55

CHAPTER-III

THE STATUS OF AGNI IN VEDIC RELIGION

The Vedic god Agni is most closely connected with the Āprī-hymns, being the actual god of glorification in these hymns. Therefore, the status of Agni in Vedic religion has been dealt with in the third chapter.

In Vedic religion the term agni denotes the god of fire as well as physical fire. Fire is a natural phenomenon which has become indispensable for human beings since its discovery. Fire, however, in its first appearance, whether through lightning or through the friction of tree-branches or through sparks of flint-stones, was not considered as permanent or eternal as other phenomena of nature. This was because, unlike the sky, earth or the water, the fire just appeared and vanished. It had to be tended to keep it burning. Early men saw its destructive aspect too. Fire, therefore, must have created fear and curiosity in the minds of the primeval people. In course of time fire became their protector in winter and at night. Most importantly, fire took human beings a step forward into a civilized way of life, with the skill of cooking food with it.1 The primeval people began worshipping fire out of fear and gratitude, but in all likelihood without entertaining the idea of fire as a god. Nevertheless, the worship of fire as a god goes back to great antiquity.

The origin of the word agni, denoting fire, dates back to the undivided

Indo-European period. The Sanskrit word for fire, i.e. agni is found in Latin as ignis, in Lithuanian as ugnis and in Slavonic as ogni. According to Macdonell,

1. cf., MaxMüller, F., PHYSICAL RELIGION, New Delhi, First Asian Reprint 1979, p. 121. 56

although agni is an Indo-European word, the worship of fire under this designation is truly Indian.2 The Indo-European people made efforts to keep fire burning continuously in their hearths. And there is great possibility that this continuous preservation of hearth-fire was accompanied with certain customary rites. It is certain that a custom of offering gifts to the gods in fire was in vogue among the Indo-European clans, such as the Greeks, Italians, Iranians and the

Indians.3 Macdonell considers the sacrificial fire as an institution of more or less

Indo-European period4 whereas, Oldenberg is doubtful about the Indo-European origin of the sacrificial fire.5 In an early period like the undivided Indo-European era the sacrificial aspect of fire does not seem to become too developed to have a clear personification. The fire in that period was more an element of nature, creating mystery by its benevolent and malevolent nature. Of course, the value of fire as a facilitator of domestic life gave it importance in that period also. This status of the domestic fire was inherited by the Indo-Iranians from the Indo-

Europeans. In the Indo-Iranian period fire gained a further importance in the life of the people when fire became indispensable in the ritualistic religion of the people. For, Indo-Iranian religion centered round the sacrificial fire. The ritual was officiated by the priestly class and the fire became personified and worshipped as a great god, endowed with strength, purity and wisdom. The Indo-

Iranian fire-god became the bestower of food, cattle, progeny, fame, livelihood,

2. cf., Macdonell, A.A., THE VEDIC MYTHOLOGY, Varanasi, 1963, p. 99. 3. cf., Oldenberg, H., The Religion of The Veda, Delhi, First Edition 1988, Reprint 2004, p. 61. Also see Macdonell, A.A., loc. cit. 4. cf., Macdonell, A.A., ibid. 5. cf., Oldenberg, H., loc. cit. 57

wellbeing and spiritual power upon his worshipper and his family, and at the same time he became the destroyer of enemies.

When the Iranians and the Vedic Indians separated and the Vedic people entered the Indus region of ancient India, they brought with them the custom of fire-worship. Agni, as a separate god of fire has occupied a far more prominent place in Vedic religion than in the religion of the Iranians. It may be noted here that the Avestan fire-god is known as Ātar, and it is supposed that the word ātar exists in the name Athar-van, denoting the Vedic fire-priest,6 which is sometimes found as a designation of Agni himself.7 In the Avestā, Ātar or fire is the son of

Ahura-mazdā and the water is said to be Ātar‟s mother,8 just as in the Veda Agni is described as the son of the sky and the waters.9 In the Vedic period Agni has become the chief terrestrial deity, the presiding god of the earth.

