- continue to be lacking; the 36.

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Crunkilton, J. (1988). Directing future (Unpublished bachelor’s thesis). research efforts in agricultural and University of Swaziland, Luyengo, extension education through a Swaziland. matrix. Proceedings of the National Miller L. E. & Madou-Bangurah, K. (1993). Agricultural Education Research Identification of Research topics on Meeting. St. Louis, MO. International Agricultural Dyer, J. E., Haase-Wittler, P. S., & Education: A Delphi study. Washburn, S. G. (2003). Structuring Education Resource Information agricultural education research using Centre [ERIC]. Retrieved from conceptual and theoretical http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED36 frameworks. Journal of Agricultural 6788.pdf Education, 44(2), 61-74. Miller, L. E. & Warmbrod. R. J. (1982). Edgar L. D., Briers, G. E. & Rutherford, T. Research in teacher education. In L. (2008). Research themes in Berkey (Ed.), Teacher education in Agricultural Education: Future gap agriculture (pp. 247-262).. A. L. analysis of the National Research Berkey (ed.). Danville: The Interstate Agenda. Journal of Journal of Printers and Publishers. Southern Agricultural Education Moore, G. (2006). Who is driving the pickup Research, 58(1), 61-80. truck? A call for professional Edgar, L. D., Edgar, D. W., Briers, G. E. & leadership. Journal of Agricultural Rutherford, T. (2008). Research Education, 47(1), 1-5. themes, authors, and methodologies Moore, G. E. (1987). A day late and a dollar in the Journal of Agricultural short: Doctoral research in Education: A ten year look. Journal agricultural education. Proceedings of Journal of Southern Agricultural of the 14th National Agricultural Education Research, 58(1), 44-60. Education Research Meeting, Los Retrieved from Angeles, CA. http://pubs.aged.tamu.edu/jsaer/pdf/ Myers, B. E., & Dyer, J. E. (2004). Vol58/58-01-061.pdf Agriculture teacher education Gooday, D. O. M. (1974, April). The programmes: A synthesis of the schools agriculture pilot project in literature. Journal of Agricultural Swaziland. Educational Education, 45(3), 44-52. Development International, 78-94. Newcomb, L. M. (1978). Agricultural Luft, V. D. (2002). A snapshot of Education: Review and synthesis of Agricultural Education research. the research. Columbus, Ohio: The Proceedings of the 29th Annual National Center for Research in National Agricultural Education Vocational Education: Ohio State Research Conference, 1-11. University. Mannebach, A. J. (1981). Priorities for Newcomb, L. H. (1993). Transforming research in Agricultural Education. university programmes of Proceedings of the 12th National agricultural education. Journal of Agricultural Education Research Agricultural Education, 34(1), 1-10. Meeting. Atlanta, GA. Paterson, A. & Arends, F. (2004). Mathonsi, D. (2000). Analysis of the Agricultural Education in South agricultural education research African schools: Apartheid conducted in Swaziland

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anachronism or developmental Natural and Social Sciences, 7(1), opportunity. Cuba, Havana: WCCES 25-36. Radhakrishna, R. B. & Jackson, G. B. Warmbrod, J. R. (1987). The future of (1992). Characteristics of literature Agricultural Education in secondary cited in the Journal of Agricultural schools: Barriers to change. Education: An empirical study. Agricultural Education Magazine, Paper presented at the annual 60(4), 4. meeting of the American Vocational Williams D. L. (1991). Focusing agricultural Association, St. Louis. Retrieved education research. Strategies for the from discipline. Journal of Agricultural http://files.eric.ed.org/fulltext/ED357 Education,32(1), 7-12. 232/PDF Radhakrishna, R. B., & Mbaga, L. (1995). Content analysis of papers presented at National Agricultural Education Research Meetings (NAERM--1985- 1994). Proceedings of the National Agricultural Education Research Meeting, Denver, CO. Schmidt, B. J., Lynch, R.L. & Frantz, N. R. (1988). An analysis of priorities for vocational education research and development. Journal of Vocational Education Research, 13(2), 3-18. Shinn, G. C., Briers, G. & Baker, M. (2008). Forecasting doctoral-level content in Agricultural Education: Viewpoints of engaged scholars in the United States. Journal of Agricultural Education, 49(1), 121 -131 Silva- Guerrero, L & Sutphin, H. D. (1990). Priorities for research in agricultural education. Journal of Agricultural Education, 31(3), 1-13. Traimongkolkul P. & Tanpichai P. (2005). Lessons Learned and Present Prospects: A Critical Review of Agricultural Education in Thailand. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 12(3) 53- 65. Tsikati, A. F., Dlamini, M. P. & Dube, M. A. (2019). Gap analysis in post- graduate Agricultural Education research in Eswatini. International Journal of Research in Applied,

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26206

Social Impact Assessment in the Cooperative Extension System: Revitalizing the Community Capitals Framework in Measurement and Approach

Abigail Borron Kevan Lamm Carolina Darbisi Nekeisha Randall University of Georgia

Abstract Measuring program impact is continually placed in the forefront of discussions, efforts, and reporting when it comes to outreach and engagement efforts related to Cooperative Extension. However, the diversity of programs represented through program areas, as well as the complexities of local infrastructures present ongoing challenges to effectively addressing needs in community development and vitality. One of the greater hurdles in these efforts is addressing areas of social impact. This article argues for a deliberate attempt to parse out efforts that address social impact, while looking for ways to bring such impact full circle with existing efforts in economic impact. This article answers the following questions: (1) How is program impact defined as it relates to the land-grant university? and (2) How is social impact defined, and what are the common approaches to examining/measuring social impact? Based on this review of the literature, we describe and justify a proposed model approach for overall community diagnostics, directly supporting social impact assessment efforts. Such a proposed model would then have the capacity to lead to two very distinct and applicable outcomes that ultimately lead to measuring and examining program impact. The first is an immediate snapshot of a given community for diagnostic purposes; and the second would create a framework by which longitudinal data could be collected, which can then demonstrate changes and shifts over time. Such data can then provide a more holistic approach to program planning, development, and overall evaluation.

Keywords: community development; Extension; needs assessment; program evaluation; social impact

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Introduction 2. How is social impact defined, and The Cooperative Extension System what are the common approaches to (CES) is a complex and multifaceted examining/measuring social impact? structure, addressing pertinent issues in Based on this review of the agricultural and natural resources, youth literature, we describe and justify a proposed development, family finance and nutrition, model approach for overall community and community development – all, of which, diagnostics, directly supporting social serve as entry points into the plethora of impact assessment efforts. needs and issues that exist at every local level. To maintain capacity and meet Program Impact Defined community needs, extension programming Program impact is an outcome is often dependent on local, state, and facilitated by organizational activities and federal dollars to aid in program design and experienced by a targeted population (Israel, leverage sustainability from county to Harder, & Brodeur, 2011). Such impact is county (Franz & Townson, 2008). Such also expected to explain the difference a multi-level funding is facilitated by grants, program’s results make in the life of a contracts, user fees, and fiscal gifts. person or collective group of people Subsequently, fiscal ties result in the (Workman & Scheer, 2012). Common forms pressure and expectation to demonstrate a and documented best practices of impact return on investment (ROI) and community assessment include one or a combination of impact from delivered programs. surveys, focus groups, interviews, and Of course, economic data have a observations that indicate a change in firmly established and valuable place within knowledge, attitude, or behavior (Nichols, the realm of impact reporting, such as in Blake, Chazdon, & Radhakrishna, 2015; production yield, business development, and Workman & Scheer, 2012). The resulting volunteer hours to name a few. Regardless collected data are then shared in informal of the program area, such data are and institutional reports, scholarly journals, imperative when demonstrating and as well as institutional marketing collateral. justifying the ROI among key stakeholders. While extension is no stranger to However, some of the more difficult, yet reporting mechanisms that aim to important, dimensions to assess amongst demonstrate the ongoing ROI, whether programs are the social dimensions that domestically or internationally, the diversity address overall individual and community of programs representing the multifaceted development and wellbeing over time (Berry program areas present unique challenges & Welsh, 2010). that have continued to endure over time The purpose of this article is to (Lamm & Lamm, 2018). For example, in a outline and argue for a deliberate attempt to 1983 Journal of Extension publication, parse out efforts that address social impact, Smith and Straughn contend that extension while looking for ways to bring such impact goals are often so broad that the ability to full circle with existing efforts in economic strategically focus on explicit outcomes impact. This article is driven by the (direct or indirect, positive or negative) is following questions: difficult or prohibitive. Today, established 1. How is program impact defined as it goals remain broad—i.e., Extension aims to relates to the land-grant university, “Prepare people to break the cycle of and how it has traditionally been poverty, encourage healthful lifestyles, and approached? prepare youth for responsible adulthood” (USDA-NIFA, 2018, para. 6)—leaving

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significant room for interpretation, program programs to submit plans of work design, and application. Further critique of and reports of results documenting impact evaluation resides in overarching how formula-funded programs were program goals being too process-oriented or achieving outcomes toward five non-existent, and if results are non- national goals” (p. 87). generalizable or complicated (intentional vs. Throughout this period, there have unintentional, short- vs. long-term, or been a number of scholars and specialists directly or indirectly targeting a given who have dedicated tremendous effort in audience). To consider such challenges in developing evaluation methods and tools land-grant university program evaluation that can attest to the value of university and impact reporting, it is relevant to also outreach and engagement (Ladewig, 1999), consider the significant changes in provide structure in program development expectations over the life of legislative and delivery (Lamm, Carter, & Lamm, support and requirements (Nichols et al, 2016), and be accountable to the shifting 2015): expectations of fiscally supportive agencies (Lamm, Lamm, Davis, & Swaroop, 2018). • Hatch Act (1887) – Established experiment stations to focus on Some of the key developments and adoption agricultural production that oversaw throughout this time include the logic model demonstration fields and plots, and and the Targeting Outcomes of Programs testing recommended practices that model (Rockwell & Bennett, 2004). were then reported to farmers While models and associated through university publications or practices have been developed, the complex other agricultural publications. university structure creates a challenging • Smith-Lever Act (1914) – situation when it comes to determining Cooperative Extension System was where evaluation efforts and experts should formally established, and Congress be located. Lambur (2008) examined three became more concerned with possible structural choices, identifying reports that offered full detail in overall operations rather than unique limitations through in-depth programmatic impact. interviews with evaluators: (1) Within an • Food and Agriculture Act (1977) – administrative unit where evaluators Ushered in a new era of potentially focus on the needs of the accountability and evaluation, organization and accountability rather than calling for the justification of program impact; (2) as a separate evaluation actions, as well as economic and unit or program area where evaluators may social consequences of existing better understand the given unit or area, programs. Extension became a key potentially inserting bias and limiting scope focus of such accountability and and application in other areas; and (3) within evaluation. an academic unit or school where evaluators • Government Performance and may diminish the importance of Results Act (1993) – “…required accountability and rely more so on the strategic plans and a numerical assessment of outcomes for expertise of applied researchers. measurement of performance of Regardless of where evaluation is governmental organizations” (p. located within the university, the likelihood 86). of its existence in a single location to • Agricultural Research, Extension account for a holistic overview of an and Education Reform Act (1998) – institution’s comprehensive outreach and “…required state Extension engagement efforts is low to impossible

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(Lambur, 2008). Programmatic evaluation is the mark of a program’s intended goals not a one-size-fits-all approach (Roucan- (Diem, 2003). To address this would require Kane, 2008). Key variables of interest used an inside-out perspective, rather than to account for impact range significantly outside-in. from agriculture to youth and leadership In an effort to shift away from an development programs (Marshall, 2012; outside-in perspective, and begin Scott, Weeks, & Weeks, 2018; Yueh-Ti considering what an inside-out perspective Chen, King, Cochran, & Argabright, 2014;), could look like, there is a need to reconsider as well as diverse areas of interest from the entry point of evaluation. Inside-out country to country (Jayaratne et al, 2017; would place the entry point with the existing Warner & Murphrey, 2015). infrastructure at the local level, with the One key characteristic revealed intent to point a collected mass of local data within the context of program impact back to university outreach and engagement associated with university-based evaluation efforts for purposes of program planning, and assessment is that collected data are development, and evaluation. While predominately situated from an outside-in economic and other infrastructural data can perspective. In other words, key play a role in this proposed approach, inside- measurements are based on programmatic out places the context and emphasis of outcomes—considering the impact as a examination efforts within the social impact result of a university program’s presence research paradigm, which begins to situate (the outsiders) in the community (the the conversation around unique community insiders). This perspective is perpetuated as characteristics, as well as overall community a result of funding processes that require vitality. accountability and effective communication of achieved goals and future intentions Social Impact Overview (Kalambokidis, 2004; Workman & Scheer, 2012). Thus, impact planning, development, Social Impact’s Definition, and evaluation, especially pertaining to Operationalization & Value societal change, will continue to be Impacts that are social in nature refer increasingly important. As Workman and to various aspects of people’s lives and the Scheer (2012) asserted, “The ultimate goal physical, political, interpersonal, and is to remain relevant and of value to the intrapersonal systems in which they operate public. The strongest method to demonstrate (Jones, McGinlay, & Dimitrakopoulos, relevancy and public value is to document 2017). In this manner, social impact takes ‘true impact’” (“Conclusions/Implications”, cultural impact into account as people para. 3). However, aside from determining experience a new normal and re-think how what is true impact, critics claim there is a they view themselves and their environment continued lack of consistency, as well as a (Burdge et al., 1995). Social impact has been lack of consideration in bridging short-term formally defined as the effect an and long-term impacts (Rossi, Lipsey, & organization or program’s actions have on Freeman, 2004). In addition, while the well-being of a community or population institutional impact reporting efforts are (Franz, Arnold, & Baughman, 2014; The intended to indicate positive changes in the Wharton School, 2011). It is the knowledge, attitude, and behavior of “…consequences to human populations of clientele, important lessons can also be any public or private actions – that alter the learned from results and impacts that miss ways in which people live, work, play, relate

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to one another, organize to meet their needs, assessment, ripple effects mapping, and and generally cope as members of society” community capitals framework. Each uses a (Burdge et al., 1995, p. 11). community-based research (CBR) approach Researchers claim that if used as a that calls for more interaction between primary entry point into program evaluation, research entities and the communities in social impact provides the type of which they address issues and problems. For community engagement that promotes parity the purposes of this overview, these and integrity (Gust & Jordan, 2006; common approaches will be briefly Srinivas, Meenan, Drogin, & DePrince, expounded upon. 2015). In addition, social impact research has often placed its central focus on social Community impact scale. The capital as a key construct, where a number community impact scale (CIS) is designed of community characteristics have been as a 46-item scale to help community examined. Such characteristics include areas organizations gauge costs and benefits of such as social networks and reciprocity community-university partnerships and how (Stone & Hughes, 2002), including those those partnerships may affect an between and among individuals and organization and its staff (Srinivas, Meenan, organizations (Chilenski et al., 2014). Other Drogin, & DePrince, 2015). Often used in characteristics include trust, accepted norms, university service-learning programs, CIS and connections among people (Zoorob & examines university-community Salemi, 2017); civic identity and partnerships in regard to being collaborative, engagement related to predictions in societal rigorous, and context-specific. The scale is outcomes (Zoorob & Salemi, 2017); and also intended to account for multi- public value related to those directly and dimensional factors and emerging themes indirectly impacted by a program (Franz et from a given partnership. al., 2014; Kalambokidis, 2004). Areas of research and practice that incorporate such Social impact assessment. Social characteristics include epidemiology and impact assessment (SIA) aims to examine public health (De Silva et al., 2005), drug possible effects on a particular group of and alcohol dependence (Zoorob & Salemi, people because of a government, an 2017), public policy and management organization, or an event (Score, 1995). The (Ozanne et al., 2017), education and intent is to gain stakeholder input on how developmental psychology (Magson, program and community data are collected Craven, & Bodkin-Andrews, 2014), and categorized, creating a community community service learning (Srinivas et al., profile, summarizing subsequent 2015), tourism and extension projections, and sharing information with (Bhattacharyya, Templin, Messer, & community members, whose response can Chazdon, 2017), rural sociology (Flora & determine the success or failure of an Bregendahl, 2012), and policy analysis (Fey, existing or future project (Barrow, 2000; Bregendahl, & Flora, 2006). Cordova, 2011; Score, 1995). SIA is in alignment with CBR as it argues for Methods of Social Impact Assessment stakeholder input for the credibility and Common approaches to examining accountability of program planning, social impact implemented by both development, and implementation (Score, researchers and practitioners include the 1995). This approach is often used in community impact scale, social impact environmental studies (Burdge, 1995), the

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Cooperative Extension System, rural (Bhattacharyya et al., 2017) for community sociology, policy analysis, and non- characteristics, known as capitals, that can governmental organizations. be influenced. It has been used to outline and map community strategies, monitor Ripple effects mapping. Ripple results, envision the future, create holistic Effects Mapping (REM) is an evaluation planning committee structures, and enhance tool that involves groups of people creating other methods such as Appreciative Inquiry visual representations of impacts once a (Emery, Fey, & Flora, 2006; Bhattacharyya program is complete (Bhattacharyya, et al., 2017). In the same way that a Templin, Messer, & Chazdon, 2017). community profile provides a more holistic Predominantly qualitative in method, themes view of a community and the initiatives that often emerge from methods using mind are incorporated on its behalf, CCF helps mapping and appreciative inquiry, which researchers and practitioners view their provides groups with information that work in a holistic way (Flora & Bregendahl, informs the analysis of the findings and their 2012). It is noted to improve both learning. REM also highlights unintended communities and organizations and provides results of an initiative as well as insight into an outline for how capitals can be defined in how those involved should move forward the context of a community, how they (Emery, Higgins, Chazdon, & Hansen, influence each other, and how they can be 2015). The REM process can be beneficial the foundation of communal actions (Flora for program leaders, program participants, & Bregendahl, 2012). The framework and/or other stakeholders. Emery et al. defines community capital in terms of (2015) described three approaches to REM: assets, using seven components: Natural web mapping (mapping short-, medium-, (environmental assets that abide in a specific and long-term impact onto a community location), human (people’s natural and capitals-based template), in-depth rippling learned competencies, and access to (mapping to find the effects considered the necessary resources), social (connections most impactful), and theming and rippling among people and organizations), cultural (mapping to gather a collective list of (how people understand and interact with impact, which generates themes and the world around them), political (access to subsequent participant stories that align with personal and structured power), financial themes). Those using REM are encouraged (monetary support for community to choose a method that works best for the improvement), and built (physical group and the resulting desired data (Emery infrastructure) (Emery & Flora, 2006; Fey, et al., 2015). REM has been used in fields Bregendahl, & Flora, 2006; Flora & such as 4-H and youth development (Baker Bregendahl, 2012). These capitals, of which & Johannes, 2013), tourism (Bhattacharyya social capital is deemed the most abstract et al., 2017), and Cooperative Extension (Stone & Hughes, 2002), emerged out of C. community gardening (Kollock, Flage, Flora, J. Flora, and Fey’s research on Chazdon, Paine, & Higgins, 2012). communities supportive of entrepreneurship and were indicative of long-lasting Community capitals framework. community and economic development The Community capitals framework (CCF), when communities invested in all of them developed by Cornelia Flora, Jan Flora, and (Emery et al., 2006). They have now been Susan Fey in 2004, is a systems approach used to assist concepts, such as community- (Emery et al., 2006) and a logic model

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supported agriculture (Flora & Bregendahl, adhered: (1) social capital measurement 2012). needs to be theoretically informed; (2) social CCF’s unique strengths (when capital needs to be viewed as a resource for compared to other approaches) lie in its collective action and assessed as to whether ability to encapsulate a broad set of or not it generates desirable social and variables, while recognizing the complexity economic outcomes; (3) social capital needs of the community issues and needs. It also to be theorized as a multidimensional highlights the holistic benefit of paying construct; and (4) it needs to be recognized attention to all capital areas, especially that social capital will vary depending on social capital, to avoid a decline of network type and social scale under effectiveness in certain assets affecting examination (i.e., family, community, programmatic initiatives and the community societal) (Magson et al., 2014). as a whole (Emery et al., 2006; Stone & Additionally, the literature reiterates Hughes, 2002). the subjective nature of social impact research. Aspects of what is chosen to be Social Impact Assessment Challenges & evaluated can be influenced by a Opportunities sociopolitical climate (Smith & Straughn, Social impact and its organization- 1983) and funding can affect the use and/or based societal effects are directly correlated implementation of suggested strategies such with social capital. Measuring social impact, as the community profile (Score, 1995). social capital, or any of the associated Furthermore, to fully grasp the impact on community capitals has been noted as societies, longitudinal work has long been difficult because it involves abstract needed (Smith & Straghn, 1983; Workman materials that make up societies (Fey et al., & Scheer, 2012) and impact work and 2006), along with longitudinal time and evaluation should not take place solely upon effort that are required to recognize genuine completion of an initiative. Rather, desired change (Beckman et al., 2011). Among programmatic benefits, along with strategies multiple attempts to create valid for how to engage stakeholders (Gust & instruments, evaluative constructs and Jordan, 2006; Ozanne et al., 2017), should wording are still convoluted (Magson et al., be discussed at the beginning of an 2014). This results in empirical work that is initiative’s planning stages and weaved limited and measurement consensus that throughout its development and cannot be found, both of which are heralded implementation (Diem, 2003). Ozanne and as the field’s greatest weaknesses (Magson colleagues (2017) not only call for research et al., 2014). Ozanne et al. (2017) also adds to be more applicable to stakeholders, but that while assessment of this type of impact that researchers be more intentional about is an increasing priority, there are no agreed- effective societal impact measurement and upon best practices due to the complexity of that publications reflect this improvement. its nature and influences. Measuring social impacts in objective (i.e. quantifiable Proposed Model Approach changes) and subjective (i.e. changes in Leveraging the unique qualities and well-being) ways also complicates segmented areas of the community capitals measurement procedures (Jones et al., framework (CCF), there is an opportunity to 2017). The literature suggests that for social take on the recommended inside-out capital research to be instrumentally- and perspective as an initial step toward theoretically-sound, the following must be evaluation and assessment related to local

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programming efforts. The argument here is culture as a dynamic construct, while to take a two-part assumption: (1) that, placing its primary entry point on the regardless of the presence or absence of marginalized members of a community— university programming, the community individually or collectively. Guided by profile must first be considered; and (2) critical theory, CCA, as a methodological local perceptions are critical to shifts— framework, is concerned with the modes of positive or negative—related to community knowledge production and access to existing development and vitality. CCF’s holistic resources, political processes, and the design approach in considering the seven capitals of the existing infrastructure within a sets the stage to address both assumptions. particular community or targeted population. The overarching intent of CCA is to Considering the Community Profile critically deconstruct the infrastructure while For approaches addressing social locating the actual barriers that exist through capital, the literature states that any form of the voices, perceptions, and lived measurement be theoretically informed experiences of members of the (Magson et al., 2014). This proposed model community—individually and collectively. seeks to modify the approach to CCF by Three constructs that guide CCA are culture, using the culture-centered approach (Dutta, agency, and structure (Figure 1), whereby 2008; CCA) as the overarching framework. the critical deconstruction is placed on the Traditionally used in international health contested intersection that exists between communication research, CCA recognizes each of those constructs.

