Comment on ``Fractional Quantum Mechanics

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

Comment on ``Fractional Quantum Mechanics Comment on “Fractional quantum mechanics” and “Fractional Schrödinger equation” Yuchuan Wei To cite this version: Yuchuan Wei. Comment on “Fractional quantum mechanics” and “Fractional Schrödinger equation”. Physical Review B: Condensed Matter and Materials Physics (1998-2015), American Physical Society, 2016, 93, 10.1103/physreve.93.066103. hal-01588657 HAL Id: hal-01588657 https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01588657 Submitted on 16 Sep 2017 HAL is a multi-disciplinary open access L’archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire HAL, est archive for the deposit and dissemination of sci- destinée au dépôt et à la diffusion de documents entific research documents, whether they are pub- scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, lished or not. The documents may come from émanant des établissements d’enseignement et de teaching and research institutions in France or recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires abroad, or from public or private research centers. publics ou privés. 1 PHYSICAL REVIEW E 00, 006100 (2016) 2 Comment on “Fractional quantum mechanics” and “Fractional Schrodinger¨ equation” * 3 Yuchuan Wei () 4 Nanmengqian, Dafeng, Wuzhi, Henan, 454981, China 5 (Received 19 July 2015; revised manuscript received 14 January 2016; published xxxxxx) 6 In this Comment we point out some shortcomings in two papers [N. Laskin, Phys.Rev.E62, 3135 (2000); 66, 7 056108 (2002)]. We prove that the fractional uncertainty relation does not hold generally. The probability 8 continuity equation in fractional quantum mechanics has a missing source term, which leads to particle 9 teleportation, i.e., a particle can teleport from a place to another. Since the relativistic kinetic energy can be 10 viewed as an approximate realization of the fractional kinetic energy, the particle teleportation should be an 11 observable relativistic effect in quantum mechanics. With the help of this concept, superconductivity could be 12 viewed as the teleportation of electrons from one side of a superconductor to another and superfluidity could be 13 viewed as the teleportation of helium atoms from one end of a capillary tube to the other. We also point out how 14 to teleport a particle to an arbitrary destination. 15 DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevE.00.006100 16 I. INTRODUCTION (ii) The fractional probability continuity equation obtained 41 by Laskin [3]was 42 17 Historically quantum mechanics based on a non-New- 18 tonian kinetic energy has been studied widely [1]. In ∂ ρ + ∇ · jα = 0, (4) 19 Refs. [2,3], standard quantum mechanics [4] was generalized ∂t 20 to fractional quantum mechanics. The Schrodinger¨ equation where the probability density and current density were defined 43 21 was rewritten as as 44 ∂ ρ = ψ∗ψ, i ψ(r,t) = Hαψ(r,t), ∂t − ∗ − − ∗ j =−iD α 1[ψ (−∇2)α/2 1∇ψ − ψ(−∇2)α/2 1∇ψ ]. α α α Hα = Tα + V = Dα|p| + V (r). (1) (5) 22 As usual, ψ(r,t) is a wave function defined in the three- In fact, a source term was missing, which indicates another 45 23 dimensional space and dependent on time t, Dα is a constant way of probability transportation, probability teleportation. 46 24 dependent on the fractional parameter 1 <α 2, r and p (iii) The relationship between fractional quantum mechan- 47 25 are the position and momentum operators, respectively, ics and the real world was not given and it was almost 48 26 is the Plank constant, and m is the mass of a particle. The impossible to find the applications of this theory. Here we will 49 27 fractional Hamiltonian operator Hα is the sum of the fractional point out that the relativistic kinetic energy can be viewed as an 50 28 kinetic energy Tα and the potential energy V (r). When α = 2, approximate realization of the fractional kinetic energy, which 51 29 taking D2 = 1/(2m), the fractional kinetic energy becomes makes the probability teleportation a practical phenomenon. 52 30 the classical kinetic energy Now we will discuss these shortcomings in order. For the 53 + convenience, please be reminded that the symbol H in [2,3] 54 p2 T = = T (2) should be H. 55 2 2m 31 and the fractional Schrodinger¨ equation becomes the standard II. FRACTIONAL UNCERTAINTY RELATION 56 32 Schrodinger¨ equation. When 1 <α<2, the fractional kinetic A. The uncertainty relation is independent of wave equations 57 33 energy operator is defined by the momentum representation 34 [2]. However, there exist three shortcomings in this recent For simplicity, we do not consider wave functions that 58 35 quantum theory. are not square integrable. Suppose that ψ(x) is a normal- 59 36 (i) The Heisenberg uncertainty relation