Coming to the etymology of the name of Agni it can be said that this name (Agni) bears great significance in relation to the Vedic religion, because it depicts the religious status of the fire-god. Thus, the Vājasaneyī Saṁhitā, as quoted by Sāyaṇa, states that Agni is named so because he was born before the gods were.10 The foremost position or existence of Agni is proved by the following words of the Ṛgveda -- agniṁ devāso agriyam.11 The Taittirīya-Saṁhitā also connotes the same by saying – agniravamo devatānām.12 And as the fire-god

6. cf., MaxMüller, F., op. cit., p. 227. In the Avestā, the name of the fire-priest is Athravan. 7. cf., MaxMüller, F., ibid. Also see RV., I.83.5; VIII.9.7, and Sāyaṇa. 8. cf., MaxMüller, F., ibid., p. 228. 9. cf., RV., III.29.4; IV.15.6; VI.49.2; X.45.8; I.143.2; VI.8.2; X.45.1; VIII.91.5; III.1.12; 13; AV., XIII.1.50; etc. 10. cf., sa vā eso’gre devatānāmajāyata tasmādagnirnāmā, Sāyaṇa on RV., I.1.1. 11. RV., VI.16.48. Also see, agniragre prathamo devatānām , TB., 2.4.3.3. 12. TS., V.5.1.4. 58

was born or produced earlier than the other gods, he becomes agriḥ, i.e. foremost and from this word he is named as Agni (agriḥ ˂ agniḥ), states the Śatapatha-

Brāhmaṇa.13

Taking into account the nature and the different functions of the fire-god,

Yāska has given the etymology of the term agni in the Nirukta.14 According to this etymology, Agni is named so because he is the foremost leader (agraṇīḥ);15 he is carried to the foremost position in sacrifices; he makes everything to which he comes in contact a part of himself. Sāyaṇa, while interpreting the very first verse of the Ṛksaṁhitā, quotes the etymology of the word agni given by Yāska and presents its meaning.16 In his view the fire-god is called so because he is agraṇīḥ, i.e. he himself leads the army of gods; he is led towards the foremost

(agra), i.e. place towards the āhavanīya-fire situated in the east direction from the gārhapatya-zone in the places of sacrifices like agnihotra, iṣṭi, paśu, soma, etc.; he himself being humble stimulates his own body in burning the sacred-woods and in cooking the oblations for sacrificial purpose. The same meaning comes out when Śaunaka in his Bṛahaddevatā (II.24) states that the god of fire is praised by sages under the designation Agni, because he was born at the beginning (agre) of beings, and because he is the leader (agraṇī) at the sacrifice, or because he unites

13. cf., tadvā enametadagre devānām ajanayata tasmādagriḥ agrirha vai nāmaitad yadagniriti , ŚB., 2.2.4.2; sa yadasya sarvasyāgramasrjyata tasmādagriḥ , agrirha vai tamagnirityācakṣate parokṣam , ibid., 6.1.1.11. 14. cf., agniḥ kasmāt agraṇīr havati agraṁ yajñeṣu praṇīyate aṅgaṁ nayati sannamamānaḥ , Nir., 7.14. 15. cf., Śaṅkara on VedS., 1.2.7.28. 16. cf., devasenāmagre svayaṁ nayatītyagraṇīḥ yajñeṣvagnihotreṣṭipaśusomarūpeṣvagraṁ pūrvadigvartyāhavanīyadeśaṁ prati gārhapatyāt praṇīyate iti sannamamānaḥ samyak svayameva prahvī havannaṅgaṁ svakīyaṁ śarīraṁ nayati kāṣṭhadāhe haviṣpāke ca prepayati , Sāya ṇa on RV., I.1.1. 59

his body (aṅgaṁ saṁ-nī)17 with everything whatever comes in his way. Yāska has also quoted in his work the interpretations of the term agni as presented by two of his predecessors, viz. Sthaulāṣṭhīvi and Śākapūṇi. According to Sthaulāṣṭhīvi,18

Agni is named so because he is a drying agent, he does not make objects wet or moist. Sāyaṇa here adds a point by saying that instead of moistening, Agni roughens woods and the like.19 Śākapūṇi has derived the word agni from three roots, i, añj or dah and nī which are expressive of the acts of going, shinning or burning, and leading. Thus, taking the letter a from the root i (to go), the letter g from the root añj (to shine) or dah (to burn), ending with the root nī (to lead), the word agni is formed. 20