The local contexts where meanings are constituted and negotiated. Culture

Structure Agency Aspects of social The capacity of organization that cultural members to constrain and enable enact their choices the capacity of cul- and participate ac- tural participants to tively in negotiating seek out choices and the structures within make decisions. which they exist.

Figure 1. The three constructs of CCA (Dutta, 2008).

By allowing CCA to inform the CCF work (Emery & Flora, 2006; Fey, development of the CCF, a new discursive Bregendahl, & Flora, 2006; Flora & space becomes possible within the context Bregendahl, 2012)—but their individual of the community. Not only would agency related to the seven capitals is also individuals’ outward perception of their incorporated into the collected data. This community be considered—which has provides a distinction between individuals’ traditionally been the objectives of previous outward view of the community along with

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their perceived personal capacity within the A Modified CCF Scale community. With these assumptions in mind, a The value of better understanding modified approach to CCF was designed to personal agency within the context of the address how an individual operationalizes community perspective is because, each capital from two points of view. The regardless of a given community first is based on structural perception and the infrastructure, along with established second is based on perceived internal resources and opportunities (i.e., agency. For example, each capital will be employment, education, healthcare), if an addressed as a portion of the complete set of individual perceives their access to such capitals, representing a complete CCF scale. resources to be minimized or non-existent, The following is an excerpt of the scale with or if they believe others’ ability to access is select representative statements. The scale compromised, the quality of the statements are assessed via a five-point infrastructure is diminished. This, in turn, Likert scale, ranging from strongly agree to creates the potential for an overarching set strongly disagree (Figure 2). of community indices that complements and enriches economic data analysis.

HUMAN CAPITAL Structural Perception: “I believe that my community…” • Has meaningful employment to attract young people. • Offers residents access to a wide range of healthcare.

Internal Agency: “If I choose to, I have the ability to…” • Be a leader in my community. • Collaborate to impact community change.

Figure 2. Example of Likert-designed statements (Human Capital only).

A possibility for administering this serving as a comprehensive measure and scale at the local level might be completed leading to two very distinct and applicable using opt-in panels through an online survey outcomes that ultimately lead to measuring firm. This would ensure that preidentified and examining program impact. The first is quotas could be filled at the local level. In an immediate snapshot of a given addition to the representation of all capitals community—or applicable geographical in the proposed scale, additional data, boundary, such as counties in the United including representative census-based States, or villages or provinces within an demographic data, as well as individual international context. Such a snapshot offers participation in an extension program within a form of diagnostic analysis, which the last five years, could be collected. provides a unique overview based on Of course, such data, collected at a abstract social structures that are captured given point in time within a defined from each of the seven capitals. Regression geographic area, cannot directly point to analysis would demonstrate significant extension programmatic impact. However, it relationships between or among the capitals does provide a robust set of baseline data, as constructs, or among the items of each

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construct. Demonstrating significant and vitality through distinct program areas. relationships between or among constructs While program goals may continue to can lead to a more informed approach to remain broad and far reaching for the sake program planning and development. This is of the diverse array of institutional especially the case if there is a significant programming, it is ever more essential that statistical difference between the such programming approaches every county individuals’ outward view of the community with the capacity to address the unique and perceived personal capacity within the obstacles and opportunities of each county. community. Follow-up reports based on The second outcome is the value of evaluative data are expected to demonstrate longitudinal data. Throughout the positive shifts. Therefore, included data that development of this modified CCF scale, demonstrate how a program may have our intent is to capture this data on an annual “missed the mark” does not necessarily bode basis statewide, which would begin to well for extension program viability. Yet, demonstrate changes and shifts across the what this proposed model provides is a way state and from county to county. While for extension professionals and researchers economic consequences play a critical role to be more holistically informed at the onset in accounting for programmatic impact and of a given program, establishing an inside- justification, there are also social out perspective of being vested in the needs consequences that are just as critically of a community. important. To this point, no identified Collecting CCF data at a given point research approach and subsequent analysis in time provides a set of baseline data that has been able to successfully bridge the two. serves as a diagnostic tool for a targeted While the results of the CCF scale cannot community, village, county, or province—or directly point to extension program impact, any collective, thereof. But, in that single the anticipation is that the regression snapshot, the capacity to provide social analysis between CCF data and economic impact data does not exist. What it does do data will be able to point to programmatic is establish the entry points through which impact—socially and economically—over key areas of inquiry can be formed. For time. instance, if the data demonstrate lower The expectation is that this approach levels of individuals’ outward view of the to community assessment and evaluation community, but higher levels of perceived will not replace current efforts uniquely personal capacity within their community, designed for a given program area or unit. then a significant opportunity exists to begin However, this particular approach can help working within the context of individual to support these efforts, as well as capacity to address the perceived limitations demonstrate overarching trends and unique of structural capacity. Not only does this community characteristics over time. inform program planning and development, but it can also identify key variables of Future Application interest for program evaluation efforts. As Within the context that the scale has such, the inside-out perspective is preserved. been developed, which is at a large research The inside-out perspective is even university in the Southeastern United States, further maintained if such CCF baseline data the expectation of the associated serve as the entry points by which a Cooperative Extension System is that it will qualitative approach—perhaps based in enhance overall community development ethnographic methods—is designed to

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further engage with and understand the engaged research. Where the entry point of unique and complex dynamics that lend assessment and understanding begins with themselves to the perceived structural and the existing infrastructure at the local level, individual capacities. Such an approach with the intent to point the collected mass of would help to identify and account for local data back to and direct the efforts of extrinsic influencers, such as political and extension outreach and engagement— economic changes, or even areas of modern equipping extension professionals to more popular culture. Even more so, as extension readily assess and measure perception and professionals or researchers engage in an impact changes within communities and international context, CCF ensures that the across cultures. local perspective and cultural values are first taken into account prior to designing a References prescriptive solution for local issues. Baker, B., & Johannes, E. M. (2013). As stated before, conducting social Measuring social capital change impact assessment has become an increasing using ripple mapping. New priority in developing evaluation efforts Directions for Youth Development, (Ozanne et al, 2017). As such, collecting 2013(138), 31-47. CCF data using this modified approach over doi:10.1002/yd.20056 a longitudinal period of time can provide Berry, H., & Welsh, J. (2010). Social capital data that support long-term follow-up to and health in Australia: An overview programs where measuring true and from the household, income and immediate social impact has traditionally labour dynamics in Australia survey. proven to be more challenging. Longitudinal Social Science & Medicine, 70(4), data can demonstrate shifts over time, 58-96. showing relevant correlations or even doi:10.1016/J.SOCSCIMED.2009.10 patterns between or among the capitals, and .012 how social capital may or may not serve as Bhattacharyya, R., Templin, E., Messer, C., the proverbial fulcrum by which all other & Chazdon, S. (2017). Participatory capitals hinge (Gust & Jordan, 2006; evaluation and learning: A case Srinivas, Meenan, Drogin, & DePrince, example involving Ripple Effects 2015). Mapping of a tourism assessment In addition, this model also program. Journal of Extension, demonstrates the capacity to offer a 55(2). Retrieved from comparative analysis with economic data https://www.joe.org/joe/2017april/a3 and other indices, such as health or .php education, providing a more enhanced Boyer, E. (1996). The scholarship of diagnostic overview of community trends on engagement. Journal of Public such indices relative to each capital. The Service and Outreach, 1(1), 11-20. scale thus provides the opportunity to extend Burdge, R. J., Fricke, P., Finsterbusch, K., and deepen potential partnerships and Freudenburg, W. R., Gramling, R., collaborations between extension and other Holden, … & Williams, G. (1995). community-level entities. Guidelines and principles for social Overall, the relevance of this model impact assessment. Environmental is its intent to transition from an outside-in Impact Assessment Review, 15, 11– to an inside-out perspective when it comes 43. to extension programming and community-

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Chilenski, S. M., Ang, P. M., Greenberg, M. Fey, S., Bregendahl, C., & Flora, C. (2006). T., Feinberg, M. E., & Spoth, R. The measurement of community (2013). The Impact of a Prevention capitals through research. Online Delivery System on Perceived Social Journal of Rural Research & Policy, Capital: the PROSPER Project. 1(1). Retrieved from Prevention Science, 15, 125–137. https://doi.org/10.4148/ojrrp.v1i1.29 https://doi.org/10.1007/s11121-012- Flora, C. B., & Bregendahl, C. (2012). 0347-5 Collaborative community-supported Cordova, T. L. (2011). Community-based agriculture: Balancing community research and participatory change: A capitals for producers and strategic, multi-method community consumers. International Journal of impact assessment. Journal of Sociology of Agriculture and Food, Community Practice, 19(1), 29-47. 19(3), 329-346. doi:10.1080/10705422.2011.550259 Franz, N. K., & Townson, L. (2008). The Diem, K. G. (2003). Program development nature of complex organizations: The in a political world – It’s all about case of Cooperative Extension. New impact! Journal of Extension, 41(1). Directions for Evaluation, 120, 5-14. Retrieved from https://doi.org/10.1002/ev.272 https://www.joe.org/joe/2003februar Franz, N., Arnold, M., & Baughman, S. y/a6.php (2014). The role of evaluation in Emery, M., Fey, S., & Flora., C. (2006). determining the public value of Using community capitals to develop Extension. Journal of Extension, assets for positive community 52(4). Retrieved from change. CD Practice, 13. Retrieved http://www.joe.org/joe/2014august/c from omm3.php http://srdc.msstate.edu/fop/levelthree Gust, S. A., & Jordan, C. (2006). The /trainarc/socialcapital/communitycap Community Impact Statement: A italstodevelopassets- prenuptial agreement for emeryfeyflora2006.pdf community-campus partnerships. Emery, M., & Flora, C. (2006). Spiraling- Journal of Higher Education up: Mapping community Outreach and Engagement, 11(2), transformation with community 155-169. capitals framework. Community Imperiale, A. J., & Vanclay, F. (2016). Development, 37(1), 19-35. doi: Using social impact assessment to 10.1080/15575330609490152 strengthen community resilience in Emery, M., Higgins, L., Chazdon, S., & sustainable rural development in Hansen, D. (2015). Using ripple mountain areas. Mountain Research effect mapping to evaluate program and Development, 36(4). impact: Choosing or combining the http://dx.doi.org/10.1659/MRD- methods that work best for you. JOURNAL-D-16-00027.1 Journal of Extension, 53(2). Israel, G., Harder, A. & Brodeur, C. (2011). Retrieved from: What is an Extension program? https://www.joe.org/joe/2015april/tt1 University of Florida Institute of .php Food and Agricultural Sciences. Retrieved from http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/wc108

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Jayaratne, K., Taylor, L., Edwards, M., Lamm, K. W., & Lamm, A. J. (2018). Sitton, S., Cartmell, D., Watters, C., Considering an appreciative & Henneberry, S. (2017). Evaluation approach to international extension of an international entrepreneur evaluation. Journal of International exchange program: Impacts, lessons Agricultural and Extension learned, and implications for Education, 25(4), 74-82. agricultural development. Journal of doi:10.5191/jiaee.2018.25406 International Agricultural and Lamm, K. W., Lamm, A. J., Davis, K., & Extension Education, 24(2), 50-64. Swaroop, B. J. (2018). Effective doi:10.5191/jiaee.2017.24204 advocacy for extension networks: An Jones, N., McGinlay, J., & Dimitrakopoulos, evaluation of critical capacities. P. G. (2017). Improving social Journal of International Agricultural impact assessment of protected and Extension Education, 25(2), 43- areas: A review of the literature and 56. doi:10.5191/jiaee.2018.25204 directions for future research. Lambur, M. T. (2008). Organizational Environmental Impact Assessment structures that support internal Review, 64(2017), 1-7. program evaluation. In M. T. doi:10.1016/j.eiar.2016.12.007 Braverman, M. Engle, M. E. Arnold, Kalambokidis, L. (2004). Identifying the & R. A. Rennekamp (Eds.), Program public value in Extension programs. evaluation in a complex Journal of Extension, 42(2). organizational system: Lessons from Retrieved from Cooperative Extension. New https://www.joe.org/joe/2004april/a1 Directions for Evaluation, 120, 41– .php 54. Kollock, D. A., Flage, L., Chazdon, S., Magson, N. R., Craven, R. G., & Bodkin- Paine, N., & Higgins, L. (2012). Andrews, G. H. (2014). Measuring Ripple effect mapping: A “radiant” social capital: The development of way to capture program impacts. the social capital and cohesion scale Journal of Extension, 50(5). and the associations between social Retrieved from capital and mental health. Australian http://www.joe.org/joe/2012october/t Journal of Educational & t6.php Developmental Psychology, Ladewig, H. (1999). Accountability and the 14(2014), 202-216. cooperative extension system. Paper Marshall, R. (2012). The impact of the presented at the Cooperative extension service on minority-owned Extension Program Leadership small farm operations. Journal of Conference, Pittsburgh, PA. Extension, 50(1). Retrieved from Lamm, K. W., Carter, H. S., & Lamm, A. J. https://joe.org/joe/2012february/com (2016). Evaluating extension-based m1.php leadership development programs in Nichols, A., Blake, S., Chazdon, S., & the Southern United States. Journal Radhakrishna, R. (2015). From farm of Agricultural Education, 57(1), results demonstrations to multistate 121-136. impact designs: Cooperative doi:10.5032/jae.2016.01121 Extension navigates its way through evaluation pathways. Journal of Human Sciences, 3(2), 83-107.

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Ozanne, J. L., Davis, B., Murray, J. B., Srinivas, T., Meenan, C. E., Drogin, E., & Grier, S., Benmecheddal, A., DePrince, A. P. (2015). Downey, H., & ... Veer, E. (2017). Development of the community Assessing the societal impact of impact scale measuring community research: The relational engagement organization perceptions of approach. Journal of Public Policy & partnership benefits and costs. Marketing, 36(1), 1-14. Michigan Journal of Community doi:10.1509/jppm.14.121 Service Learning, 21(2), 5-21. Rockwell, K., & Bennett, C. (2004). Stone, E., & Hughes, J. (2002). Targeting Outcomes of Programs: A Understanding community strengths. hierarchy for targeting outcomes and Family Matters, 2002(61), 62-67. evaluating their achievement. The Wharton School (The University of Faculty Publications: Agricultural Pennsylvania). (2011, July 28). Leadership, Education & Social Impact. Retrieved from Communication Department, 48, http://kwhs.wharton.upenn.edu/term/ http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/aglecf social-impact/ acpub/48 USDA-NIFA (n.d.). Extension. Retrieved Rossi, P. H., Lipsey, M. W., & Freeman, H. E. from https://nifa.usda.gov/extension (2004). Evaluation: A systematic approach. Warner, L., & Murphrey, T. (2015). An Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. examination of the use of the Roucan-Kane, M. (2008). Key facts and key framework of social marketing to resources for program evaluation. achieve environmental sustainability Journal of Extension, 46(1). in international agricultural and Retrieved from: extension education. Journal of https://www.joe.org/joe/2008februar International Agricultural and y/tt2.php Extension Education, 22(2), 20-36. Scott, M., Weeks, W., & Weeks, P. (2018). doi:10.5191/jiaee.2015.22202 Impact of a professional Workman, J. D., & Scheer, S. D. (2012). development experience focused on Evidence of impact: Examination of extension educators as change evaluation studies published in the agents. Journal of Extension, 56(6). Journal of Extension. Journal of Retrieved from Extension, 50(2). Retrieved from https://joe.org/joe/2018october/rb1.p https://www.joe.org/joe/2012april/a1 hp .php Score, M. (1995). Social impact assessment Yueh-Ti Chen, C., King, J., Cochran, G. & in extension educational Argabright, K. (2014). Evaluation of programming. Journal of Extension, the leadership institute: A program to 33(6). Retrieved from: build individual and organizational https://www.joe.org/joe/1995decemb capacity through emotional er/tt2.php intelligence. Journal of Extension, Smith, M. F., & Straughn, A. A. (1983). 52(1). Retrieved from Impact evaluation: A challenge for https://joe.org/joe/2014february/rb2. extension. Journal of Extension, php 21(5). Retrieved from https://www.joe.org/joe/1983septem ber/83-5-a9.pdf

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26207

Influence of Smallholder Farmer Groups on the Application of Best Horticultural Farming Practices in Kenya

Raphael Mwiti Gikunda David Lawver Texas Tech University

Abstract This study aimed at establishing the relationship between group membership and application of best horticultural farming practices (BHFP) among the group and non-group farmers in Meru County, Kenya. A descriptive design involving a cross-sectional survey was applied to address the research objectives. The target population consisted of 4950 smallholders from horticultural group and non-group farmers. The study sample was 224 farmers chosen through stratified random sampling. Data were gathered using a researcher-developed questionnaire. Both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed in data analysis. The analysis was accomplished using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The study revealed a variance in mean BHFP application scores between groups' farmers (M =76.49, SD = 4.78) and non-groups' farmers (M = 67.71, SD = 8.57). There was a positive substantial correlation between group membership and application of BHFP, which was statistically significant (rpb = .50, N = 224, p < .01). Discriminant function analysis revealed that Wilks’ lambda was significant, λ = .47, χ2 (16) = 162.63, p = <.05, R2 = .53 implying that the group means differed significantly. Farmers in groups applied BHFP more than the non-group farmers hence a clear association between group membership and BHFP application. The study recommends that farmer groups should be promoted to facilitate dissemination and application of BHFP.

Keywords: best horticultural farming practices; farmer group; smallholder farmers

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Introduction Generalized System of Preferences, which The tropical and humid climate range from 4% to 24% and apply to some found in Kenya suggests favorable 67% of goods flowing from Kenya to conditions for production of horticultural Europe. The EU had earlier set a September crops. This subsector produces a variety of 30, 2014, deadline for Kenya to cut the crops including fruit, flowers, vegetables, amount of chemical residue in all EU- spices, root crops and herbs. Horticulture destined produce exports, promising to employs about two million people where introduce stricter inspections (Kenya most of them are smallholder growers who National Bureau of Statistics, 2015). constitute 80% of farmers. According to The compliance with EurepGAP Ongeri, (2014), the horticultural subsector standards by smallholder farmers has been a helps to eradicate poverty and improve center of focus due to food safety concerns smallholders’ farm income. It has also in recent years. However, this compliance proven to be one of the top foreign exchange entails application of BHFP, which involve earners for the country generating about 1 expensive investment in farm inputs and billion US dollars annually. In 2015, long-term farm structures (Asfaw, 2010). In horticulture’s contribution to national gross Kenya, smallholder farmers contribute about domestic product was 1.45% while that of 50-60% of total horticultural crop flowers alone was 1.01%. Horticultural production (Ongeri, 2014). Very few studies export volumes increased by nearly 3% to have been conducted to determine the level reach 220,200 tons in 2014. Earnings from of application of BHFP among horticultural exports of fresh produce hit KSh84.1bn ($ farmers. Not much research has been done 925.1m), a rise of around KShs 700m ($ on smallholder farmer groups in Kenya and 7.7m) over 2013 and driven by a 12.5% empirical studies on their influence on the spike in fruit export revenues, which application of agricultural technologies are reached KShs 5.4bn ($ 59.4m). Earnings limited. In Meru County, horticulture from vegetables, however, fell nearly 18% involves the production of cut flowers; fruit to KSh18.8bn ($ 206.8m), despite higher such as passion fruit, mangoes, avocadoes volumes (Kenya National Bureau of and vegetables such as French beans and Statistics, 2015). snow peas (Meru County, 2014). Most Much of the fresh fruit and horticultural smallholder farmers in Meru vegetables produced in Kenya targets almost County have formed groups to enjoy exclusively the European market, thus the economies of scale. Penunia (2011) produce are checked against Euro-Retailer contends that through the groups, farmers Produce Working Group for Good enjoy lower production costs through Agricultural Practice (EurepGAP) standards improved access to farm inputs such as before export. Rising quality control agrochemicals and fertilizers. These farmers, standards have meanwhile affected the through their groups, are well positioning to industry. In October 2014, horticulture meet EurepGap standards and manage the exporters were concerned to learn that grading, cleaning, processing, drying, Kenya’s 30-year economic partnership packaging, storage, branding, collection and agreement (EPA) with the EU had not been transportation of produce. As a group, renewed, as officials continued to negotiate farmers are better able to negotiate the issues such as taxation, good governance, prices of the produce resulting in increased and subsidies. EU-bound exports were profits that accrue to farmers rather than instead subject to tariffs under the intermediaries and buyers.

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Theoretical Framework harvesting, processing and transportation of The research utilized social learning horticultural produce (FAO, 2010). In theory (SLT) to describe how farmers response to the rising standards, food safety access, share, apply knowledge and apply has received increased attention globally in skills related to BHFP. According to Kolb recent times (Jaffee & Masakure, 2005; (1984), learning occurs from continuous Narrod, Gulati, Minot & Delgado, 2005). communication and iteration between Studies by Henson, Masakure and Boselie thinking and action: concrete actions result (2005) and Jaffee (2003) indicate that to in certain experiences which when reflected meet this concern, some exporters choose upon generating cognitive changes resulting input suppliers and agronomists to advise in new actions. Leeuwis, (2003) observed farmers on production, processing and that organizational and social space also transport of produce. Following heightened contribute in the learning process. Farmer food safety concerns in retail markets; groups serve as organizations for collective produce hygiene and handling practices at action in Africa and they have heightened production, harvesting and processing are participatory access to extension services well monitored (Jaffee & Masakure, 2005). and technologies (Prager & Creany, 2017). Farmers are expected to construct a pesticide Through normative and informational storage structure, toilet, and a hand washing influence, farmers in a group tend to facility at the farm as well as a grading shed conform to standards set by the group and (Boselie, 2005). In certain instances, apply practices agreeable to the group. Once exporters have been conducting soil and the group has expressed a commitment, water tests twice a year on farms of those people in a group tend to exhibit a strong contracted to produce crops for the tendency to act in a way that is consistent European Union retail market. These with the commitment. Since farmers tend to exporters also require farmers to keep adopt and practice what they see others records either individually or collectively. doing, SLT principles can be used to change A number of studies have been perceptions of the social environment by conducted examining the costs of complying making certain practices more common. with BHFP and the likely benefits of Groups provide social support its members adoption (World Bank, 2011). In the process and this makes them consider adopting of trying to deal with emerging opportunities practices agreed upon by the members. and challenges associated with adoption of BHFP, many development agencies have Literature Review applied a collection of measures to facilitate small-scale farmers’ compliance with the Best Horticultural Farming Practices standards, especially in Sub-Saharan Africa (BHFP) (SSA). There has been a continued Recent studies indicate that quality modification of government policies and the and safety of food have raised concerns of institutional environment to improve the many European consumers and this has application of BHFP practices in developing shaken their trust in the imported food safety countries (Jaffee, 2003). The World Bank (Jaffee & Masakure, 2005), some of which has taken diverse measures involving is produced in Kenya. This has resulted in various entry points, which include focusing the strict enforcement of EurepGAP (Zoss & on farmer group capacities for production, Pletziger, 2007), which demands the collective action, and standards compliance application of BHFP in producing, (World Bank, 2011).