was generalized to ized square-integrable wave function defined on the x axis. 60 37 the fractional uncertainty relation [2] Heisenberg’s uncertainty relation says [4] 61 2 2 1/μ 1/μ (x) (p) , (6) |x|μ |p|μ > , μ<α, 1 <α 2. (3) 2 (2α)1/μ where 62 38 It seems unsuitable to call this inequality fractional uncer- x = x − x,p= p − p. (7) 39 tainty relation and this inequality does not hold mathemati- 40 cally. As usual, x and p stand for the one-dimensional position 63 and momentum operators and x and p stand for their 64 averages on the wave function ψ(x), for example, 65 ∞ = ∗ − ∂ * p ψ (x) i ψ(x)dx. (8) [email protected] −∞ ∂x 2470-0045/2016/00(00)/006100(5) 006100-1 ©2016 American Physical Society COMMENTS PHYSICAL REVIEW E 00, 006100 (2016) 66 This relation holds for all the square-integral functions and sides of the inequality (3) are continuous functions about 103 67 it is a property of the space of square-integrable functions. A α. Taking the limα→1+ of the both sides of the fractional 104 68 complete mathematical proof can be seen in [5]. uncertainty relation (3), we get 105 69 As a kinetic equation, the Schrodinger¨ equation ∂ |x||p| , (13) i ψ(x,t) = Hψ(x,t)(9) 2 ∂t which contradicts inequality (12). Therefore, the fractional 106 70 tells us how to determine the wave-function–time relation uncertainty relation (3) does not hold mathematically. 107 71 ψ x,t H ( ) by the Hamiltonian operator given the initial wave Further, once the fractional uncertainty relation does not 108 72 ψ x, function ( 0). From the viewpoint of geometry, Eq. (9) de- hold for certain α at t = 0, we know that there exists a 109 73 fines a curve in the space of square-integrable functions, which small time neighborhood [0,δ) for which the relation does 110 74 t = passes a given point at time 0. Heisenberg’s uncertainty not hold either since the wave packet has not expanded very 111 75 ¨ relation and the Schrodinger equation are independent. Laskin much. In short, the fractional generalization of the Heisenberg 112 76 ¨ generalized the Schrodinger equation, but wave functions uncertainty relation does not hold generally. 113 77 remains square-integrable functions. In other words, the used We would like to explain why we can take α = 1, which 114 78 function space remains the space of the square-integrable was not included in [2,3]. The case α = 1 is just a step of 115 79 functions, so the Heisenberg uncertainty relation remains true, our proof, like an auxiliary line used in geometry problems. 116 80 regardless of the standard or fractional quantum mechanics. Here we add two points. (i) There exist papers that allow 117 81 In addition, suppose that there is an uncertainty relation 0 <α 2. In [6], Jeng et al. claimed that Laskin’s solutions 118 82 ¨ that holds for all the solutions of the fractional Schrodinger for the infinite square-well problem were wrong by means of 119 83 α α = . equation (1) with certain , e.g., 1 5. Since the initial wave the evidence from the case 0 <α<1. In fact, the evidence 120 84 ψ x, function ( 0) is an arbitrary square-integrable function, from the case α = 1 is more straightforward [7]. (ii) The 121 85 we know that this uncertainty relation holds for the whole fractional Schrodinger¨ equation with α = 1 has many closed- 122 86 space of square-integrable functions. Therefore, there does form solutions [8], which is an easy starting point for the study 123 87 not exist a so-called fractional uncertainty relation. Generally of the fractional Schrodinger¨ equation with 1 <α<2. 124 88 speaking, a generalization [1] of the Schrodinger¨ equation does 89 not generate new uncertainty relations if the wave functions III. PROBABILITY CONTINUITY EQUATION 125 90 remain square-integrable functions. A. Correct probability continuity equation 126 91 B. Fractional uncertainty relation does not hold in mathematics In this section we present the correct probability continuity 127 92 Even with the Levy wave packet [Eq. (35) in [2]], equations in the fractional quantum mechanics and reveal a 128 93 the uncertainty relation (3) does not hold in the sense of different phenomenon of the probability transportation. From 129 94 mathematics. We prove it by contradiction. There are two the fraction Schrodinger¨ equation (1) we can get 130 95 steps. ∂ ∗ ∗ ∗ 96 (i) Let us consider the case μ = 1 and α = 1 first. The i (ψ ψ) = ψ T ψ − ψT ψ . (14) ∂t α α 97 Levy wave packet with ν = 1att = 0is According to Laskin’s definitions of the probability density 131 l ∞ |p − p |l p 1 0 and the current density (5), the correct probability continuity 132 ψL(x,0) = exp − exp i x dp 2 π −∞ 2 equation 133 3 1 l 1 p0 ∂ = exp i x . (10) ρ + ∇ · jα = Iα (15) 2 π x2 + (l/2)2 ∂t 98 The letters L denotes the Levy wave packet and l is a has an extra source term 134 99 reference length.
