Notes

PART I A TRADITION OF CONFLICT

1: Marriage of Convenience

1 Diogo Freitas do Amaral, Uma SolucËaÄo para Portugal (Lisbon: PublicacËoÄes Europa-AmeÂrica, 1985), p. 37. 2 AntoÂnio de SpõÂnola, PaõÂs Sem Rumo ± Contributo para a HistoÂria de uma Revo- lucËaÄo (Lisbon: Editorial SCIRE, 1978), pp. 41±2. 3 `Mozambique Parties Answer Osagyefo's ``Close Ranks Call'' ', Evening News, Accra, 6 June 1962, pp. 1,2. 4 `Memorandum of Conversation' between William L. Wight, Jr, deputy dir- ector, Office of East African Affairs, and Eduardo Mondlane at the State Department, Washington, DC on 16 May 1961. This and other State Depart- ment documents released at author's request under the Freedom of Informa- tion Act, Request No. 9101351 (hereinafter FOIA:). 5Eduardo Mondlane, `Present Conditions in Mozambique', 1 May 1961, pp. 10a, 12 from the Immanuel Wallerstein Collection of Political Ephemera, Reel Number 4, Sterling Memorial Library, Yale University. 6 FOIA: Under Secretary of State Chester Bowles to National Security Adviser McGeorge Bundy, 23 May 1961. 7 FOIA: `Memorandum of Conversation', 16 May 1961, op. cit. 8 FOIA: `Memorandum of Conversation' at the State Department on 8 February 1962. Participants: Robert Stephens, Office of Cultural Affairs; Charles W. Grover, Office of East African Affairs; and Eduardo Mon- dlane. 9 TelevisaÄo de MocËambique, 20 September 1997. 10 Francisco Ferreira, interview with author in Lisbon, 23±24 November 1988. Ferreira was an exiled Portuguese Communist Party member during Santos' visit to Moscow in 1957. 11 Udenamo and MANU statement, Dar es Salaam, 25May 1962. 12 Evening News, op. cit. 13 FOIA: `Memorandum of Conversation', 8 February 1962, op. cit. 14 FOIA: Foreign Service Dispatch, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 19 June 1962. 15Ibid. 16 FOIA: Confidential Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 26 June 1962. 17 FOIA: Confidential Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 29 June 1962. 18 FOIA: Confidential Airgram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 10 July 1962. 19 Ibid.

273 274 Notes

2: Profile of a Leader

20 AndreÂ-Daniel Clerc, `Eduardo Mondlane: Dados BiograÂficos pelo seu Tutor', Datas e Documentos da HistoÂria da Frelimo, LourencËo Marques 1975, pp. 361±369. 21 Eduardo Mondlane, `Mozambique' in Ronald H. Chilcote, `Emerging Nation- alism in Portuguese Africa ± Documents', pp. 410±411, Stanford, California: Hoover Institution Press, 1972. 22 Professor Adriano Moreira, interview with author, Lisbon 9 December 1988. 23 NotõÂcias, 23 February 1961, pp. 1, 15; 26 March 1961, pp. 1, 4; and 30 March 1961, pp. 18±19. 24 Prof. Adriano Moreira, op. cit. 25Prof. Adriano Moreira, ibid. 26 Nadja Manghezi's `O meu coracËaÄo esta nas maÄos de um negro' (Maputo: Centro de Estudos Africanos, 1999) pp. 221±222. 27 FOIA: Confidential Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 15August 1962. 28 FOIA: Confidential Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 18 Septem- ber 1962. 29 Hlomulo Chitofo Gwambe, letter written from Cairo, 5September 1962, pp. 1,2. 30 FOIA: Official Use Only Airgram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 6 Sep- tember 1962. 31 FOIA: Confidential Airgram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 22 October 1962. 32 Fanuel Mahluza, interview with author, Nairobi, 29 March 1982. 33 FOIA: Confidential Airgram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 13 October 1963. 34 `Mozambique' in Ronald H. Chilcote, `Emerging Nationalism in Portuguese Africa ± Documents', op. cit. 35`Evoluc ËaÄo HistoÂrica do Pan-africanismo e Desenvolvimento dos Partidos de LibertacËaÄo em MocËambique (Confidencial)', General Staff of the Portuguese Armed Forces, March 1967, p. 119. 36 Ronald H. Chilcote, op. cit. 37 Mennen Williams, recorded interview, p. 63, John F. Kennedy Library Oral History Program. 38 Robert Kennedy, letter to Mennen Williams, 25February 1963, John F. Ken- nedy Library, Boston. 39 Mennen Williams, letter to Robert Kennedy, Washington, 16 April 1963, John F. Kennedy Library, Boston. 40 James W. Symington, letter to Robert Kennedy, 11 April 1963, John F. Ken- nedy Library, Boston. 41 Nadja Manghezi, op. cit., pp. 221, 233, 237. 42 FOIA: Confidential Airgram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 20 June 1963. 43 FOIA: Confidential Airgram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 27 June 1963. 44 CIA Special Memorandum No. 28±65: `A New Look at the Prospects for the African Nationalist Movements in Angola and Mozambique', 17 November 1965, p. 10. Notes 275

45FOIA: Confidential Airgram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 13 October 1963. 46 `EvolucËaÄo HistoÂrica do Pan-africanismo e Desenvolvimento dos Partidos de LibertacËaÄoemMocËambique (Confidencial)', op. cit.

3: Southerners and Those from Afar

47 Mazisi Kunene, Emperor Shaka The Great: A Zulu Epic, (London: Heinemann, 1979). 48 Michael Westcott and Carolyn Hamilton, A Historical Tour of the Ngwane and Ndwandwe Kingdom (Manzini: Macmillan Boleswa, 1992). 49 A. Rita Ferreira, Povos de MocËambique: HistoÂria e Cultura (Porto: Afrontamento, 1975).

4: Mondlane's Dilemmas

50 FOIA: Confidential Telegram, Dar es Salaam, 15 October 1964. 51 Richard Mahoney, JFK: Ordeal in Africa (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983), pp. 187, 192±193, 204±205, 209±222. 52 Franco Nogueira, Salazar: A ResisteÃncia (1958±1964), Vol. V (Porto: Livraria CivilizacËaÄo Editora, 1984) pp. 514±519. 53 FOIA: Confidential Airgram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 12 October 1963. 54 FOIA: Confidential Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 13 October 1963. 55 Franco Nogueira, op. cit., pp. 530±536. 56 FOIA: Confidential Memorandum, 4 November 1963. 57 Nadja Manghezi, op. cit. pp. 244±245, 250. 58 FOIA: Confidential Memorandum, 4 November 1963, op. cit. 59 FOIA: Secret Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 25 January 1964. 60 Author's interview with Frelimo official. 61 FOIA: Secret Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 21 May 1964. 62 Ludovick Mwijage, interview with author, Mbabane, 31 March 1992. 63 FOIA: Secret Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 10 May 1964. 64 Seifulaziz Leo MilaÂs, `What Is Wrong With the Mozambique Liberation Front', 19 September 1964, p. 3.

5: Independence War

65FOIA: Confidential Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 19 October 1964. 66 BonifaÂcio Gruveta Massamba, interview in NotõÂcias, 13 September 1988, p. 8. 67 Portuguese Army General Staff: O Caso de MocËambique, Cadernos Militares, No. 7 August 1969; and Resenha HistoÂrico-Militar das Campanhas de AÂ frica (1961±1974), Estado-Maior do ExeÂrcito, ComissaÄo para o Estudo das Cam- panhas de AÂ frica, 18 Volume (Lisboa: Beira Douro, 1988). 276 Notes

68 JoaÄo Paulo Borges Coelho, O InõÂcio da Luta Armada em Tete, 1968±1969: A Primeira Fase da Guerra e a ReaccËaÄo Colonial (Maputo: Arquivo HistoÂrico de MocËambique, 1989), p. 62. 69 PIDE ± PolõÂcia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado. Communique issued on 26 December 1964, `Datas e Documentos da HistoÂria da Frelimo', JoaÄo Reis and Armando Pedro Muiuane (eds) (LourencËo Marques: Imprensa Nacional, 1975). 70 PIDE ± PolõÂcia Internacional e de Defesa do Estado. Communique issued on 30 May 1965, `Datas e Documentos da HistoÂria da Frelimo', op. cit. 71 FOIA: Confidential Telegram, American Consulate, LourencËo Marques, 8 September 1965. 72 FOIA: Airgram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 30 July 1964. 73 Portuguese Army General Staff: `O Caso de MocËambique', op. cit. 74 FOIA: Secret Research Memorandum, `Mozambique: The Status of the Rebel- lion', 9 August 1968, by Thomas L Hughes, State Department's director of intelligence and research. 75Augusto dos Santos, Tirar a A  gua ao Peixe in Jose Freire Antunes, A Guerra de A frica 1961±1974, Vol. I (Lisbon: CõÂrculo dos Leitores, 1995), p. 288. 76 KauÂlza de Arriaga, Guerra e PolõÂtica. Em Nome da Verdade dos Anos Decisivos (Lisbon: EdicËoÄes Referendo, 1987), pp. 305±307; 311±315. 77 Costa Gomes, General Paradoxo, in Jose Freire Antunes, op. cit. p. 121. 78 O Processo RevolucionaÂrio da Guerra Popular de LibertacËaÄo (Maputo: 1977) pp. 109, 112, 182±183. 79 Eduardo Mondlane, Lutar por MocËambique (Lisbon: Sa da Costa, 1977) pp. 153±157. 80 Eduardo Mondlane, speech at The Royal Institute of International Affairs, London, 7 March 1968, p. 6.

6: Zambia Backs Frelimo Dissidents

81 Jose Baltazar da Costa Chagonga, letter to Dr Eduardo Mondlane, Zambia, 4 November 1964. Original kept at the Museu da RevolucËaÄo, Maputo. 82 Eduardo Mondlane, letter to Jose Baltazar da Costa Chagonga, Dar es Salaam, 10 December 1964. Original kept at the Museu da RevolucËaÄo, Maputo. 83 Paulo Jose Gumane, Failure of Unity Talks, 15February 1965,in Ronald H. Chilcote, op. cit., pp. 479±481. 84 Fanuel Gideon Mahluza, interviews with author, Nairobi, 29 March 1982 and 13 November 1988. 85FOIA: Limited Official Use Telegram, American Embassy, Lusaka, 8 April 1965. 86 A. J. K. Kangwa, Conclusions of the Committee Set Up Yesterday 24th March 1965To Consider Some Common Basis For Unity, from the Immanuel Wal- lerstein Collection of Political Ephemera, op. cit. 87 FOIA: Limited Official Use Airgram, American Embassy, Blantyre, 7 February 1965. 88 Eduardo Mondlane, letter to Janet Mondlane, Monrovia, 24 October 1965in Domingo, 25 June 1995, p. 5. 89 CIA Special Memorandum No. 28±65, op. cit. pp. 11, 12. Notes 277

90 Coelho, op. cit., pp. 62, 63. 91 Richard Gibson, African Liberation Movements (London: Oxford University Press, 1972) p. 289. 92 Coremo, Memorandum Submitted to the 3rd Assembly of the Heads of State and Government of the OAU, Lusaka, (1966), pp. 2, 3 in Ronald H. Chilcote, op. cit. pp. 481±483; and O Combatente,O rgaÄo Oficial do Coremo, 2 March 1972, pp. 1±6. 93 Times of Zambia, 4 March 1972. 94 Jose da Silva Ramalho, interview with author, Johannesburg, 28 October 1980. Ramalho served as an interpreter during interrogations of captured PAC guerrillas.

7: Mondlane and Che Guevara

95FOIA: Confidential Telegram, American Embassy, in Dar es Salaam, 17 March 1965. 96 Secret memorandum from Mennen Williams, 23 June 1965. W. Averell Harriman Papers, Container No. 495, Library of Congress, Manuscript Divi- sion. 97 FOIA: Secret telegram from American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 29 July 1965. 98 Secret Memorandum of Conversation between Ambassador Anderson and Prime Minister Oliveira Salazar, 22 October 1965. W. Averell Harriman Papers, op. cit. 99 Ahmed Ben Bella, Che as I knew him, Le Monde Diplomatique (English edi- tion) October 1997. http://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/md/en/ 100 Juan F. Benemelis, Castro ± SubversaÄo e Terrorismo em AÂ frica (Odivelas: 1986). 101 Che Guevara: Pasajes de la guerra revolucionaria. Congo, in William GaÂlvez, Che in Africa (Melbourne: Ocean Press, 1999), p. 40. 102 Paco Ignacio Taibo II, FroilaÂn Escobar and FeÂlix Guerra, O Ano em que Estivemos em Parte Nenhuma (Porto: Campo das Letras, 1995), p. 137. 103 Eduardo Mondlane, interview with Liberation News Service, Washington, 6 March 1968. 104 Teofilo Acosta, Desenmascarado el President del Frelimo, Juventud Rebelde, 21 May 1968, p. 3.

8: The Rise of Samora Machel

105Frelimo Central Committee report to the Second Congress, in Documentos Base da Frelimo 1 (LourencËo Marques: TempograÂfica), p. 65. 106 Manuel AntoÂnio Nasinho da Maia, interview with author, Maputo, 10 May 1995. 107 FOIA: Confidential Telegram, American Consulate, LourencËo Marques, 8 September 1965, op. cit. 108 CIA Special Memorandum No. 28±65, op. cit., p. 11. 109 Manuel Lisboa TristaÄo, interviews with author, Nairobi, 27 March 1982 and 14 November 1988; correspondence with author (May 1983±March 1989). 110 EmõÂlia Magaia, as told to Barnabe Ngauze Lucas, Maputo, 20 April 1998. 278 Notes

111 Armando Khembo dos Santos, interview with author, Mbabane, 2 October 1995. 112 Manuel Lisboa TristaÄo, interviews with author, op. cit. 113 Frelimo Central Committee resolution, October 1966, in Documentos Base da Frelimo 1, op. cit. p. 41. 114 Zacarias Mwaluma Mwanjahane, interview with author, Matsapha, 20 August 1994. 115Uria Timo Âteo Simango, Gloomy Situation in Frelimo, Dar es Salaam, 3 November 1969, pp. 2, 3.