In the Śa dakalpadruma, the meaning of the word agni which is in masculine gender is given as „a kind of object with heat or light or energy.‟21

Again, inaccessibility or dreadfulness, light, heat, cooking or burning, illuminating, affliction, anger or affection, agility, sharpness, constantly shining upwards – all these qualities and functions are attributed to Agni. Agni is known by different names in different activities. The Śa dakalpadruma has cited the specific names of Agni in different gṛhya and śrauta rituals as collected by the son of Gobhila.22 Accordingly, Agni is named Pāvaka in rituals or customs of entering a new house, etc., Sūrya in godāna-ceremony, Sāhasa in pākayajña,

Mṛḍa in pūrṇāhuti, and so on.

17. cf., jāto yadagre hūtānām agraṇīradhvare ca yat nāmnā saṁnayate vāṅgaṁ stuto’gniriti sūri hiḥ , BD., II.24. 18. cf., aknopano havatīti stualāṣṭhīvih na knopayati na snehayati , Nir., 7.14. 19. cf., kintu kaṣṭhādikaṁ rūkṣayatītyuktaṁ havati , Sāyaṇa hāṣyam, RV., I.1.1. 20. cf., tri hya ākhyāte hyo jāyata iti śākapūṇiḥ itāi aktāddagdhādvā nītāt sa khalveterakāramādatte gakārmanaktervā dahatervā nīḥ paraḥ , Nir., 7.14. 21. cf., (puṁ) tejapadārthaviśesaḥ, ŚKd., Part. I, p. 4. 22. cf., ibid. 60

Macdonell in his work, The Vedic Mythology has given the derivation of the word agni. He has supposed this word to be derived from the root aj, to drive, meaning „nimble,‟ with reference to the agility of the fire.23 This meaning of the word agni seems to cover only one side of the numerous qualities of the deity.

A. The Status of Agni in Vedic Hymn-poetry:

The Ṛgveda which is the very first record of Vedic religion starts with an invocation of Agni.24 Moreover, each one of the ten Maṇḍalas of the Ṛgveda, except the eighth and the ninth, begins with a hymn to Agni. From the point of view of the number of hymns addressed to him, Agni is in the second highest position. He stands just next to Indra, being celebrated in about 200 hymns of the

Ṛgveda. Agni has also been invoked conjointly with other deities in the several other hymns. Although the word agni is the common nomenclature of all kinds of fire, yet this word has got prominence as the name of a god of fire who is a personification of all types of fire that exist in nature. In the words of Ghate, Agni is the most striking instance of „arrested personification‟.25

The very first conception of Agni as revealed to the mind of the Vedic seer has been reflected in the very first prayer in the Ṛgveda --

agnimīḷe purohitam yajñasya devamṛttvijam

hotāraṁ ratnadhātamam

23. cf., Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p. 99. 24. cf., RV., I. 1.1. 25. Sukthankar, V.S., V.S. GHATE’S LECTURES ON RIGVEDA, Delhi, 2005, p. 132. 61

[I LAUD Agni, the chosen Priest, God,

minister of sacrifice,

The hotar, lavishes of wealth.]26

Here, Agni is personified as purohita – the household priest, ṛtvij -- the divine minister of sacrifice, hotā – the chief priest as well as the bestower of wealth.

Thus, as against Indra, who attained importance for his valour, Agni has attained prominence for his priesthood and priestly wisdom. As against the warrior

(kṣatriya) – nature of Indra, Agni is characterized by wisdom which represents the priestly class. In the Ṛksaṁhitā Agni has been hailed as agnirhotā kavikratuḥ which signifies that he is a Brahmin and is full of wisdom.27 Agni being the divine priest becomes the god of the priests. This shows Agni‟s close connection with sacrifice and makes him the most sacred of all the deities in the priestly religion of the Vedic Aryans.28 Thus, in the Aitareya-Brāhmaṇa (1.4) it is said – agnirmukhaṁ prathamo devatānām.