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Farmer Groups Membership 2. To determine the relationship Various studies have been conducted between farmer group membership to investigate the role of farmer groups in and application of BHFP improving access to input, output markets 3. To determine whether non-group and and agricultural information by small-scale group horticultural farmers differed farmers (Shiferaw, Hellin & Muricho, 2011) on the application of BHFP. however; very few studies have focused on the application of best horticultural Omnibus Statistical Hypotheses practices. Farmer benefits from economies HO: In the population from which the of scale in terms of access to less expensive samples are drawn, the group centroids inputs, marketing costs and better produce from all the discriminant functions are prices, all which are gained through equal. participation in farmer organizations. Shiferaw et al., (2009) documented that Research Methodology farmer groups have enabled smallholders to The study was conducted in Meru access high-value markets in Africa, Asia, County, Kenya. It is located along the and Latin America. Collective action equator on the eastern slopes of Mt. Kenya. empowers farmers to access inputs, such as Agriculture is the main land use and improved seed, fertilizer, and agrochemicals involves both livestock and crop production. (Ofuoku & Urang, 2009). The county receives an average of 1250 mm Other than enhancing farmers’ (49.21inches) of rainfall per annum access, farmer groups are a means of characterized by two rainy seasons. The alleviating inefficiencies in the market long rains falls between March and May (Shiferaw et al., 2009). Further, in a study while the short rains occurs between the by Kirui and Njiraini, (2013) it was reported months of October and December. The o that farmer groups are valuable social assets temperatures varies from a low of 8 C (46.4 o o to smallholder farmers as they enable them F) during cold weather to a high of 32 C o solve the challenge of accessing both input (89.6 F). This study used a quantitative and output markets. Franzel, Wambugu, and research approach and specifically a cross- Tuwei, (2003) recommended a critical sectional survey design was used to address review of farmer groups’ contribution of the objectives. The target population improving smallholder agriculture since they consisted of 4950 smallholder farmers, out were being professed as an effective of which 1950 belonged to 35 horticultural platform for enhancing agricultural farmer groups in Meru County and 2000 productivity in many African countries. were individual smallholder farmers (Non- group farmers). Stratified random sampling Purpose & Objectives was used to select a sample of 224 farmers. This research aimed at examining the This sample size was considered adequate at association between group membership and an alpha level of 0.05 (Bartlett, Kotrlik, & application of BHFP among smallholder Higgins, 2001). The population was farmers in Kenya. The study was guided by stratified based on group membership the following objectives; (group and non-group farmers) and then 1. To identify the reasons why random sampling was used to select 112 smallholder farmers subscribe to farmers from each stratum. horticultural farmer groups’ A researcher developed membership questionnaire was used as a means of data collection. The questionnaire was comprised

92 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 of three main parts; group membership, which there were two categories of farmers; BHFP and benefits of group membership. non-group and group farmers coded as 1 and Group membership was assessed based on 2 respectively. group size, age, and number of meetings. It The discriminating variables was also measured as a binary construct of (independent variables) included production, either a group member or not (0= No, harvesting and post-harvesting hygienic 1=Yes). The application of BHFP was practices. The three variables were measured measured using a 5-point Likert type scale. using a Likert-type scale items of 1 = never, The application score for each farmer was 2 = rarely, 3 = occasionally, 4 = frequently, computed by summating items. BHFP were 5 = always. Discriminant analysis was used developed through the ISEAL Alliance and to determine whether non-group and group Governmental Use of Voluntary Standards’ horticultural farmers differed significantly project in 2008 to ensure food safety, protect on the application of production, harvesting workers’ health and the environment and post-harvesting BHFP. Klecka (1980) (ISEAL Alliance, 2008). A panel of experts observed that discriminant function analysis established face and content validity of the is used to determine which continuous instrument. Reliability assessment for the variables discriminate between two or more instrument was accomplished by using naturally occurring groups. Data were found Cronbach‘s alpha internal consistency to be normally distributed through an reliability coefficient. The analysis revealed observation of the histograms of the a Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of .78 for frequency distribution (Tabachnick & Fidell, group membership construct and .86 for 1996). BHFP application construct. George and Box’s M test was used to test the Mallery (2003) indicate that the minimum multivariate homogeneity of variance- acceptable alpha is .70. covariance matrices assumption. An Two hundred and twenty-four insignificant value of Box’s M test shows questionnaires were distributed to the that those groups do not differ from each sampled farmers at produce collection other and would meet the assumption. The centers. The decision to administer result showed that Box’s M test p-value was questionnaires during produce collection less than .05. This shows that the days at marketing centers when all farmers assumption of homogeneity of the were present, enabled the researchers to covariance matrices was not met, therefore reach all the sampled members at once thus the results should be interpreted with achieving 100% response rate. Point biserial caution. However, Tabachnick & Fidell, correlation, (rpb) was used to determine the (2001) argues that if sample sizes are equal, association between group membership and heterogeneity is not an issue but with application of BHFP. According to Howell, unequal sample sizes, heterogeneity may (2004) Point biserial correlation is compromise the validity of null hypothesis equivalent to Pearson's correlation when one decisions. Correlation matrix was used to of the variables is dichotomous. check multicollinearity of the variables and Discriminant analysis was used to test the it was confirmed that none was exhibited as hypothesis that farmers belonging to the coefficient ranged from .00 to .66. The producer groups and those who did not, centroids for each group were computed and differed significantly on BHFP application Wilk’s lambda was used to test for levels. The grouping variable (dependent significant differences between groups. The variable) was farmer group membership in

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tests were conducted at 95% level of Table 1 presents the distribution of significance (p < .05 a priori). groups based on their sizes, number of meetings, and the length of time the groups Results had been in existence. More than half of the groups (68.6%) were comprised of between Farmer Group Characteristics 20 to 59 members with a mean group size of The major horticultural crops 55.71. Regarding the frequency of meetings, produced by most of the horticultural the majority of farmers (90.2%) indicated smallholder farmers (43.8%) in Meru that they held meetings once or twice per County were peas, tea, and cabbage. All month. The study revealed that group farmer groups cultivated green peas and thus meetings served as avenues for members to was a popular and a major horticultural crop share information, discuss issues affecting in Meru County. According to KNBS the groups, get feedback from their leaders (2015), green peas are one of the main and to make important decisions. The study Kenya’s horticultural products that does also established that most of the groups well in the export market. In Meru County, (51.8%) were young in that they had been in the specific green pea cultivars grown existence for between 1 and 2 years. mainly for export include snap peas and snow peas.

Table 1 Characteristics of Farmers Groups (n= 112) Variable Frequency Percentage Group sizesa 20 – 59 24 69 60 – 99 8 23 100 – 139 1 3 140 – 179 2 6 Number of meetings per monthb 1 67 59.8 2 34 30.4 3 1 .9 4 5 4.5 Above 4 4 4.5 Period the group has been in existencec 1 yr. 16 14.3 2 yrs. 42 37.5 4 yrs. 31 27.7 Above 4 years 23 19.8 Note. a = scale of 1-174, b, c = scale of 1-8

Reasons for Farmer Group Membership subscribe to horticultural groups. The main The first objective sought to reasons for horticultural group membership determine the reasons why farmers joined subscription were access to competitive horticultural groups. Table 2 indicates the credit facilities from banks such as equity or rank of reasons that caused farmers to other microfinance institutions (M = 4.60,

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SD =.61), affordable farm inputs (M = 4.59, generating activities (M = 4.23, SD =.75) SD =.53), extension services (M = 4.58, SD and liking for the members (M = 4.10, SD =.53), manage risks involved in production =1.23). The majority of the farmers of horticultural crops (M = 4.50, SD =.66) indicated that groups act as a platform for and access to produce market (M = 4.46, SD discussing other issues such as education, =.68). The findings confirm those of a study health, politics or other welfare services (M by IFPRI, (2012) which observed that = 4.04, SD =1.16), and the group acts as a farmer groups are useful avenues for platform to save money for group uses (M = increasing farmer productivity and food 3.96, SD =1.25). These reasons also came up security. Farmer groups help in improving in a study by Aliguma, Magala, and Lwasa, access to resources, better markets and (2007) who found that groups improved consequently better prices for the produce. access to better prices and facilitated Other reasons that caused farmers to produce transport to markets. Loevinsohn, become members of groups included, Mugarura, & Nkusi, (1994) reported that strengthen their bargaining power (M = farmer groups facilitate access to 4.30, SD =.71), improved income through competitive credit facilities from financial improved production and sales (M = 4.24, institutions. SD =.71), attraction to group income-

Table 2 Reasons for Joining Horticultural Farmers (N = 224)

Reasonsa M SD

Access to competitive credit facilities from banks such as equity 4.60 .61 or other microfinance institutions Access to affordable farm inputs 4.59 .53 Access to extension services 4.58 .53 Manage risks involved in the production of horticultural crops 4.50 .66 Access to produce market 4.46 .68

Strengthen the bargaining power 4.30 .71 Improved income through improved production and sales 4.24 .71 Attraction to group income generating activities 4.23 .75 Liking for the members 4.10 1.23 The group acts as a platform for discussing other issues such as 4.04 1.16 education, health, politics or other welfare services The group acts as a platform to save money that is inter-lend 3.96 1.25 among members(merry go round)

Note: a = 1= not at all, 2= very little, 3= somewhat, 4 = great extent, 5 = very great extent

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Application of BHFP SD = .21), “I prevent the damaging of The concept of BHFP evolved produce due to rough handling” (M = 4.96, recently because of an immense concern SD = .28), were the top three practices about the safety and quality of food as well adopted by producers in farmer groups. “I as the ecological sustainability of harvest the produce at the right weather horticultural production. BHFP application conditions” (M = 4.46, SD = .79), “I protect helps farmers to produce safe and healthy the fresh produce from any form of food (Oyinlola, Obadina, Omemu, & contamination (dust or rain or sunburn)” (M Oyewole, 2016). The study revealed (Table = 4.46, SD = .76), and “I use clean 3) that among the practices “I prevent containers for harvesting” (M = 4.46, SD = overfilling of produce in the harvesting .76), were the most applied practices among containers” (M = 4.98, SD = .13), “I use the non-group farmers. clean containers for harvesting” (M = 4.97,

Table 3 Comparison between Farmer Group and Non-Group Members based on Application of BHFP Practicesa Group Non-group farmers farmers (n=112) (n=112) M SD M SD Production hygiene My toilet is not situated near a source of irrigation 4.96 .25 4.32 1.07 I avoid production of horticultural crops near potential 4.88 .42 4.38 .98 harmful substances I apply the right amount of organic manure using 4.87 .49 4.35 .85 appropriate methods I consider animals vehicles for contamination with 4.85 .62 3.88 1.02 pathogenic organisms I apply the right amount of inorganic fertilizers using 4.80 .72 4.47 .63 appropriate methods I prevent the build-up of pests by crop rotation or 4.72 .65 3.84 1.03 biological or integrated control methods I maintain soil cover to minimize soil erosion losses by 4.41 .82 3.89 1.04 wind or water

Harvesting hygiene I prevent overfilling of produce in the harvesting containers 4.98 .13 4.40 .91 I use clean containers for harvesting 4.97 .21 4.46 .76 I prevent the damaging of produce due to rough handling 4.96 .28 4.31 .84 I harvest crops using the correct maturity index 4.93 .31 4.08 .82 I harvest crops using appropriate techniques 4.81 .66 4.32 .83 I use clean clothes and gloves when harvesting 4.54 .88 3.89 1.24 I harvest the produce at the right weather conditions 3.83 1.26 4.46 .79

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Post-harvest hygiene I clean the areas for storing fresh horticultural crops before 4.89 .49 4.18 .77 harvest I protect the fresh produce from any form of contamination 4.83 .57 4.46 .76 (dust or rain or sunburn)

Note. a = 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = occasionally, 4 = frequently, 5 = always

The mean scores for non-group scored between 65 and 73. The BHFP members were smaller than farmer groups' application scores for farmer groups’ members. This means that the level of farmers ranged between 49 to 80 out of a application of BHFP was lower than their possible score of 80 (M = 76.49, SD = 4.78) counterparts in groups. The standard whereas those of non-groups’ farmers deviation for the non-group farmers was ranged from 38 to 80 (M = 67.71, SD = greater than those of farmer group members 8.57). This shows that the average implying a higher variation in the application score of group farmers was application of BHFP among non-group higher than non-group farmers implying that farmers. Research has shown that farmer the application of BHFP was higher in groups facilitate the adoption of agricultural farmer groups. technologies because they can lower transaction costs, enhance the exchange of Group Membership & the Application of information, and lower farmers’ risk Horticultural Practices aversion toward new techniques and income The second objective sought to shocks through a shared risk management determine the association between group (Hogeland, 2006; Shiferaw et al., 2011). membership and application of BHFP. Table 4 indicates various ways in which farmer BHFP Application Scores group membership benefits horticultural An application score for each production. According to the farmers, the individual farmer was computed using the groups helped in negotiating legally Likert type scale items in Table 2. The index enforceable supply contracts with exporters involved 16 horticultural practices and each or processors (M = 4.21, SD = .50), was worth five points based on a five-point improving members’ access to agricultural Likert-type scale, thus the total score for the technologies such as improved crop varieties 16 practices was 80 points. Figure 1 presents (M = 4.17, SD =.55), sourcing less the BHFP application score for group and expensive inputs (M = 4.16, SD =.51), and non-group farmers. The majority of farmers accessing knowledge on productivity- (97) who belonged to farmer groups enhancing risk-reducing management received a score of between 74 and 80 practices (M = 4.15, SD =.67). whereas most of the non-groups members

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120 97 100 80 Group farmers 60 47 Non-group farmers 40 33 21 20 7 11 0 4 1 3 0 38 - 46 47 - 55 56 - 64 65 -73 74 - 80

Figure 1. Distribution of Farmers Based on BHFP Application Score (N=224).

Meiguran, Nyangau and Basweti, facilitating collective production activities (2016) observed that membership in an (M = 4.09, SD =1.21), identifying market association positively influences farmer’s opportunities (M = 3.88, SD =1.16), decisions in agriculture as it enables farmers improving access to banking services such to access credit facilities using their as saving, loans and other forms of credit (M collective produce as collateral. Farmers = 3.76, SD =1.33) and understanding how also pointed out that groups helped them in prices are determined (M = 3.48, SD =1.48).

Table 4 Benefits of Group Membershipa on Horticultural Production (n = 112) Itemsa M SD Help farmers to enter into legally enforceable supply contracts with 4.21 .50 exporter or processor My group helps in improving members access to new farming 4.17 .55 techniques and appropriate farm inputs Help farmers to source for inputs more cheaply 4.16 .51 Help group members in accessing know-how on productivity- 4.15 .67 enhancing risk-reducing management practices It facilitates collective production activities 4.09 1.21 Helps group members in identifying market opportunities 3.88 1.16 Helps in improving access to financial services (saving, loans and 3.76 1.33 other forms of credit) Helps farmers in understanding how prices are determined 3.48 1.48 Note. 1= strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3= neither agree or disagree 4=agree, 5= strongly agree

A point-biserial correlation was run and application of BHFP. There was a to determine the relationship. Table 5 shows positive substantial (Davis, 1971) the correlation between group membership correlation between group membership and

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application of BHFP, which was statistically researchers who found a positive association significant (rpb = .50, N = 224, p < .01). This between group membership and implies that farmers in groups applied BHFP technological uptake (Nwakwo, Peters & more than those who were not members. Bolkemann 2009; Odomenem & Obinne These findings are in line with those of other 2010).

Table 5 Correlation between Group Membership and Application of BHFP

Variable 1 2

1. Group membershipa - .50

2. Application of BHFPb .50 - Note. a= scale of 0= No, 1= Yes; b = scale of 1-80, p <.01

Discriminant analysis was used to membership was explained by production, test the hypothesis that smallholder harvesting and post-harvest hygienic BHFP. horticultural farmers belonging to producer Structure coefficients show the groups and those who did not, differed correlations of each variable with each significantly on a linear combination of discriminant function. There was only one three variables; production, harvesting and discriminant function in this study since post-harvest hygienic practice application there were only two groups. The correlations levels. As presented in Table 6 discriminant function like factor loadings in factor function analysis revealed that Wilks’ analysis by identifying the largest absolute lambda was statistically significant, λ = .47, correlations associated with the discriminant χ2 (16) = 162.63, p = <.05, R2 = .53. Wilks’ function. The coefficients were interpreted lambda is the proportion of the total based on the rule that they are considered variance in the discriminant scores not meaningful if they are greater than .3 (Hair, explained by differences among groups. A Babin, Money, & Samouel, 2005). The lambda of 1.00 occurs when observed group correlations between variables and means are equal while a small lambda discriminant function showed that the indicates that group means appear to differ. variable “I consider animals vehicles for The analysis revealed a lambda of .47 at p contamination with pathogenic organisms” <.05, implying that the group means differed reported the highest loading fairly well (.53). significantly. It also implied that 47% of the The structure coefficients ranged from .24 to variance in group membership was .53. A majority of the variables were unexplained. The analysis yielded a large considered meaningful. This shows that they Eigenvalue of 1.14 which indicates that the moderately correlated with the first function discriminant function can explain 1.14 times (Davis, 1971). Out of the 16 variables, only of the variance in group membership; a two were not meaningful. These were “I higher eigenvalue explains a strong function. apply the right amount of inorganic Since there is only one function, 100% of fertilizers using appropriate methods (.24)” the variance is accounted by this function. and “I harvest the produce at the right The squared canonical correlation was .53, weather conditions (.27).” This implies that indicating that 53% of the variance in group the two variables had a low association with the discriminant function.

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The standardized discriminant meaning that variables in that function with function coefficients in Table 6 serve the a coefficient of more than .25 were same purpose as the standardized beta in considered in the discriminant function. regression. They indicate the relative These included applying the right amount of importance of the independent variables in organic manure (-.47), considering animals predicting group membership (Field, 2013). vehicles for contamination with pathogenic Coefficients with large absolute values organisms (.47), preventing build-up of correspond to variables with greater pests (.31), maintaining soil cover (-.31), discriminating ability. The standardized harvesting crops using the correct maturity coefficients were interpreted based on the index (.28), harvesting the produce at the rule that the coefficient whose absolute right weather conditions (.50) and protecting value is not less than one-half of the largest fresh produce from contamination (.27). value is considered in the discriminant This shows that harvesting the produce at function (Hair, et al., 2005). The highest the right weather conditions emerged as the coefficient was .50 (divided by 2 =.25) most important BHFP.