9: Student Unrest

116 Author's interviews with former IM students Francisco Nota MoiseÂs, Mba- bane, 14 May 1984; JoaÄo Baptista TruzaÄo, Mbabane, 23 October 1988; and Joaquim Njanje, Nairobi, 13 November 1988. 117 Eduardo Mondlane, Frelimo. A Brief Account of the Situation of the Mozam- bican Students Abroad and of Their Participation in the Struggle for National Liberation, Dar es Salaam, December 1967, in African Historical Studies, II, 2 (1969), pp. 319±333. 118 Eduardo Mondlane, ibid. 119 Unemo, UniaÄo Nacional dos Estudantes MocËambicanos, The Mozambican Revolution Betrayed, May 1968, in African Historical Studies, III, 1 (1970), pp. 169±180. 120 Stanley Meisler, Rebel Unit Split Over Africa Goals, Los Angeles Times, 30 June 1968. 121 Author's interviews with Armando Khembo dos Santos, Nairobi, 12 Novem- ber 1988, and Joaquim Njanje, Nairobi, 13 November 1988.

10: Crisis within Frelimo Mounts

122 Mateus Pinho Gwenjere, mimeographed autobiographical notes, 16 Novem- ber 1972, p. 5. 123 NotõÂcias da Beira, 24 August 1974, p. 6. 124 NotõÂcias, 30 November 1969, pp. 1, 4. 125FOIA: Secret Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 13 February 1969. 126 FOIA: Secret Research Memorandum by Thomas L. Hughes, op. cit.

11: Mondlane Assassinated

127 FOIA: Confidential Telegram, American Embassy, Addis Ababa, 24 February 1969. 128 FOIA: Secret Telegram, America Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 6 February 1969. 129 FOIA: Secret Telegram, 13 February 1969, op. cit. 130 FOIA: Limited Official Use Telegram, Department of State, Washington, DC, 4 February 1969. 131 NotõÂcias, 5November 1969, p. 1. 132 LõÂdia Viana, interview with author, Lagos, Portugal, 7 August 1990. Notes 279

133 O Ressuscitar dos Fantasmas. PIDE Matou Mondlane, Expresso, 21 February 1998, www.expresso.pt. 134 Manuel Garcia and Lourdes MaurõÂcio, O Caso Delgado ± autoÂpsia da OperacËaÄo Outono (Lisbon: EdicËoÄes Jornal Expresso, 1977). 135David Martin, Interpol solves a guerrilla whodunit, The Observer, 6 February 1972, p. 4. 136 FOIA: Confidential Memorandum of Conversation between American Con- sul John G. Gossett and Governor General Rebello de Souza, LourencËo Marques, 4 February 1969. 137 FOIA: Secret Memorandum of Conversation between Thomas R. Pickering, Deputy Chief of Mission, American Embassy, and unidentified senior Tan- zania CID officer, Dar es Salaam, 24 March 1969. 138 Ibid. 139 Ibid. 140 FOIA: Secret Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 21 April 1969. 141 FOIA: Secret Telegram, American Embassy, Dar es Salaam, 25March 1969. 142 Ludovick Simon Mwijage, interview with author, Mbabane, 31 March 1992.

12: Frelimo after Mondlane

143 Uria TimoÂteo Simango, Gloomy Situation in Frelimo, op. cit. 144 Wehia Ripua, as told to Barnabe Ngauze Lucas, Maputo, 15April 1998. 145Uria Timo Âteo Simango, op. cit. 146 Frelimo Executive Committee communiqueÂ, 8 November 1969, A Voz da RevolucËaÄo, Dar es Salaam, January 1970. 147 Josefate Muhlanga, interview with author, Nairobi, 13 November 1988. 148 Final communiqueÂ,4th Frelimo Central Committee session, May 1970, Documentos Base da Frelimo 1, op. cit., pp. 148±159. 149 Uria TimoÂteo Simango, Memorandum for the OAU African Liberation Com- mittee (Annex), 17 January 1970, p. 5. 150 UniaÄo Nacional dos Estudantes MocËambicanos, petition to the president and secretary general of the OAU, Washington DC, 8 June 1970, seeking protection for Samuel Dhlakama, Gabriel Simbine, Eduardo Mbateya, Eli Ndimeni and Miguel Murupa. 151 Miguel Murupa, Eu Fui da Frelimo, NotõÂcias, 28 January 1971, pp. 1, 4. 152 Interview with Wills Symes Kadewell by LuõÂsa Ribeiro, NotõÂcias, 7 May 1972, p. 4. 153 JoaÄo Jose Craveirinha Voltou Desiludido, NotõÂcias, 15July 1972, pp. 1, 2. 154 Jose Freire Antunes, op. cit., p. 331. 155 Marcelino dos Santos in interview with RaÂdio MocËambique, 1100 GMT 21 and 22 June 1988.

PART II INDEPENDENCE

1: Portugal Transfers Power to Frelimo

1 AntoÂnio de SpõÂnola, Portugal e o Futuro (Lisbon: ArcaÂdia, 1974) pp. 234, 240. 280 Notes

2 Bernardino G. Oliveira, Aqui Portugal MocËambique (FamalicaÄo: Empresa Dis- tribuidora de Livros e Discos, nd). 3 AntoÂnio de SpõÂnola, PaõÂs sem Rumo, op. cit., pp. 294±296. 4 Fanuel Mahluza, interview with author, Nairobi, 29 March 1982. 5Ma Âximo Dias, interview with author, Johannesburg, 31 December 1980. 6 Joana SemiaÄo, DeclaracËaÄoaÁ Imprensa, 19 January 1974. 7MaÂximo Dias, communique issued on behalf of Gumo's Central Committee, Inhambane, 14 May 1974. 8 Comunicado No. 4 da Frecomo, in NotõÂcias da Beira, 2 July 1974, p. 2. 9 Comunicado No. 5da Frecomo, in NotõÂcias da Beira, 6 July 1974, p. 3. 10 NotõÂcias da Beira, 24 August 1974, p. 6. 11 Comunicado do Partido de ColigacËaÄo Nacional, NotõÂcias da Beira, 24 August 1974, p. 8. 12 AntoÂnio de SpõÂnola, PaõÂs Sem Rumo, op. cit.

2: Jorge Jardim ± Myth and Reality

13 Franco Nogueira, op. cit., and Jorge Jardim, Para Servir MocËambique (Lisbon: Silvas, Lda. 1959). 14 Orlando Cristina, interview with author, Salisbury, 24 August 1976. 15Jorge Jardim, MocËambique Terra Queimada (Lisbon: IntervencËaÄo, 1976) p. 417. 16 Augusto de Carvalho, A ZaÃmbia Rompe Finalmente o SileÃncio sobre o PoleÂm- ico Livro de Jorge Jardim, Expresso Revista, Lisbon, 3 December 1976. 17 Jose Freire Antunes, Jorge Jardim Agente Secreto (Venda Nova: Bertrand Editora, 1996), p. 513. 18 Antunes, ibid., p. 546. 19 Antunes, ibid., p. 493. 20 Joaquim VerõÂssimo SerraÄo, Marcello Caetano: ConfideÃncias no ExõÂlio (Lisbon: Verbo, 1985) p. 190. 21 Augusto de Carvalho, op. cit.

3: The Long Arm of Frelimo

22 Eschel Rhoodie, The Real Information Scandal (Pretoria: Orbis SA (Pty) Ltd., 1983). 23 Jose Freire Antunes, Champalimaud (Lisbon: CõÂrculo de Leitores, 1997). 24 Manuel Lisboa TristaÄo, interview with author, Nairobi, 14 November 1988. 25CIO `Secret' report, Salisbury, 6 October 1974, p. 5. 26 CIO `Secret' report, op. cit. 27 Lutero Simango, interview by Bento BaloÂiinDomingo, Maputo, 12 December 1993, p. 3. 28 Manuel Lisboa TristaÄo, interview, op. cit. 29 NotõÂcias, 18 April 1975, p. 3. 30 Priscilla Gumane, letter to author, Cologne, 12 February 1990. 31 Samuel Brito Simango, interview with author, Maputo, 16 April 1995. 32 A ConfissaÄo de Uria Simango, A Tribuna, 14 May 1975, pp. 1, 12, 21±23. 33 Manuel Njanje and Armando Khembo dos Santos, interviews with author, op. cit. Notes 281

4: Totalitarian State

34 Janet Rae Mondlane, The Echo of Your Voice, unpublished manuscript, FundacËaÄo Eduardo Mondlane, Maputo. 35Samora Machel, speech in Sofia in Voz da RevolucËaÄo, No. 70, Maputo, January 1980, pp. 21±24. 36 LuÂcia Maximiano, interview, in NotõÂcias, Maputo, 28 December 1984, p. 3. 37 Dirce Costa, interview with author, Maputo, 29 June 1998. 38 Samora Machel, ColeccËaÄo Palavras de Ordem, No. 25, Maputo, November 1983, p. 29. 39 Jorge Rebelo, RaÂdio MocËambique, 17OO GMT 17 April 1986. 40 Documentos da ConfereÃncia Nacional do Departamento de InformacËaÄo e Propa- ganda da Frelimo, Macomia, 26±30 November 1975, p. 30. 41 RauÂl Honwana, interview, RaÂdio MocËambique, 1030 GMT 7 May 1995. 42 David Aloni, interview with author, Maputo, 15August 1999. 43 Nadja Manghezi, op. cit. pp. 345±346. 44 Jorge Rebelo, address to second national information seminar, RaÂdio MocËam- bique, 1800 GMT 8 January 1980. 45Samora Machel, Documentos do 18 SeminaÂrio Nacional da InformacËaÄo, Maputo, 12±15September 1977, p. 22. MinisteÂrio da InformacËaÄo, nd. 46 Jorge Rebelo, Documentos do 178 SeminaÂrio Nacional da InformacËaÄo, Maputo 12±15September 1977, pp. 29, 30. MinisteÂrio da InformacËaÄo, nd. 47 Pedro Pires, Domingo, Maputo, 28 July 1991, p. 13.

5: Political Police

48 JoaÄo Trindade, EÂ necessaÂrio rever as leis em MocËambique, NotõÂcias, 1 March 1991, p. 1. 49 Decree-Law No. 21/75of 11 October in Boletim da RepuÂblica,ISeÂrie, No. 46, 11 October 1975, pp. 193, 194. 50 Jacinto Veloso, interview in NotõÂcias, 11 October 1980, p. 3. 51 Samora Machel, speech in NotõÂcias, Maputo, 23 June 1984, p. 3. 52 Frelimo Standing Political Committee report to the Central Committee's 4th session, Voz da RevolucËaÄo No. 61, September 1978, p. 11. 53 Jacinto Veloso, interview in NotõÂcias, 11 October 1980, p. 3. 54 TomaÂs Carolina Bomba, interview with author, Mbabane, 12 April 1991. Bomba was a former SIIP (Frelimo) member. 55 Ministry of the Interior communiqueÂ, NotõÂcias, 1 November 1975, p. 1. 56 Samora Machel, speech, RaÂdio MocËambique, 1100 GMT 19 March 1977.

6: Re-education

57 The Da Costa File in Scope, 25February 1983, p. 34. 58 NotõÂcias, Maputo, 27 November 1976, p. 3. 59 Samora Machel, speech in ColeccËaÄo Palavras de Ordem No. 22, 1981, p. 38. 60 MaÂrio Mangaze, interview by AntoÂnio Souto, NotõÂcias, 4 January 1985, p. 3. 61 Cassamo Issufo Tava, interview with author, 10 April 1981. 282 Notes

62 Jose Capela and Eduardo Medeiros, OTraÂfico de Escravos de MocËambique para as Ilhas do Indico, 1720±1902 (Maputo: Departamento de HistoÂria da Univer- sidade Eduardo Mondlane, 1987). 63 Samora Machel, speech, ColeccËaÄo Palavras de Ordem No. 14, December 1979, p. 22. 64 NotõÂcias, Maputo, 13 August 1976, p. 3. 65Ibid. 66 Jorge Costa, op. cit., p. 35. 67 Fanuel Mahluza, interview with author, Nairobi, 12 November 1988. 68 AtanaÂsio Afonso Kantelu, interview with author, Nairobi, 28 March 1982, and written statement dated 8 August 1983. 69 AntoÂnio Isaac Maria, interview with author, Salisbury, 6 June 1977.

7: M'telela±The Last Goodbye

70 Maria Flora Casal Ribeiro, interview with author, Maputo, 8 February 1997. 71 Jorge Costa, written statement to author, citing Abel Assikala's remarks. 72 Ministry of Security. Order of Action No.5/80 signed by Jacinto Veloso, Maputo, 29 July 1980 in Scope, 11 February 1983, pp. 34, 35. 73 Ministry of Security, op. cit. 74 Samora Machel, speech, NotõÂcias, Maputo, 3 October 1981 (supplement). 75Samora Machel, speech, Ra Âdio MocËambique, 5November 1981. 76 Resolution 7/82 adopted by the Standing Commission of the People's Assem- bly, NotõÂcias, 26 June 1982, p. 1. 77 Manuel Jose Pereira, interview with author, Maputo, 16 April 1995. Pereira was a former M'telela inmate. 78 Judite Casal Ribeiro, letter to Lutero Simango (the Simangos' eldest son), Metangula, 19 June 1984. 79 Letter to author from Gillian Nevins, Amnesty International, Africa Research Department, London, 30 March 1989. 80 Priscilla Gumane, letter to President Joaquim Chissano, Cologne, 10 February 1988. 81 Jose Marangue, `Trip to Mozambique, 1993 ± Reflections', p. 10. 82 Maria Flora Casal Ribeiro, op. cit. 83 Frelimo Central Committee Report to 4th Congress in ColeccËaÄo48 Congresso 1983, p. 85.