Recommended publications
  • Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics
    Path Integrals in Quantum Mechanics Dennis V. Perepelitsa MIT Department of Physics 70 Amherst Ave. Cambridge, MA 02142 Abstract We present the path integral formulation of quantum mechanics and demon- strate its equivalence to the Schr¨odinger picture. We apply the method to the free particle and quantum harmonic oscillator, investigate the Euclidean path integral, and discuss other applications. 1 Introduction A fundamental question in quantum mechanics is how does the state of a particle evolve with time? That is, the determination the time-evolution ψ(t) of some initial | i state ψ(t ) . Quantum mechanics is fully predictive [3] in the sense that initial | 0 i conditions and knowledge of the potential occupied by the particle is enough to fully specify the state of the particle for all future times.1 In the early twentieth century, Erwin Schr¨odinger derived an equation specifies how the instantaneous change in the wavefunction d ψ(t) depends on the system dt | i inhabited by the state in the form of the Hamiltonian. In this formulation, the eigenstates of the Hamiltonian play an important role, since their time-evolution is easy to calculate (i.e. they are stationary). A well-established method of solution, after the entire eigenspectrum of Hˆ is known, is to decompose the initial state into this eigenbasis, apply time evolution to each and then reassemble the eigenstates. That is, 1In the analysis below, we consider only the position of a particle, and not any other quantum property such as spin. 2 D.V. Perepelitsa n=∞ ψ(t) = exp [ iE t/~] n ψ(t ) n (1) | i − n h | 0 i| i n=0 X This (Hamiltonian) formulation works in many cases.
    [Show full text]
  • Key Concepts for Future QIS Learners Workshop Output Published Online May 13, 2020
    Key Concepts for Future QIS Learners Workshop output published online May 13, 2020 Background and Overview On behalf of the Interagency Working Group on Workforce, Industry and Infrastructure, under the NSTC Subcommittee on Quantum Information Science (QIS), the National Science Foundation invited 25 researchers and educators to come together to deliberate on defining a core set of key concepts for future QIS learners that could provide a starting point for further curricular and educator development activities. The deliberative group included university and industry researchers, secondary school and college educators, and representatives from educational and professional organizations. The workshop participants focused on identifying concepts that could, with additional supporting resources, help prepare secondary school students to engage with QIS and provide possible pathways for broader public engagement. This workshop report identifies a set of nine Key Concepts. Each Concept is introduced with a concise overall statement, followed by a few important fundamentals. Connections to current and future technologies are included, providing relevance and context. The first Key Concept defines the field as a whole. Concepts 2-6 introduce ideas that are necessary for building an understanding of quantum information science and its applications. Concepts 7-9 provide short explanations of critical areas of study within QIS: quantum computing, quantum communication and quantum sensing. The Key Concepts are not intended to be an introductory guide to quantum information science, but rather provide a framework for future expansion and adaptation for students at different levels in computer science, mathematics, physics, and chemistry courses. As such, it is expected that educators and other community stakeholders may not yet have a working knowledge of content covered in the Key Concepts.