Table 6 Production, Harvesting, and Post-Harvest BHFP in Discriminant Function Analysis (N= 224) Practicesa Structure Standardized Matrix Canonical Coefficient Production hygiene Function 1 My toilet is not situated near a source of irrigation .39 .19 I avoid production of horticultural crops near potential harmful .31 .07 substances I apply the right amount of organic manure using appropriate .36 -.47 methods I consider animals vehicles for contamination with pathogenic .53 .47 organisms I apply the right amount of inorganic fertilizers using appropriate .24 -.11 methods I prevent the build-up of pests by crop rotation or biological or .48 .31 integrated control methods I maintain soil cover to minimize soil erosion losses by wind or .26 -.31 water Harvesting hygiene I prevent overfilling of produce in the harvesting containers .43 .16 I use clean containers for harvesting .43 .24 I prevent the damaging of produce due to rough handling .49 -.01 I harvest crops using the correct maturity index .48 .28 I harvest crops using appropriate techniques .46 .20 I use clean clothes and gloves when harvesting .44 .20 I harvest the produce at the right weather conditions .27 .50

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Post-harvest hygiene I clean the areas for storing fresh horticultural crops before .33 -.03 harvest I protect the fresh produce from any form of contamination (dust .45 .27 or rain or sunburn) Wilks’ lambda Eigenvalue % Canonical Variance Correlation Function λ χ2 df p

1 .47 162.63 16 <.05 1.14 100 .73 Note. a = 1 = never, 2 = rarely, 3 = occasionally, 4 = frequently, 5 = always scores on application of BFHP and the two The group centroids are the mean functions at the group centroids. More than discriminant score for each variable in the 80% were classified correctly. two groups (Field, 2013). The group Reclassification of cases based on the new centroids were equal in absolute value but canonical variables was highly successful: have opposite signs (non-group = -1.06 and 86.2% of the cases were correctly group = 1.06). Table 7 indicates the reclassified into their original categories. classification of farmers based on their

Table 7 Classification Analysis for Application of BHFP among Non-Group and Group Farmers (N=224) b Group Membershipa Predicted Group Membership Non-Group Group Non-Group Count 90 22 % 80.4 19.6 Group Count 9 103 % 8.0 92.0 Group centroids -1.06 1.06 Note. a = 1= non- group farmers, 2= group farmers; b = 86.2% of original grouped cases correctly classified

Conclusions & Recommendations services and formulation of strategies that Based on SLT contentions (Leeuwis, support agricultural advancement. The main 2004), farmers applied BHFP out of the reasons why smallholder farmers in Meru influence of other members in the group and County subscribed to horticultural groups in the process of trying to abide by the group included access to credit facilities from norms. Farmer groups are therefore an banks such as equity or other microfinance important factor in extension utilization and institutions, affordable farm inputs, can be a major tool for community-based extension services, managing risks involved extension (Davis, 2004). The findings of the in the production of horticultural crops, and study confirm the power of farmer groups as access to produce market (Bosc, et al., a tool for enhancing the utilization of BHFP. 2002). Farmer groups form an important route for The level of application of BHFP rallying producers around a common goal among farmers in the farmer groups was especially in the delivery of extension higher than non-group farmers (Franzel,

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Wambugu & Tuwei, 2003). This is because the causative relationship between group group membership had a significant membership and application of BHFP. association with the application of BHFP. Group membership enhanced the application References of BHFP by improving access to agricultural Aliguma, L., Magala, D., & Lwasa, S. technologies (Davis, et al., 2004), enabling (2007). Uganda: Connecting small- sourcing of less expensive inputs and scale producersto markets: The case accessing knowledge on productivity- of the Nyabyumba United Farmers enhancing risk-reducing management Group in Kabale district, practices. Additionally, membership Regoverning Markets Innovative facilitates collective production activities, Practice series. London: IIED. identification market opportunities, Asfaw, S. M. (2010). What impact are EU improving access to financial services such supermarket standards having on as saving, loans and other forms of credit developing countries' export of high- and understanding how prices are value horticultural products? determined. Among the BHFP, the practice Evidence from Kenya. Journal of of keeping animals off the farm was International Food & Agribusiness considered the most meaningful. Animals Marketing, 22, 3- 4. can act as vehicles for contamination of doi:10.1080/08974431003641398 produce with pathogenic organisms. Bartlett, J., Kotrlik, J., & Higgins, C. (2001). The promotion of farmer groups' Organizational Research: formation may be an avenue of enhancing Determining appropriate sample size the dissemination and application of best in survey research. Information horticultural practices. Government Technology, Learning, and extension agencies and other stakeholders Performance Journal, 19(1), 43-50. also need to commit more resources towards Bosc, P., Eychenne, M., Hussen, K., Losch, strengthening and growth of farmer groups B., Mercoiret, M., Rondot, R., & to maximize horticultural production, Walker, S. (2002). The role of rural optimize production costs and stabilize producer organizations in the World farmer prices (Davis, et al., 2004). Farmer Bank rural development strategy. groups help smallholder farmers to enter Washington, DC: World Bank. into legally enforceable supply contracts Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis with exporters and/or processors thus their for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). promotion would also boost smallholder Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. farmers bargaining power and farmers Davis, J. A. (1971). Elementary survey access to credit facilities (Shiferaw, et al., analysis. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: 2009). A replication of this study in other Prentice–Hall. countries in East Africa such as Uganda Davis, K. E. (2004). Technology where farming is done under similar dissemination among small-scale conditions would be instrumental in farmers in Meru Central District ascertaining the study results. Such evidence Kenya: Impact of group is important not only to smallholder farmers participation (Doctoral dissertation). but also to the government for guiding Retrieved from agricultural policy reforms. An ex post http://etd.fcla.edu/UF/UFE0006340/ facto research can be conducted to find out davis_k.pdf

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Davis, K., Franzel, S., Hildebrand, P., Irani, IFPRI. (2012). Farmer groups, input access, T., & Place, N. (2004). Extending and intragroup dynamics: A case technologies among small-scale study of targeted subsidies in farmers in Meru, Kenya: Ingredients Nigeria. Washington, D.C: for success in farmer groups. Journal International Food Policy Research of Agricultural Education and Institute (IFPRI). Extension, 10(2), 53–62. ISEAL Alliance. (2008) Kenya and the doi:10.1080/13892240485300101 KenyaGAP standards for GOOD FAO. (2010). Good Agricultural Practices Agricultural Practice. London: (GAP) on horticultural production ISEAL Alliance for extension staff in Tanzania: Jaffee, S. (2003). From challenge to Training manual. Rome: Food and opportunity: transforming kenyan Agricultural Organization of the fresh vegetable trade in the context United Nations. of emerging food safety and other Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using standards. Agricultural and Rural SPSS: IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). Development Working Paper No. 2. London: Sage. Washington, DC: World Bank. Franzel, S., Wambugu, C., & Tuwei, P. Jaffee, S., & Masakure, O. (2005). Strategic (2003). The adoption and use of private standards to enhance dissemination of fodder shrubs in international competitiveness: central Kenya. Agricultural Vegetable exports from Kenya and Research and Network Series Paper elsewhere. Food Policy, 30 (3), 316- No. 131. London: Overseas 333. Development Institute. doi:10.1016/j.foodpol.2005.05.009 George, D., & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Jaffee, S., Henson, S., & Diaz Rios, L. Windows step by step: A simple (2011). Making the grade: guide and reference. 11.0 update Smallholder farmers, emerging (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. standards, and development Hair, J. F., Babin, B., Money, A., & assistance programs in Africa. A Samouel, P. (2005). Fundamentos de research program synthesis. Métodos de Pesquisa Em Washington, DC: IBRD, World Administração. Porto Alegre: Bank. Bookman. Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. (2015). Henson, S., Masakure, O., & Boselie, D. Economic Survey, 2015. Nairobi: (2005). Private food safety and Government Printers. quality standards for fresh produce Kirui, O., & Njiraini, G. (2013). Impact of exporters: The case of Hortico collective action on the smallholder Agrisystems, Zimbabwe. Food agricultural commercialization and Policy, 30(4), 371–384. doi: incomes: Experiences from Kenya. 10.1016/j.foodpol.2005.06.002 Paper prepared for the 4th Howell, D. C. (2004). Fundamental Conference of AAAE (pp. 1-12). Statistics for the Behavioral Hammamet, Tunisia: African Sciences. Pacific Grove: Duxbury Association of Agricultural Press. Economists.

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Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Journal of Sociology and Experience as the Source of Anthropology, 1(4), 070-076. Learning and Development. Ongeri, O. (2014). Small scale horticultural Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice- farming along the Kenyan Highways Hall, Inc. and local economic development: Leeuwis, C. (2003). Communication for Exploring the effect of factor prices. rural Innovations: Rethinking International Review of Research in agricultural extension (3rd ed.). Emerging Markets and the Global Garsington, Oxford, U.K: Blackwell Economy (IRREM), 1(3), 102-119. Science Ltd. Oyinlola, L., Obadina, A., Omemu, A., & Loevinsohn, M., Mugarura, J., & Nkusi, J. Oyewole, O. (2016). Prevention of (1994). Cooperation and innovation microbial hazard on fresh-cut lettuce by farmers groups: scale in the through adoption of food safety and development of Rwandan Valley hygienic practices by lettuce farmers. farming systems. Agricultural Food Science and Nutrition, 5(1), Systems, 46(2), 141–155. 67-75. doi:10.1002/fsn3.365 doi:10.1016/0308-521X(94)90094-V Penunia, E. A. (2011). The role of farmers’ Meiguran, M., Nyangau, T., & Basweti, E. organizations in empowering and (2016). Influence of farmer group promoting the leadership of rural membership on the practice of women. Philippines: Asian Farmers improved agricultural technologies: Association for Sustainable Rural A Case of Nyamusi Division, Development (AFA). Nyamira County Kenya. Prager, K., & Creany, R. (2017). Achieving International Journal of Recent on farm practice change through Research in Life Sciences, 3(2), 25- facilitated group learning: Evaluating 34. the effectiveness of monitor farms Meru County. (2014). The Report Meru and discussion groups. Journal of County 2014, Kenya. Nairobi: Rural Studies, 56, 1- 11. Oxford Business Group. Shiferaw, B., Hellin, J., & Muricho, G. Narrod, C., Gulati, A., Minot, N., & (2011). Improving market access and Delgado, C. (2005). Food Safety agricultural productivity growth in Research Priorities for the CGIAR. . Africa: what role for producer Washington, DC: IFPRI. organizations and collective action Nwakwo, U. M., Peters, K. J., & institutions? Food Security, 3(4), Bolkemann, W. (2009). Can 475–489. doi:10.1007/s12571-011- cooperative membership and 0153-0 participation affect adoption Shiferaw, B., Obare, G., Muricho, G., & decisions? Issues for sustainable Silim, S. (2008). Leveraging biotechnology dissemination. institutions for collective action to AgroBio Forum, 12 (3 & 4), 437– improve markets for smallholder 451. producers in less-favored areas. Ofuoku, A., & Urang, E. (2009). Effect of African Journal of Agricultural and cohesion on loan repayment in Resource Economics, 3(1), 1-18. farmers’ cooperative Societies in SoftKenya. (2018, May Thursday). Delta state, Nigeria. International Horticulture Farming in Kenya. Retrieved from Softkenya.com:

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https://softkenya.com/kenya/horticult ure-in-kenya Tabachnick, B. G., & Fidell, L. S. (2001). Using Multivariate Statistics (4th ed.). Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon. World Bank . (2011). Making the trade: Smallholder farmers, emerging standards, and development assistance programs in Africa. Washington, DC: World Bank. Zoss, M., & Pletziger, S. (2007). Linking African vegetable smallholders to high value markets: Potentials and constraints in smallholders’ integration into GLOBALGAP- certified and/or domestic African high-value supply-chains. Paper presented at the International Agricultural Research for Development Conference. Witzenhausen, Germany: University of Kassel-Witzenhausen.

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26208

Using an International Experience to Bridge the Gap Between Culture and Science Literacy

Nathan Conner Jeanette Milius University of Nebraska – Lincoln

Christopher T. Stripling University of Tennessee

Jamie Loizzo University of Florida

Debi Doerr University of Nebraska – Lincoln

Abstract Today’s agricultural industry is charged with feeding a growing population, which means producing larger quantities of food and marketing the food worldwide. Future employers seek graduates that have global perspectives. To mitigate students’ lack of international knowledge, many higher education institutions are providing students an opportunity to participate in study abroad programs. The purpose of this study was to explore how an international experience in South Africa impacted participants’ perceptions of South African culture, global agriculture, and science. Seven reoccurring themes emerged from the data: a) adaptability (preexperience), b) enhanced communication skills (both pre and post experience), c) an attainment of diverse/broadened academic agricultural knowledge (both pre and post experience), d) risk taking (postexperience), e) intercultural competency and global awareness (both pre and post experience), f) critical thinking skills (postexperience), and g) career enhancement (postexperience). Findings indicate an international experience should integrate cultural learning, academic learning, and should be applied to the participant’s future career.

Keywords: international experiences; science literacy; cultural learning; study abroad

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Introduction & Literature Review (Kidwai, 2011). As noted by Moore, Boyd, Agriculture and food production are Rosser, and Elbert (2009), graduates with global enterprises that create a need and international experience are a critical responsibility for colleges to prepare component of the United States students for an increasingly diverse and competitiveness in a global marketplace. global workplace (Ekiri, Aceng, Khaitas, Unfortunately, many undergraduates lack Ejobi, & Kabasa, 2013; Gibson, et al., 2015; knowledge that will assist them in a Malloy & Davis, 2012; VanDerZanden & globalized world (Wingenbach et al., 2003). Iles, 2013; Zhai & Scheer, 2002). National This is especially true of agricultural boundaries have lost their significance as students who will be compelled to find increased travel, communication, efficient and effective means to feed the investment, and trade have proliferated in growing population. In order for agricultural the global community (Chieffo & Griffiths, students to meet these challenges, those 2004). According to the Food and serving in agricultural education will also Agriculture Organization of the United become accountable in preparing agriculture Nations (FAO), today’s agricultural industry students with knowledge of the global is charged with feeding a growing workplace. Colleges of agriculture are population (2009). In order to sustain a primed to prepare globally competent growing population the agricultural industry graduates (Heinert and Roberts ,2016). must produce larger quantities of food and To mitigate students’ lack of market the food worldwide (Heinert & international knowledge, many higher Roberts, 2016). Population growth compels education institutions are providing students the agricultural community to recognize an opportunity to participate in study abroad complexities related to growing adequate programs (SAP). SAPs are defined by amounts of food and marketing products to a Alexis, Casco, Martin, and Zhang (2017) as global community (Heinert & Roberts, “either short-term or long-term education 2016). programs that occur outside the The National Research Council geographical boundaries of the students’ (2009) acknowledged the importance of country of origin” (p. 249). SAPs offer purposefully preparing university students to students a unique opportunity to gain cross- engage in a globalized world and to be cultural experiences and awareness, along prepared to engage in agriculture that uses with transforming their worldview. Harrell, basic and applied science. Future employers Sterner, Alter, and Lonie (2017) posited that seek graduates that have both global challenging students to stretch their perspectives and related competencies. viewpoints is critical when thinking on a Bruening and Shao (2005) stated, “today global level. Specifically, agricultural SAP one in six U.S. jobs is directly tied to experiences can provide participants an international trade” (p. 48). LeCrom, opportunity to compare their current Greenhalgh, and Dwyer (2015) added, “few knowledge about agriculture and related would deny the importance of being globally science to what they experience in another minded in today’s marketplace” (p. 65). country. This new awareness has the Experiences outside the students’ home potential to break down barriers of country are invaluable learning opportunities agricultural ethnocentrism or biases that develop, integrate, and enhance skills participants may have had in regard to how necessary to succeed in both their others produce food products. educational and future work and career paths

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A growing number of institutions are Tobert, Conroy, & Dailey, 2000). SAP recognizing the positive effects international experiences also provide participants “a experiences have on graduates entering the wider range of opportunities for relevant, global workplace (Smith, Smith, Robbins, experiential learning, including hands-on Eash, & Walker, 2013). When considering and/or project based work situated in global study abroad as related to agriculture, context” (Jesiek, Haller, & Thompson, 2014, Malloy and Davis (2012) stated, “it was now p. 2). time to ask how agricultural colleges could SAPs also provide students an participate in the internationalization of opportunity for acculturation and cultural education through study abroad learning from immersion and direct opportunities” (p. 24). Today’s scientific interaction with individuals in the host community is connected at a global level country (Akli, 2013). This is especially true (Alexis, Casco, Martin, & Zhang, 2017) and when students are ‘mindful’ of their there is a felt need for individuals to be experience. Akli (2013) noted that through respectful in relation to culture, economics, mindfulness, students will distance and politics (Dwyer & Peters, 2004). themselves from ethnocentrism, a state Study abroad experiences are gaining where they only see the world from their interest as the United States continues to native perspective. Students will then have expand global horizons. Organizations such the ability to form new perceptions of as the Institute of International Education cultural pluralism and form multiple (IIE) and the International Education of viewpoints (Alklu, 2013). Students (IES) have collected data that Technology has allowed for provides supporting evidence in regard to innovative approaches to be used to help the benefits of students’ participation in find ways of feeding a growing global educational SAPs (Dwyers & Peters, 2004). population. The ability to efficiently use As noted by Zhai and Scheer (2002), SAPs natural resources and market products are in the spotlight as the primary method globally creates economic gains for both the used to expose students to global consumer and producer (Lambin & competencies. Agriculture is one area where Meyfroidt, 2011). As concerns for the ability a significant global interaction occurs. The to feed the world continue to grow, scientific ability to specialize and trade what a knowledge in regard to efficient and particular geographical area produces most effective agricultural production and efficiently and effectively is of primary practices becomes invaluable. Chiasson and importance from both an agricultural and Burnett (2001) found “agriscience programs economic perspective. Worldwide educate students to achieve in diverse areas connectivity necessitates those involved in that are very practical for dealing with the agriculture to broaden their knowledge and challenges of today’s world” (p. 62). understanding beyond their domicile. Agricultural careers have expanded to Participation in a study abroad program is include many different careers and the one way to enhance what is taught in the knowledge and skill taught in agricultural classroom. SAPs provide students an courses can be easily transferred to various opportunity to interact first-hand with those careers (Chiasson & Burnett, 2001). As engaged in agriculture at the host site. First- agriculture continues to become less labor hand experiences provide deeper intense, technologically advanced, and more appreciation and learning as a result of being globally connected, opportunities for college part of the activity (Kidwai, 2011; Shelley-

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graduates with international experience will 1. Describe how the participants’ proliferate (Harder et al., 2015). perceptions of South African culture, global agriculture, and science Theoretical Framework changed throughout the short-term The theoretical framework guiding study abroad program; this study was Ajzen’s (1985) theory of 2. Describe how the participants’ will planned behavior. Ajzen’s theory of planned use their new knowledge in their behavior (TPB) posits that an individual’s future careers. behavior is directly driven by the individual’s intention to engage in the Methods behavior and can be used to predict and A qualitative method allows for a explain behavior as applied to particular holistic approach in which words and contexts. TPB includes three presiding feelings can be analyzed (Creswell, 1998). factors of influence: (1) attitude toward the Merriam’s (2002) basic interpretive behavior; (2) subjective norms; and (3) approach was used because it allowed perceived behavioral control. A central researchers to explore a phenomenon. As component of TPB is a person’s intention to noted in Merriam and Tisdale (2016), “a complete a given behavior (Ajzen, 1991). central characteristic to all qualitative Intentions are motivators that propel an research is that individuals construct reality individual either to engage in the behavior in interaction with their social worlds” (p. or not to engage in the behavior. However, 24). Merriam and Tisdale (2016) also for the action of engagement to occur, posited that the use of a basic qualitative factors such as having the opportunity and study is most useful when the research is resources are primary variables. Perceptions interested in “(1) how people interpret their of behavioral control (ability to achieve experiences, (2) how they construct their desired outcome) and behavior intention worlds, and (3) what meaning they attribute (motivation to engage or not to engage in the to their experiences” (p. 24). These three activity) are predictors of behavioral attributes were principle components of achievement (Ajzen, 1991). As noted by interest in this research study; therefore, a Ajzen (1991), self-efficacy (confidence in basic qualitative approach was used for this one’s self) is compatible with TPB. Ajzen study. Additionally, qualitative data (1991) stated, “the theory of planned collected from open-ended questions behavior places the construct of self-efficacy administered prior to and upon completion belief or perceived behavioral control within of the SAP, along with reflective journals, a more general framework of the relations allowed students to contextualize their among beliefs, attitudes, intentions, and experience and articulate personal growth behavior” (p. 184). from their SAP. This data collection approach provides rich, detailed insight from Purpose & Objectives the students’ viewpoint. The study is The purpose of this study was to bounded by the use of specific participants explore how an international experience in and their experiences from this SAP; South Africa impacted participants’ therefore, a case study approach has been perceptions of South African culture, global utilized to explore the phenomenon of agriculture, and science. More specifically, interest. As noted by Yin (2014), “a case the objectives of this study were to: study allows investigators to focus on a “case” and retain a holistic and real-world

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perspective” (p. 4). Case studies are South Africa in January of 2016. The particularly applicable when the research is participants traveled first to Virginia where an investigation that is a contemporary they connected with other State Officers phenomenon of a real-world context where from across the United States and then the phenomenon of interest fails to contain a traveled as a group to South Africa. Class boundary (delineation) between the context sessions were conducted prior to the and phenomenon (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016; international experience and after the Yin, 2014). international experience. In agreement with Koro-Ljungberg, Yendol-Hoppey, Smith, and Hayes (2009), Data Collection & Analysis constructivism was the theoretical As previously noted, participants of perspective. A constructionist epistemology this experience were asked to complete both is appropriate for this study due to the pre and post experience questions and daily researchers’ purpose of finding meaning journal reflection entries pertaining to their constructed by the individual, where individual perceptions of each day. multiple realities exist (Crotty, 2004). Information obtained from preexperience Furthermore, the researchers would like to questions focused on background disclose their interest in globalizing information such as hometown, high school educational programs and communicating agriculture experiences, career science in order to acknowledge potential goals/aspirations, personal culture and any bias of this study. All researchers bring bias prior ‘other’ cultural experiences they may into their research (Creswell, 2013). We are have engaged in. Participants were also aware of our direct contact with the asked to theorize on what they might gain participants and their future educational from this SAP, what prior knowledge they outcomes, requiring them to be cognizant of already possessed about South Africa, and any potential biases. Trustworthiness and what they might expect to see in their host validity of findings were established by country in regard to differences in triangulation of data collection (pre and post technology, agriculture, and scientific experience questionnaires, in addition to innovation/advancements. Participants daily reflective journals). Dual researchers concluded with their projections of how they reading and coding the open-ended expected this experience to benefit them questions and the reflective journals both personally and professionally. enhanced credibility. Upon returning to the United States, participants completed postexperience Participants & Study Course questions. The postexperience questions Participants were purposefully included probes in regard to cultural selected based on their participation in the diversity and perceptions of agriculture as International Leadership Seminar for State related to host country versus home country Officers (ILSSO) and their enrollment at the in aspects such as technology, agriculture, University of Nebraska-Lincoln in a course and scientific innovation/advancements. designed to enhance their international Students were also asked to relate how their experience. Seven undergraduate students, SAP experience increased their knowledge, four male and three female, participated in skills, and understanding of the host country this study. All participants were Nebraska and how this experience can benefit them in FFA officers during the 2015/2016 school both their professional and personal lives in year. The ILSSO experience took place in the future.