8: Coup Attempt

84 NotõÂcias, 16 October 1975, p. 3 and 17 October 1975, p. 3. 85Reverend Deacon Daniel Jose  Sithole, `The Mozambique Tragedy', Nairobi, 23 August 1981, pp. 8, 9. Rev. Sithole was a former inmate of the Ruaura re- education camp. 86 FPLM High Command communique 19 December 1975, NotõÂcias, 20 Decem- ber 1975, p. 1. 87 CommuniqueÂ, op. cit. 88 Jacob Carlos Chinhara, interview with author, Salisbury, 15September 1976. 89 Samora Machel, 20 September 1974, speech in Reis et al., op. cit., p. 206. Notes 283

90 FPLM General Staff communiqueÂ, Tempo No. 272, Maputo, pp. 28±36.

9: Destroying the Sequels

91 Frelimo, Programa e Estatutos, Documentos do 38 Congresso do Partido Fre- limo (Departamento do Trabalho IdeoloÂgico da Frelimo, 1977), pp. 8,9. 92 V. I. Lenin, Collected Works, Vol. 31, p. 244. 93 DecisoÄes do Conselho de Ministros, in Boletim da RepuÂblica No. 15, 29 July 1975. 94 Frelimo 1977 program of action, Documentos do 38 Congresso do Partido Frelimo, op. cit., pp. 32±35. 95Yussuf Adam, Mueda, 1917±1990: Resiste Ãncia, Colonialismo, LibertacËaÄoe Desenvolvimento in Arquivo, No. 14, October 1993. 96 Carlos AdriaÄo Rodrigues, Letter to the president of the Republic of Mozam- bique, Lisbon [no date]. 97 Report of the Economic and Social Council to the UN Secretary General, A// 32/96, 9 June 1977, pp. 18, 19. 98 Samora Machel, speech, RaÂdio MocËambique, 11 November 1978. 99 Samora Machel, speech, RaÂdio MocËambique, 1745GMT 8 February 1980. 100 Samora Machel, speech, RaÂdio MocËambique, 1800 GMT 4 December 1979. 101 Domingo, Maputo, 14 April 1991 pp. 8,9. 102 Samora Machel, speech, DiaÂrio de MocËambique, 25July 1985p. 16. 103 NotõÂcias, 14 December 1991, p. 1. 104 Samora Machel, speech, NotõÂcias da Beira, 6 August 1979, p. 4. 105 NotõÂcias, Maputo, 10 July 1981, p. 3. 106 NotõÂcias, Maputo, 24 November, 1976, p. 2. 107 T M Burley, Mozambique Rice: Is State Farming Working?, African Business, September 1982, p. 43. 108 CEA, Memorando Interno N8 11, 31 October 1979, B 7,8. 109 Joanmarie Kalter, The Economics of Desperation in Africa Report, New York, May±June 1984, pp. 19±23. 110 Ibid. 111 T. M. Burley, op. cit. 112 Arlindo Lopes, CAIL ± O Gigante Desperta, Tempo, 13 December 1981, p. 12, 17. 113 T. M. Burley, op. cit. 114 AntoÂnio Souto, Por um novo meio rural (Parte I), NotõÂcias, 24 June 1987, p. 3. 115CEA, Memorando Interno N 8 11, 31 October 1979, C 2. 116 Comunicado Final e RecomendacËoÄes do Primeiro SeminaÂrio Nacional de Agricultura, Marrupa, 29 May±4 June 1975, in J. P. Borges Coelho, Pro- tected Villages and Communal Villages in the Mozambican Province of Tete (1968±1982), Ph.D. dissertation, Arquivo HistoÂrico de MocËambique, Maputo. 117 Jose AntoÂnio Silva, in panel discussion chaired by AntoÂnio Souto, NotõÂcias, 25January 1985,p. 3. 118 Henriques TomaÂs, interview with author, Mbabane, 3 September 1994. 119 Fernando Manuel, AlgodaÄo em Nampula: Organizar o futuro aprendendo do presente, Tempo, 29 August 1982, pp. 17±24. 284 Notes

120 SalomaÄo Moyana, Produzir algodaÄo e castanha de caju naÄoe favor e ordem do Estado, Tempo, 19 October 1986, pp. 12±15.

10: Revolutionaries and Traditionalists

121 Primeira ReuniaÄo Nacional das Aldeias Comunais, Gaza, 27 March 1980, p. 12, Centro de Estudos Africanos, Maputo. 122 Borges Coelho, op. cit., p. 431. 123 Fernando OsoÂrio, interview with author, Salisbury, 13 October 1981. 124 Borges Coelho, op. cit., pp. 349, 350. 125Yussuf Adam, op. cit., p. 45. 126 Ibid. p. 46. 127 Primeira ReuniaÄo Nacional das Aldeias Comunais, op. cit., p. 3. 128 Frelimo Party Central Committee Confidential Report, 14 December 1982 in Borges Coelho, op. cit., p. 345. 129 Mozambique Government report in Borges Coelho, op. cit., p. 360. 130 Samora Machel, speech, 25June 1975, Datas e Documentos da HistoÂria da Frelimo, op. cit., p. 494. 131 Bertil EgeroÈ, Mozambique: A Dream Undone. The Political Economyof Democ- racy, 1975±84 (Uppsala: Scandinavian Institute of African Studies, 1990) p. 152. 132 Primeira ReuniaÄo Nacional das Aldeias Comunais, op. cit., p. 7.

11: Frelimo and Religion

133 Samora Machel, speech, RaÂdio MocËambique, 1000 GMT 11 November 1978. 134 Samora Machel, speech, 1 June 1975, in Datas e Documentos, op. cit., p. 399. 135A Igreja Cato Âlica em MocËambique, Tempo No. 452, Maputo, 10 June 1979 p. 35. 136 O Papel da Igreja CatoÂlica em MocËambique, Tempo No. 448, 13 May 1979, pp. 37±40. 137 Fe ±AÁ s Comunidades CristaÄs, pastoral letter issued by the Mozambique Catholic Bishops, June 1976, p. 5. 138 NotõÂcias, 3 January 1979, p. 4. 139 Combate Popular Organizado Contra Estandartes do Imperialismo ± Circular issued by the Frelimo National Political Commissariat, NotõÂcias, 17 October 1975, pp. 2,5. 140 Washington Post, 22 April 1976. 141 NotõÂcias, 9 June 1978, p. 3. 142 Tempo No. 475, 18 November 1979, pp. 21±29. 143 Samora Machel, speech, NotõÂcias, 9 October 1975, p. 1. 144 Awake!, 8 January 1976, pp. 16±26. 145 Domingo, 4 October 1981, p. 3. Notes 285

PART III RESISTANCE

1: The Conflict with Malawi and Rhodesia

1 Samora Machel, speech, NotõÂcias, 27 September 1975, p. 2. 2 Samora Machel, speech, A Voz da RevolucËaÄo, 7 August 1978, p. 17. 3 Os Acontecimentos no Kampuchea e o Conflito Entre a China e o Vietnam, statement issued by the Frelimo Central Committee Secretariat, A Voz da RevolucËaÄo, February±March 1979, No. 79, pp. 3±6. 4 Samora Machel, speech, NotõÂcias, 22 August 1976, p. 2. 5Ra Âdio MocËambique, 1800 GMT 9 August 1995. 6 Janet Rae Mondlane, op. cit. 7 Partido RevolucionaÂrio de MocËambique, statement, nd. 8 Gimo Phiri, letter to author, Blantyre, 10 August 1983. 9 Communique issued by the Revolutionary Military Tribunal, Quelimane, 12 February 1981, NotõÂcias, 16 February 1981, pp. 3, 4. 10 Gimo Phiri, op. cit. 11 Communique issued by the Revolutionary Military Tribunal on 16 June 1982, NotõÂcias, 18 June 1982, p. 7. 12 Ron Reid Daly and Peter Stiff, Selous Scouts ± Top Secret War (Alberton: Galago Publishing, 1982) p. 108. 13 Rhodesia Herald, 5January 1975. 14 Rhodesia Herald, 12 February 1975. 15Daly and Stiff, op. cit. 16 Ibid. 17 P. K. van der Byl, speech, Parliament of Rhodesia, Salisbury, 1 July 1975.

2: The Magaia Pamphlet

18 JoaÄo Baptista Barros, interview with author, Lagos, Portugal, 25August 1992. Barros was Orlando Cristina's stepfather. 19 JoaÄo Pires Marreiros, interview with author, Lagos, Portugal, 29 August 1992. Marreiros was a MUD member in southern Portugal. Subsequent aspects of Orlando Cristina's life based on author's conversations with Cristina between 1976 and 1982, and on interviews with Manuel Gomes dos Santos in Lisbon and Johannesburg, and with Lucinda Serras Pires FeijaÄo in Pretoria, between 1984 and 1995. 20 Dominic de Roux, O Quinto ImpeÂrio (Lisboa: EdicËoÄes Roger Delraux, Bel- fond, 1977) pp. 183±185.

3: The Voz da AÂ frica Livre

21 Orlando Cristina, hand-written statement, circa 1979. 22 Frelimo's 1962 program of action, Documentos do 38 Congresso do Partido Frelimo, op. cit. pp. 32±35. 23 Voz da AÂ frica Livre, 1700 GMT 14 March 1980. 24 Voz da AÂ frica Livre, 1700 GMT 1 March 1983. 286 Notes

25Ra Âdio MocËambique, 1100 GMT 26 September 1976. 26 Jacob Carlos Chinhara, interview with author, Salisbury, 3 April 1978.

4: Renamo, the Early Days

27 Voz da AÂ frica Livre, 1800 GMT 30 September 1976. 28 Orlando Cristina, conversation with author, Johannesburg, 17 August 1981. 29 Orlando Cristina, ibid. 30 LuõÂs Garife Matsangaice Dyuwayo, interview with author, Maputo, 31 April 1995. 31 Aires de Oliveira, interview with author, Salisbury, 18 March 1977. 32 Pedro Silva, Francisco Esteves e Valdemar Moreira, com colaboracËaÄo de Gil- berto Santos e Castro, Angola ± Comandos especiais contra os cubanos (Braga: Braga Editora, 1978) pp. 177±182. 33 OlõÂmpio Cambona, interview with author, Maputo, 2 March 1993. 34 Afonso Dhlakama, interview with author, Lisbon, 29 November 1980.

5: The Quest for Autonomy

35Voz da A Â frica Livre, 1800 GMT 25September 1978. 36 Orlando Cristina, A ResisteÃncia Nacional MocËambicana (RNM), July 1981, unpublished paper, p. 20. 37 Jorge Jardim, letter to Orlando Cristina, Las Palmas, 9 February 1977. 38 Peter Burt, Secret report: Jorge Jardim, August 1976, p. 5. 39 Orlando Cristina, conversation with author, Salisbury, 24 December 1976. 40 Orlando Cristina, conversation with author, Johannesburg, 17 August 1981. 41 Ibid. 42 Ken Flower, op. cit., pp. 300±302.

6: Gorongosa

43 Orlando Cristina, A ResisteÃncia Nacional MocËambicana (RNM), op. cit. 44 Orlando Cristina, ibid. 45Voz da A Â frica Livre, 1800 GMT 2 February 1979. 46 Author's interviews with Filipe Augusto, OlõÂmpio Cambona and John Kupenga, 10±15November 1992, and Vareia Manje, 3 June 1997. 47 John Kupenga, interview with author, 15May 1993. 48 RauÂl Domingos, conversation with author, Pretoria, 21 August 1981.

7: Matsangaice Killed

49 Orlando Cristina, conversation with author, Johannesburg, 17 August 1981. 50 OlõÂmpio Cambona and Filipe Augusto, interviews with author, 10±15 November 1992. 51 FPLM General Staff CommuniqueÂ, NotõÂcias, 3 November 1979, p. 1. 52 Domingo, 25December 1988, p. 13. Notes 287

53 Afonso Dhlakama, conversation with author, 27 September 1982. 54 Ibid. 55 Roberto Wayne, conversation with author, Salisbury, 30 May 1978.

8: Cristina Marginalized

56 Zeca Caliate, conversation with author, Salisbury, 25 May 1978. 57 Zeca Caliate, RelatoÂrio Sobre a MissaÄo, Salisbury, 22 May 1978, p. 6. 58 Afonso Dhlakama, conversation with author, 4 October 1980.

9: The Renamo Program

59 Author's interviews with Afonso Dhlakama, 27 September 1982, and OlõÂmpio Cambona, 10±15November 1992. 60 Fumo letter to Rhodesian prime minister, nd. 61 Fumo letter, 28 February 1977. 62 Peter Burt, memorandum for the CIO's Mozambique Desk chief, 17 March 1977, p. 3. 63 Domingos Arouca, letter to Renamo, 28 March 1977. 64 ResisteÃncia Nacional MocËambicana, Estatutos, 1979. 65Ibid. 66 Maria Regina Arouca, letter to Rhodesian Foreign Minister David Mukone, Lisbon, 27 September 1979. 67 Ibid. 68 OlõÂmpio Cambona, op. cit. 69 Marcelino dos Santos, interview by EmõÂlio Manhique, TelevisaÄo de MocËam- bique, 19 September 1997.

10: Renamo Survives the Wind of Change

70 Samora Machel, speech, RaÂdio MocËambique, 1800 GMT 22 December 1979. 71 Author's interviews with Orlando Cristina in Johannesburg, 17 September 1981, and Afonso Dhlakama, 27 September 1982. 72 BBC This Week and Africa program, 0635GMT 7 June 1980. 73 Africa Research Bulletin, 1±30 May 1980. 74 Author's interviews with OlõÂmpio Cambona, Filipe Augusto and John Kupenga, 10±15November 1992, and Vareia Manje, 3 June 1997. 75BBC Summary of World Broadcasts, 22 August 1980. 76 RelatoÂrio do Governo sobre as ForcËas Armadas, Maputo, 25June 1985, NotõÂ- cias, 29 July 1986, p. 3. 77 Author's interview with former Tanzanian diplomat.