    [Show full text]
  • Exercises in Classical Mechanics 1 Moments of Inertia 2 Half-Cylinder
    Exercises in Classical Mechanics CUNY GC, Prof. D. Garanin No.1 Solution ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||| 1 Moments of inertia (5 points) Calculate tensors of inertia with respect to the principal axes of the following bodies: a) Hollow sphere of mass M and radius R: b) Cone of the height h and radius of the base R; both with respect to the apex and to the center of mass. c) Body of a box shape with sides a; b; and c: Solution: a) By symmetry for the sphere I®¯ = I±®¯: (1) One can ¯nd I easily noticing that for the hollow sphere is 1 1 X ³ ´ I = (I + I + I ) = m y2 + z2 + z2 + x2 + x2 + y2 3 xx yy zz 3 i i i i i i i i 2 X 2 X 2 = m r2 = R2 m = MR2: (2) 3 i i 3 i 3 i i b) and c): Standard solutions 2 Half-cylinder ϕ (10 points) Consider a half-cylinder of mass M and radius R on a horizontal plane. a) Find the position of its center of mass (CM) and the moment of inertia with respect to CM. b) Write down the Lagrange function in terms of the angle ' (see Fig.) c) Find the frequency of cylinder's oscillations in the linear regime, ' ¿ 1. Solution: (a) First we ¯nd the distance a between the CM and the geometrical center of the cylinder. With σ being the density for the cross-sectional surface, so that ¼R2 M = σ ; (3) 2 1 one obtains Z Z 2 2σ R p σ R q a = dx x R2 ¡ x2 = dy R2 ¡ y M 0 M 0 ¯ 2 ³ ´3=2¯R σ 2 2 ¯ σ 2 3 4 = ¡ R ¡ y ¯ = R = R: (4) M 3 0 M 3 3¼ The moment of inertia of the half-cylinder with respect to the geometrical center is the same as that of the cylinder, 1 I0 = MR2: (5) 2 The moment of inertia with respect to the CM I can be found from the relation I0 = I + Ma2 (6) that yields " µ ¶ # " # 1 4 2 1 32 I = I0 ¡ Ma2 = MR2 ¡ = MR2 1 ¡ ' 0:3199MR2: (7) 2 3¼ 2 (3¼)2 (b) The Lagrange function L is given by L('; '_ ) = T ('; '_ ) ¡ U('): (8) The potential energy U of the half-cylinder is due to the elevation of its CM resulting from the deviation of ' from zero.
    [Show full text]
  • Solving the Quantum Scattering Problem for Systems of Two and Three Charged Particles
    Solving the quantum scattering problem for systems of two and three charged particles Solving the quantum scattering problem for systems of two and three charged particles Mikhail Volkov c Mikhail Volkov, Stockholm 2011 ISBN 978-91-7447-213-4 Printed in Sweden by Universitetsservice US-AB, Stockholm 2011 Distributor: Department of Physics, Stockholm University In memory of Professor Valentin Ostrovsky Abstract A rigorous formalism for solving the Coulomb scattering problem is presented in this thesis. The approach is based on splitting the interaction potential into a finite-range part and a long-range tail part. In this representation the scattering problem can be reformulated to one which is suitable for applying exterior complex scaling. The scaled problem has zero boundary conditions at infinity and can be implemented numerically for finding scattering amplitudes. The systems under consideration may consist of two or three charged particles. The technique presented in this thesis is first developed for the case of a two body single channel Coulomb scattering problem. The method is mathe- matically validated for the partial wave formulation of the scattering problem. Integral and local representations for the partial wave scattering amplitudes have been derived. The partial wave results are summed up to obtain the scat- tering amplitude for the three dimensional scattering problem. The approach is generalized to allow the two body multichannel scattering problem to be solved. The theoretical results are illustrated with numerical calculations for a number of models. Finally, the potential splitting technique is further developed and validated for the three body Coulomb scattering problem. It is shown that only a part of the total interaction potential should be split to obtain the inhomogeneous equation required such that the method of exterior complex scaling can be applied.