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Participants also completed daily behavior. The eagerness and anticipation of reflective journal entries on their experience. adapting to a different culture aligns with The specific prompts that participants based Ajzen’s (1991) TPD. The participants their reflections on were as follows: clearly intended to adapt to the culture in 1. What did you learn in regards to culture, South Africa, which according to Ajzen global agriculture, and scientific (1985) an intention can be used to predict advancement within agriculture? and explain behaviors. Prior research 2. How will you use what you learned in indicated that participation in SAPs provides your future careers? students an opportunity to open their minds Initial data analysis was completed to different viewpoints and different cultures using thematic analysis. Specifically, the (Ayers, 1996; Hutchins, 1996; Garvey, block and file approach was used (Grbich, 1996; Kauffmann, Martin, Weaver, & 2007) to identify reoccurring words. Each Weaver, 1992; Burn, 1980; as cited in Zhai piece of data was viewed three times and & Scheer, 2002). Roberts, Conner, and reoccurring words were color coded to Jones (2013), posited that participation identify reoccurring themes. Each theme within another culture can result in the was given a name that aligned with the data. participant learning as much about their own Trustworthiness techniques (Lincoln & culture as what one may learn about the Guba, 1985) were used to enhance the other culture. P3 related the need to adjust quality of this study. Two data collection their learning to the setting, stating the methods, multiple researchers, and member following, “I adjusted socially by the way I checking by use of an outside reader were carried my conversations with natives. I had used to ensure triangulation and to enhance to really watch what I said and make sure credibility. Thick description of the themes that I wasn’t going to say anything aids in transferability (Dooley, 2007) and offensive.” Participants were amazed by the decisions of a methodological nature were cultural differences and P1 realized the recorded in a journal to ensure dependability significance of being willing to set aside and conformability. your differences and learn about culture that is unfamiliar. Cultural differences were also Findings evident to participants in regard to names of Six reoccurring themes emerged foods (P5 noted ‘chips’ meant French fries), from the data: a) adaptability, b) enhanced meal preparation (spices used in food) and communication skills, c) attainment of dining experiences (always a dessert and diverse/broadened academic agricultural beverage served as a part of the meal rather knowledge, d) risk taking, e) intercultural than an addition to the meal). P1, P4, and P7 competency, and f) global awareness and noted this is a culture that is inherently hard impact on future careers. working and has a high priority on family. Recognizing the participants initial intent to Adaptability adapt to the culture in South Africa explains Prior to South Africa, participants why the participants were able to exhibit the were eager to practice their adaptability (P1; behavior of adaptability and align with P3; P4; P5). P4 recognized there would be Ajzen’s (1985) TPD. an adjustment period upon arriving in South Africa and it would take some time to learn Enhanced Communication Skills how to adapt to a different way of living. P5 The need for enhanced looked forward to adapting to the communication skills emerged early on. P7 surroundings by consciously altering her

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realized that effective communication began students become more knowledgeable about with effective listening, which helped to other countries, their cultures, economy, and break communication barriers. P5 had roles in world affairs” (p. 40). Participants trouble communicating with individuals due valued learning about agricultural sciences to lack of common interests. Interaction in in South Africa. P5 was interested in the South Africa encouraged P5 to engage in biotech crops that are being grown in order conversations with complete strangers. P3 to increase yields in order to make stated the following in regard to engaging in agricultural production more sustainable. P1 conversations with another culture, “I perceived South African agricultural learned how to listen and learn about sciences to be developed in a way that somebody who comes from a different utilizes scientific advancements within culture.” The ability to listen to an production agriculture. However, there were individual allowed participants to determine other instances of where participants the subjective norms (Ajzen, 1985) that experienced undeveloped agricultural were prevalent in a particular region of practices too. P3 noted in their daily journal, South Africa. Smith et al. (2013) stated, “visiting the old shanty town was neat “students who study abroad exhibit personal because we could see how the agriculture and professional attributes that are critical to evolved with money, time, and different success in the 21st century workplace” (p. groups of people.” P7 noted in 13). In a study conducted by Zhai and postexperience answers, “the agriculture is Scheer (2004), findings concluded that much more diverse than I could have ever agricultural students acknowledge the imagined.” benefits of an international educational SAP programs provide students an experience as one that increased their opportunity to contextualize their learning. personal development and global Contextualized learning is described as “a competency. Acquiring a new appreciation set of strategies that provide a holistic for communication skills with individuals approach to instruction” (Shelley-Tolbert, outside the participants’ home country was Conroy, & Dailey, 2000, p. 52). SAPs can expressed by all seven of the SAP provide conduits between agriculture and participants. In addition, P2 stated, “if we STEM concerns in the United States. A are able to communicate with people in a number of research studies posited the different culture then it will make it easier to benefits of teaching science through communicate with people in our own agriculture (Chiasson & Burnett, 2001; culture.” Shelley-Tolbert, Conroy, & Dailey, 2000; Thompson & Schumacher, 1997). Attainment of Diverse/Broadened Balschweid (2001) agreed, stating, “research Academic Agricultural Knowledge findings have supported the claim that The ‘flattened’ world (Friedman, integration of science into agriculture 2006) has expanded trade and exchanges of curricula is a more effective way to teach technology, allowing businesses to position science” (p. 362). Additionally, according to themselves in many countries (Harder, et al., Chiasson and Burnett (2001), “today there 2015). Zhai and Scheer (2004) stated, “the are a few areas that one can examine to expansion of international trade and identify current links between education in economic competitiveness means that the the fields of science and agriculture to agriculture industry must operate on a global improve science literacy” (p. 63). Therefore, scale. Therefore, it is crucial that agriculture participation in SAPs where agriculture

112 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 students are mindful of not only agriculture, behaviors in culturally diverse situations. In but also science in agriculture, provides research conducted by Sutton and Rubin twofold learning from a single experience. (2004), participating in an SAP “adds value Participants realized that the agricultural to students’ academic achievements” (p. 77). sciences were embedded in South African Gibson et al. (2015) adds from Sutton and agriculture (P1; P2; P4; P5; P6). If SAP Rubin’s (2004) research that there were participants knowingly and purposefully “higher graduation rates, grade point learn about necessary overlap between averages and better cultural competencies agricultural production and science, than undergraduates who did not study according to TPD (Ajzen, 1985) the abroad” (p. 149). From their SAP participants would be likely to experience a experience, P4 noted an increased change in attitude or behavior within a confidence in their ability to increase particular context. involvement and interaction with others, Participants of this SAP were whether it is in social situations, student cognizant of technology and innovation, in organizations, community activities, or their addition to underdeveloped agriculture and future career. International experiences science practices in South Africa. P2, P3, appear to provide individuals with an P4, P5, P6, and P7 noted incredulity in the opportunity to amount of technology already existent in South Africa, while P7 noted many practices Intercultural Competency lagging in technological use. P7 summed it Research completed by Harrell et al. up in the following statement, “south Africa (2017) noted study abroad experiences is either 15 years behind in scientific benefit participants in a variety of innovation in the agricultural industry or 3 developmental processes such as gaining years ahead of the United States.” This knowledge about the country they visit, a refers to the noted advancements (P7) in potential to increase their foreign language regard to AI and other genetics in animal proficiency, an increased awareness of their husbandry, whereas in row crop applications own capabilities and beliefs, and an (overall use of machinery and mechanized increased understanding of intercultural harvesting) even though participants viewed competency. As a part of many study abroad use of major brands such as John Deere or experiences, students will gain not only Case, most machinery was older and manual knowledge of differences in people and labor was still evident. places, but often leave these experiences with knowledge in regard to themselves and Risk Taking their homeland. P1 noted in their pre- P1 and P6 looked forward to experience, “I want to understand first-hand experiences that would take them out of that people live life in a different culture of their comfort zone and force them to take my own.” Upon return, P1 noted, “I learned risks. P1 and P4 expressed how this not to make a big deal out of cultural experience required them to ‘step outside differences because they don’t define us as their comfort zone’. P4 wrote the following, people”. P2, in their daily reflective journal “I learned to face my fears, quietly make said, “I recognize today the amount of greed decisions, and how to analyze if I can trust Americans have and we have blinders on so someone with my life on short notice.” much of the time.” Participation in this SAP provided valuable Embedded in SAPs is the attainment knowledge in regard to appropriate of intercultural competence. Intercultural

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competence is comprised of three Global Awareness & Impact on Future dimensions: cognitive (possessing Careers information in regard to cultural issues), The value of global awareness is not affective (possession of open-mindedness to only valuable in regard to potential future new values and situations), and behavioral careers for today’s graduates, but also due to (use of culturally appropriate people skills) the changing demographics within the dimensions (Williams, 2009). The cognitive borders of the United States. Research has aspect of intercultural competence is shown that in the United States there is a espoused with the knowledge of cultural changing demographic, therefore today’s norms, behaviors, values, and beliefs of the majority may become the future’s minority country being visited. This dimension (Hempel, 2013; U.S. Census Bureau, 2012; requires the participants to be open and Zhai, 2000). P1, P3, P4, and P7 noted flexible to the attainment of new distinct lines of segregation still exist in perspectives and information. As noted by South Africa. P1, P3, P4, and P7 noted that P1, the work environment in South Africa from their observations Caucasian descent displayed a social atmosphere where was the minority and white individuals laborers were engaging in communication served as managers/supervisors, whereas with each other socially (slow paced and black individuals were the laborers. relatively relaxed), not just interacting on Not only can an international work related issues. P1 concluded by stating experience increase student sensitivity in this would be a work environment they regard to other cultures, but participants also would be happy to be employed in. attain valuable global competencies to be The affective attribute of used in their personal and professional lives intercultural competence refers to a (Chang, et al., 2013). As noted by P1, P2, participants’ flexibility in adapting to new P3, P4, P5, and P6, a new appreciation, situations and retaining an open-mind when understanding, and respect was realized for encountering new values. Every participant not only their host country, but also for (P1-P7) reflected that the South African his/her home country. P4 noted, “these people they came in contact with people [South Africans] have so little in demonstrated a happy and cheerful terms of material possessions compared to disposition, even those individuals living in us, yet they are truly joyful in every way. shanty towns. P1, P3, and P5 felt that even This comes from being grateful for what though poverty was evident in the shanty they have.” P1, P2, P4, P6, and P7 noted the town, the inhabitants demonstrated pride and friendliness, pride, and humble manner of contentment in what they possessed and the farmers and laborers they came in were willing to share what little they had contact with. In postexperience answers, P7 with visitors. Participants also realized that stated, “I believe I have a strong cultural differences would evoke various understanding of the global field of emotions. P1, P2 and P6 reflected on their agriculture, food, and natural resources in unease with street vendors and their South Africa”. P5 added, “I now have a persistence in selling goods to the them. much greater understanding of how the Participants noted this exposure required global export and trade markets work.” them to be aware and savvy when they Finally, P1 expressed their increased global encountered this street vendors selling understanding by stating, “After spending goods. time in South Africa, I understand that many places in the world use the same agricultural

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practices as we do here in the United globalized workplace” (p. 15). P7 stated, States”. “the quote of if there is a gap, there is an As stated by Bruening and Shao opportunity screams South Africa.” This (2005), “one in six jobs today is directly tied participant continued by reflecting on the to international trade” (p. 48). Not only is fact that while South Africa agriculture has there an importance of ensuring adequate evolved over time, there still exists potential supplies of food for a growing world for improvements. The participant population, but there also exists an continued, stating their desire to grow food importance of understanding and assisting science in this country as a part of their with food production systems in developing future career path. Exposure to a different countries. With increased urbanization, an culture and agricultural practices seemed to upsurge in world population, along with open up a new world for many of the lifestyle changes resulting in diverse food participants and allow them to increase their preferences, there becomes a necessity to self-efficacy and realize that there is still increase animal and crop production, room for behavioral change. While only P7 whereby increasing food security (Ekiri et noted their interest in working al., 2013; Harrell et al., 2017; Heinert & internationally in the future, P1, P4, and P6 Roberts, 2016). Zhai and Sheer (2002) noted communicated how this experience brought that as global food needs increase, new perspectives into their views on understanding agriculture in various agriculture, trade, cultural relationships, and contexts along with an awareness of communication that can be relayed to those international perspectives is imperative to in their future professional career fields. The alleviating concerns in regard to adequate entire international experience contributed to food supplies. In a study by Bruening and enhancement through knowledge of Frick (2004), it was noted there is a growing agricultural sciences, communication, and need for more agricultural students to culture (P1; P5). participate in SAP experiences in order to increase their cultural knowledge and global Conclusions & Recommendations contextual understanding. Additionally, by Many students entering agricultural combining cultural awareness with programs in higher education come from experiential learning as related to rural areas where exposure to different agricultural practices, students have the cultures and socioeconomic classes is ability to cultivate and develop higher-order limited. SAP experiences can bridge the gap thinking along with problem solving skills between prior limited experiences to future (Ekiri et al., 2013). Participants in this study pluralistic careers. Zhai and Scheer (2002) learned how to critically think about stated, “study abroad programs (SAPs) have situations and make quick decisions (P4, become the most visible and popular P5). P2 used critical thinking when making international activity to enrich and broaden judgments about South African and students’ global competency at college and American agricultural practices and when university campuses across the United thinking about what could be done to ensure States” (p. 23). They continue by stating that food is transported to people in need. how they possess a newfound confidence in As noted by Smith et al. (2013), improved employability as a result of this “increasingly institutions of higher learning experience. This is important as employers are recognizing the value of an international seek candidates who are able to contribute to experience to students’ preparation for the

115 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 a company’s’ economic global presence interact and collaborate with students from (Cranmer, 2006; Harder et al., 2015). other cultures. Interactions could take place The findings from this research on the home campus or interactions could be indicate an international experience can and facilitated online with students or should integrate cultural learning, be an professionals in other countries. academic learning experience focused on SAPs provide students an science that is essential in today’s global opportunity to become global citizens, agriculture industry, and should be a which is positive for all people (Akli 2013). learning experience that can be applied to In research conducted by Kidwai (2011), a the participant’s future career. In alignment participant noted, “I learned how narrow my with Ajzen’s (1991) assertation that perception of agriculture was” (p. 33). intention is the central component of TPB, Hillary Rodham Clinton, in her past role as participants went into this study abroad Secretary of State noted the importance and experience purposefully looking for new necessity of a globally educated citizenry experiences that would remove them from and appealed to American students to study their comfort zone and promote self-growth. outside the United States (Smith et al.). Participants went on the SAP with the According to the Food and Agriculture intention to change their mindset through Organization (FAO, 2009) the rapidly cultural experiences. However, it is growing population will lead to 70% of the important to note that cultural learning was people residing in urban settings. The rising intertwined with academic learning, which population will challenge agricultural focused on becoming more scientifically producers to provide adequate food for the literate within the agricultural sciences. world (FAO, 2009). The complexity of As interdependence and feeding the world makes it ever more interconnection between and within important to prepare students for a globally countries continues to evolve and develop, it connected world (FAO, 2009). Not only are becomes increasingly vital for agricultural colleges of agriculture positioned to make an students to engage in real-time experiences impact on students’ global competency, but both within and outside their domicile. This these experiences can also shape student is crucial for not only students as they perceptions and attitudes of globalization, prepare for their future career path, but also creating more globally minded individuals for the United States in order to remain who are workforce ready for the 21st competitive in the global economy and when century and beyond. University instructors working toward the challenge of feeding a should contact agricultural employers from growing world population. In agreement multiple countries to identify specific global with Smith et al. (2013) and Harrell et al. competencies that agricultural employers are (2017), as industry continues to expand looking for and expecting when hiring globally, universities must provide university graduates. undergraduates with education that prepares It should be noted that findings from them to effectively operate within other this case study may not be transferable to all cultures. University instructors should study abroad experiences. This case study purposefully examine their courses to contained a limited number of participants determine how the courses could be and only included one university and one modified to focus on global awareness and course. Additionally, outcomes resulting intercultural competency. Modifications from study abroad experiences continue to may include opportunities for students to gain interest in educational institutions. In

116 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 order to increase participant awareness, Alexis, F., Casco, M., Martin, J., & Zhang, completion of the Intercultural Development G. (2017). Cross-cultural and global Inventory may provide valuable information interdependency development in in regard to findings from their SAP STEM undergraduate students: experience. Results from Singapore study abroad The international sharing of program. Education, 137(3), 249- technology and resources is crucial to 256. concerns related to growing adequate Balschweid, M. A. (2001). Teaching biology amounts of food for the worlds’ increasing using agriculture as the context: population. As the interconnectedness of Perceptions of high school students. agriculture and science continues to evolve, Paper presented at the 28th Annual collaborative research related to American Association for international experiences can assist in Agricultural Education National creation of invaluable connections between Research Conference, New Orleans, technology and agriculture. LA. Future research should be conducted Black, H. T., & Duhon, D. L. (2006). to determine how intercultural competency Assessing the impact of business levels positively or negatively impacts the study abroad programs on cultural success of agricultural careers in the 21st awareness and personal century. Additional research identifying and development. Journal of Education expanding on the intercultural competencies for Business, 81(3), 140-144. needed for 21st century agricultural jobs will Bruening, T. H., & Frick, M. (2004). allow for SAPs to modify their programs to Globalizing the U.S. undergraduate better meet the needs of agricultural experience: A case study of the employers and students. Research should benefits of an international also be conducted to better understand the agriculture field-based course. barriers of participation in SAPs and how Journal of International Agricultural SAPs can be modified to enhance science and Extension Education, 11(1), 89- literacy through an agricultural context. 95. Bruening, T. H., & Shao, X. (2005). What References should be included in an Ajzen, I. (1985). From intentions to actions: international agriculture A theory of planned behavior. In J. undergraduate course? Journal of Kuhl & J. Beckmann (Eds.), Action- International Agricultural and control: From Cognition to Extension Education, 12(1), 47-54. Behavior. Heidelberg, Germany: Chang, C. W., Pratt, O., Bielecki, C., Springer. Balinas, M., McGucken, A., Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned Rutherford, T., & Wingenbach, G. behavior. Organizational Behavior (2013). Agriculture students’ and Human Decision Processes. 50, interest, preferences, barriers and 179-211. perceived benefits of international Akli, M. (2013). Study abroad and cultural educational experiences. NACTA learning through Fulbright and other Journal, 57(3a), 97-103. international scholarships: A holistic Chieffo, L., & Griffiths, L. (2004). Large- student development. Journal of scale assessment of student attitudes International Studies, 3(1), 1-9. after a short-term study abroad

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program. Frontiers: The Foreman, E. A. & Retallick, M. S. (2012). Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Undergraduate involvement in Abroad, 10, 165-177. extracurricular activities and Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry leadership development in College of and research design: Choosing Agriculture and Life Sciences among five approaches. Thousand students. Journal of Agricultural Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Education, 53(3), 111-123. Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry Friedman, T. L. (2006). The world is flat: A and research design: Choosing brief history of the 21st Century. New among five traditions. Thousand York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Gibson, K. D., Benjamin, T. J., Chapin, B. Crotty, M. (2004). The foundations of social R. K., Oseto, C. Y., Lucietto, A. M., research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage & Adams, M. M. (2015). Impact of a Publications. study abroad course on students from DiBenedetto, C. A., & Myers, B. E. (2016). 1862 and 1994 land-grant A conceptual model for the study of institutions. NACTA Journal, 59(2), student readiness in the 21st century. 149-154. NACTA Journal, 60(1a), 28-35. Grbich, C. (2007). Qualitative data analysis: Dooley, K. E. (2007). Viewing agricultural An introduction. Thousand Oaks, education research through a CA: Sage. qualitative lens. Journal of Harrell, A., Sterner, G., Alter, T. R., & Agricultural Education, 48(4), 32- Lonie, J. (2017). Student perceptions 42. doi: 10.5032/jae.2007.04032. of the impact of their diverse study Dwyer, M. M.(2004). More is better: The abroad experiences. NACTA Journal, impact of study abroad program 61(1), 56-65. duration. Frontiers: The Harder, A., Andenoro, A., Roberts, T. G., Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Stedman, N., Newberry, M. III, Abroad, 10, 151-163. Parker, S. J., & Rodriguez, M. T. Dwyer, M. M., & Peters, C. K. (2004). The (2015). NACTA Journal, 59(1), 41- benefits of study abroad: New study 47. confirms significant gains. Heinert, S. B., & Roberts, T. G. (2016). Transitions Abroad, 37(5), 56-58. Globalizing the undergraduate Ekiri, A.B., Aceng, L.F., Khaitsa, M.L., experience in agricultural leadership, Ejobi, F., & Kabasa, D. (2013). An education, extension, and international experiential learning communication. Journal of program: A study abroad experience Agricultural Education, 57(1), 42- in Uganda. NACTA Journal, 56(3), 55. doi: 10.5032/jae.2016.01042. 104-110. Hempel, M. (2013). The United States of Food and Agriculture Organization of the changing demographics. Policy & United Nations. (2009). How to feed Practice, 2, 24-27. the world in 2050. Retrieved from Jesiek, B. K., Haller, Y., & Thompson, J. http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templa (2014). Developing globally tes/wsfs/docs/expert_paper/How_to_ competent engineering researchers: Feed_the_World_in_2050.pdf Outcomes-based instructional and assessment strategies from the IREE 2010 China research abroad

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from https://www.census.gov/newsroom/r eleases/archives/population/cb12- 243.html VanDerZanden, A. M., & Iles, J. (2013). Helping students become global citizens: Successful study abroad programs in the Iowa State University Department of Horticulture. NACTA Journal, 57(3a), 51-55. Williams, T.R. (2009). The reflective model of intercultural competency: A multidimensional, qualitative approach to study abroad assessment. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 18, 289-306. Wingenbach, G., Boyd, B., Linder, J. R. Dick, S., Arispe, S., & Haba, S. (2003). Students’ knowledge and perceptions about international agricultural issues. Proceedings of the 19th Annual Conference of the Association for International and Agricultural and Extension Education, 703-712. Yin, R.K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Zhai, L., & Scheer, S. D. (2002). Influence of international study abroad programs on agricultural college students. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 9(3), 23-29. Zhai, L., & Scheer, S. D. (2004). Global perspectives and attitudes toward cultural diversity among summer agriculture students at the Ohio State University. Journal of Agricultural Education, 45(2), 39-51.

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26209

Exploring the Purpose of Agricultural Technical Schools in Haiti

M. Christelle Calixte T. Grady Roberts J. C. Bunch University of Florida

Abstract Haiti is a country which suffers from food insecurity, therefore, agricultural production and productivity are important to ensure availability of food for the Haitian population. Dissemination of best agricultural practices amongst farmers is crucial, and extension agents bring the scientific discoveries into the rural communities. In Haiti, extension activities are primarily conducted by graduates from agricultural TVETs. However, little is known about the current situation of Haitian TVET within the agricultural system. This study is a basic qualitative research which used constructivism, and backwards design as theoretical framework to explore the purpose of TVET within the Haitian agricultural system. Individual interviews to schools’ directors and teachers, and focus groups conducted with students revealed that respondents thought that TVET helped in students’ social mobility by (a) providing training to disadvantaged youth, (b) helping them get financial independence sooner, (c) provide a path towards higher education, or (d) entrepreneurship; it also allows them to build necessary (e) networking and (f) a reputation for their future. On the other hand, agricultural TVET in Haiti had an important role in improving local communities by (a) ensuring rural development and (b) reducing rural outmigration and poverty. Finally, TVET was also crucial within the agricultural extension system because graduates were responsible for (a) providing technical assistance to farmers, (b) improving production practices, (c) helping protect the environment, and (d) training farmers.