Whatever anthropomorphic description of the fire-god has been found is primarily connected with the sacrificial fire. In other words, the descriptions of the physical appearance of the god have been based on the nature of terrestrial fire in general and sacrificial fire in particular. Thus, the epithets of Agni, such as ghṛtapratīka (butter-faced), ghṛtanirṇik (butter-shaped), ghṛtapṛṣṭha (butter- backed), ghṛtakeśa (butter-haired), etc. clearly indicate the connection of Agni

26. Griffith, R.T.H., THE HYMNS OF THE ṚGVEDA, New Revised Edition, Delhi, 1973, Reprinted 1986, p. 1. 27. cf., RV., I.1.5. Commenting on this Skandasvāmin says, agniḥ hotā devānām … krāntaṁ gataṁ sarvatrāpratihataṁ prajñānaṁ karma vā yasya sa kavikratuḥ. cf., Skandasvāmin on ibid. 28. cf., Chaubey, B.B., THE NEW VEDIC SELECTION, Part-II, (Revised & Enlarged Edition) Appendix-D, Delhi, Varanasi, 8th Edition, 1973, p. 104. 62

with the oblation of ghṛta offered to him.29 Agni has been described with epithets, such as sujihva (beautiful-tongued), śociṣkeśa (flame-haired), as having three tongues, or seven tongues,30 as having steeds with seven tongues, etc. with reference to the flames of terrestrial fire.31 The two following verses of the

Ṛksaṁhitā describe Agni with reference to sacrifice –

tvāṁ citraśravastama havante vikṣu jantavaḥ

śociṣkeśaṁ purupriyā’gne havyāya vohḷave 32

[O Agni, loved by many, thou of fame

most wondrous, in their homes

Men call on thee whose hair is flames, to

be the bearer of their gifts.]33

The second verse describes Agni as follows –

viśāṁ kaviṁ viśpatiṁ mānuṣīṇāṁ śuciṁ pāvakaṁ ghṛtapṛṣṭhamagnim

ni hotāraṁ viśvavidaṁ dadhidhve sa deveṣu vanate vāryāṇi 34

[The sage of men, the Lord of human races,

pure, purifying Agni, balmed with

butter,

29. cf., RV., I.143.7; III.1.18; V.4.3; II.35.4; III.17.1; III.27.5; I.164.1; V.37.1; VIII.60.2; etc. 30. cf., VS., XVII.79. The seven tongues of Agni receive their own names in the later literature. These are the following – Kālī, Karālī, Manojavā, Sulohitā, Sudhūmravarṇā, Sphuliṅginī, and Viśvarucī. cf., MU., I.2.4. 31. cf., RV., I.14.7; I.45.6; III.20.2; III.6.2; III.17.1; III.27.4, etc. 32. ibid., I.45.6. 33. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p.30. 34. RV., V.4.3. 63

Him the Omniscient as your Priest ye

stablish: he wins among the Gods

things worth the choosing.]35

In all the hymns of the Ṛksaṁhitā which are addressed to Agni, the physical basis of Agni is never lost. In all the invocations he represents a very pervasive and striking element of nature – the fire, and this aspect of Agni remains perceptible through the veil of his anthropomorphic appearance. This has made the deity transparent in form, and as a result the anthropomorphic enumeration of his physical appearance is far less than that of other deities like Indra and Varuṇa.36

Agni is also portrayed from the view point of theriomorphism. He is frequently compared or identified with animals and birds like bull, horse or a calf (vatsa), or bird like eagle or haṁsa.37 He is once called a raging serpent.38 In most of the cases such theriomorphic descriptions of Agni have been made undoubtedly in order to indicate his basic characteristics rather than to depict his physical form.39

It should be noted here that descriptions of Agni with reference to such strong, forceful and swift creatures are most appropriate to his nature. Thus, for example, the tail which Agni shakes like a horse40 indicates his flame. All these descriptions of Agni indicate the flames and the motion of fire.

35. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 239. 36. cf., Griswold, H.D., THE RELIGION OF THE RIGVEDA, Delhi, 1999, p. 151, and Keith, A.B., THE RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE VEDA AND UPANISHADS, Part- I, Delhi, Reprinted 2007, p. 154. 37. cf., RV., I.58.5; V.2.12; X.8.1; IV.5.3; V.1.8; VI.16.39; I.149.3; VI.12.6; II.5.1; III.27.3, I.36.8, VIII.91.12; IV.2.8; VII.15.4; I.164.52; I.65.9; I.66.2; VI.3.5; X.91.2, etc. 38. cf., ibid., I.79.1. 39. cf., Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p. 89. 40. cf., RV., II.4.4. 64

In the context of sacrifices Agni is compared to a chariot that brings wealth to the sacrificer, or is conducted to the sacrifice like a laden chariot41. Agni is a charioteer of the sacrifice,42 and with his steeds he brings the gods in his chariot43 to the place of sacrifice. The Kauṣitakī-Brāhmaṇa has also given a similar view when it states that (sacrificial) fires are the chariots of the gods – devaratho vā agnayaḥ.44

In the prayers and invocations to Agni, his food, important from the sacrificial point of view, is also mentioned.45 Ghee or melted butter is his favorite food. He also devours wood.46 But Agni as a divinity is rarely invited to drink the soma-juice.47 At one place Agni is called somagopā, i.e. „the guardian of soma‟.48

Agni is often invoked to come to the sacrifice along with Gods and receive the offerings.49 He is also described as all-devouring,50 because fire burns everything.

It may be noted here that Hillebrandt and Oldenberg believe that Agni had little share or a subordinate position in the soma-sacrifice at the beginning. Thus, they think that the fundamental arrangements of the soma-sacrifice were already established before Agni became prominent as a divinity.51

41. cf., RV., X.176.3. 42. cf., ibid., X.92.1. 43. cf., ibid., III.6.9. 44. KB., 5.10. 45. cf., RV., VII.3.1, II.7.6, X.69.2, III.21.1, V.11.3, I.143.5, VI.60.10, X.79.2, etc. 46. cf., drvannaḥ (one having the wood for his food) ibid., II.7.6 (VS., XI.70; TS., IV.1.9.2). Also see AV., I.7.2. 47. cf., RV., I.14.10, I.19.9, I.21.1, I.21.3, I.99.1, VI.16.16, etc. 48. cf., ibid., X.45.5; X.45.12. 49. cf., ibid., X.98.9; III.14.2; V.11.2; V.26.5; VII.11.2, etc. 50. cf., ibid., VIII.44.26. 51. cf., Hillebrandt, A., THE VEDIC MYTHOLOGY, Volume-I, Delhi, First English Language Edition 1980, Reprinted 1990, p. 49. Also see Hermann Oldenberg‟s op. cit., pp. 62, 243. 65

In Vedic religion Agni also plays the part of a mediator and judge of the human beings. By the side of Varuṇa and the Ādityas, stands Agni in the work of protecting Divine Order (ṛta) and punishing sin.52 Agni also shows his liberality by appeasing the wrath of Varuṇa towards the sinners and by mediating between them and also by appeasing the wrath of the gods, and forgiving the sinners.53

It has already been mentioned in the first chapter of the present thesis that there is but one single Supreme Soul in the multitude of the gods in Vedic religion. This single Supreme Soul in Vedic religion is none other than Agni – the god of fire who manifests himself as all other gods of Vedic pantheon. In support of this fact a number of statements are found available in the Vedas as well as in later Vedic literature. Thus, it has been described in the Ṛksaṁhitā that all the gods are as it were contained in Agni, whom he surrounds as a felly does the spokes –

agne nemirarān iva devānstvaṁ pari hūrasi

ā rādhaścitramṛñjase 54

[Thou, Agni, as the felly rings the spokes,

encompassest the Gods.

I yearn for bounty manifold.]55

52. cf., RV., IV.5.4; 5; IV. 2.11; X.8.5; V.3.7; IV.3.5-8; etc. 53. cf., ibid., IV.1.4; IV.2.1, 3, 4, 5; IV.12.4, 5; IV.48.10; VII.93.7; AV., V.30.4; TB., 3.7.12.3; 4, etc. 54. RV., V.13.6. Also see, tvamagne varuṇo jāyase yat tvaṁ mitro bhavasi yat samiddhaḥ tve viśve sahasasputra devāstvamindro dāśuṣe martyāya , ibid., V.3.1. 55. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 244. 66

The god of fire assumes various divine forms, and has different designations on account of his magnificent quality or action –

agne hūrīṇi tava jātavedo deva svadhāvo’mṛtasya nāma

yāśca māyā māyināṁ viśvaminva tve pūrvīḥ saṁdadhuḥ pṛṣṭabandho 56

[O Agni, many are the names thou

bearest, Immortal, God, Divine, and

Jātavedas :

