Resettlement in the Narmada Valley: Participation, Gender and Sustainable Livelihoods
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RESETTLEMENT IN THE NARMADA VALLEY: PARTICIPATION, GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS by Anupmajain A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy London School of Economics and Political Science 2005 UMI Number: U615632 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615632 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 P y V ' ' JV OF ’ POLITICAL (% AND I i L l ' t O London School of Economics and Political Science Abstract RESETTLEMENT IN THE NARMADA VALLEY: PARTICIPATION, GENDER AND SUSTAINABLE LIVELIHOODS by Anupma Jain The purpose of this thesis is to investigate the effect of Gujarat’s Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R) policy of 1987 on the livelihoods of resettlers, with special reference to the impacts on women. The sample is comprised of tribals who were displaced by the Sardar Sarovar Project and had relocated mainly in the early 1990s to resettlement sites in Vadodara District, Gujarat. The main objective of the research is to determine the extent to which the R&R policy was actually implemented, the effect of the nature and degree of participation on policy implementation and the effect of policy implementation on resettlers’ livelihoods. Data were collected from 370 heads of households and 89 women from six resettlement sites during 2000- 2001. About half of these selected women had participated in the R&R process and/or had received compensation under the policy. Research revealed that, through an active participation process which included enhanced awareness and information gathering, self-mobilisation and grassroots action, project-affected people acquired the right to implement choice. With support from non-governmental organisations, they were able to incorporate three unique provisions not typical of resettlement projects elsewhere. These included: the right to five acres of replacement land, irrespective of previous land title status; choice in the selection of resettlement site and relocation unit and access to infrastructure and amenities at new resettlement sites. Contrary to most resettlement experiences elsewhere, households enjoyed substantial improvements in their living conditions post-resettlement, including a modification in gender relations as a result of smaller household sizes and modified structures. A spill over effect was also observed whereby those who had not participated direcdy also benefited from the policy. With support from external organisations and institutions, resettlers maintained greater control over their lives and decision-making abilities. Feelings of vulnerability and insecurity normally associated with forced resettlement were noticeably reduced. TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract .......................................................................................................... ii List of Maps ..................................................................................................ix List of Tables .................................................................................................x List of Figures .............................................................................................xiv Acknowledgments .......................................................................................xv Abbreviations .............................................................................................xvii Glossary ........................................................................................................ xx Chapter 1. Introduction ................................................................................1 1.1. The Narmada River and its Valley ...........................................................3 1.2. The Sardar Sarovar Project ......................................................................6 1.3. Large Dams: Temples or Disease of Gigantism? ................................. 12 1.4. Tribal Populations: Indigenous Peoples or Original Dwellers? ........... 16 1.5. Research Background and Rationale ..................................................... 21 1.5.1. Prior Research, 1993 ............................................................... 21 1.5.2. Prior Research, 1997 ............................................................... 23 1.5.3. Next Steps ................................................................................25 1.6. Research Questions ................................................................................26 1.7. Methodology ...........................................................................................30 1.7.1. The Research Surveys................................................................33 1.7.2. Resettlement Site Selection ....................................................... 37 1.7.3. Study Population ........................................................................39 1.7.4. Challenges and Obstacles ..........................................................43 1.8. Structure of the Thesis ........................................................................... 44 Chapter 2. Involuntary Resetdement: An Opportunity for Development through R&R Policies ........................................................ 49 2.1. Dams and Involuntary Resettlement .....................................................50 2.2. Approaches to Involuntary Resettlement ............................................ 55 2.3. India and Involuntary Resettlement ...................................................... 59 2.4. R&R: Issues and Debates .....................................................................62 2.4.1. Debate 1: The Beneficiaries ..................................................... 64 2.4.2. Debate 2: Gender and Displacement .......................................68 2.4.3. Debate 3: Compensation —Cash or Kind ...............................71 2.5. Gujarat’s R&R Policy............................................................................ 74 2.5.1. Land Allotment ..........................................................................77 2.5.2. Provision of Choice ................................................................... 79 2.5.3. Site Infrastructure and Amenities ............................................. 80 2.6. Conclusion ...........................................................................................81 Chapter 3. Evolution of Gujarat’s R&R Policy, 1987 ..............................84 3.1. Politics Surrounding the SSP: The Role of the State Governments.. 86 3.2. The Process of People’s Participation in Policy Development ...........89 3.3. Role of the World Bank........................................................................94 3.4. Role of Non-governmental Organisations and Research Institutions ..........................................................................................99 3.4.1. The Narmada Bachao Andolan ............................................. 99 3.4.2. ARCH-Vahini ....................................................................... 101 3.4.3. Centre for Social Studies .......................................................102 3.5. The Sardar Sarovar Punarvasavat Agency ......................................... 103 3.5.1. SSPA —The Executive Committee ..................................... 104 3.5.2. SSPA —Grievance Redressal Authority .............................. 106 3.5.3. SSPA —General Body ..........................................................108 3.5.4. SSPA —Other Divisions ......................................................109 3.6. Relationship Amongst Organisations .................................................109 3.6.1. Relationship Between the Government and N G O s ...........110 3.6.2. Relationship Between ARCH-Vahini and the NBA ............112 3.7. Conclusion ......................................................................................... 114 Chapter 4. A Sustainable Livelihoods Approach to Involuntary Resettlement...............................................................................................117 4.1. Sustainable Livelihoods: An Approach to Rural Development ........ 118 4.1.1. Livelihoods Approaches Adopted by Agencies ...................119 4.1.2. Critiques of the Different SL Approaches .......................... 122 4.2. Past R&R Frameworks .......................................................................125 4.1.1 The Risks and Reconstruction Model ..................................126 4.1.2 The Four Stages of Relocation .............................................129 4.1.3 Other R&R Frameworks ......................................................132 4.3. The Sustainable Livelihoods and Involuntary Resettlement Approach and Framework ..................................................................................132 4.3.1. Vulnerability Context: Involuntary Resettlement ............... 135 4.3.2. Livelihood Strategies Pre-Policy (Prior-December 1987).... 137 4.3.3. Livelihood Assets: Definitions and Endowments ............