Keywords: Haiti; technical school; training

Funding: This study was made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under the cooperative agreement # AID-OAA-A-15-00039. The contents are the responsibility of authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

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Introduction in addition to general education, the study of Agriculture is an important activity technologies and related sciences and the because it produces food for human acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, consumption and allows for rural understanding and knowledge relating to development (Moehler, 1997). However, in occupation in various sectors of economic Latin America there are still many life.” This organization also acknowledges malnourished people, particularly in the the role of TVET in employment, Caribbean islands (FAO, IFAD, & WFP, sustainable development, and social justice 2015). Haiti’s situation is one of the most (UNESCO, 2017a). Despite the importance critical in the region, based on its alarming of TVETs in developing countries’ hunger index severity (von Grebmer et al., economy, it has still been reported that they 2016). Therefore, it is crucial to work on are highly unpopular, because they are ways to improve food security status in viewed as pertaining to a specific class of Haiti. Fuglie and Wang (2012) have found people, whom are not expected to enter the that the obstacles which countries have to higher education system for various reasons face for increased agricultural production (King, 1993). In Ghana, enrollment in public are linked to the access and implementation and private TVET have decreased, because of technologies. Extension can play a large graduated lower salaries, and it is perceived role in the technology diffusion. In Haiti, to be reserved for people with poor according to GFRAS (2017), graduates from academic performance (Darvas & Palmer, Technical and Vocational Education and 2014). In Latin America however, TVET Training (TVET) institutions perform most provides much needed training to youth with of the extension work. As operationally disadvantages (King, 1993). Another defined in this study, agricultural TVET complicating factor is the diversity of schools were the tertiary institutions TVETs, which emerges from whether or not providing diploma-level credentialing it is controlled by the state, the private sector leading to employment as agricultural or both (Koudahl, 2010) and the various technicians. Given this important role within types of institutions and outcomes of TVET, the agriculture sector in Haiti, understanding as well as the fact that it can be school-based these TVET institutions as a piece of the or at the post-secondary level (King, 1993). larger capacity building system which Agricultural TVET needs to address human ultimately has implications for the food capacity development, government funding, security situation in Haiti. As previously institutional networking, curriculum noted in the literature (Pierre, Calixte, modifications, and physical infrastructure Moore, Bunch, Koenig, Delva, & Roberts, (Rivera, 2006). However, depending on the 2018), There is very little empirical cultural aspects of TVET in a specific understanding of the Haitian agricultural country, many approaches may be education system. This study adds to the appropriate to ensure quality of TVET literature by providing a baseline (King, 1993). If the focus is put on human examination of a selected group of development, inequality, poverty and other agricultural TVET institutions. environmental and social issues, TVET can lead to sustainable development (McGrath Literature Review & Powell, 2016). UNESCO (2015) also The definition of TVET, according recognizes that TVET is holistic, in that to UNESCO (2017b, p. 1), is all “those beyond job skills, it provides character aspects of the educational process involving,

122 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 education such as positive values, understanding of a given phenomenon motivation, and entrepreneurial skills. (Crotty, 1998). Then, an individual’s Previous literature about the personal experiences in that social system agricultural TVET system in Haiti could not inform his or her personal understanding of be found. Recent research has begun to the phenomenon through social examine the agricultural universities in constructivism, which focuses on the social Haiti. Pierre et al. (2018) found that interactions in the learning processes for university faculty generally felt prepared for individuals (Bozkurt, 2017; Doolittle & their teaching roles. Albert, Roberts, and Camp, 1999; Powell & Kalina, 2009). Harder (2017b) examined how university Operationally, the social system was defined faculty viewed the importance of developing as agricultural technical schools in Haiti and extension competencies in their students. the individuals in the system were the school Faculty had mixed views on their roles in directors, teachers, and students. It was developing the competencies noted by assumed that the interactions between these GFRAS (Sulaiman & Davis, 2012). In a people informed each person’s beliefs, similar study, Pierre, Calixte, Moore, Bunch, which in turn informed the broader system and Roberts (2018) found faculty believed and vice versa. university students generally had the The second piece of our theoretical necessary set of competencies at graduation framework was informed by the concept of for employment, but were not competent in backwards design (Wiggins & McTighe, all the GFRAS competency areas. This 2001). As an instructional design approach, potentially means students were ill-prepared backwards design begins the process with to be frontline extensionists. This situation the end goal in mind (i.e. what should could be underlying some of the challenges students be able to do by the end of the note by Zeleya, Harder, and Roberts (2016) program). Curricula decisions are made who found that small-scale farmers had based on trying to achieve this end goal. challenges accessing information and Understanding the end-goal will then allow infrequently relied on extension for their a better understanding of all other aspects of information needs. Although interesting, this a given educational program. Operationally, research does not shed light on the tertiary- understanding the purpose of agricultural level, diploma-granting institutions. In terms technical schools in Haiti will allow for a of workforce development, the agricultural more systematic review of the institutions universities appear to have strengths and and identification of opportunities for weaknesses in meeting the needs of the improvement to the system. agricultural sector. It is, however, unknown Conceptually, the school directors about the roles which agricultural TVET (often founders of the schools), teachers, and schools play in the agricultural sector. This students (adult learners) entered the social study will seek to begin filling this gap. system (the agricultural technical schools) with their own ideas about the purpose of Theoretical Framework the schools. Through their interactions, a This study was designed and socially constructed purpose emerges, which implemented under a lens of social in turn has the potential to inform constructionism (Crotty, 1998). Under this management decisions of the directors, lens, the researchers assumed that the curriculum decisions of teachers, and career interactions between people in a social choices of students. All of this begins with system contribute to a collective

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an understanding of the purpose of these by school and teacher number, for example schools. 02-T1 was teacher 1 from school 2. Additionally, a focus group was conducted Purpose with nine students at each school to provide The goal of this study was to explore input from typical students (Miles, the purpose of Haitian agricultural TVET Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014). Results from schools. This was achieved by synthesizing focus groups were coded as FG-01, FG-02, beliefs of: (a) school directors, (b) teachers, etc. and (c) students. This knowledge can then School 04 presented a deviant case be used as a lens in which to further because it was affiliated with a university. examine these schools. Circumstances at school 04 allowed for only one student to be interviewed. All the Methodology directors and teachers interviewed were This study utilized a basic qualitative male. Most of them were young and study design (Ary, Cheser Jacobs, Sorensen, agronomists. Only three of them had a & Walker, 2012). Sampling, data collection, master’s degree and worked fulltime. Most and data analysis were informed by our of these teachers worked part-time in their theoretical framework. these schools and also had other teaching positions, technician positions, or managed Sample their own businesses. Most of the students The study sampling method was to were male (19 out of 28). They all came select all agricultural technical schools in the from rural communities and reported Ouest department of Haiti (Harding, 2013). familial activities to be mostly agriculture This resulted in four TVET schools. Three and commerce. The age range seemed to schools were located in Petit-Goave (schools include a wide group. Many had worked or 01, 02, and 03). One school was located in studied in a different field before entering Montrouis and affiliated with a university agriculture. (school 04). The schools were technical Data Collection institutions with an agriculture option, As noted previously, school directors except for school 04, which was a university and teachers were interviewed using semi- also offering bachelor’s degrees. School 03 structured interviews. Focus groups were included additional technical options (other conducted with students (although school 04 than just agriculture). The program of study only had one student, so the focus group lasted between two and three years, with a became a defacto interview). Interviews and credit system for school 04. School 03 focus groups were conducted in Creole. required a minimum entry level of 2e, while Interview guides were first written in 01 and 02 only demanded 3e; institution 04 English, and then translated into French and on the other hand required students to have Haitian Creole. Interviews and focus groups completed their philo (final year of were audio recorded (Yin, 2016) and secondary school). State recognition (INFP) occurred at participants’ home, office, or was awarded to only school 02. School 04 campus. The researcher also kept a journal was accredited as a university. to record observations, reactions, and The director and three teachers were methodological considerations. interviewed at each school. Directors were coded D01, D02, etc. Teachers were coded

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Data Analysis most teachers, and in the focus groups as Data were analyzed in Creole by the well, under various forms: (a) training and lead researcher directly from the audio education for the youth, (b) a step toward recordings (Green, Franquiz, & Dixon, higher education, (c) financial 1997). A constant comparative method with independence, (d) entrepreneurship, (e) open coding was used to identify initial networking, and (f) reputation. The director codes (Saldaña, 2016). Axial coding was D-02 explained the idea of social mobility then used to organize initial codes into clearly, when he said: “professional schools themes and sub themes (Saldaña, 2016). can start a future” or with teacher 01-T2 Results were translated to English after affirming that he is “preparing [his students] analysis was completed. Direct quotes were to replace him tomorrow and better face pulled from recordings and translated to life.” English to provide a voice to participants. Train the youth. Participants Rigor viewed these schools as improving the lives Multiple steps were undertaken to of youth. For nearly all the teachers, one ensure the rigor of this study. First, to ensure director, and in two of the focus groups, the trustworthiness in the data analysis, two role of technical schools was mentioned as a interviews were randomly selected and way to help the youth and provide them with reviewed by two peers not involved in this training that will allow them to get ahead in study who speak Haitian Creole to ensure life. It is also a way to help the country as a accuracy in the analysis (Creswell & Miller, whole through helping its youth’s future. 2000). Second, member checking was For teacher 01-T2, the objective of his accomplished by sending a summary of the teaching is to “prepare the students to help analysis to the school directors (Cho & themselves then to contribute to the Trent, 2006; Hoffart, 1991). Third, the development of the country” or as 01-T3 design of this study allowed for triangulation expressed “we want to train the youth for of data sources from (a) directors, (b) tomorrow, for the country.” Education is an students, and (c) teachers as well as data important gift to the youth because “in Haiti collection approaches of (a) interviews/focus the question of training in agriculture is groups, (b) field notes, and (c) observations problematic” (03-T1). During focus group (Carter, Bryant-Lukosius, DiCenso, Blythe, FG-03, a student felt that the head of the & Neville, 2014). Fourth, the researcher school was his model because “he is kept a journal to allow for confirmability responding to a need” through opening the through an audit trail (Lincoln & Guba, technical school, because he recognizes that 1985). Finally, the peer debriefing was to “have more people trained and giving accomplished through regular interactions good service is better,” particularly given during data collection and analysis between that “the educational system in our country the lead researcher and the co-authors of this is very difficult.” Teacher 04-T3 got study. involved in education because he “wants to help improve the level and type of education Findings being given in the country” reinforces this idea that the current situation is difficult. In Social Mobility of Students FG-01, a student felt the same way and This idea of social mobility appears “saluted the intellectual committee of the in the interviews with many directors, from school who are working for the community

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and practically in a voluntary basis.” because in all the focus groups the bachelor Director D-01 felt that “training the youth or was mentioned at some point. Many anybody interested” will give them “more students have an agronomist as a model not financial autonomy.” Researcher notes a technician; in the case of FG/E04 it is reveal that empowerment of the youth or someone with a master’s degree in people seemed to be at the core of this aquaculture. According to a student in FG- director’s speech for opening a technical 02 “I loved agronomy but I am taking the school. All of the teachers interviewed, technical before.” A bachelor is regarded in except one (02-T2), shared this sentiment. It both FG-01 and FG-03 as a possible was also noticed that even the teachers who outcome for students in the future. It helps are not teaching agriculture classes felt that them in choosing the school to attend, they are motivated to teaching in these because “if we wanted to pursue our schools because the “students have studies” (FG-03) the students would need to difficulties” in a set of skills that they can choose a school, which delivers a diploma help with such as “writing their recognized by the state. Most directors are methodology” (02-T3). Another teacher also aware of the intent to pursue higher commented that one of his “objectives for degrees and embrace this notion fully as D- teaching was to train people” and that “the 02 explained: “professional schools help more people are trained in a domain the people start a future and help for university more doors are open for positive things to as well.” D-04 understands this situation too, occur” for them (04-T2). This training is and the school has decided from the even more important for those students who beginning to present “same content, have not obtained their Baccalauréat (Bacc) evaluation and exams” to students on the II which is an exam some fail at the end of technical path “so students do not have their studies. D-04 said some students anything preventing them from continuing choose a technical diploma because they the program” towards a bachelor. Or as D- “may not have passed bacc II.” Bacc II is the 02 goes to the length of “affiliating” the government issued high-school diploma school with universities. However, at least needed to access higher education after the one teacher 03-T1 saw it as an alternative to last class called philosophie or philo “the the bachelor; he supported that “those who reason I did not go to agronomy is that I was do not want to go in the sciences go to the stuck in philo and if I waited until I passed I technical.” Additionally, if the reason for may never go” (FG-03). This statement also starting with a technical diploma may be a represents another role in social mobility for lack of Bacc II, it is often due to financial students, which is a step toward the license reasons. FG/E-04 exemplified this situation (bachelor’s degree). because “I aimed for a license [bachelor] at the beginning, I didn’t aim for a diploma,” Higher education/bachelor. which he was then forced to pursue due to Participants viewed these schools as being lack of funding; he wasted his money in a stepping stone to further education. One university that was not “recognized.” form of social mobility linked to lack of Bacc II, which appeared a lot in the Financial independence. interviews, is that the technical school is a Participants viewed these schools as a tool step toward the bachelor’s degree in to provide financial independence for agricultural sciences. It even seems to be an students. As perfectly stated by D-04, important aspect for the students themselves, “students choose agricultural technic 80% of

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the time for economic reasons” in his having personal activities to live leads to school. A student at his institution, FG/E-04 less poverty in the country,” (D-01). In this agreed that “reason is financial” for him to sense, agricultural TVET in Haiti is switch from a bachelor to a technical important to combat poverty for the diploma. This idea is supported indirectly by graduates, by enabling them to start a new all the other directors when they mentioned business. Entrepreneurship seems to be that “students do not really pay the school” viewed as an essential vocation of tuition (D-02) since “they do not have agricultural TVET to many respondents money, reality is very precarious” (D-01). (FG/E-04; FG-03; FG-01; D-01; 04-T2; 03- This situation is not easily solved because, T1; 03-T3;01-T1). Many students had an according to D-03, “you cannot ask them to entrepreneur as a model. For example, pay too much because if you do they leave.” during FG-03, an agronomist who “has fish” As a result, “some [of his] students to date ponds was described as a great role model have not paid anything to the school” and for students. In FG-01, entrepreneurship is are about to graduate after the two-year described as an inherent characteristic of program. This explains why, for so many of “the technician [whom] cannot wait for the them, the shorter program constitutes a state” to provide jobs, because “if you are a benefit. As a teacher 04-T1 explained, technician you must be able to produce technical diplomas “facilitate financial without the state.” Many teachers felt the independence.” Graduating early has same way as well. 04-T2 claimed for him advantages as “parents invest a lot of money “in the Haitian agricultural system the in their kids’ high school and expect technical training” “should be about creating something from them early” because “we jobs, every technician should be an must see Haiti as a poor country” (04-T1). entrepreneur.” 03-T3 said “I believe in that a The situation is such that 04-T3 claimed that lot” referring to the fact that “students can “in Haiti, due to economic situations, many create own activity,” because “students must students start but cannot finish” the program not wait” for jobs. This idea of but they are able to “work as technicians.” entrepreneurship was prevalent across all Therefore, technical diplomas are helping schools visited and for all levels of young people to be financially secure interviewees. sooner/faster “shorter training,” and “enter the job market faster” (04-T1). Some Networking. Participants believed students may even finance their bachelor these schools expanded the social networks studies as well with the technical diploma. of students. Networking is essential to FG/E-04 intended to finance his bachelor technical schools and technicians, both as a upon completion of technical studies. A way to get to the school, and for the teacher (01-T1) reported that his former connections the student is able to create student has told him that he is currently through the school. A few teachers and “paying for my own tuition, not my parents directors have mentioned bringing guest with [legumes] parcels.” teachers or taking the students to practices in the areas where they know they may be able Entrepreneurship. Participants to create bonds with important people and viewed these schools as a way to develop organizations working in the agricultural entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship was sector (D-04; D-02; 03-T2; 03-T3; 01T1; mentioned as another path to financial 01-T2). Moreover, some students are independence. After all, “the more people connected to TVET because of work

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relationships in the agricultural sector. Reputation. Participants believed According to D-04, “some students are these schools helped develop the promised a job by someone to study professional reputations of students. Being a agricultural technic.” This director even said technician is a tool towards success. D-02 that “some [students] are funded by their mentioned that agricultural TVET is “a big employer” or “family members may work in tool” in the Haitian agricultural system and a program that will need technicians and 01-T1 that “technicians are tools” in the train them for that.” Nonetheless, if this agricultural sector. Being a technician situation seemed to be particular to school legitimates decisions in the field as well. For 04 in which “most students we have example, this student who was encouraged studying technical are financed by to enter a technical program by his farming organizations,” there were students from father who “recognized my ideas but told other schools who were simply inspired to me he would prefer I do agriculture get a technical diploma because of technician.” Another student who claimed agriculture-related organizations and that when farmers argue with him, he “tell[s] programs working in their communities. A them I am a technician if you don’t do as I student in FG-01 said that he knew about the say you won’t get results.” It gives standing school because “FAO came with the in the rural communities like this student in [agricultural] field in the area with Mrs FG-03 who decided to study because he [name removed] who came with a “can be like the technicians” he sees during movement about farming in the region.” his work as agricultural agent. This standing Most students have been encouraged by and reputation can be essential in building a someone in the agricultural sector to pursue career. In FG-03 someone mentioned “in a diploma in that field, whether that is a agricultural technic you study animal health; family member, a teacher or director at the by studying animal health, you can become school like a teacher, or current/former a great veterinarian, not only for the students. In certain cases, the opportunities commune but for the whole country.” that exist in their communities have According to 03-T2, “some technicians in prompted a demand for technical studies. D- the city […] have a good reputation; 02 explained that “the weekend option has sometimes have received plaque of honor.” more students [attendance] than during the However, the search for standing and week” because “they find a job while reputation was deemed problematic by studying here especially the ones from Cote- teacher 04-T3 who wondered “what kind of de-Fer.” “The school has a lot of students relationship should exist between from Cote-de-Fer” because “many agronomists and agricultural technicians.” [agricultural] projects go to Cote-de-Fer, He raised this question because technicians which explains the high demand” of students may “present an inferiority complex.” His from this region. The situation is such that personal experience working “in our reality “we have demand in Cote-de-Fer for [the particularly the rural communities [where] school] to have an annex there.” It seems the technicians present themselves as that wherever people are actively working in agronomists” has prompted him to realize agriculture, is where the youth are most that “they may not know what their job is; in likely to know about and decide to attend an their training they receive no orientation in agricultural technical school. that regard.” D-02 explained “although they’re not agronomists, they get called agro

128 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 in the field; only they know that they don’t where the farmers are, which is in the have a 5-year bachelor.” mountains because Haiti is a “mountainous land” (D-01). Therefore, as mentioned Improving Local Communities during FG-02, “we will see if the technicians The sentence “an agricultural want to go up the mountains or stay in the technician is someone who has an extremely cities, they will see they pay the important role not just for the farmers we consequences for that.” Not going in the can say even in the cities” (FG-03) depicts mountains means not working closely with some of the various ways in which a the farmers and not contributing to rural technician is expected to contribute to development in that sense. D-01 says is best society’s welfare. The technician (a) “extension activities on agriculture-related supports rural development and (b) helps knowledge will allow for rural development reduce poverty and migration. in the mountains.” The technicians must go in the mountains, as mentioned many times Rural development. Participants because their “final objective is to increase expressed how these schools helped develop farmers’ income/revenue” (01-T1); and the rural communities. Helping farmers and mountains is where the peasants do agronomists working in the field is agriculture in Haiti. Their work is necessary contributing to rural development. Teacher because it provides services that are needed. 01-T1 thought, “It is the most important for According to 01-T3, agricultural sciences the development of the country” while “first aims at protecting the environment and speaking of agricultural TVET’s role within secondly its objective or goal is to change the Haitian agricultural system. 01-T2 stated the lives of all the people living in the that “agricultural technic is extremely communities.” important in the development of the country, may it be on the environmental level, Migration/poverty. Participants saw vegetal, and why not animal breeding.” 01- a connection between the schools and a T1 also cared to explore “how to increase reduction on poverty and related rural revenue for farmers” in his courses because outmigration. Helping rural development he believes that is what a technician is called means helping farmers stay in the rural to do. Students also know that this is a future communities, therefore, it means combating endeavor for them as agricultural rural migration and poverty, “because technicians. During FG-02 a student someone who does agriculture can’t be poor recognized that “our role […] is to give tomorrow” (FG-02). The reality though, is them [the farmers] the technique that we that “the population leaves the mountains have to help them get ahead” economically. and comes to the city” (FG-01) because they A student in FG-01 explained it best by are poor and that “farming is not stating that “a technician has a lot of productive” for them (FG-01). Low importance because a technician is first an productivity in agriculture is the reason agent of development.” The importance of farmers “come to the cities, form the slums TVET in the agricultural sector in Haiti is but there are no means, so they have to beg” linked to the essential role that technicians (FG-01). FG-01 “Sometimes some of them play within it because, like a few do not even have a job; they’re forced to respondents pointed out, “this country is walk in the streets rather than work in the primarily/essentially agricultural” (D-03; mountains.” Somehow the students mostly, FG-01; 03-T3). The technician belongs and a few teachers as well (04-T1; 01-T1;

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01-T3), felt that these conditions can be fieldwork. “As an agricultural technician our improved with more technicians properly role is to accompany the agronomists in the imparting knowledge to the population. field” recognizes a student in FG-02, However, the migration occurs also from the because “agronomists may conduct a study cities to the rest of the world. 01-T2 attested but when implementing in the field they “I have some [students] currently in require technicians” (01-T1). Their role Dominican Republic doing graft.” while accompanying the agronomist is Therefore, in that regard, agricultural TVET crucial “when he [an agronomist] has has not been able to stop the migration. This technicians [with him in the field] he migration problem is noticed by 03-T2 who realizes what he wants to” according to 01- saw that “in [the city] some youth have T3. “A technician is [also] there to fill in for contempt and are not interested to go to an agronomist” (03-T3) because “in the technical schools because they do not see absence of the agronomist the technicians themselves in Haiti; they are turning to other are here, and the work continues well” (01- places.” T3). They are also there to help/accompany farmers “the role of an agricultural Agricultural Extension technician is to accompany the farmers” (03- Many respondents emphasized that T3). According to 04-T3 “it is more than “a technician is an extensionist for the necessary to have more trained agricultural peasants, growers mostly” (FG-03). The technicians, so the farmers may get the extension work agricultural technicians support they need.” This notion of ought to perform are multiple but can be helping/accompanying the farmers is so summed by (a) providing technical entrenched in the subculture that many assistance, (b) improving production students use the same wording when practices, (c) protecting the environment, (d) reflecting upon the work they project to do increasing food security, and (d) training. after graduation, like this one during FG-01 who wants “to go to [his] rural section to Provide technical assistance. accompany the farmers.” Teachers like 01- Participants thought these schools gave T3 also viewed the students’ future work as students the ability to provide technical “to help the peasants.” assistance that complemented the agronomists. The role of a technician is to Improving production practices. provide technical assistance was shared by Participants believed the schools could nearly all respondents. However, whom they ultimately help improved agricultural assisted may vary. For some, “we may production in Haiti. Students viewed the consider an agricultural technician as an purpose of their future work as “help[ing] auxiliary to an agronomist” (FG-04), them [the farmers] farm better” (FG-01). because the “agronomist may need support There seemed to be a consensus amongst the and this support is no other than a students on the fact that Haitian farmers technician” (01-T3). As 01-T2 puts it engage in activities that are detrimental to bluntly “technicians are auxiliary to agricultural productivity. In FG-03 a student agronomists,” idea that is supported by D-04 described the fact that “they [the farmers] do “agricultural technicians are here to apply not realize that they don’t properly maintain what agronomists tell them.” However, the the space they are cultivating” because the importance of the technicians seemed to farmers cultivate the land but yields keep ascribe primarily to their mastering of going down, which is explained not by the