And many charms of charmers, All-

Inspirer! have they laid in thee, Lord

of true attendants!]57

The Ṛgveda in one place identifies Agni successively with thirteen gods and five goddesses.58 The gods to whom Agni is identified are Indra, Viṣṇu,

Brahmaṇaspati, Varuṇa, Mitra, Aryaman, Aṁśa, Tvaṣṭṛ, Rudra, Vāyu,59 Pūṣan,

Savitṛ and Bhaga. Besides, five goddesses, viz. Aditi, Hotrā, and the triad Bhāratī,

Iḷā and Sarasvatī are presented as the manifestations of Agni.

Agni is credited with three abodes (triṣadhastha,60 tripastya 61). On account of the threefold division of the universe Agni has a threefold form. Agni existing in the heaven is the sun, in atmosphere is the lightning, and on the earth is

56. RV., III.20.3. Also see, tadinnvasya vṛṣa hasya dhenorā nāma hirmamire sakmyaṁ goḥ anyadanyadasuryaṁ vasānā ni māyino mamire rūpamasmin , ibid., III.38.7. 57. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 170. 58. cf., RV., II.1.3-7; 11. 59. According to Sāyaṇa, mārutaṁ śardhaḥ denotes Vāyu who is identified to Agni. cf., marutsamūharūpaṁ balamasi vāyurūpaśca tvamasītyarthaḥ , Sāyaṇa on ibid., II.1.6. 60. cf., RV., V.4.8; VI.8.7; VI.12.2. Also see Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p. 93. 61. cf., RV., VIII.39.8. 67

the sacrificial fire. The spheres constituting the three fold division of the universe also vary in different places of the Vedas. Besides the three regular spheres, Agni is described as being born from heaven first, secondly from the men, i.e. earth, and thirdly, in the waters, 62 or from ocean, heaven and waters,63 and so on. The three-fold nature of Agni is well-expressed in the Ŗgveda in the following way –

agne trī te vājinā trī ṣadhasthā tisraste jihvā ṛtajāta pūrvīḥ

tisra u te tanvo devavātāstā hirnaḥ pāhi giro aprayucchan 64

[Three are thy powers, Agni, three thy

stations, three are thy tongues, yea,

many, Child of Order!

Three bodies hast thou which the Gods

delight in: with these protect our

hymns with care unceasing.]65

Agni is the three-fold light (arkastridhātū).66 These three forms of Agni, viz.

Sūrya, Vāyu or Indra and Agni which have been dealt with in the Vedic literature

67 form the earliest triad of Indian religion.68 In this context Yāska may be referred to, who has preserved an ancient view of the Nairuktas which reduces the number

62. cf., RV., X.45.1; VIII.44.16; X.2.7; X.46.9. 63. cf., ibid., I.95.3. 64. ibid., III.20.2. 65. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 170. 66. cf., RV., III.26.7. 67. cf., ibid., X.158.1; AB., 5.32.1; 2.17.17; KB., 8.8; ŚB., 11.2.3.1. 68. cf., Griswold, H.D., op. cit., p. 150. However, Macdonell holds that the triad of Sun (Sūrya), Indra and Fire (Agni), although ancient, is not Ṛgvedic. See Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p. 93. 68

of 33 Vedic gods equally divided into three groups to the three Gods, viz. Agni on the earth, Vāyu or Indra in the mid-air, and Sūrya in the heaven.69

The chief God, representing heaven is Sūrya i.e. the sun, who is often identified with Agni. Thus, Agni is described as the light of heaven (svardṛśaṁ), the sign of heaven (ketuṁ divo), the head of heaven (mūrdhānaṁ divo); Agni shines in heaven, unites with the light or the rays of the sun, etc.70 Being identified with the sun Agni is described as being kindled at dawn, and receives the epithet – uṣarbudh, „waking at dawn‟.71 Agni, besides being identified with the sun, is also compared with it when it is said that the minds of the pious persons (devayatāṁ manāṁsi) turn towards Agni, as the eyes of all towards the sun.72 The following