PART IV THE TURNING POINT

1: South Africa Backs Renamo

1 David Martin and Phyllis Johnson, The Struggle for Zimbabwe (London: Faber and Faber, 1981) pp. 125±157, and Ian Smith, op. cit., pp. 159±210. 288 Notes

2MaÂrio J. Azevedo, A Sober Commitment to Liberation? ± Mozambique and South Africa 1974±1979, African Affairs Vol. 79, No. 317, pp. 567±584. 3 William Minter, Apartheid's Contras (London: Zed Books, 1994) p. 265. 4 Theodorico de Sacadura Botte, MemoÂrias e Autobiografia, (Maputo:1985/86) Vol. 3, pp. 209±214. 5Wenela's statistical information released on 7 February 1997 at author's request. 6 Lewis Carroll and W.S. Gilbert, Why help the enemy?, To The Point, 1 July 1977, pp. 6±9. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid. 9 The Da Costa File, Scope, 18 February 1983, pp. 26±37. 10 Vladimir Shubin, ANC: a View from Moscow (Belville: Mayibuye Books UWC, 1999), p. 197. 11 Carlos Lacerda, conversation with author, Johannesburg, 30 November 1981. Lacerda was a Fumo delegation member. 12 Domingos Arouca, Message to Mozambicans and friends of Mozambique, Fumo±Boletim Informativo, December 1980, p. 3. 13 Orlando Cristina, conversation with author, Johannesburg, 30 July 1981. 14 Author's conversations with Orlando Cristina, Afonso Dhlakama, Manuel Domingos, and RauÂl Domingos, Lisbon, 29±30 November 1980. 15Renamo National Council Members, Chicarre, 13 March 1981. Signed by RauÂl Manuel Domingos and Afonso Dhlakama.

2: Renamo Reviews the 1979 Program

16 Interview with Jorge Jardim by Pedro Correia, Tempo, Lisbon, 12 November 1981, pp. 2±4. 17 Orlando Cristina, RelatoÂrio de InformacËaÄo ± Viajem aÁ Europa, 29 November 1980, p. 10. 18 Carlos Lacerda, DiligeÃncias Efectuadas para a UniaÄo dos Movimentos MocËam- bicanos, 10 April 1981, p. 4. 19 ResisteÃncia Nacional MocËambicana (RNM), Manifesto e Programa, 1981 ± Departamento de InformacËaÄo da RNM. 20 Remo, Esclarecimento p. 5nd. This unsigned document released by Remo in late 1981 was drafted by Carlos Lacerda. 21 ResisteÃncia Nacional MocËambicana, minutes of the 22±23 May 1982 meet- ing, p. 2.

3: Cristina Killed

22 Voz da AÂ frica Livre, 1700 GMT 24 September 1982. 23 Fanuel Mahluza, conversation with the author, Nairobi, 12 November 1988. 24 Afonso Dhlakama, conversation with author, 27 September 1982. 25Joa Äo Quental, conversation with author, Johannesburg, 1983. 26 Paula Serra, Dinfo±HistoÂrias Secretas do ServicËo de InformacËoÄes Militares (Lisbon: PublicacËoÄes Dom Quixote, 1998) p. 220. Notes 289

27 Author's interview with former DMI officer, London, 31 September 1997.

4: Heading for Maputo

28 The Herald, 13 January 1981, p. 4. 29 The Herald, 12 June 1981, p. 1. 30 Renamo intercept of radio conversation between Colonel Fondo and Major Manjichi, 24 June 1981. 31 AntoÂnia Edfonso, former Renamo Female Detachment captain. Interview with author, Maputo, 2 September 1996. 32 Author's interviews with Afonso Dhlakama, 27 September 1982, and Vareia Manje, 26 October 1996.

5: The Invasion that Never Was

33 Author's conversation with Afonso Dhlakama, 27 September 1982, and inter- view with Filipe Augusto and John Kupenga, 10±15November 1992. 34 Ibid. 35Details about the fall of Chicarre based on author's conversations with Afonso Dhlakama, 27 September 1982; RauÂl Domingos, 12 November 1982; Amade Viajem and OlõÂmpio Cambona, 5±8 November 1992; and on Mozam- bique media reports. 36 A Luta Continua!, No.3, 1 February 1982 and No. 4, 7 May 1982; Voz da AÂ frica Livre news bulletins December 1981±December 1982. 37 Armando Khembo dos Santos, interview with author, Maputo, 6 June 1996. 38 Acordo ProvisoÂrio de UnificacËaÄo ± draft unification accord between Renamo and the PRM; and cover letter from Orlando Cristina to JeroÂnimo Gimo (Gimo Phiri), 28 June 1982. 39 Henrique DamiaÄo, interview with author, 15March 1993. 40 Ibid. 41 BBC Focus on Africa program, 1710 GMT 5October 1982.

6: The Frelimo Government Counter-Attacks

42 Samora Machel, speech, NotõÂcias, 22 June 1982, p. 2. 43 Voz da AÂ frica Livre, 1700 GMT 9 December 1982. 44 Voz da AÂ frica Livre, 1700 GMT 2 February 1983. 45Author's interview with former FAM officer. 46 Samora Machel, speech, RaÂdio MocËambique, 1800 GMT 19 February 1983. 47 `Quem SaÄo os Bandidos Armados e Como Vamos DerrotaÂ-los', NotõÂcias,31 July 1982, pp. 5,6. 48 Samora Machel, speech, RaÂdio MocËambique, 1413 GMT 17 March 1984. 49 Briefing on the Country's Military Situation by Chief of General Staff RauÂl Domingos in Voz da ResisteÃncia Nacional MocËambicana, 1700 GMT 22 July 1983. 290 Notes

PART V RUMOURSOF PEACE

1: A Different Kind of Operation

1 LuõÂs de Brito, statement to the BBC, Portuguese Service, 2030 GMT 1 Novem- ber 1999. 2 Directiva Ministerial Sobre EvacuacËaÄo das Cidades, NotõÂcias, 20 June 1983, p. 3. 3 Marcelino dos Santos, speech, DiaÂrio de MocËambique, 9 August 1983, pp. 8,9. 4 Francisco Munia, Sofala: Os Passos Que a OperacËaÄo ProducËaÄo Deu, Tempo,6 November 1983, pp. 29±35. 5 NotõÂcias, 20 August 1983, p. 2. 6 Author's interview with Mozambican Catholic nun, Mbabane, 12 September 1984. 7 Ibid. 8 Louise Brown, report to the BBC's Focus on Africa program, 1515 GMT 3 August 1984. 9 LuõÂs de Brito, op. cit. 10 NotõÂcias, 12 July 1984, p. 2. 11 Tempo, 21 Feb 1988, p. 41. 12 Manuel Vieira Pinto, letter to President Samora Machel, Nampula, 30 March 1984. 13 Samora Machel, speech, NotõÂcias, 30 December 1983, p. 3. 14 NotõÂcias, 21 June 1997, p. 6; 28 July 1998, p. 2. 15Armando Guebuza, interview by Emõ Âlio Manhique, TelevisaÄo de MocËambi- que, 25November 1998.

2: The Nkomati Accord

16 Author's interview with Chinagana Agostinho Celestino, former Renamo chief of Nampula Province's General Staff, Maputo, 20 March 1993. 17 Author's interviews with the following Renamo officials: Henriques DamiaÄo, former intelligence chief, ZambeÂzia Province; Manuel Rudolfo; VirgõÂlio Quir- ole Tomo; and Martins Gamito Wizimane in Maputo, 20±25March 1993. 18 Voz da ResisteÃncia Nacional MocËambicana, 2±23 August 1983 news bulletins. 19 Author's interview with former Mozambican Economic Planning Ministry official. 20 LuõÂsa Diogo, interview by EmõÂlio Manhique, TelevisaÄo de MocËambique, 7 August 1998. 21 NotõÂcias, 21 October 1983, p. 1. 22 Author's interview with Frelimo official. 23 AÂ lvaro ReÂcio, interview with author, Mbabane, 16 September 1985; Johan- nesburg, 17 February 1989. 24 JoaÄo Quental, interview with author, Johannesburg, 4 November 1984. 25Radio South Africa, 0500GMT 1 December 1983. 26 Chester A. Crocker, High Noon in Southern Africa (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1992) p. 238. 27 Author's interview with former DMI officials. Notes 291

28 Radio Freedom, 1930 GMT 16 March 1984. 29 Samora Machel, speech, RaÂdio MocËambique, 1413 GMT 17 March 1984.

3: The Pretoria Talks

30 Albano Naroromele, Sobre os Bandidos em Cabo Delgado in NotõÂcias,20 October 1986, p. 3. 31 RaÂdio MocËambique, 1900 GMT 23 January 1984. 32 NotõÂcias, Maputo, 17 July 1985, p. 8. 33 Author's interview with former Snasp operative. 34 Author's interview with Manuel Mussindo, former Renamo intelligence chief for Cabo Delgado Province, Maputo, 19 and 20 March 1993; Renamo com- muniqueÂs issued by Washington representative. 35Ra Âdio MocËambique, 1700 GMT 4 May 1984. 36 A UrgeÃncia da Paz, Mozambique Catholic Bishops Conference, 7 May 1984. 37 Bishop Manuel Vieira Pinto, op. cit. 38 AÂ lvaro ReÂcio, op. cit. 39 Honwana, as told to ReÂcio. 40 AÂ lvaro ReÂcio, op. cit. 41 RaÂdio MocËambique, 1420 GMT 3 October 1984. 42 Agence France Press, 1808 GMT 3 October 1984. 43 Fanuel Mahluza, conversation with author, Nairobi, 11 November 1988. 44 Details of discussions in First Plenary Session of the Commission Established in Terms of the Pretoria Declaration of 3 October 1984: 8±11 October 1984, Pretoria (Top Secret), signed by Louis Nel, Jacinto Veloso, Evo Fernandes, Fanuel Guideon Mahluza, Pretoria, 11 October 1984. 45Ra Âdio MocËambique, 1030 GMT 13 October 1984. 46 NotõÂcias, 16 October 1984, p. 1. 47 RaÂdio DifusaÄo Portuguesa, 1900 GMT 19 October 1984

PART VI FOREIGN INTERVENTION

1: Zimbabwe's Role Expanded

1 Author's interview with former FAM member. 2 Colonel Valentim de Sousa, interview with author, Inhassoro, 15September 1997. 3 CIO, Top Secret Memorandum ± ZNA Operations in Mozambique, June 1987. 4RaÂdio MocËambique, 1900 GMT 12 June 1985. 5Nathan Shamuyarira, interview by Kwabena Mensah, BBC Network Africa program, 0735GMT 2 March 1987. 6 South African Press Association (SAPA), 1750 GMT 12 Dec 89. 7 Details of the fireforce concept in Chris Cocks, Fireforce ± One Man's War in the Rhodesian Light Infantry (Alberton: Galago Publishing, 1988) pp. 41±42. 8 NotõÂcias, Maputo, 13 October 1987, p. 8. 9 Zambia DailyMail , 31 March 1986, p. 4, and SAPA 1035GMT 6 May 87. 10 Radio RSA, 0630 GMT 14 October 1986. 292 Notes

2: The Malawian Connection

11 RaÂdio MocËambique, 0800 GMT 12 September 1986. 12 AFP in English, 1101 GMT 17 September 1986. 13 Malawi News Agency/Pan-African News Agency, 1035GMT 13 November 1986. 14 Amade Viajem, op. cit. 15Minutes of a meeting between `His Excellency the President of the Republic and a Zimbabwe Military and Security Delegation' held in Maputo from 1545 to 1800 on 16 October 1986. 16 Ibid. 17 Report of the Board of Inquiry into the Accident to Tupolev 134A-3 Aircraft C9±CAA on 19 October 1986 (ISBN 0 621 11239 9).

3: Changing of the Guard

18 Lettre des Anciens Combattants, Politique Africaine,No8 29, March 1988 pp. 115±123. 19 Marcelino dos Santos' eulogy to Samora Machel, in NotõÂcias, 29 October 1986, p. 4. 20 NotõÂcias, 10 October 1990, p. 8. 21 NotõÂcias, 11 October 1990, p. 8. 22 NotõÂcias, Maputo, 8 July 1988, p. 1. 23 Author's interview with Manuel AntoÂnio Nasinho da Maia, op. cit.

4: Britain and Tanzania Assist FAM

24 NotõÂcias, 18 November 1985, p. 1. 25Author's interview with former Mozambican official. 26 Financial Gazette, 24 October 1986, p. 11. 27 The Herald, 10 and 11 July 1990. 28 NotõÂcias, 19 September 1989, p. 1; Radio Maputo, 1800 GMT 23 April 1991. 29 Zimbabwe Broadcasting Corporation, 1600 GMT 24 October 1987. 30 HermõÂnio Morais, interview with author, Maputo, 9 March 1993. 31 RaÂdio MocËambique, 1030 GMT 28 June 1991.

5: Renamo's Response

32 Morais, op. cit. 33 Ibid. 34 Adriano Faustino, interview with author, Maputo, 8 April 1995. 35Morais, op. cit. 36 Capital Radio, 1500 GMT 20 August 1987. 37 AFP, 0241 GMT 11 September 1987. 38 NotõÂcias, 14 September 1987, p. 1. 39 Renamo, Boletim de InformacËaÄo Militar No. 1, January 1988. 40 SAPA, 1538 GMT 31 August 1988. Notes 293

41 SAPA, 1538 GMT 12 December 1989. 42 Renamo Press Release issued by LuõÂs SerapiaÄo, Washington, 14 December 1987. 43 Zimbabwe's Vietnam?, Mozambique Institute, London, p. 3, nd. 44 Welshman Ncube: Horrors of Fifth Brigade cannot be forgiven nor forgotten, Financial Gazette, 15October 1992, p. 3. 45Catholic Commission for Justice and Peace Report on the 1980s Disturbances in Matabeleland and the Midlands. http:/www.mg.co.za/mg/zim/zimtitle.html 46 Morais, op. cit. 47 Richard English, interview by Hilton Fyle, BBC Network Africa Program, 0635 GMT 24 February 1987. 48 The Washington Post, 30 December 1986, p. 14. 49 Morais, op. cit. 50 Amade Viajem, op. cit. 51 Author's interview with former FAM member.