    [Show full text]
  • Zero-Point Energy of Ultracold Atoms
    Zero-point energy of ultracold atoms Luca Salasnich1,2 and Flavio Toigo1 1Dipartimento di Fisica e Astronomia “Galileo Galilei” and CNISM, Universit`adi Padova, via Marzolo 8, 35131 Padova, Italy 2CNR-INO, via Nello Carrara, 1 - 50019 Sesto Fiorentino, Italy Abstract We analyze the divergent zero-point energy of a dilute and ultracold gas of atoms in D spatial dimensions. For bosonic atoms we explicitly show how to regularize this divergent contribution, which appears in the Gaussian fluctuations of the functional integration, by using three different regular- ization approaches: dimensional regularization, momentum-cutoff regular- ization and convergence-factor regularization. In the case of the ideal Bose gas the divergent zero-point fluctuations are completely removed, while in the case of the interacting Bose gas these zero-point fluctuations give rise to a finite correction to the equation of state. The final convergent equa- tion of state is independent of the regularization procedure but depends on the dimensionality of the system and the two-dimensional case is highly nontrivial. We also discuss very recent theoretical results on the divergent zero-point energy of the D-dimensional superfluid Fermi gas in the BCS- BEC crossover. In this case the zero-point energy is due to both fermionic single-particle excitations and bosonic collective excitations, and its regu- larization gives remarkable analytical results in the BEC regime of compos- ite bosons. We compare the beyond-mean-field equations of state of both bosons and fermions with relevant experimental data on dilute and ultra- cold atoms quantitatively confirming the contribution of zero-point-energy quantum fluctuations to the thermodynamics of ultracold atoms at very low temperatures.
    [Show full text]
  • Discrete Variable Representations and Sudden Models in Quantum
    Volume 89. number 6 CHLMICAL PHYSICS LEITERS 9 July 1981 DISCRETEVARlABLE REPRESENTATIONS AND SUDDEN MODELS IN QUANTUM SCATTERING THEORY * J.V. LILL, G.A. PARKER * and J.C. LIGHT l7re JarrresFranc/t insrihrre and The Depwrmcnr ofC7temtsrry. Tire llm~crsrry of Chrcago. Otrcago. l7lrrrors60637. USA Received 26 September 1981;m fin11 form 29 May 1982 An c\act fOrmhSm In which rhe scarrcnng problem may be descnbcd by smsor coupled cqumons hbclcd CIIIW bb bans iuncltons or quadrature pomts ISpresented USCof each frame and the srnrplyculuatcd unitary wmsformatlon which connects them resulis III an cfliclcnt procedure ror pcrrormrnpqu~nrum scxrcrrn~ ca~cubr~ons TWO ~ppro~mac~~~ arc compxcd wrh ihe IOS. 1. Introduction “ergenvalue-like” expressions, rcspcctnely. In each case the potential is represented by the potcntud Quantum-mechamcal scattering calculations are function Itself evahrated at a set of pomts. most often performed in the close-coupled representa- Whjle these models have been shown to be cffcc- tion (CCR) in which the internal degrees of freedom tive III many problems,there are numerousambiguities are expanded in an appropnate set of basis functions in their apphcation,especially wtth regardto the resulting in a set of coupled diiierentral equations UI choice of constants. Further, some models possess the scattering distance R [ 1,2] _The method is exact formal difficulties such as loss of time reversal sym- IO w&in a truncation error and convergence is ob- metry, non-physical coupling, and non-conservation tained by increasing the size of the basis and hence the of energy and momentum [ 1S-191. In fact, it has number of coupled equations (NJ While considerable never been demonstrated that sudden models fit into progress has been madein the developmentof efficient any exactframework for solutionof the scattering algonthmsfor the solunonof theseequations [3-71, problem.
    [Show full text]
  • The S-Matrix Formulation of Quantum Statistical Mechanics, with Application to Cold Quantum Gas
    THE S-MATRIX FORMULATION OF QUANTUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS, WITH APPLICATION TO COLD QUANTUM GAS A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of Cornell University in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Pye Ton How August 2011 c 2011 Pye Ton How ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THE S-MATRIX FORMULATION OF QUANTUM STATISTICAL MECHANICS, WITH APPLICATION TO COLD QUANTUM GAS Pye Ton How, Ph.D. Cornell University 2011 A novel formalism of quantum statistical mechanics, based on the zero-temperature S-matrix of the quantum system, is presented in this thesis. In our new formalism, the lowest order approximation (“two-body approximation”) corresponds to the ex- act resummation of all binary collision terms, and can be expressed as an integral equation reminiscent of the thermodynamic Bethe Ansatz (TBA). Two applica- tions of this formalism are explored: the critical point of a weakly-interacting Bose gas in two dimensions, and the scaling behavior of quantum gases at the unitary limit in two and three spatial dimensions. We found that a weakly-interacting 2D Bose gas undergoes a superfluid transition at T 2πn/[m log(2π/mg)], where n c ≈ is the number density, m the mass of a particle, and g the coupling. In the unitary limit where the coupling g diverges, the two-body kernel of our integral equation has simple forms in both two and three spatial dimensions, and we were able to solve the integral equation numerically. Various scaling functions in the unitary limit are defined (as functions of µ/T ) and computed from the numerical solutions.