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low quality of the beans, like they claim, but an ecological farm” or another one who was by the bad practices they are attached to inspired to become a technician by watching generationally. It is the job of a technician to other technicians at work “talking about show them a better way in order for the reforestation” to the farmers. He was deeply production to yield more. According to impacted by this training he had participated students in FG-02, there needs to be in and decided to pursue studies in the field “someone in the zone who’s an agricultural as a result. Therefore, ecology is an technician, who can enable the peasants to attractive component of the job to these plant better.” This person is necessary as students and they feel that they are the most mentioned earlier “because their farming is prepared to face these issues. For example, not efficacious” (FG-02). In FG-01, “as an agricultural technician, I can say that someone took an example on their own the reforestation campaigns are not done” families: “our parents used to work very criticized someone from FG-03. According badly, now with the training I have, I make to students from the same focus group, “the them […] progress in the sector.” The bad erosion that degrades the mountains create practices Haitian farmers currently use make problems in the city” as well. So, their their yield lower but seems to affect the contribution to the environmental issues is environment, which subsequently lowers the not limited to the rural areas, as ecology is productivity more, in a vicious cycle. FG-02 holistic in nature. Reforestation is “reforestation matters and make them work particularly a focal point as attested by this the land [farm] in a different manner” student during FG-02 “our dream is to go because the way they farm is not being help the farmers in terms of how they productive nor does it respect the deforest.” environment. Increase food security. Participants Protecting the environment. thought these schools could have an impact Participants believed what was learned at the on food insecurity in Haiti. A student in FG- schools could help better protect the 01said “after graduating, it is about helping environment in Haiti through better the farmers know about how to plant and production practices. Environmental issues have higher yields,” which, according to are therefore a huge component of a FG/E-04 “can help the country develop in technician’s role or even of the science at terms of food security” referring to large, as proposed by 01-T3 “agronomic technicians’ starting own activity. In FG-02, sciences are beautiful and first aim at the “vision for the future is to accompany protecting the environment,” that is the peasants so they can make the soil have imperative in Haiti because “we have a more yield.” If deforestation and other cheap vegetal cover.” Many students want to destructive practices give lower yields, it is get involved, upon graduation, in the technician’s primary goal to, “as a environmental issues, particularly in trained agricultural technician show the reforestation campaigns. Like this student peasants how to work to see improvements from FG-01 whose “dream is to work in in soil” productivity (FG-02). So, “if I help environmental issues and reforestation.” them with my knowledge, what I have, I Other students were inspired by people think their farms will have more yields” working for the improvement of the (FG-01). By improving agricultural yields environment. In FG-03, a student mentioned and productivity, agricultural technicians a role model who is an “agronomist who has also tackle the topic of food insecurity in the

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country. As teacher 01-T3 evoked “it will peasants” (D-02), that the technician is “the also allow them to help the whole person who’s going to live with the population with a series of food they need peasants, so the technician has a very tight for their bodies,” speaking about agricultural link with this” idea of being in the field technicians who choose entrepreneurship. engaging the people (03-T2). In conclusion, The reason is after all, “I can’t be eating as stated by 03-T3, “the role of the things I don’t know; what I eat I must seek agricultural technician is to accompany the to produce it” says teacher 01-T1. But farmers and to train them as well.” Students according to 01-T1 it is not an obvious goal, also understood their role as such. They “because there are no institutions that do identified with role models who are agriculture in Haiti; it is a country that “agricultural technicians [who] used to come mostly imports things from abroad.” to the zone and [give] some training” which However, the students felt it was their the peasants benefitted from. “I remember responsibility to tackle the food security that I participated in a training” of theirs issue in Haiti, despite the state’s failure in shared someone from FG-03. In FG-01 that regard. After all, “there is no another student revealed that he “want[s] to agricultural policy, no infrastructure and no train other people who may lack knowledge environmental protection policy” (FG-01). in this sector because cultivating requires a The way in which these agricultural minimum of training.” FG/E-04 wanted to technicians will attain the objectives is gain all the skills necessary for him to be through proper training of the farmers and able to “push through with my lessons and other agricultural producers. Examples of allow people to learn from me.” FG-03 was technicians doing this type of work existed inspired from “when I used to go to the for some of these students, for instance in activities with the peasants [as an FG-03, who recalled “the way they train the agricultural agent] I used to see how the peasants who used to farm badly so these technicians do the conventions” and he was farmers may have more yields and more working towards his diploma to do just that food.” This is what they want to do in the as well. All of these dreams and aspirations agricultural sector in Haiti. point in the same direction, that “the agricultural technician’s role is extremely Training. Participants expressed high; he is a teacher for the peasants” (FG- how these schools created trainers to work 03). with farmers. Improvement in food security status in the country means that the “role of Conclusions, Recommendations & technician is to accompany and guide the Implications farmers for intensification of agriculture” Results from this study revealed that according to teacher 02-T1. This idea was agricultural technical schools in Haiti supported by 04-T2, “the agricultural increase social mobility of students, improve technician’s job is to work with people local communities, and enhance the building models” which will increase yield extension capacity in the country. Meaning- and he must show people “better ways to do making is socially constructed, context- it [agriculture].” Many teachers and bound and is sensitive to cultural context directors (D-02; D-01; 04-T1; 04-T2; 04-T3; (Doolittle & Camp, 1999; Powell & Kalina, 02-T1; 02-T2; 03-T1; 03-T2; 03-T3; 01-T3) 2009). In Haitian context, TVET’s purpose agreed that “when you say agricultural has meanings that are inherent to the cultural technician that means working with

132 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 context in which it was constructed by the terminal and non-terminal TVETs (King, different stakeholders within it. 1993).

Social Mobility Improve Communities Agricultural TVET increases social Agricultural TVET schools also mobility of students through (a) additional improve local communities through training and education, (b) providing a step supporting rural development, reducing toward higher education, (c) helping poverty, and rural outmigration. In establish financial independence, (d) Honduras, it has been found that there is a developing entrepreneurship skills, (e) direct correlation between TVET and higher building networks, and (f) establishing a rural productivity and incomes (Atchoarena, solid professional reputation. The various Wallace, Green, & Gomes, 2003). TVET in experiential learning activities provided to Haiti also helped the youth to get out of students during their training have allowed poverty as it did in India (Bisariya & them to enhance the utility, purposefulness Mishra, 2015), notably by allowing young and practicality of the skills they have people to find employment faster. Beyond acquired for better competitiveness after students being direct beneficiaries of TVET, their graduation, as TVET creates a the findings also suggest that, according to connection between education and real life the participants interviewed, it also had the (Buchmann & Schwille, 1983; Cantor, potential to help the country’s economy in a 1997). sustainable way. According to Edokpolor The findings from the interviews and and Owenvbiugie (2017), Nigerian TVET focus groups with various stakeholders had the potential to help youth develop this within the Haitian agricultural TVET, have developing country’s economy sustainably. revealed that TVET had potential to help As this position was prevalent in teachers vulnerable young people receiving training and certain directors, it can be inferred that when they may not have had the formal it is an inherent part of their responsibilities possibility to gain any skills otherwise. as TVET educators. Finnish TVET teachers Developing countries, in Latin America “took responsibility for enlightenment and particularly, used this level of training to for promoting economic and social progress; meet the needs of disadvantaged youth this is clearly present in agriculture and (King, 1993). The youth enrolled in these forestry, but also in commerce” (Heikkinen, schools, was found to have less schooling 1997, p. 420). and therefore would face issues being admitted into the universities. Most of the Enhance Extension schools selected for the study required lower Agricultural TVET schools also play educational levels for admission than a crucial role in developing the capacity for universities, which was also reported by extension-type activities in the country like: King (1993). Those graduates often were (a) providing technical assistance, (b) able to finance their higher education improving production practices, (c) themselves, although the majority of the protecting the environment, (d) increasing schools, except the university, have a food security; and (d) training. The tradition of non-terminal TVET (King, agricultural technicians are to help the rural 1993; Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). In Latin world, through the training they ought to America, as it was found that there are both provide to the farmers about food production and environmental issues. These roles are

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crucial for Haiti’s farmers, as Albert, programs should be in place. Third, these Roberts, and Harder (2017a) found that schools lack infrastructure and resources. environmental issues and resource The government of Haiti may be able to limitations are significant barriers for intervene in that regard, since many of them farmers. Many countries employ graduates could conglomerate into learning centers from agricultural schools, rather than with other technical and vocational options university graduates, to do the field-level offered. Finally, given that the training extension activities (Swanson & Rajalahti, provided in these schools could be non- 2010). In developing countries, the terminal, articulation agreements with government agencies train these workers for universities should be explored to allow their own agricultural field level extension students to naturally progress towards a services in many areas like forestry, bachelor’s degree if they have obtained their fisheries, etc. (Atchoarena et al., 2003). Bacc II. Internally at the schools, other Recommendations for Research recommendations should target the various Recommendations for research trainings for teachers and curriculum would be to further investigate private adjustments needed in the TVET schools. TVETs in other geographic departments of The curriculum should better address the the country. It would also be interesting to roles of technicians in the agricultural understand Haitian TVET from the teachers’ system, particularly their relationship with standpoint, the different types of teachers, agronomists. The curriculum should also the characteristics of their educational address organic and other sustainable institutions and their professional practices so as to better inform the farmers development as it relates to INFP. It would they train. Their work with farmers also also be important to investigate EMAs, creates needs for them to know about adult which are the public agricultural TVET education principles and diverse schools under the ministry of Agriculture, communication skills. rather than the ministry of Education that supervises the private TVET schools References examined in the current study. This study Albert, B., Roberts, T. G., & Harder, A. did not include the view of farmers and rural (2017a). Barriers faced by small communities on the work of technicians, so scale farmers in the North it would also be interesting to explore the Department of Haiti. Journal of beliefs of these stakeholders. International Agricultural and Extension Education, 24(3), 8-19. Recommendations for Practice doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24302 Recommendations for practice stem Albert, B., Roberts, T. G., & Harder, A. from the participants themselves, who have (2017b). Faculty perceptions of expressed the need for the state to provide students’ extension competency more support to the sector through the needs within Haiti’s agricultural ministry of Agriculture. Externally, it would universities. Journal of International make sense, first to clearly define the Agricultural and Extension relationship between these schools and the Education, 24(3), 67-79. doi: ministry of Agriculture. Second, given the 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24206 emergence of a focus on entrepreneurship, Ary, D., Cheser Jacobs, L., Sorensen, L. K., sufficient agricultural microfinance & Walker, D. A. (2012).

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Introduction to research in education qualitative research. Oncology (9th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Nursing Forum, 41(5), 545-547. CENGAGE Learning. Cho, J., & Trent, A. (2006). Validity in Atchoarena, D., & Sedel, C. (2003). qualitative research revisited. Education and rural development: Qualitative Research, 6(3), 319–340. Setting the framework. In D. Creswell, J. W., & Miller, D. L. (2000). Atchoarena & L. Gasperini (Eds.), Determining validity in qualitative Education for rural development: inquiry. Theory into Practice, 39(3), Towards new policy responses. A 124-130, doi: joint study conducted by FAO and 10.1207/s15430421tip3903_2 UNESCO (pp. 35-68). Paris: IIEP. Crotty, M. (1998). The foundations of social Retrieved from research: Meaning and perspective http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/00 in the research process. London, 13/001329/132994e.pdf UK: Sage Publications Bisariya, R. S., & Mishra, A. (2015). Darvas, P., & Palmer, R. (2014). Demand Vocational skills and training to and supply of skills in Ghana: How empower citizens of India [PDF file]. can training programs improve Vindhya International Journal of employment and Management & Research, 1(1), 68- productivity? Washington, DC: 73. Retrieved from World Bank Study. Retrieved from http://vijmr.org/papers/VIJMR03151 https://openknowledge.worldbank.or 3.pdf g/handle/10986/18866 Bozkurt, G. (2017). Social constructivism: Doolittle, P. E., & Camp, W. G. (1999). Does it succeed in reconciling Constructivism: The career and individual cognition with social technical education perspective. teaching and learning practices in Journal of Career and Technical mathematics [PDF file]. Journal of Education, 16(1). Retrieved from Education and Practice, 8(3), 210- https://ejournals.lib.vt.edu/JCTE/arti 218. Retrieved from cle/view/706/1017 https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ11 Food and Agriculture Organization, 31532.pdf International Fund for Agricultural Buchmann, M., & Schwille, J. (1983). Development, & World Food Education: The overcoming of Program. (2015). The state of food experience. American Journal of insecurity in the world. Meeting the Education, 92(1), 30-51. Retrieved 2015 international hunger targets: from Taking stock of uneven progress http://www.jstor.org/stable/1084849 [PDF file]. Rome: FAO. Retrieved Cantor, J. A. (1997). Experiential learning from http://www.fao.org/3/a- in higher education: Linking i4646e.pdf classroom and community [PDF Fuglie, K., & Wang, S. L (2012). file]. ERIC Digest. Retrieved from Productivity growth in global http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED40 agriculture shifting to developing 4948.pdf countries. Choices: The Magazine of Carter, N., Bryant-Lukosius, D., DiCenso, Food, Farm and Resource Issues, A., Blythe, J., & Neville, A. J. 27(4). (2014). The use of triangulation in

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Global Forum For Rural Advisory Services. Development, 50, 12-19. Retrieved (2017). Haiti. Retrieved from from http://www.g-fras.org/en/world- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedudev.20 wide-extension-study/central- 16.05.006 america-and-the- Miles, M. B., Huberman, A. M., & Saldaña, caribbean/caribbean/haiti.html#exten J. (2014). Qualitative data analysis: sion-providers A methods sourcebook (3rd ed.). Los Green, J., Franquiz, M., & Dixon, C. (1997). Angeles: SAGE Publications. The myth of the objective transcript: Moehler, R. (1997). The role of agriculture Transcribing as a situated act. in the economy and society. In K. TESOL Quarterly, 31(1), 172-176. Hathaway & D. Hathaway (Eds.), doi: 10.2307/3587984 Searching for common ground. Harding, J. (2013). Qualitative data European Union enlargement and analysis: From start to finish. Los agricultural policy. Rome, Italy: Angeles; London; New Delhi; FAO Agricultural Policy and Singapore; Washington, DC: SAGE. Economic Development Series. Heikkinen, A. (1997). Education or training? Pierre, A., Calixte, M. C., Moore, K., Changes in vocational teachers’ Bunch, J. C., Koenig, R., Delva, L., conceptions of their work. & Roberts, T. G. (2018). Haitian Cambridge Journal of Education, agricultural faculty preparation for 27(3), 405-423. doi: their academic roles. Journal of 10.1080/0305764970270309 International Agricultural and Hoffart, N. (1991). A member check Extension Education, 25(1), 24-38. procedure to enhance rigor in doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25103 naturalistic research. Western Pierre, A., Calixte, M. C., Moore, K., Journal of Nursing Research, 13(4), Bunch, J. C., & Roberts, T. G. 522-534. (2018). Haitian faculty perceptions King, K. (1993). Technical and vocational of students’ competence at education and training in an graduation: An opportunity for international context. The Vocational curricula modification. Journal of Aspect of Education, 45(3), 201-216. International Agricultural and doi: 10.1080/0305787930450302 Extension Education, 25(3), 20-32. Koudahl, P. D. (2010). Vocational education doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2018.25302 and training: Dual education and Powell, K. C., & Kalina, C. J. (2009). economic crises. Procedia Social Cognitive and social constructivism: and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 1900– Developing tools for an effective 1905. doi: classroom. Education, 130(2), 241- 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.421. 250. Lincoln, Y.S. and Guba, E.G. (1985). Rivera, W. M. (2006). Transforming post- Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, secondary agricultural education CA: Sage Publications. and training by design: Solutions for McGrawth, S., & Powell, L. (2016). Skills Sub-Saharan Africa [PDF file]. for sustainable development: Retrieved from Transforming vocational education http://siteresources.worldbank.org/IN and training beyond 2015. TAFRREGTOPTEIA/Resources/Pos International Journal of Educational t_Secondary_Ag_Ed_final.pdf

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Saldaña, J. (2016). The coding manual for elhi/areas-of- qualitative researchers (3rd ed.). action/education/technical- London, UK: SAGE Publications. vocational-education-and-training- Sulaiman, R., & Davis, K. (2012). The tvet/ “New Extensionist”: Roles, Von Grebmer, K., Bernstein, J., Prasai, N., strategies, and capacities to Amin, S., Yohannes, Y., Nabarro, strengthen extension and advisory D., Towey, O., Thompson, J., services. Retrieved from: Sonntag, A., & Patterson, F. (2016). http://www.g- Synopsis: Global hunger index, fras.org/en/activities/the-new- Getting to zero hunger. Washington, extensionist.html DC: IFPRI. doi: Swanson, B. E., & Rajalahti, R. (2010). 10.2499/9780896292284 Strengthening agricultural extension Wiggins, G. & McTighe, J. (2001). and advisory systems: Procedures Understanding by design. Upper for assessing, transforming, and Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice evaluating extension systems. Hall. Agriculture and Rural Development Yin, R. K. (2016). Qualitative research from Discussion Paper 45. Washington, start to finish (2nd ed.). New York, DC: The World Bank. Retrieved NY: The Guilford Press. from Zelaya, P., Harder, A., & Roberts, T. G. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/IN (2016). Small-scale farmers’ TARD/Resources/Stren_combined_ perceptions of agricultural web.pdf information sources in Norther Haiti. The United Nations Educational, Scientific Journal of International Agricultural and Cultural Organization. (2015). and Extension Education, 23(2), 63- UNESCO TVET strategy 2016-2021: 77. doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2016.23205 Report of the UNESCO-UNEVOC virtual conference [pdf file]. Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/00 24/002439/243932e.pdf The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2017a). Skills on the move: Global trends, local resonances. International conference on Technical and Vocational Education and Training. Retrieved from https://en.unesco.org/international- conference-tvet-2017 The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. (2017b). Technical Vocational Education and Training. New Delhi Office. Retrieved from http://www.unesco.org/new/en/newd

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2019.26210

Experiences of Cooperating Teachers on Teaching Practice Supervision in Eswatini, Swaziland

Alfred F. Tsikati University of Eswatini, Swaziland

Khomb’sile N. Dlamini Nyakatfo High School

Abstract Cooperating teachers (CTs) are key participants in ensuring a valuable experience for the student teacher (ST) during teaching practice. Surprisingly, their voices largely remain absent in the extant literature. Thus, the purpose of the study was to investigate the experiences of CTs during teaching practice supervision in Eswatini. A descriptive research design using a census of 46 CTs for student teachers (STs) who did teaching practice in the 2015/16 academic year of the University of Eswatini in the Department of Agricultural Education was used. A self- administered questionnaire was used for collecting data. A five-point numerical scale and six- point Likert-type rating scale were used to measure the variables. Three lecturers from the Department of Agricultural Education and Extension and two agriculture teachers established content and face validity for the questionnaire. Inter-item reliability from a pilot study was .78. Findings of the study revealed that CTs were supported by the University through the supervisors and Teaching Practice Handbook. The CTs noted that establishing rapport with the STs was essential and head teachers needed to visit the STs in the respective classes they teach. STs were good in developing, organizing and using instructional materials but had challenges in disciplining learners. The study recommended that CTs should be provided with trainings and incentives so that they can effectively discharge their duties during teaching practice.

Keywords: cooperating teachers; in-service teachers; student teachers; teaching practice; teaching practicum

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Introduction Stoynoff (1999) described the task of A cooperating teacher (CT) is a CTs as that of organizing the teaching practicing, in-service teacher, who assumes practice experiences by effectively the responsibility of working with a pre- integrating knowledge and the act of service teacher for a set length of time teaching. Lewis (2017) identified three main (Zeichner, 2002). The CT provides day-to- areas in which CTs should be grounded for day guidance and mentoring to the ST effective ST supervision. These are (Smalley, Retallick, & Paulsen, 2015). CTs knowledge, learning, and sharing. Regarding have a strong influence on the teaching knowledge, CTs should possess required practice of STs (Rozelle & Wilson, 2012); skills; be resourceful as role models; have as they usher them to the profession (Clarke, wisdom to provide insight where necessary; Triggs, & Nielsen, 2014). The CT is and know their duties or professional considered as a master teacher, a guidance obligations in directing the ST. CTs should counsellor, a master planner and organizer, also be learning continuously; in order to and a sympathetic father or mother to the ST inspire the STs. They should learn through (University of Eswatini [UNESWA], 2018). reflection on their practices; be exemplary The role of a CT is to mentor the ST for the pre-service teachers and should be (Crasborn, Hennissen, Brouwer, Korthagen, passionate about education so that the STs & Bergen, 2011).Thus, the CT is recognised are inspired. Finally, the CTs should be as one of the key participants in ensuring a willing to share by interacting with the pre- valuable experience to the ST during service teachers, which serves as a network. teaching practice (Zeichner, 2002). The CTs can share teaching philosophy, Tsikati and Nxumalo (2018) found classroom rules, procedures and routine; that the CT works most closely with the ST arrangement of the classroom by discussing than any of the stakeholders. Clarke et al. ST progress; established relationships; (2014) revealed that CTs serve as: (i) providing ST support; and leaving a legacy providers of feedback, (ii) gatekeepers of the on the ST’s teaching experience. profession, (iii) modelers of practice, (iv) Thus, the ST can benefit from the supporters of reflection, (v) purveyors of experiences by the cooperating teacher. context, (vi) conveners of relation, (vii) Kahn (2001) argued that the university agents of socialisation, (viii) advocates of community can support CTs by providing the practical, (ix) gleaners of knowledge, (x) improved communication on university abiders of change, and (xi) teachers of expectations, new courses, and in-servicing children. Torrez and Krebs (2012) reported training. STs were good at developing and that CTs organize teaching resources and organizing instructional materials for their materials such as access to teaching files, lessons, which made the task simpler for the copies of textbooks, and assessments for the CTs (Cincioglu, 2011). CTs also found STs ST. Consequently, CTs are the most to be good at developing teaching and important contributors to the teacher learning materials (Allen & Eby, 2009). preparation programme; by the role that they However, Cincioglu (2011) reported play during the teaching practice experience that CTs were unhappy with the professional (Clarke et al., 2014). Additionally, and financial support obtained from the headteachers, on behalf of the school universities. Sinclair, Dowson, and administration should also visit the STs to Thifleton-Martin (2006) reported that CTs contribute towards their professional perceived themselves as ineligible to take development (Holland, 2009). STs because of their workload and pressure.