6: Recruits and Collaborators

52 Tempo, No. 1352, 17 November 1996, pp. 4,9. 53 Confidential report, MinisteÂrio das FinancËas ± Gabinete de ReintegracËaÄo (Maputo 1992), in Michel Cahen, Dhlakama EÂ Maningue Nice! An Atypical Former Guerrilla in the Mozambican Electoral Campaign, Transformation 35 (1998) p. 40. 54 Domingo, 18 April 1983, pp. 8,9. 55 The Star, 13 March 1990, p. 8. 56 Africa Analysis, 23 August 1991, p. 4. 57 CIO Top Secret Memorandum, op. cit., p. 12. 58 Ibid., p. 11. 59 Mozambiquefile, September 1993, p. 22. 60 Vareia Manje, interview with author, Maputo, 16 March 1995. Other accounts of alleged collaboration of government forces with Renamo gath- ered during author's interviews with OlõÂmpio Cambona, head of Renamo's telecommunications department, and his deputy, Amade Viajem, in Maputo between 10 and 15February 1993. 61 Amade Viajem, op. cit.

7: The Washington Lobby

62 RaÂdio MocËambique, 1900 GMT 15January 1985; NotõÂcias, 18 February 1985, p. 1. 63 BBC Focus on Africa program, 1709 GMT 25May 1985. 64 Expresso, 8 September 1984, pp. 12±15. 65 Rand DailyMail , 9 March 1985, p. 4. 66 The Star, 19 May 1985, p. 10; 12 July 1985, p. 2. 67 Radio Maputo, 1100 GMT 19 July 1985. 68 Meeting between `His Excellency the President of the Republic and a Zim- babwe military and security delegation', op. cit. pp. 5,6. 294 Notes

69 International Herald Tribune, 21±22 September 1985. 70 Human Events, 8 November 1986. 71 Current Documents, 1986, p. 631. 72 The Times, 7 March 1987. 73 RaÂdio MocËambique, 1800 GMT 3 February 1987. 74 Dan Burton to Ronald Reagan, Washington, 29 April 1987. 75 Congressional Record ± Senate. Vol. 133, No. 69, 1 May 1987, p. 5785. 76 Bob Dole to George Schultz and Peter McPherson in Congressional Record± Senate, ibid. 77 Senator Jesse Helms to Luis SerapiaÄo, 6 March 1987; SerapiaÄo to Helms, 9 March 1987. 78 Jack Kemp to Afonso Dhlakama, 30 September 1987. 79 International Herald Tribune, 12 November 1987, p. 5. 80 Frelimo Party Political Bureau communiqueÂ,RaÂdio MocËambique, 1400 GMT 22 July 1987. 81 Robert Gersony, Summary of Mozambican Refugee Accounts of Principally Conflict-Related Experience in Mozambique, US Department of State, Bureau for Refugee Program, Washington DC, April 1988. 82 Domingo, 28 September 1986, p. 1. 83 Author's interview with Alberto LeaÄo Fino, Renamo's former intelligence chief, Inhambane Province, Inhassoro, 8 September 1994; and former Snasp operative; MaÂrio Ferro: Os BA's vieram a HomoõÂne (3), NotõÂcias, Maputo, 27 July 1987 p. 3. 84 NotõÂcias, 7 September 1989, p. 8.

EPILOG

1 Joaquim Chissano, news conference, Maputo, RaÂdio MocËambique, 1800 GMT 17 Jul 1989. 2 Viajem, op. cit. 3 Renamo's 16-point agenda issued in Nairobi on 15August 1989 in Andre Thomashausen, War and Peace in Mozambique, unpublished paper, Pretoria, November 1999. 4 Andre Thomashausen, ibid. 5Ra Âdio MocËambique, 0700 GMT 11 July 1990. 6 Acordo General de Paz, Rome, 4 October 1992. 7 Joaquim Chissano, news conference, Maputo, RaÂdio MocËambique, Oct 1989. 8 Acordo General de Paz, op. cit. Index

AAM (AssociacËaÄo AcadeÂmica de Andrade, Jose JuÂlio de, 101 MocËambique), 79, 86±7 Angoche, 67 Abecassis, 75, 78 Angola Abecassis, Manuel, 137±8 Cuban withdrawal from, 142, 224, AbraaÄo, Lino, 49 262, 267 Abudo, Juma, 152 independence war, 34±5 Accra, 5, 7±9, 12, 19 Mozambique's assistance to, 106 ADEV (AssociacËaÄo Desportiva Estrela MPLA's relations with Cuba, 44 Vermelha), see Snasp former Portuguese residents in, Adriano, Faustino, 253, 292 n 152 Afghanistan, 141, 262 US policy on, 262 African±American Institute, 18, 51 AngoÂnia, 111 African Studies Center, 111±2 AntoÂnio, Manuel, 250 Agricom (Empresa de ComercializacËaÄo Antunes, Melo, 74 de Produtos AgrõÂcolas), 114 APIE (AdministracËaÄo do Parque AIM (AgeÃncia de InformacËaÄode ImobiliaÂrio do Estado), 110 MocËambique), 259 ARA (AccËaÄo RevolucionaÂria Armada), Alcino, see Oliveira, Paulo 235 aldeamentos, 31±2, 34, 36, 117 Armed Forces Movement, see MFA Aldridge, Leo Clinton, see MilaÂs, Leo Aron, Raymond, 262 Alfazema, 158, 240 Arouca, Domingos Alfinete, Jose Manuel, 184 contacts with Rhodesia, 167±9, 287 n Algeria, 14±15, 18, 24, 48, 54 as Fumo leader, 166 Aloni, David, 88, 281 n links to South Africa, 172, 182, 186 Alouette, 236 under Portuguese detention, 30, 72 Alto Benfica, 248 relations with Jardim, 168 Amade, Marcos, 147 and Renamo, 142, 167±9, 172, 186, Amaramba, 130, 136 287 n Amatongas, 201, 205, 256 Arouca, Regina, 287 n American African Public Affairs Assikala, Abel, 101, 102 Council, 263 AtaõÂde, JoaÄo, 246 Amnesty International, 103, 282 n Augusto, Filipe, ix, 286±7 n, 289 n Amodeg (AssociacËaÄo MocËambicana Azores, 25 de Desmobilizados de Guerra), 257 Balamanja, Peter, 17 ANC (African National Congress) Banda, BasõÂlio, 73 Mozambique's assistance to, 127, Banda, Kamuzu, 123, 128, 240±1, 246 171, 181 Banhine, 195±6 and Nkomati Accord, 224 Baraza la Waze, see Council of Elders relations with Cuba, 44 BBC (British Broadcasting Ancuaze, 202 Corporation), 89, 204, 255, 41 n Anderson, George, 43, 277 n Beira, 93, 104±5, 171, 202, 227, 236 Andrade, JoaÄo AbõÂlio, 66 Air Force Base, 260

295 296 Index

Beira (cont) Portuguese military operations in, corridor, 154, 160, 173, 193±4, 31±4, 117 200±1, 236, 252, 254, 256 Renamo operations in, 158, 226±7 port, 199, 205, 220, 240, 254 Cabral, AmõÂlcar, 5 Bell helicopters, 236 Cadeado, Bernardo, 161 Benghazi, 235 Caetano, Marcello, 3, 4 Berlin, 25, 221 Cahora Bassa, 34, 193 Biafra, see Nigeria Caia, 238 Bila, Fernando TimoÂteo, 66 CAIL (Complexo Agro±Industrial do Blantyre, 129, 240, 270 Limpopo), 111±2 BMATT (British Military Advisory CalcËaÄo, Jose Domingos Cuanai, 184 and Training Team) see Great Caliate, Zeca, 165, 287 n Britain California, 262 Bob, Mazunzo, 40 Cambona, OlõÂmpio OsoÂrio Caisse, 184, Bomba, Adriano, 187±8, 190, 192 286±7 n, 289 n, 293 n Bomba, Boaventura, 187±92 Canhemba, AntoÂnio, 49 Bomba, Carolina, 54 n, 281 n CanicËado, 197 Bonn, 246 CanicËo, JoseÂ, 104 BOSS (Bureau of State Security), 81 Camberley, 236 Botha, P. W., 181 Canada Botha, Roelof, 222, 229±30 Renamo representative in, 189 Botswana, 179, 235 Training Mission in Tanzania, 59 Boullosa, Manuel, 76 Cangamitole, 238 Bourguiba, Habid, 10 Cantineiros, 112 Bowles, Chester, 6, 273 n Cape Verde, 80 Brazil, 137 Carillo, Roberto, 200 Brezhnev Doctrine, 262 Carlucci, Frank, 266 Brito, LuõÂs, 213, 216, 290 n Casa, 236 BTI (Brigada TeÂcnica de InvestigacËoÄes), Casa Banana, 158, 163, 236, 238 see Snasp Casal Ribeiro, Judite, 103, 282 n Buchanan, Patrick, 266 Casal Ribeiro, Maria Flora, 282 n Bulgaria, 240 Casal Ribeiro, Rau l Bundy, McGeorge, 6, 273 n executed, 101±2, 282 n Bunga, 236 and Filipe Magaia, 47 Burlison, John, 200 imprisoned at M'telela, 100 Burt, Peter, 138, 145, 150, 286±7 n leaves Frelimo, 66 Burton, Dan, 264±5, 294 n Castro, 154 Bush administration, 250 Catholic Church, 185 BuÂzi, 174, 197 impact of Frelimo policies on, 121 Byrne, Thomas, 11, 12 and the Naparama counterinsurgency unit, 251 CabacËo, Jose LuõÂs, 245 Nkomati Accord, 228 Cabo Delgado, 49, 61, 63, 83, 102, 104, sponsors peace talks, 269±70 118, 121 urges peace settlement, 228, 246 Frelimo guerrilla operations in, views on Operation Production, 29±32, 34±6, 46, 71 216±7 liberated areas, 109 Catholic Commission for Justice and Liberation Front, 151 Peace, 255 Operation Production, 215 Catur, 31, 66, 218 Index 297

Cavalo, 236 Chipande, Alberto CDU (Christian Democratic Union), conspires against Machel, 222 see Germany as defense minister, 225 Celestino, Chinagana Agostinho, ix, on guerrilla activity in Cabo 290 n Delgado, 226±7 Central Intelligence Organization, see after Machel's death, 243±4 CIO Chiputo, 101 Chagonga, Baltazar da Costa Chirara, 145 and Mondlane, 19±21, 37±8 Chire, 30, 118, 202, 248 and Unami, 9 Chirwa, 136 Chai, 31 Chisango, Shepherd, 259 Champalimaud, AntoÂnio, 81 Chissano, Joaquim Alberto Changara, 255 becomes prime minister, 81 Charre, 30 challenges Samora Machel, 222 Chatama, Daniel, 54 denies talks with Renamo, 231 Chavago, Albino, 184 faces Simango's opposition, 64 Chemba, 201 as Frelimo's security chief, 49, 55 Chibabava, 173±4 on marxism±leninism, 265 Chibuto, 208 as party chief and head of state, Chicarre, 162, 182, 195, 199±201, 205 243±6, 249 ChichoÃlane, 195±6 and peace talks with Renamo, Chidoco, 157, 195, 201 269±71, 294 n China, 26, 59 and Renamo, 210, 231 assists Coremo, 39 training in USSR, 66 assists Frelimo, 27 and the United States, 249, 266 imposes conditions on Mondlane, ChitauÂsse, 207 27 Chiteje, Joseph, 28, 38 Marcelino dos Santos visit to, 7 Chitengo, 200 Mondlane's stand on Sino±Soviet ChiuÂre, 227 dispute, 67 Chiuta, 136, 237 Mozambique's stand on Sino±Soviet ChoÂkweÁ, 114, 210 dispute, 127 Chona, Mark, 77, 79 News Agency, 141 Chou En-lai, 7 Chipinge, 254 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), 19, Chibabava, 207 39, 47, 142 Chicarre CIM (Contra-InteligeÃncia Militar), 91 FAM attack on, 200±1 CIO (Central Intelligence Renamo headquarters, 163, 176, Organization) 183, 194±6 Cristina's links with, 139, 144, 150 Chidoco, 174, 196, 201 and Jardim, 150±1 Chigubo, 207, 220 under Ken Flower, 150, 153, 173 Chimanimani, 145 and Mozambique, 81, 130, 138, 152, Chimoio, 41 173, 259 Renamo operations, 154, 199, 220, and Renamo, 147, 153, 168 256 stand on Uria Simango, 81 ZNA Task Force presence in, 258±9 views on Matsangaice, 144±7, 152 Chinete, 160 Clark Amendment, 262 Chinhara, Jacob, 139±40, 282 n, 285n CNE (ComissaÄo Nacional de EleicËoÄes), Chioco, 165 272 298 Index