    [Show full text]
  • (2021) Transmon in a Semi-Infinite High-Impedance Transmission Line
    PHYSICAL REVIEW RESEARCH 3, 023003 (2021) Transmon in a semi-infinite high-impedance transmission line: Appearance of cavity modes and Rabi oscillations E. Wiegand ,1,* B. Rousseaux ,2 and G. Johansson 1 1Applied Quantum Physics Laboratory, Department of Microtechnology and Nanoscience-MC2, Chalmers University of Technology, 412 96 Göteborg, Sweden 2Laboratoire de Physique de l’École Normale Supérieure, ENS, Université PSL, CNRS, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, 75005 Paris, France (Received 8 December 2020; accepted 11 March 2021; published 1 April 2021) In this paper, we investigate the dynamics of a single superconducting artificial atom capacitively coupled to a transmission line with a characteristic impedance comparable to or larger than the quantum resistance. In this regime, microwaves are reflected from the atom also at frequencies far from the atom’s transition frequency. Adding a single mirror in the transmission line then creates cavity modes between the atom and the mirror. Investigating the spontaneous emission from the atom, we then find Rabi oscillations, where the energy oscillates between the atom and one of the cavity modes. DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevResearch.3.023003 I. INTRODUCTION [43]. Furthermore, high-impedance resonators make it pos- sible for light-matter interaction to reach strong-coupling In the past two decades, circuit quantum electrodynamics regimes due to strong coupling to vacuum fluctuations [44]. (circuit QED) has become a field of growing interest for quan- In this article, we investigate the spontaneous emission tum information processing and also to realize new regimes of a transmon [45] capacitively coupled to a 1D TL that is in quantum optics [1–11].
    [Show full text]
  • Quantum Mechanics
    Quantum Mechanics Richard Fitzpatrick Professor of Physics The University of Texas at Austin Contents 1 Introduction 5 1.1 Intendedaudience................................ 5 1.2 MajorSources .................................. 5 1.3 AimofCourse .................................. 6 1.4 OutlineofCourse ................................ 6 2 Probability Theory 7 2.1 Introduction ................................... 7 2.2 WhatisProbability?.............................. 7 2.3 CombiningProbabilities. ... 7 2.4 Mean,Variance,andStandardDeviation . ..... 9 2.5 ContinuousProbabilityDistributions. ........ 11 3 Wave-Particle Duality 13 3.1 Introduction ................................... 13 3.2 Wavefunctions.................................. 13 3.3 PlaneWaves ................................... 14 3.4 RepresentationofWavesviaComplexFunctions . ....... 15 3.5 ClassicalLightWaves ............................. 18 3.6 PhotoelectricEffect ............................. 19 3.7 QuantumTheoryofLight. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 21 3.8 ClassicalInterferenceofLightWaves . ...... 21 3.9 QuantumInterferenceofLight . 22 3.10 ClassicalParticles . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 25 3.11 QuantumParticles............................... 25 3.12 WavePackets .................................. 26 2 QUANTUM MECHANICS 3.13 EvolutionofWavePackets . 29 3.14 Heisenberg’sUncertaintyPrinciple . ........ 32 3.15 Schr¨odinger’sEquation . 35 3.16 CollapseoftheWaveFunction . 36 4 Fundamentals of Quantum Mechanics 39 4.1 Introduction ..................................