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The CTs also thought that the STs were not There is a need for disciplined, prepared enough for the practicum. periodical and detailed training for the CTs According to Kagan (1992) and Stuart and to orient them on precautions to be taken Thurlow (2000) CTs reported that STs had during the teaching practice period (Kahn, challenges in handling problems related to 2001). In addition, Hastings (2006) believed class discipline, assessing students’ work that the training for the CTs should assist and dealing with individual preferences. them in overcoming challenges during the Affirmatively, Hastings (2006) stated that a teaching practice. Mutlu (2014) advocated large body of research shows that teacher that the teaching practicum should be turned education programmes fail to adequately into an attractive exercise that CTs would prepare STs for facing real class situations. like to be involved in. For instance, Harlin, Edwards, and Briers (2002) providing some time off in which CTs can argued that CTs perceived the relationship specifically focus on STs’ needs can also between the ST and the CT as one of the enhance the role of CTs (Mutlu, 2014). major factors for a successful teaching Mutlu further suggested that CTs should be practice. McBride (1996) found that the CTs evaluated at the end of every practice. perceived the success of the teaching The University of Eswatini ensures practice as a result of the hard work between that STs are attached to CTs at the various the CT and the ST. Garton and Cano (1994) cooperating schools. The CTs provide contended that CTs should demonstrate the guidance on daily basis while university desired teaching behaviors expected of STs. supervisors visit the STs occasionally The ST also works in collaboration with a (UNESWA, 2018). Some of the CTs’ roles supervisor and a CT throughout the teaching in Eswatini as stated in the Teaching practice (Garton & Cano, 1994). Shinn et al. Practice Handbook in Agricultural (2008), when studying the Armenian Education, include the following: involving Agrarian students’ perceptions and the ST as part of the staff; providing the ST educational aspirations during curriculum with access to instructional materials; reforms, recommended engagement and providing an area of work and personal dialogue with students. Similarly, belongings; demonstrating effective engagement and dialogue are essential teaching techniques; encouraging the ST to between the cooperating teacher, university observe and ask questions; providing supervisor (US) and the ST. frequent encouragement; making Cincioğlu (2011) reported that CTs constructive criticisms; and recognition of complained that the teaching practicum success, to name a few (UNESWA, 2018). duration (one semester) was inadequate for Considering the contribution of the the STs. This is because the CTs should get CT on the successful training of a teacher in to know their STs for easy working. It the education programme, it is surprising appears that just when the CTs start getting that “the voices of the cooperating to know their STs; it is the time when the teacher…largely remain absent in the extant STs have to leave the school. Also, the STs literature” (Torrez & Krebs, 2012, p. 486). are expected to know their students by Sleeter (2001) asserted that the most names; but by the time the names become legitimate knowers are the ones who familiar to the ST, it is time to stop the participate in an experience; thus, it is teaching practice, and this ends up not important that CTs are given the opportunity helping the ST in any way during the to share their experiences on aspects of practice. student teaching in Eswatini. Unfortunately,

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no study has been conducted on the The theory postulates that any individual experiences of CTs on teaching practice exists in a system or environment that has supervision in Eswatini. subsystems. Thus, the theory focuses on the interaction of the individual with the Theoretical Framework environment at the following levels or sub- The study was framed by the systems: Individual, Microsystem, Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-ecological Theory, Mesosystem, Exosystem, and Macrosystem developed in 1970 (Bronfenbrenner, 1977). (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-ecological Theory.

The core of the Bronfenbrenner’s (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The resource Bio-ecological Theory is occupied by the characteristics entail mental and emotional person [individual] aspect of the system or resources; such as past experiences, skills the environment. Bronfenbrenner (1995) divided and intelligence, as well as access to social the personal characteristics into and emotional resources. Resource three types, namely: demand, resource, and force availability can also influence the characteristics. The demand experiences of CTs during teaching practice characteristic encapsulates the demographic (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Finally, the force variables of the individual; such as gender, characteristics have to do with differences of age, health, and physical appearance. The demand temperament, motivation and persistence characteristic is relevant to this (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Similarly, the study in that both gender and age are temperament, motivation, and persistence pertinent variables that may influence the also influence the experiences of CTs during experiences of CTs during teaching practice teaching practice.

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The Microsystem relates to the Exosystem involves expectations from the immediate environment to the individual; Ministry of Education and Training on the such as the family, school, work place, student teaching. The Macrosystem relates neighborhood, religious community, friends, to attitude and culture about student and so on (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). On the teaching. Lastly, the Chronosystem - the other hand, Mesosystem encompasses the period of teaching practice is also likely to different interactions between the characters influence the experiences of CTs on of the Microsystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). teaching practice. The Exosystem refers to the indirect environment which may moderate the Study Purpose & Objectives behavior or functioning of the individual The purpose of the study was to such as economic system, educational investigate the experiences of CTs on system, government / political system, teaching practice supervision in Eswatini. industry and media (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). The objectives of the study were to: Finally, the Macrosystem entails the abstract 1. Describe the respondents by their environment consisting of attitudes / demographic characteristics and ideologies of the culture in which the background information; individual lives. In this subsystem, societal 2. Describe the current University of and cultural practices or norms have an Eswatini support system to the impact on the individual by setting teaching practice; expectations for his or her behavior (Krause, 3. Identify challenges that the CTs 2007). encountered during supervision; Bronfenbrenner revised the theory; 4. Discover lessons that CTs learnt and added the Chronosystem. from the teaching practice Bronfenbrenner and Morris (1998) referred supervision; to the Chronosystem as the aspect of time. 5. Identify ways in which the role Chronosystem can be viewed in terms of played by CTs on teaching practice micro-time (what is occurring during the can be enhanced. course of some specific activities or interactions), meso-time (the extent to which Methodology activities and interactions occur with some The study was a descriptive survey consistency in the developing person’s targeting a census of CTs (N=46) who environment), and macro-time (the fact that supervised Agricultural Education STs developmental processes are likely to vary during teaching practice in the 2015/16 according to the specific historical events academic year from the University of that are occurring as the developing Eswatini. A self-administered, close-ended individuals are at one stage or another) questionnaire was developed from literature, (Frazer, 2014). and used for data collection. The All the sub-systems of the theory are questionnaire was divided into five sections, relevant in this study. The Microsystem is namely: teaching practice support system relevant to the study as CTs are controlled [14 items]; teaching practice challenges [15 by the expectations from school items]; teaching practice lessons [5 items]; administration (workplace). In the suggestions on teaching practice [4 items], Mesosystem, the university through the and demographic characteristics and supervisor facilitates interaction between the background information [8 items – sex, CTs, STs, and administration. The marital status, highest level of education,

142 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 position, teaching practice exposure, class collection. Letters seeking permission to size, school location and school type]. A conduct the study were written to the school numerical scale, using the following ranges: principals and the respondents; and 1=low; 2=moderately low; 3=moderate; 4= permission was granted. To ensure high; and 5=very high, was used to measure confidentiality, the questionnaire was the support provided by the university formulated such that respondents’ names during teaching practice. A six-point Likert- were concealed. The hand delivering of the type scale, having the following ranges: 1= questionnaires and cell phone numbers did strongly disagree; 2=slightly disagree; not affect confidentiality, as nothing linked 3=disagree; 4=agree; 5=slightly agree; and the questionnaires with the respondents. The 6=strongly agree, was used to measure the questionnaires were only accessible to the challenges, lessons, and ways in which CTs researchers. Descriptive statistics, such as could be assisted during teaching practice. frequencies, percentages, means and The questionnaire was validated by three standard deviations, in the Statistical experts from the Department of Agricultural Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version Education and Extension at the University of 20, were used for analyzing the data. Eswatini and two agriculture teachers. The experts removed irrelevant statements and Findings added missing statements in the questionnaire. The questionnaire was field- Background Information & Demographic tested with three agriculture teachers who Characteristics had served as CTs in previous years. The Table 1 presents the background inter-item reliability established using information and demographic characteristics Cronbach’s Alpha revealed that the of the CTs for agricultural education STs questionnaire was 78% reliable. during the 2015/16 academic year in The researchers collected data from Eswatini. The findings of the study revealed November 2016 until late January 2017. The that most of the CTs were males (n=27, questionnaires were delivered personally by 58.7%). Most of the respondents were from the researchers to the CTs, and were semi-urban areas (n=22, 47.8%). A majority collected a fortnight later. In addition, cell of the CTs (n=31, 67.4%) held a Bachelor of numbers of the CTs were requested so that Science degree in Agricultural Education the researchers could remind the and were mainly classroom teachers (n=24, respondents about the questionnaires prior to 52.2%).

Table 1 Distribution of Demographic Characteristics of Respondents (N=46) Demographics f % Sex Male 27 58.7 Female 19 41.3 School location Rural 11 23.9 Semi-Urban 22 47.8 Urban 13 28.3 Qualification Diploma 1 2.2

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B. Sc. 31 67.4 M. Sc. 14 30.4 Position Head of department 22 47.8 Classroom teacher 24 52.2

University of Eswatini Support System university supervisor developing clear and during Teaching Practice strong lines between ST and him/herself Table 2 reveals that the university (M=4.80, SD=0.40), university supervisor supports CTs and STs through: availing the observing ST teaching during his/her visits handbook during teaching practice (M=4.98, (M=4.67,SD=0.47); university supervisor SD=0.15), university supervisor discussing gives constructive feedback to ST in the ST’s performance together with CT assessment sheet (M=4.67,SD=0.47) ; and (M=4.87,SD=0.34), university supervisor providing detailed contents of the handbook providing ST with written evaluation of (M= 4.26, SD=0.44). observed lessons (M=4.83,SD=0.38),

Table 2 University Support System during Teaching Practice Support system M SD Handbook is made available to CTs during teaching practice 4.98 0.15 University supervisor discusses ST’s performance together with CT 4.87 0.38 University supervisor provides ST with written evaluations of observed lessons 4.83 0.38 University supervisor develops clear and strong lines of communication between him/herself and the ST 4.80 0.40 University supervisor observes ST teaching during his/her visits. 4.67 0.47 University supervisor gives constructive feedback to ST in the assessment sheet 4.67 0.47 University supervisor makes adequate visits to the ST 4.65 0.48 The format for lesson plan is in line with those used in the school 4.52 0.51 The roles for the CT are clearly stated 4.50 0.51 Handbook provides adequate information on how to guide ST 4.26 0.44 University supervisor sits with ST for a pre-evaluation conference 3.83 0.42 University supervisor develops clear and strong lines of communication between him/herself and the cooperating teacher 2.78 0.42 The format for scheme book in the handbook is in line with that used in the school 2.52 0.51 University supervisor frequently contacts the school principal about the progress of the ST 1.83 0.38 Rating scale: 1=Low, 2=Moderately Low, 3 =Moderate, 4= Medium, and 5=High

These findings are inconsistent with and dialogue between the cooperating Cincioglu (2011)’s assertion who reported teacher, university supervisor, and the ST that universities were not supportive both are essential, as suggested by Shinn et al. professionally and financially. Engagement (2008), in a study on perceptions and

144 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 educational aspirations of Armenian include: head teachers never making visits to Agrarian students during curriculum observe ST teach (M=4.98, SD=0.15) and reforms. The findings are related to the STs having difficulties in instilling Mesosystem of the Bronfenbrenner’s Bio- discipline to students (M=4.46, SD=0.50). ecological Theory, as the university Similar findings that STs were challenged provided support through the supervisors with class discipline were reported by Kagan and the Teaching Practice Handbook. (1992) and Stuart and Thurlow (2000). The challenges faced by the CTs are related to Challenges Faced by CTs during the Mesosystem of the Bronfenbrenner’s Teaching Practice Bio-ecological Theory. Table 3 shows that the challenges faced by CTs during teaching practice

Table 3 Challenges Faced by CTs Challenges M SD Head teacher never makes visits to observe ST teach. 4.98 0.15 STs have difficulty instilling discipline to students 4.46 0.50 Agriculture teachers are given an order to supervise STs 3.43 0.50 Heavy workload to accommodate ST supervision 2.46 0.50 ST engaged in love affairs with regular staff 2.20 0.62 The ST asks every piece of information from me 2.13 0.69 ST hardly brings own methods for conducting lessons 2.13 0.69 Cannot cope with assisting ST while teaching other classes 1.85 0.36 STs not well prepared for the practicum 1.43 0.50 Classes are not suitable for a ST 1.43 0.50 STs have difficulty assessing students’ work 1.41 0.50 ST absents him/herself from school without prior notice 1.37 0.61 ST engages in love affairs with students 1.17 0.38 STs do not take suggestions from the cooperating teacher 1.07 0.25 STs having weak rapport with the cooperating teacher. 1.04 0.20 Rating scale: 1= Strongly Disagree, 2= Disagree, 3=Slightly Disagree, 4=Slightly Agree, 5= Agree, and 6=Strongly Agree

Lessons CTs Learned from the Teaching 4). The CTs also learned that the eight Practice weeks period of teaching practice was not The following were lessons learned enough (M=5.09, SD=0.41). The findings by CTs during teaching practice: importance that STs were good in developing and of rapport between the CT and ST (M=5.91, organizing instructional materials for their SD=0.29), and STs are very good at lessons are confirming those by Allen and developing and organizing instructional Eby (2009) and Cincioglu (2011). materials (M=5.83, SD=0.383) (see Table

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Table 4 Lessons that CTs Learnt from the Teaching Practice Lessons M SD Rapport between the CT and ST is important during teaching 5.91 0.29 practice STs are good at developing and organizing teaching materials (aids) 5.83 0.38 The eight weeks is not enough for effectiveness to the ST 5.09 0.41 The success of teaching practice is a result of the CT’s hard work. 3.15 0.42 Rating scale: 1= Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = Slightly Disagree, 4=Slightly Agree, 5 =Agree, 6 = Strongly Agree

Also, Cincioğlu (2011) reported that CTs Suggestions on Enhacing the Role of CTs lamented that the teaching practice duration Table 5 indicates that the roles of was short, which is consistent with the CTs can be enhanced through: providing findings of this study. Findings on the incentives (M=5.76, SD=0.43) and importance of rapport between the CT and evaluation on the CTs (M=4.83, SD=0.53). ST are in line with the Microsystem of the Similarly, Hastings (2006) and Kahn (2001) Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-ecological Theory, concluded that the role of a CT during which emphasizes the importance of teaching practice can be improved by interaction between the individual and providing disciplined, periodical and people in the immediate environment, e.g. detailed training. Mutlu (2014) the work place. The finding on the duration recommended that the teaching practicum of teaching practice being short relates well should be turned into an attractive work with the Chronosystem of the experience, and the CTs should be evaluated Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-ecological Theory, as at the end of every practice. The suggestions it basically focused on the aspect of time. on how the role of CTs could be enhanced have policy implications. These findings touch on the Exosystem, and Macrosystem of the Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-ecological Theory.

Table 5 Suggestions on Enhancing the Role of CTs Suggestions M SD Providing incentives 5.76 0.43 Evaluation of CTs 4.83 0.53 Relieved CT from other duties to focus on STs 2.59 0.69 Provide detailed training on the roles of a CT 1.59 0.59 Rating scale: 1=Strongly disagree, 2= Disagree,3= Slightly Disagree, 4= Slightly Agree, 5= Agree and 6= Strongly Agree

Conclusions & Implications practice handbook. Head teachers at the The University of Eswatini- teaching practice schools were not making Department of Agricultural Education and visits to observe the STs. STs also had Extension supports the CTs through the problems with disciplining students. The University supervisors, who communicate or Department of Agricultural Education and visit them, and the provision of a teaching Extension is providing adequate training to

146 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 26, Issue 2 the STs on the development and usage of findings of the study imply that CTs instructional materials. internationally, should have rapport with the The provision of a teaching practice STs and the university should collaborate handbook reaffirms the individual level– with the cooperating school for the success resource characteristics of the of the teaching practicum. Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-ecological Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Also, the Recommendations suggestion by the CTs that they should be The Department of Agricultural provided with detailed training is form of Education and Extension should improve the motivation (force characteristics - individual role played by the CTs by providing level of Bronfenbrenner’s Bio-ecological workshops, seminars, and conferences. A Theory) as they will acquire skills necessary course on ST supervision must be to supervise the teaching practice introduced to equip prospective CTs with (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). requisite mentorship skills. CTs should be The findings of the study confirmed provided with incentives (such as all the subsystems of the Bronfenbrenner’s allowance) to enhance the effectiveness of Bio-ecological Theory: Microsystem, the teaching practice exercise. In order to Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, and produce quality agriculture teachers Chronosystem. The Microsystem was globally, student teaching supervisors and confirmed as it stresses the importance of teaching training institutions should interaction between the individual and collaborate with the CTs. This could be people in the immediate environment e.g. done by providing detailed relevant the work place (Bronfenbrenner, 1979), feedback to the student’s performance on which encompasses the findings on the their progress throughout the teaching importance of rapport between the CT and practice exercise. Also, a sound relationship ST. The Mesosystem was re-affirmed, as it between the CT and the ST must be entails the different interactions between the established and maintained, otherwise, the characters of the microsystem teaching practice may be jeopardized. (Bronfenbrenner, 1979) reiterated in this Further research must be conducted on study by the findings that the university experiences of teachers, STs, school provided support through the supervisors administration, and learners regarding the and the Teaching Practice Handbook. The teaching practice in the Kingdom of Exosystem and Macrosystem were Eswatini. Similar studies must be conducted confirmed through the suggestions made by globally. the CTs as they have policy implications. The Exosystem relates to the indirect References environment moderating the behavior or Allen, T. D., & Eby, L. T. (2009). functioning of the individual, while the Relationship effectiveness for Macrosystem entails the abstract mentors: Factors associated with environment, consisting of attitudes / learning and quality. Journal of ideologies in which the individual lives Management, 29, 465-486. (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). Finally, the Bronfenbrenner, U. (1977). Toward an Chronosystem was confirmed by the finding experimental ecology of human that the duration of teaching practice was development. American short, as it basically focused on the aspect of Psychologist, 32, 513–531. time (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998). The Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments in

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nature and design. Cambridge, MA: problem-solving approach to Harvard University Press. teaching. Proceedings of the 21st Bronfenbrenner, U. (1995). Developmental Annual National Agricultural ecology through space and time: A Education Research Meeting, 21, future perspective. In P. Moen, G. H. 209-214. Elder, Jr. ,& K. L. Uscher (Eds.), Harlin, J. F., Edwards, M. C., & Briers, G. Examining lives in context: E. (2002). A comparison of student Perspectives on the ecology of teachers’ perceptions of important human development (pp. 619–647). elements of the student teaching Washington, DC: American experience before and after an 11- Psychological Association. week field experience. Journal of Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). Agricultural Education, 43(3), 72- The ecology of developmental 83. processes. In W. Damon & R. M. Hastings, W. (2006). Emotions and the Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of child practicum: The cooperating teachers’ psychology, Vol. 1: Theoretical perspective. Teachers and Teaching: models of human development (5th Theory and Practice, 10(2), 135-148. ed.) (pp. 993–1023). New York: Holland, P. E. (2009). The principal’s role in Wiley. teacher development. SRATE Crasborn, F., Hennissen, P., Brouwer, N., Journal, 17(1), 16-24. Korthagen, F., & Bergen, T. (2011). Kagan, D. (1992). Professional growth Exploring a two dimensional model among pre-service and beginning of mentor teacher roles in mentoring teachers. Review of Educational dialogues. Teaching and Research, 62(3), 129-168. Teacher Education, 27(2), 320–331. Kahn, B. (2001). Portrait of success: doi:10.1016/j.tate.2010.08.014 Cooperating teachers and the student Clarke, A., Triggs, V., & Nielsen, W. teaching experience. Action in (2014). Cooperating teacher Teacher Education, 22(4), 68-78. participation in teacher education: A Krause, K. (2007). Educational psychology: review of the literature. Review of For learning and teaching. Educational Research, 84(2), 163– Australia: Thomson. 202. Lewis, D. H. (2017). Cooperating teachers doi:10.3102/0034654313499618 experiences mentoring pre-service Cincioğlu, O. (2011). Practicum in English teachers. (Unpublished master’s language teaching as perceived by thesis). University of New Mexico mentors at cooperating schools in Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico. Istanbul. (Unpublished doctoral McBride, R.(1996). Teacher Education dissertation). İstanbul University, Policy. Hong Kong İstanbul, Turkey. Mutlu, G. (2014). Challenges in practicum: Frazer, L. (2014). Making your mark. Pre-service and cooperating teachers National Institute for Staff and voices. Journal of Education and Organizational Development Practice, 5(36), 1 – 7. (NISOD), 31(9) 471-7545. Rozelle, J. J., & Wilson, S. M. (2012). Garton, B. L., & Cano, J. (1994). The Opening the black box of field influence of the cooperating teacher experiences: How cooperating on the student teacher’s use of the teachers’ beliefs and practices shape

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student teachers’ beliefs and Torrez, C. A. F., & Krebs, M. M. (2012). practices. Teaching and Teacher Expert voices: What cooperating Education, 28(8), 1196–1205. teachers and teacher candidates say doi:10.1016/j.tate.2012.07.008 about quality student teaching Shinn, G. C., Navarro, M., Duncan, D., placements and experiences? Action Galoyan, I., Briers, G. E., Peake, P., in Teacher Education, 34(5-6), 485– & Parr, B. (2008). Armenian 499. Agrarian students’ perceptions and doi:10.1080/01626620.2012.729477 educational aspirations during Tsikati, A. F., & Nxumalo, M. (July 2018). curriculum reforms: Bologna to Factors contributing to effective Yerevan. Journal of International student teacher supervision in the Agricultural and Extension Faculty of Agriculture and Consumer Education, 15(2), 33-45. doi: Sciences. 17th BOLESWANA 10.5191/jiaee.2008.15203 International Education Research Sinclair, C., Dowson, M., & Thistleton- Symposium, Windoek, Namibia. Martin, J. (2006). Motivations and UNESWA. (2018). Teaching Practice profiles of cooperating teachers: Handbook in Agricultural Education. Who volunteers and why? Teaching Department of Agricultural and Teacher Education, 22, 263-279. Education and Extension, Faculty of Sleeter, C. (2001). Preparing teachers for Agriculture, 1-26. culturally diverse schools: Research Zeichner, K. (2002). Beyond traditional and the overwhelming presence of structures of student teaching. whiteness. Journal of Teacher Teacher Education Quarterly, 29(2), Education, 52(2), 94. doi: 59-64. Retrieved from 10.1177/0022487101052002002 http://www.jstor.org/stable/2347829 Smalley, S. W,. Retallick, M. S., & Paulsen, 1 T. H. (2015). Cooperating teachers ' perspectives of student teaching skills and activities. Journal of Agricultural Education, 56(1) 123- 137, doi:10.5032/jae.2015.04137 Stoynoff, S. (1999). The TESOL practicum: An integrated model in the U.S. TESOL Quarterly, 33(1), 145-151. Stuart, C., & Thurlow, D. (2000). Making it their own: Pre-service teachers’ experiences, beliefs, and classroom practices. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(2), 113-121.

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Manuscript Submission Guidelines

The JIAEE is the official refereed journal of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education (AIAEE).

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