CoÂbueÁ,29 in Rhodesia, 133, 137±9 Combumune, 197 role in the GE, 135 Comecon, 111, 221 role in the Voz da A frica Livre, communal villages 139±40, 144±6, 286 n Comoros, 158 seeks funding for Renamo, 150±3, CONCP (ConfereÃncia das 169 OrganizacËoÄes Nacionalistas das in South Africa, 182±3 ColoÂnias Portuguesas), 6±7 visits to Europe, 185±6, 190, 288 n Congo, 25, 45 Crocker, Chester, 223±4, 262±3, 265, Conservative Caucus, 263 267, 290 n Coventry, Dudley, 163 Cuamba, 218, 249 Coremo (Comite RevolucionaÂrio de Cuba, 25 MocËambique), 73, 130 in Angola, 142, 224, 262 CIA report on, 39 assistance to Mozambique established, 38 intelligence, 90±1 military operations, 39 military assistance to Mozambique, and the PAC, 39±41 160, 173±4, 240±1 and Portugal, 4 relations with Frelimo, 44±5, 67 relations with China, 39 relations with Mozambique, 94, 127, Corromana, 218 224 Costa, BraÂs da, 136 Cunene, 67 Costa, Jorge, 95, 98, 101, 229 Cuzi, 155 Costa, Rajabo, 190 Czechoslovakia, 127, 141 Cotonou, 235 Council of Elders, 53, 61 Dabalo, 61, 65 Craveirinha, JoaÄo, 66, 279 n DamiaÄo, Henrique, ix, 290 n Craveirinha, JoseÂ,30 Dangabvuro, 254 Cristina, Orlando, 222±3 Dar es Salaam, 134 assassinated, 191, 288±9 n DCE-GVP, see Snasp background on, 133±8 de Andrade, MaÂrio, 6 and the Bomba brothers, 187±92, de Arriaga, Kau lza, 32, 77, 276 n 288±9 n de BragancËa, Aquino, 221±2 and the CIO, 139, 144±5, 150, 152 Defense Sales Limited,249 and Dhlakama, 166, 183±5 d'Hondt, 271 disseminates the Magaia pamphlet, Democratas de MocËambique, 79, 92, 137±8, 285n 109 and Evo Fernandes, 185, 187, 190 Democratic Union Movement, 134 with Frelimo, 134 de Resende, Bishop SebastiaÄo Soares, goals in Renamo, 164±6 52 and Matsangaice, 144±6, 149, de Rivera, Primo, 75 286±7 n de Sousa, Barros, see Cristina and the Mecanhelas Self-Defense de Sousa, Valentim, 235, 291 n System, 136 de Souza, Rebelo, 60, 278 n and the PRM, 202±3, 289 n DGS, see PIDE relations with Arouca, 168±9 Dhlakama, Afonso, 256, 287 n relations with Jardim, 134±8, 150, Arouca's views on, 168±9 185, 190, 280 n becomes Renamo leader, 161±3 as Renamo secretary general, 184±5, in Europe, 185±6, 288 n 190, 261 and Jardim, 183, 185 Index 299

joins Renamo, 148 du Pont, Pierre S., 266 military role in Renamo, 148, 160, Dyke, Colonel Lionel, 236 173 Dyuwayo, Andre Mathadi relations with South Africa, 172, Matsangaice, see Matsangaice 182±3 Dyuwayo, LuõÂs Matsangaice, 145, and the United States, 264, 266, 286 n 294 n Dyuwayo, Oliver, 147 views on Cristina, 166, 191 Dyuwayo, Saugweme, 145 Dhlakama, Samuel, 66, 279 n Dzimba, Gaspar, 114 Diankali, Samuly, 8 Dzonzi, Ju lio, 40 Dias, MaÂximo, 72, 142 Dindiza, 220 Eduardo, TomeÂ, 200±1 DIP (Departamento de InformacËaÄoe Elinamo (ExeÂrcito de LibertacËaÄo Propaganda), 88 Nacional do Monomotapa), 30 Dique, RauÂl LuõÂs, 182, 202 English, Richard, 255 Directorate of Military Intelligence Enoque, 107 (DMI), see South Africa Erepomo (ExeÂrcito RevolucionaÂrio Djoudi, Noureddine, 24 Popular de MocËambique), 39 DMI (Directorate of Military Eritrea, 262 Intelligence), see South Africa Espungabera, 157, 173, 193, 200, Dole, Bob, 265±6, 294 n 207 Dombe, 173, 193, 207 Etatara, 218 Domingos, Manuel, 183, 288 n Domingos, RauÂl, ix, 159, 184, 187±8, FaÂbrica, 236 286 n, 288±9 n FAM (ForcËas Armadas de Domoina, 227 MocËambique), 120, 157±8, 165, Dona Ana, 238 169, 235 Dondo, 104±5, 135, 154 alleged collaboration with Renamo, dos Santos, Armando Khembo, ix, 259±60 187±8, 190, 202±3, 280 n, 289 n British military assistance to, 249 dos Santos, Augusto, 32±3, 276 n chemical and bacteriological dos Santos, Marcelino, 170, 243 warfare, 255±6 attempt on the life of, 59 child soldiers, 257±8 and Frelimo, 9, 12 counterinsurgency measures, 209, and Frelimo dissenters, 82, 244±5, 227±8, 250±1, 271 287 n, 292 n and Malawi, 238, 240±1 in Frelimo's Presidential Council, military operations in; Cabo 63±4 Delgado, 226; Gaza, 205±9; as Frelimo's vice president, 65, 67 Inhambane, 196±7, 200, 206±8, Ghana's views on, 7±8 256, 267; Manica, 158, 173±4, and Operation Production, 214, 200±1; Maputo, 235, 260; 290 n Niassa, 226; Nampula, 250±1; relations with Eastern bloc, 7, 26±7, Sofala, 158, 174, 206, 237, 252, 45, 111, 127, 221, 279 n 255, 269; Tete, 158, 165, 235, and Udenamo, 7, 9 240; ZambeÂzia, 208, 241, DPCCN (Departamento de PrevencËaÄoe 249±50, 252, 268 Combate aÁs Calamidades mutiny, 105 Naturais), 194, 268 operation Cabana, 205±10, 218 DSL (Defense Systems Limited), 249 operation Leopardo, 173 300 Index

FAM (cont) Political Bureau, 85, 87, 210, 243, operation Punishment, 201 245 and Renamo, 160±2, 173±5, 182, Political Council, 17 193±4, 196±8, 200±1, 205±10, Presidential Council, 63±5 225, 238, 246 relations with Cuba, 44±5, 67 Faustino, Adriano, ix, 292 n Supreme Council, 11 FeijaÄo, Lucinda Serras Pires, 285n Frelimo Army Fernandes, Evo military operations in: Cabo assassinated, 246 Delgado, 32, 34±6, 49±50, 67, and Cristina, 187, 190 136; Gaza, 30; Inhambane, 30; and Jorge Jardim, 185, 168 LourencËo Marques, 30; Manica, Pretoria talks, 228±30, 291 n 34, 71, 104; Nampula, 30; as Renamo secretary general, 165, Niassa, 32, 34±6, 49±50, 67, 136; 261 Sofala, 34, 104, 105; Tete, 30, 34, Fernandes, Gilberto, 203 67; ZambeÂzia, 49, 67, 82, 136 Fernandes, Pinto, 168 Fresamo (Frente de SalvacËaÄode Ferreira, JoaÄo, 19 MocËambique), 166 Ferreira, Pinto, 77 Fumo (Frente Unida DemocraÂtica de Feruka, 254 MocËambique), 142, 166±9, 186 FõÂngoeÁ, 237 Funipamo (Frente Unida Anti- Fino, LeaÄo, 294 n Imperialista Popular Africana de fireforce, 237 MocËambique), 17 First, Ruth, 221 Fussa (Frente Unida do Sul do Save), Flower, Ken, 150, 153, 173, 286 n 168 FNLA (Frente de LibertacËaÄo Nacional de Angola), 106 Gabon, 190 Fombe, JoaÄo, 157, 161, 184 Gamito, Hermenegildo, 101 Fondo, Domingos, 196, 200±1 Gapecom (Empresa de Fonseca, Artur da, 266 ComercializacËaÄo de Gado e Peles), FP-25, 235, 250 114 France, 151, 185 GaraÂgua, see Chicarre Franque, MaÂrio, 157, 161, 174, 184, Garcia, Ressano, 206, 227 195±7, 199 Gaza, 114, 122, 132, 176, 227 Fredericks, Wayne, 11, 17, 43 FAM operations in, 205±9 Free Europe, 142 Frelimo operations in, 30 Freedom Research Foundation, Renamo operations in, 158, 172, 261±2 175±6, 182, 199, 205±10, 220 Frelimo (Frente de LibertacËaÄode GE (Grupos Especiais), 135, 139 MocËambique) GEP (Grupos Especiais PaÂra-quedistas), Central Committee, 37, 46, 51, 63±5, 135 67 Germany Congress sessions, 15±16, 49, 55, Berlin Clause, 221 103, 213±14, 264 Christian Democratic Union, 186 Defense and Security, 49, 101±2 East, 227 established, 5 Kiel, 189±90 Executive Committee, 57, 65, 83 and Renamo, 185±6, 189 leadership, 11±12, 63, 65, 67 Wolfgang Richter, 186 National Command, 49 Gersony, Robert, 267±8, 294 n and Non-alignment, 127 Ghana, 7±13, 15, 18 Index 301

GileÂ, 238, 247 in Tanzania, 8, 9, 12 Girmoio, Francisco, 182, 256 as Udenamo leader, 5, 7 GLCB (Grupos de Luta Contra Gwenjere, Mateus Pinho, 65, 67 Bandidos), 91 abducted, 83±4 Gomes, Costa, 33, 276 n and Mondlane, 69 Gonarezhou, 207 as PCN member, 73 Gondola, 199, 201 and Simango, 53 Gorongosa, 154, 237 support for students, 52±4 FAM operations in area of, 160±61, 238 Hammanskraal, 158 Renamo moves to, 155 Harare, 235±6, 253±4 Renamo presence in area of, 157±1, Hawk, 236 171±3, 200±2, 207, 220, 252, 255 Helms, Jesse, 266, 294 n ZNA raids on, 236, 238 Heritage Foundation, 263 Goy-Goy, 155, 173 Hoedspruit, 181 Gravata, 155 Hoile, David, 263 Great Britain, 133, 140, 169, 236, 242, HomoõÂne, 267 247 Honwana, Fernando military assistance to Mozambique, and Nkomati Accord, 222 235, 249, 258 Pretoria talks, 228±9, 291 n and Rome peace talks, 270 Honwana, JoaÄo, 82 Grudja, 199±200 Honwana, Judas, 82 Guardia Civil, 250 Honwana, LuõÂs Bernardo, 30 Guebuza, Armando EmõÂlio Honwana, RauÂl, 88, 281 n challenges Samora Machel, 222 Hunguana, Teodato, 215, 265 demoted, 225 Hunter, 236 as Frelimo's education secretary, 51 as interior minister, 93, 99, 117, 121 ICS (Instituto de ComunicacËaÄo Social), after Machel's death, 243±5 118 and Operation Production, 213±14, Ile, 130 217, 290 n Ilumba re-education camp, 99 on religion, 121 IM (Instituto MocËambicano), 18, 51±4, Guevara, Che, 44±5 187 Guia de Marcha, 87, 115, 120 IMF (International Monetary Fund), Guinea-Bissau, 3, 34±5 221 Gumane, Paulo, 12, 16, 28, 37±8, 73, Inchope, 154, 160 82, 100±1, 103 IncomaÂti, 21, 210 Gumane, Priscilla, 103, 280 n, 282 n India, 75, 93 Gumo (Grupo Unido de MocËambique), Inhamasichi, 159 72 Inhambane Guro, 199, 255 FAM operations in, 196±7, 200, Guru, 202 206±8, 256, 267 GurueÂ, 129±30 Frelimo operations in, 30 GVP (Grupos de VigilaÃncia Popular), Renamo operations in, 158, 196±7, 91, 169 200, 205±10, 218, 220 Gwambe, Adelino Inhaminga, 154, 201, 227, 238 with Coremo, 38±40 Inharrime, 197 and Mondlane, 13, 16, 38±9, 274 n INLD (Instituto Nacional do Livro e do relations with Ghana, 7±9, 13 Disco), 121 302 Index

Interface, 92 Mozambican refugees in, 54, 61, 73, Interpol, 58 84, 169, 187 Iran-Iraq war, 221 peace talks in, 269±70 Islander, 236 and Renamo, 188, 246±7 King, Betty, 18, 57, 61 Jalasse, 129 King, Tom, 249 Jamba, 263 Knot, Operation Gordian, 32±3 Jambe, 199±201, 207 Kongwa, 48 Jangamo, 220 Kupenga, John, ix, 159, 161, 200, Japan, 60 286±9 n Jardim, Jorge Kwambirwa, Lucas, 182 background on, 75±7 and Cristina, 134±7, 190 Lara, LuÂcio, 7 Democratas de MocËambique stand Las Palmas, 137 on, 79±80 LCB (Lucha Contra Bandidos), 91 and Renamo, 150±1, 168, 183, 286 n LeitaÄo, JoaÄo, 222, 229 views on Mozambique, 76±9, 222, Lenin, V. I., 108, 283 n 280 n Letaba, 181, 183 Jehova, Johan, 107 Liberdade Ward, 248 Jehovah's Witnesses, 97, 122±3 Libya, 235, 258, 267 JoaÄo, Chanjunje, 246 Lichinga, 31, 100, 103, 136, 218 JoaÄo, Jose LuõÂs, 184 Lidimo, Lagos, 91, 102, 208 John, Magurende, 157, 199±201 Ligonha River, 218 Johannesburg, 166 Limpopo, 111±2, 117, 130, 197, 205±6, Jornal do Povo, 118 209±10, 252 JoseÂ, Ricardo, 220 Lindi, 60 Juma, Major General Matias, 235 Lisbon, 182, 186, 246 Jumo ( Juventude MocËambicana) see Lopes, Mateus, 246 Remo Loubser, Kobus, 179 LourencËo Marques, 30, 59, 137 Kadangure, Ernest, 241 Luabo, 248 Kadewell, Wills, 66, 279 n Luciro, 203 Kalimaga, M, 58, 60 Lucite River, 174 Kambeu, Arcanjo Faustino, 40, 73 Lugela, 129 Kambona, Oscar, 8, 13, 47 Lugenda River, 30, 32 Kambulatsisi, 199 LuõÂs, Janota, 139 Kangwa, A, 38 Lumbela, 66 Kantelu, AtanaÂsio, ix, 98±9, 282 n Lu rio River, 136, 218, 226±7 Kasten, Robert, 263 Lusaka, 181 Katiyo Tea Estates, 253 Lusalite, 135, 137 Kaunda, Kenneth, 38, 76±7, 79, 168, 241 Mabate, 163, 174 Kavandame, LaÂzaro, 47, 50, 58±61, 67, Mabote, SebastiaÄo, 196, 210 100±1 Mabudo, 201 Kawawa, Rashidi, 8, 58 Mabunda, David, 12, 17, 19 Kemp, Jack, 266, 294 n Macamo, Orlando, 148 Kennedy, John, 5, 24, 25 Machado, Antero, 190 Kennedy, Robert, 17±8, 43, 53 Machado, Joaquim, 50 Kenya, 8, 50, 82 MachaõÂla, 220 Index 303