    [Show full text]
  • Zero-Point Energy and Interstellar Travel by Josh Williams
    ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; itself comes from the conversion of electromagnetic Zero-Point Energy and radiation energy into electrical energy, or more speciÞcally, the conversion of an extremely high Interstellar Travel frequency bandwidth of the electromagnetic spectrum (beyond Gamma rays) now known as the zero-point by Josh Williams spectrum. ÒEre many generations pass, our machinery will be driven by power obtainable at any point in the universeÉ it is a mere question of time when men will succeed in attaching their machinery to the very wheel work of nature.Ó ÐNikola Tesla, 1892 Some call it the ultimate free lunch. Others call it absolutely useless. But as our world civilization is quickly coming upon a terrifying energy crisis with As you can see, the wavelengths from this part of little hope at the moment, radical new ideas of usable the spectrum are incredibly small, literally atomic and energy will be coming to the forefront and zero-point sub-atomic in size. And since the wavelength is so energy is one that is currently on its way. small, it follows that the frequency is quite high. The importance of this is that the intensity of the energy So, what the hell is it? derived for zero-point energy has been reported to be Zero-point energy is a type of energy that equal to the cube (the third power) of the frequency. exists in molecules and atoms even at near absolute So obviously, since weÕre already talking about zero temperatures (-273¡C or 0 K) in a vacuum. some pretty high frequencies with this portion of At even fractions of a Kelvin above absolute zero, the electromagnetic spectrum, weÕre talking about helium still remains a liquid, and this is said to be some really high energy intensities.
    [Show full text]
  • Relativistic Quantum Mechanics 1
    Relativistic Quantum Mechanics 1 The aim of this chapter is to introduce a relativistic formalism which can be used to describe particles and their interactions. The emphasis 1.1 SpecialRelativity 1 is given to those elements of the formalism which can be carried on 1.2 One-particle states 7 to Relativistic Quantum Fields (RQF), which underpins the theoretical 1.3 The Klein–Gordon equation 9 framework of high energy particle physics. We begin with a brief summary of special relativity, concentrating on 1.4 The Diracequation 14 4-vectors and spinors. One-particle states and their Lorentz transforma- 1.5 Gaugesymmetry 30 tions follow, leading to the Klein–Gordon and the Dirac equations for Chaptersummary 36 probability amplitudes; i.e. Relativistic Quantum Mechanics (RQM). Readers who want to get to RQM quickly, without studying its foun- dation in special relativity can skip the first sections and start reading from the section 1.3. Intrinsic problems of RQM are discussed and a region of applicability of RQM is defined. Free particle wave functions are constructed and particle interactions are described using their probability currents. A gauge symmetry is introduced to derive a particle interaction with a classical gauge field. 1.1 Special Relativity Einstein’s special relativity is a necessary and fundamental part of any Albert Einstein 1879 - 1955 formalism of particle physics. We begin with its brief summary. For a full account, refer to specialized books, for example (1) or (2). The- ory oriented students with good mathematical background might want to consult books on groups and their representations, for example (3), followed by introductory books on RQM/RQF, for example (4).
    [Show full text]
  • Newtonian Mechanics Is Most Straightforward in Its Formulation and Is Based on Newton’S Second Law
    CLASSICAL MECHANICS D. A. Garanin September 30, 2015 1 Introduction Mechanics is part of physics studying motion of material bodies or conditions of their equilibrium. The latter is the subject of statics that is important in engineering. General properties of motion of bodies regardless of the source of motion (in particular, the role of constraints) belong to kinematics. Finally, motion caused by forces or interactions is the subject of dynamics, the biggest and most important part of mechanics. Concerning systems studied, mechanics can be divided into mechanics of material points, mechanics of rigid bodies, mechanics of elastic bodies, and mechanics of fluids: hydro- and aerodynamics. At the core of each of these areas of mechanics is the equation of motion, Newton's second law. Mechanics of material points is described by ordinary differential equations (ODE). One can distinguish between mechanics of one or few bodies and mechanics of many-body systems. Mechanics of rigid bodies is also described by ordinary differential equations, including positions and velocities of their centers and the angles defining their orientation. Mechanics of elastic bodies and fluids (that is, mechanics of continuum) is more compli- cated and described by partial differential equation. In many cases mechanics of continuum is coupled to thermodynamics, especially in aerodynamics. The subject of this course are systems described by ODE, including particles and rigid bodies. There are two limitations on classical mechanics. First, speeds of the objects should be much smaller than the speed of light, v c, otherwise it becomes relativistic mechanics. Second, the bodies should have a sufficiently large mass and/or kinetic energy.
    [Show full text]