Machava, 181, 248 at Pretoria talks, 230, 291 n Machava, Gabriel, 40 and Renamo, 187±90, 288 n Machaze, 148, 155, 175 and Udenamo, 5, 9 Machel, Samora, 169 Mahoney, Richard, 25 coup attempt against, 105±6 Mahose, Kamati, 167 and Eastern bloc, 127, 221 Maia, Manuel da, ix, 47, 292 n as Frelimo leader, 66±7, 83, 127 Makulube, AntoÂnio, 73 as Frelimo's defense chief, 48±50 Malawi, 9, 21, 30, 38, 82, 158, 170, head of state, 85, 87±8, 109±11, 118, 199, 204, 220 281±5n Mozambican refugees in, 36, 52, Jardim's views on, 137 268 killed, 241±2 and Mozambique, 123, 127±8, 138, and Malawi, 240±1 238±40, 245, 270 on measures against Renamo, 205, and PRM, 128, 203 207±9, 231, 236, 289 n relations with Frelimo, 66, 82, 136 on Operation Production, 217, 290 n and Renamo, 239±40, 246 opposition to, 140±1, 222, 244 and South Africa, 158, 239 post-Machel era, 243±5 Sumane in, 128 in the Presidential Council, 63, 64 Young Pioneers, 136 Pretoria Talks, 229±31, 291 n Maluana, 256 and re-education, 93, 96, 102 Mambyili, 207 on religion, 120, 122 Mananga, 84 Rhodesian stand on, 131 Manave, AureÂlio, 54 on Snasp, 90±1 MANC (Mozambique African National and South Africa, 171±2, 224, 287 n Congress), 17, 38, 73 and students, 54 Mangaze, MaÂrio, 96, 281 n United States and, 262±4 Manje, Languane Vareia, ix, 157, 174, Machipanda, 160, 207 184, 194±7, 201, 260, 287 n, 289 n, Machungo, MaÂrio, 72, 111 293 n Macia, 210 Manjichi, Manuel, 196 Macomia, 31 MANU (Mozambique African National Macossa, 154, 201 Union), 8, 29, 226 Madebe, Ali, 8 Mandimba, 218 Madeira, Joaquim, 202 Manga, 202 Madrid, 250 Maniamba, 32 Magaia, Fernando, 122 Manica, 107, 117, 131, 145, 215, 220 Magaia, Filipe Samuel FAM operations in, 158, 173±4, in Algeria, 48 200±1 and dissident faction, 47 Renamo operations in, 148, 150, as Frelimo's deputy defense chief, 12 154±5, 157, 162±3, 173±6, 182, killed, 47±8, 52±3, 64, 100, 139 193±6, 199±201 Magaia pamphlet, 133, 137 Manjacaze, 197 Magno, Alexandre, 66 Mape, 31 Magomburi, 193 Mapulanguene, 210 Magude, 122, 210 Maputo, 154, 179±81, 228, 238±9, Mahachi, Moven, 254 241±2, 250, 256 Mahluza, Fanuel, ix Maputo Province, 102, 197, 215, 226, with Coremo, 38±40 248 detained, 98, 282 n FAM operations in, 235, 260 304 Index

Maputo Province (cont) Midlands, 140, 236 Renamo operations in, 158, 172, MiG-17, 241 209±10, 220, 227, 248 Milange, 39, 129, 149, 218, 238, 240, Marangue, JoseÂ, 282 n 248 Maria, AntoÂnio Isaac, 99, 282 n MilaÂs, Leo Marondera, 254 expelled from Frelimo, 28 Marromeu, 248 as Frelimo's defense chief, 28 Marrupa, 30 as Frelimo's information chief, 12 Martins, HeÂlder, 19 and Mondlane, 12, 28, 275n MarõÂngueÁ, 201±2, 220, 236, 255, Military Revolutionary Tribunal, 102, 260 129 Marques, Jose Marques, 184, 197 Miller, David, 264 Massala, 269 Millinga, Lawrence, 8, 12, 16 Massangena, 200, 220 Miteda, 31 Massingire, 206 MiG-21, 241 Masvingo, 207 Mi-25, 236 Matabeleland, 207, 236, 255 Mkalapa, 49 Matola, 113, 248 MML (Movimento MocËambique Matola, J., 83 Livre), 80, 140 Matsangaice, Andre Mmole, Matthew, 8, 16 arrives in Rhodesia, 144 MNR, see Renamo and CIO, 144, 152 Moamba, 181, 227, 235 and Cristina, 144 Moatize, 199 as Renamo leader, 154±5, 157, MocõÂmboa da Praia, 31 159±63, 165±7, 194 Mocuba, 203±4, 248 Matsinhe, Mariano, 222, 225, 243±5 Moiane, Dinis, 49 Mavago, 220 MoiseÂs, Nota, 187±8 MaÂvueÁ, 200 Molumbo, 218 Maximiano, LuÂcia, 86, 281 n Momade, Ossufo, 184, 201, 218 Maxixe, 267 Mombasa, 8, 84 Mazimechopes River, 210 Mombole, Afonso, 100, 103 Mbateya, Eduardo, 66, 279 n Monamo, see Dias, MaÂximo Mbaua, Agostinho, 49 Mondlane, Eduardo Chivambo Mbeya, 130 assassinated, 58±62 Mbule, Nasser, 73 CIA on, 19, 39, 47 Mbuzini, 242 early background, 14 Mecanhelas, 129, 135±7, 165, 218 as Frelimo leader, 12, 13, 46, 127±8, MecubuÂri, 115 141, 276 n, 278 n Megaza, 203, 248 on military developments in Meluco, 227 Mozambique, 29, 35, 276 n Meque, Calisto, 182, 199, 202±3 and Mozambican politicians, 5±13, Messalo River, 29, 31±2 15, 17, 37, 39, 53, 73 Metangula, 100, 220 and Portugal, 10, 14±5, 31, 35±6, Metaveia, 218 274 n McNamara, Robert, 18 relations with: Algeria, 15, 24; McPherson, Peter, 266, 294 n China, 26±8; Cuba, 15, 44±5, MFA (Movimento das ForcËas Armadas), 277 n; Ghana, 10, 12±13, 15, 18, 4, 72, 74, 77 39, 44; Tanzania, 6, 10, 15±16, mfecane,21 27±9; USSR, 10, 18, 27±8, 264; Index 305

United States, xv, 5±6, 9±19, Mpakati, Dr Attati, 128 26±9, 42±3, 273 n; Zambia, 38 MPLA (Movimento Popular de views on Angola, 6, 25, 26 LibertacËaÄo de Angola), 106 visit to Mozambique, 14±5 M'sawõÂze re-education camp, 97±8, 123 and the UN, 5, 14, 26 M'telela re-education camp, 100±2 Mondlane, Janet Rae Mtwara, 60±1 and Gwambe, 12 Muacanha, 218 book on Mondlane, 88, 281 n Muadia, 202 on Mondlane, 128, 281 n, 285n Muandiua, 202 and Moreira, 15 Muanza, 171 as Mozambique Institute principal, Muaquia, 202 41 Muchanga, Pedro, 227 MoÃngueÁ, 30, 82, 129 Mucojo, 31 Moniz, Botelho, 25 Mucuti, 157 Monteiro, Casimiro, 59 Mueda, 29, 31±2, 118, 226±7 Monteiro, OÂ scar, 101, 110, 225 Mugabe, Robert, 153 Montepuez, 31, 226±7 Muhate, 66 Mopeia, 129 Muhlanga, Josefate, 65 Morais, HermõÂnio, ix, 252±4, 292 n, Muhlanga, Lucas, 157, 162±3, 175 293 n Muidumbe, 31, 227 Moreco (Mozambique Revolutionary Muikho, 226±7 Council), 28 Muindumbe, 227 Moreira, Adriano, 14±15, 274 n Mujibas, 252, 259 Morombodze, 161 Mulunguisse, 196 Morrumbala, 39, 203, 238 MungaÂri, 199 Mount Darwin, 254 Munguambe, JoaÄo, 12, 17, 48 Mozambique Government Munguambe, SalomaÄo, 72 dissent, 104±5, 221±2, 225, 243±5 Mureremba, 202 domestic policy, 85±9, 106±8 Murupa, Miguel, 66, 73, 279 n economic program, 108±15 Mussapa River, 157, 174 foreign policy Mussindo, Manuel, ix, 291 n China, 127 Mussulude, 203 Cuba, 224 Mutambara, Manuel, 147 Malawi, 127±8, 245 Mutarara, 30, 130, 149, 199, 238, 240 Rhodesia, 128, 130±2 Mutare, 193 South Africa, 179±81, 224±5, 241±2, Mutassa, 145 267 Muxamba, 236 judiciary, 85±6, 90, 95±6, 101±2, 272 MuxungueÂ,157 Nkomati Accord, 218, 229, 239 Muzenda, Simon, 254 political reforms, 270±1 Muzorewa, Abel, 169 political system, 87±9 religion, 120±3, 152 Nacala, 218, 226, 240 talks with Renamo, 269±71 Nachingwea United States, 223±4, 235, 249±50, April 1975trials, 82, 100 262±7 Frelimo training camp, 48±52, 54, 67 USSR, 171, 221, 242, 265, 271 Nairobi, 186, 188, 190, 269±70 villagization, 116±19 Naisseko re-education camp, 122±3 Mozambique Information Office, 263 Nalazi, 220 Mozambique Institute, 255, 263 Nalyambipano, SaleÂsio, 91, 102 306 Index

Namaacha, 206 and the United States, 223±4 Namanjavira, 248 Nkrumah, Kwame, 7 NamarroÂi, 129 Nleya, Edwin, 259 Namaua, 118 Norquist, Grover, 266 Namecala, 226 North Korea, 207, 236 Namibia, 127, 142, 179 Nqumayo, Albert, 82 Nampula, 114, 134, 225 Nunes, HoraÂcio, 189±90 FAM operations in, 250±1 Nungo, SilveÂrio, 12, 63±4 Frelimo operations in, 30 Nyamapanda, 254 Renamo operations in, 158, 218, Nyanga, 249 226±7 Nyerere, Julius, 7, 8, 16, 19, 27, 29, 84 NamuÂli, 101, 202 Nangade, 50 OAU Liberation Committee, 53 Nangololo Mission, 29 Odzi, see Renamo Nantuengo, 30 OJM (OrganizacËaÄo da Juventude Naparama, 250±1, 271 MocËambicana), 121 Napulua, JanuaÂrio, 66 Oliveira, Aires de, 146, 286 n NATO, 24, 25, 43 Oliveira, Languane, 161 Ncube, Welshman, 255 Oliveira, Paulo, 246 Ndau, 12, 22, 148, 208, 250 Omar, 71 Ndeio, Francisco, 104 ONJ (OrganizacËaÄo Nacional de Ndimeni, Eli, 66 Jornalistas), 89 Neto, Agostinho, 8 Operation Production, 213±17 Neto, Diogo, 77 Operation Tanzania, 214 Nevins, Gillian, 282 n Ngungue, 158, 248, 260 PafuÂri, 206±7 Nhamatanda, 176, 250, 256 PAIGC (Partido Africano para a Nhandandanda, 240 IndependeÃncia da Guine e Nhaunga, Joaquim, 66 Cabo Verde), 3, 5 Nhongo, General Rex, 241 Pais, Major Silva, 153 Niassa, 29, 30, 66, 83, 118, 128, 133±4, Palma, 31 136, 139, 225 Panda, 267 Frelimo operations in, 32, 34±6, Papomo (Partido Popular de 49±0, 67, 136 MocËambique), 40 Operation Production, 214±17 Patriotic Front, 166 Portuguese operations in, 34 Paulino, Rocha, 218, 220, 226 PRM operations in, 129±30 Paulo, Joaquim Rui de Figueiredo, 184 re-education camps in, 96±7, PCN (Partido de ColigacËaÄo Nacional), 99±103, 122 73±4, 80, 82±3 Renamo operations in, 103, 158, Pebane, 268 170, 218, 220, 226±7 Penhalonga, 145 Nicaragua, 262 People's Assembly, 85±6 Nigeria, 53 People's Militia, 157, 163, 168, 201, Njanje, LuõÂs, 49, 280 n 205 Nkoloso, Mukuka, 40 People's Shops, 113 Nkomati Accord, 218, 229, 239 Pereira, Manuel JoseÂ, 282 n ANC reaction to, 224 Pereira, Raposo, 92 events leading to, 222±4 Phalaborwa, 158, 197 and Renamo, 225, 261 Phiri, Gimo, 129, 202±3, 285n, 289 n Index 307

PIC (PolõÂcia de InvestigacËaÄo Criminal), Re-education 90, 92±3 camps, 91, 94, 97±103, 116, 122, PIDE (PolõÂcia Internacional e de 144, 146±9 Defesa do Estado), 41, 59, 134, concept, 83, 95±6, 103 136, 153 Remo (ResisteÃncia MocËambicana), Pinda, 202, 248 146±7, 152, 166, 187 Pinto, Vieira, 217, 228, 290 n, 291 n Bomba brothers, 187±8 Pires, Pedro, 89, 281 n Jumo, 191 Ponta d'Ouro, 248 Renamo Porto AmeÂlia, 31 child soldiers, 257±8 Portugal, 109, 118, 135, 165, 235 and the CIO, 147, 153, 168 Armed Forces, 3, 34±6, 134 designation, 143, 145 Armed Forces Movement, 3, 71±2 under Dhlakama, 161±3 and Caetano, 3 FAM's view of, 244, 259±60 Communist Party, 66±7, 134 led by Matsangaice, 145, 154±5, 157, grants independence to colonies, xv, 159±63, 165±7, 194 4, 71, 74, 80, 137 membership, 154, 157, 176 intelligence services, 134, 191 military operations in: Cabo military response to Frelimo, 31±3, Delgado, 158, 226±7; Gaza, 158, 47, 72 172, 175±6, 182, 196±7, 199, and Mondlane's assassination, 205±10, 220; Inhambane, 158, 59±60 196±7, 200, 205±10, 220; and Renamo, 185, 250 Manica, 148, 150, 154±5, 157, under Salazar, 3 162±3, 173±6, 182, 193±6, Social Democratic Party, 185 199±201, 253; Maputo, 158, Pretoria, 163, 172, 181±2, 191, 246 172, 209±10, 220, 227, 248; Pretoria talks, 226, 229, 235 Nampula, 158, 218, 226±7, 250; draft cease-fire agreement, 230 Niassa, 103, 158, 170, 218, 220, Pretoria Declaration, 229±30 226±7; Sofala, 148, 154, 157, Primeiro de Maio communal village, 160±3, 171, 173±6, 194, 197, 112 202, 236, 238, 252, 259; Tete, PRM (Partido RevolucionaÂrio de 165, 199, 202, 238, 253; MocËambique), 128±30 ZambeÂzia, 158, 191, 202±5, 218, and Renamo, 149, 191, 202±3 220, 238, 246±8, 250, 252, 268; pseudos, 237, 252 Zambia, 250; Zimbabwe, 236, Pungue River, 21, 227 253±5 military structure, 196±7, 252±3, 259 Quelimane, 204 modus operandi, 152, 159, 252±3, Quental, JoaÄo, 223, 288 n, 290 n 257, 259 Quiterajo, 31 moves into Mozambique, 154±7 and the Nkomati Accord, 223±6 Radio Deutsche Welle, 89 Odzi training camp, 147, 149, 155, Radio Liberty, 142 157, 160±1, 163, 165, 171, 181 RBC (Rhodesian Broadcasting peace talks, 269±71 Corporation), 133, 140, 142 political structure, 184, 188 Reagan, Ronald, 249±50, 262, 264±5, Pretoria talks, 229±31 294 n and the PRM, 149, 191, 202±3 Rebelo, Jorge, 66, 89, 92, 281 n program of action, 167±70, 186, 188, ReÂcio, A lvaro, 222, 228±229, 291 n 264 308 Index

Renamo (cont) Samuel, Henriques Ernesto, 184 radio communications network, 158 Sanchez, Colonel Arys, 91 relations with: France, 151, 185; Sandhurst, 249 Germany, 185±6, 189; Malawi, Santos, AlcaÃntara, 245 239±41; the Middle East, 152; Sardinha, Zeca, 155 Portugal, 185, 250; South Africa, SAS (Special Air Service), 175 151, 157, 159, 163, 171±2, 174, operations against Renamo, 236 181±3, 187, 191±3; United training of Renamo guerrillas, 147, States, 151, 223, 261±8 154, 163 Resistance International, 262 Save River, 21, 67, 176, 182, 194±7, ResisteÃncia MocËambicana, see Remo 200±1, 205±8 ResisteÃncia Nacional MocËambicana, Savimbi, Jonas, 262±3 see Renamo Schaaf, Thomas, 263, 266 Revolutionary Council, 128 Scotland Yard, 58 Revue River, 160, 199, 236, SEII (ServicËos Especiais de InformacËaÄo Rhodesia, 133, 139±40, 158, 161, 167, e IntervencËaÄo), 77 176, 179, 181 Selous Scouts, 237 Frelimo enters through, 30 SemiaÄo, Joana, 72±3, 82, 100±1, 280 n Relations with Mozambique, 128, Sena, 202, 207, 250 130±1 SerapiaÄo, LuõÂs, 294 n and Renamo, 144±8, 154, 163 Sereco (ServicËos de Reconhecimento), Ricalta, 228 90 Richter, Wolfgang, 186 Shangaan, 22, 207 Rivalta, Pablo, 45 Shultz, George, 265±6, 294 n RNM, see Renamo Sibanda, Brigadier Philip, 236 Roberto, Holden, 10, 17, 25, 47 SIIP (ServicËo de InformacËaÄo Interna do Rocha, Jose Daniel, 92 Partido), 92 Rodrigues, Carlos AdriaÄo, 109, 283 n Sijaona, Lawi, 58 Roio, 222 Sikasula, Rankin, 38 Rotanda, 117 Silva, Jose da, 113, 283 n Rovuma River, 220 Silva, Rui, 147 Ruarua re-education camp, 91, 100, Simango, Celina, 102±3 102 Simango, Lutero, 282 n Rudolfo, Manuel, ix, 290 n Simango, Samuel Brito, 280 n Rusk, Dean, 43 Simango, Uria TimoÂteo, 11, 67, 169±70 Rutamba, 54 abducted, 82 criticizes Frelimo, 49, 64, 66, 278 n Sacudzo re-education camp, 94, 145±9, leads Frelimo faction, 47 155, 157, 168 in Frelimo's Presidential Council, Sadjunjira, 200, 202 63±5, 279 n Salamanga, 248 as Frelimo vice president, 12, 63 Salazar, AntoÂnio de Oliveira and Mondlane's assassination, 59, 60 and Indian possessions, 4 in re-education camp, 100±2 rules Portugal, 3, 190 in Rhodesia, 81 and United States, 24, 25, 43±4 and South Africa, 81 Salimo, MaÂrio, see Cristina, Orlando trial at Nachingwea, 83, 280 n Salisbury, 131, 137, 139, 152, 169, 203, Simbine, Gabriel, 66, 279 n 285n SISE (ServicËo de InformacËaÄoe Samatenje, 159 SegurancËa do Estado), 270 Index 309

Sitatonga, 157, 163, 173±5, 193 SADCC (Southern Africa Development Sithole, Daniel JoseÂ, 282 n Co-ordination Conference), 240 Sithole, Ndabaningi, 254 St EgõÂdio Community, 270 Sixpence, Jorge, 155 SARDC (Southern African Research Slovo, Joe, 181 and Documentation Centre), 236, Smith, Ian, 130, 140, 167 254 Snasp (ServicËo Nacional de SegurancËa SMO (ServicËo Militar ObrigatoÂrio), 257 Popular), 169 Spain, 250 disbanded, 270 Special Task Force, see Zimbabwe established, 90, 102 Spetsnaz, see USSR front companies: ADEV, 92; SpõÂnola, AntoÂnio de Interface, 92; Socimo, 92, 222 and Caetano, 3 and HomoõÂne massacre, 267 on Lusophone federation, 4, 71, officials, 101±2 MFA, 4, 71, 74, 280 n and re-education camps, 90, 98, 100 and Mozambique's independence, structure: BO, 91; BTI, 91; CIM, 91; 74, 279 n DCE±GVP, 91 Stasi, 90 Soares, MaÂrio, 4 Sumane, AmoÂs, 28, 40, 128±9 Socimo (Sociedade Comercial e Swaziland, 30, 41, 137, 206, 241±2 Industrial de MocËambique), Sweden, 101 see Snasp Symington, James, 18, 274 n Sofala, 117 FAM operations in, 158, 174, 206, Tabora, 61 237, 252, 255, 269 Tacuane, 30, 203±4 Frelimo operations in, 34, 104, 105 Tambara, 199 Renamo operations in, 148, 154, Tancos, 66 157, 160±3, 171, 173±6, 197, TANU (Tanganyika African National 202, 238, 252, 259 Union), 18, 58, 60 ZNA operations in, 237±8, 269 Tanzania, 71, 83, 105, 134, 136, 214, Songambele, Mustafa, 47 241 Songea, 47, 48 armed forces mutiny, 27 South Africa, 19, 105, 110, 137, 140, and China, 28 179±84, 206, 240, 258 investigation into Mondlane's economic relations with death, 58±62 Mozambique, 179±82 military assistance to Mozambique, Machel's death, 241±2 175, 235, 248±9, 252, 268 Military Intelligence, 80, 153, 158, and Revolutionary Council, 127 166, 172, 179, 182, 187, 191±2, Tava, Cassamo Issufo, 281 n 224 Telli, Diallo, 39 and Mozambique's independence, Tenda, Matias, 40, 129 80, 179 Tengua, 248 and Nkomati Accord, 222±3, 224, Tete, 21, 102, 117, 128, 131±2, 139, 229, 267 157, 220, 250 policy on Rhodesia, 80, 179 Coremo operations in, 39±40 Portuguese community in, 152, 188 FAM operations in, 158, 165, 235, Pretoria talks, 229±30 240 and Renamo, 151, 157, 159, 163, Frelimo operations in, 30, 34, 67 171±2, 174, 181±3, 187, 191±3, Portuguese operations in, 34, 130, 197, 199±200, 136 310 Index

Tete (cont) Agency for International PRM operations in, 129±30, 149 Development, 265±6 Renamo operations in, 165, 199, and Mondlane's assassination, 59±62 202, 238 and Nkomati Accord, 223±4 ZNA operations in, 237, 255 policy on Mozambique, 141±2, 151, TGF (Tropas de Guarda Fronteira), 223±4, 235, 249±50, 262±7 206±7 relations with Mondlane, 42 Thai, AntoÂnio Hama, 245 relations with UNITA, 192, 262 Thawe, BarnabeÂ,64 stand on Renamo, 151, 189, Thomashausen, AndreÂ, 186, 294 n 223±4, 261±8 Thornhill Base, 236 UPA (UniaÄo dos Povos de Angola), 10, TIS (Tanzania Intelligence Service), 17, 25±6 62 USSR, 18, 27±8, 59, 67, 111, 141, 151, Tobias, Paulo, 157 160, 171, 223, 242, 262±5 Tobias, SimaÄo, 48 economic relations with Tome, 197 Mozambique, 221 Tomo, VirgõÂlio, ix, 290 n military assistance to Mozambique, TPDF (Tanzania People's Defense 173, 175, 181, 206, 240±1 Force), 248±9, 252, 268 Spetsnaz (Special forces), 181, 206 Trindade, JoaÄo, 281 n Tripoli, 235 Van der Byl, Piet, 131, 285n TristaÄo, Manuel Lisboa, ix, 48, 50, 73, Varela, 157 277 n, 278 n, 280 n Varela, AÂ guas, 77 Tsequete, Abel, 202, Vasco da Gama, 133 Tudo, LuõÂs Arranca, 50 Veil, Simone, 262 Tunisia, 10 Veleia, Joaquim, 130 Veloso, Jacinto Udenamo (UniaÄo DemocraÂtica defects from Portuguese Air Force, 19 Nacional de MocËambique), 5, 7, negotiations with South Africa, 40, 63 222±3 Udenamo±MocËambique, 37 Pretoria talks, 229±30, 291 n Udenamo±Monomotapa, 30 as security minister, 91, 222, 281 n UloÂngueÁ, 238 Viajem, Amade, ix, 289 n, 292±3 n Ululu, Vicente, 187 Victor, Anselmo, ix Unami (UniaÄo Nacional Africana de Videira, Armindo, 77 MocËambique Independente), 9, Vieira, SeÂrgio 37±38 demoted, 245 Unar (UniaÄo Nacional Africana de and execution of political prisoners, RumbeÂzia), 40 101 Unemo (UniaÄo dos Estudantes de Nachingwea trials, 82±3 MocËambique), 51 as security minister, 225 UNHCR (UN High Commissioner for Vila Cabral, 32 Refugees), 238 Vila Fontes, 201±2 UNITA (UniaÄo Nacional para a Vila Franca do Save, 160, 176 IndependeÃncia Total de Angola), Vila Nova, 238 106, 192, 262±3, 267 Vilanamuali, Rui, 49 United Nations, 5, 14, 26, 84, 110, Vilankulu, Artur, 40, 190 270±1 Voice of America, 89 United States, 103, 132, 190, 242 Voice of Zimbabwe, 132 Index 311

Vorster, John, 80, 179 Popular Front, 151 Vos, Jon de, 264 Portuguese operations in, 135 Voz da AÂ frica Livre, 138±49, 162, PRM operations in, 129±30, 149 164±6, 168±9, 174, 183 Renamo operations in, 202±4, 158, and Renamo, 143±9, 152, 155, 187, 202±5, 218, 220, 238, 246±8, 189, 202±3 252, 268 in South Africa, 153, 157, 172, 191, TPDF operations in, 248±9, 252, 268 198 Zambia, 34, 36, 40, 130, 179, 240±1 assists Coremo, 39, 41 Wallop, Malcolm, 264 detains Coremo members, 72 Waterkloof, 157 military operations in Mozambique, Washington, 142, 246, 261±3, 265 250 Wells, Melissa, 266 Mozambican refugees in, 238 Wheeler, Jack, 261±3 ZANLA (Zimbabwe African National Wolpe, Howard, 263 Liberation Army), 131 World Anti-Communist Alliance, Zanzibar, 8, 96 263 ZANU (Zimbabwe African National Wayne, Roberto, 162, 287 n Union), 130±1 Wight, Jr, William, 5, 273 n ZAPU (Zimbabwe African People's Williams, Mennen, 16, 17, 18, 42±3, Union), 44 274 n, 277 n Zifa (Zimbabwe Freedom Army), 254 Wisner, Frank, 262±3 Zimbabwe, 127, 132±3, 163, 166, 197, Wizimane, Martins Gamito, ix, 290 n 201, 203, 220, 240, 259 World Bank, 221, 271 faces Renamo attacks, 253±254 and Frelimo Xai-Xai, 197 guerrilla bases in Mozambique, 237 Xavier, Matias, 101 military assistance to Mozambique, 175, 193, 200, 206±7, 235±8, Yao, 30, 133±4, 136 240±41, 250, 252±3, 268 and Renamo, 173±4, 236±8, 255 ZaõÈre, 130, 241 Zinave, 196 Zambeze River, 21±2, 41, 117±18, 173, Ziu-Ziu River, 118 199 ZNA (Zimbabwe National Army) ZambeÂzia, 30, 102, 123, 128, 165 5th Brigade, 255 Coremo operations in, 39 Special Task Force, 235±8, 248, FAM operations in, 208, 241, 249, 258±9 268 ZoÂbueÁ, 30, 199 Frelimo operations in, 49, 67, 82, Zotov, General Nikolay, 206 136 Zumbo, 238