Ṛgvedic stanza has also compared Agni with Sūrya –

sa tvamage vi hāvasuḥ sṛjantsūryo na raśmi hiḥ

śardhan tamāṁsi jighnase 73

[So thou, O Agni rich in light, beaming

like Sūrya with thy rays

Boldly demolishest the gloom.]74

The sun is the chief form of manifestation of Agni, which has been stated in the following words – cariṣṇvarcirvapuṣāmidekam [thy moving splendour is the chief

69. cf., Nir., 7.5. 70. cf., RV., III.2.14; X.88.6; 187.4; III.27.12; VIII.44.29; 56.5; X.88.11; 12; AV., XIII.1.13; TS., IV.2.9.4, etc. 71. cf., RV., III.2.14. 72. cf., ibid., V.1.4, etc. 73. ibid., VIII.43.32. 74. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 430. 69

of wonders].75 Agni in his heavenly manifestation has made the sun, the eternal star, ascend to the sky, bestowing light on men.76 The solar nature of Agni is clearly mentioned in his depiction as Vaiśvānara.

In the mid-region Agni is compared or identified with lightning. In this context it may be mentioned that Agni is called the belly of the gods in the

Taittīriya Brāhmaṇa -- agnirdevānāṁ jaṭharam.77 Owing to Agni‟s manifestation in the mid-region, he is most frequently found associated with Indra forming a dual divinity,78 and endowed with certain traits of Indra. Thus, Indra is said to be his twin brother.79 On account of this association Agni is described as bursting the rock with heat,80 and vanquishing the unbelieving Paṇis.81

Agni is mostly treated in his earthly form. Agni manifests himself in every terrestrial fire. Agni is so intimately associated with the human habitations that he is generally characterized as damūnas, i.e. „domestic.‟82 The god of fire, as

Macdonell says, “is more closely connected with human life than any other god.”83 No other god but Agni is described with the frequent epithet, gṛhapati,84 i.e. „lord of the house‟ corresponding to the Iranian nmānōpaiti. Thus the following verse says –

75. RV., IV.7.9; Griffith, R.T.H., ibid., p. 206. Also see RV., III.55.9. 76. cf., ibid., X.156.4. 77. TB., 2.7.12.3. 78. Eleven hymns of the RV. are dedicated to Indrāgni, forming the second highest number among the hymns dedicated to the dual divinities. 79. cf., RV., VI.59.2. Also see Sāyaṇa, ibid. 80. cf., ibid., VIII.46.16. 81. cf., ibid., VII.6.3. 82. cf., ibid., I.60.4; III.1.11; 17; III.3.6; IV.11.5, etc. 83. Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p. 95. 84. cf., RV., VII.15.2; I.12.6; I.36.5; I.60.4; IV.11.5; V.8.1; 2; AB., 5.25; KB., 3.9. 70

yaḥ pañca carṣaṇīra hi niṣasāda damedame

kavirgṛhapatiryuvā 85

[Who for the Fivefold People‟s sake hath

seated him in every home,

Wise, youthful, Master of the house.]86

He dwells in every abode on the earth,87 and never leaves his home.88 In this connection the epithet gṛhapati applied to Agni seems to correlate to the first one of the three sacrificial fires of the later ritual, viz., gārhapatya, i.e. that which belongs to gṛhapati -- the head or lord of the house.89 Agni on the earth is also

„the lord of men or of the clan‟ who is characterized by the epithet viśpati or viśāṁ pati 90 which corresponds to the Iranian vīspaiti. Thus the following verse says –

viśāṁ kaviṁ viśpatiṁ śaśvatīnāṁ nitośanaṁ vṛṣabhaṁ carṣaṇīnām

pretīṣaṇimiṣayantaṁ pāvakaṁ rājantamagniṁ yajataṁ rayīṇām 91

[Sage of mankind, all peoples‟ Lord and

Master, the Bull of men, the sender

down of blessings.

85. RV., VII.15.2. 86. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 340. 87. cf., RV., IV.1.9; VII.15.2. 88. cf., ibid., VIII.49.19. 89. cf., Macdonell, A.A., loc. cit., p. 95. 90. cf., RV., VI.1.8; VII.7.4; VII.15.7; VIII.23.13; III.3.8; V.4.3; I.12.2; I.26.7; I.60.2; X.4.4; I.127.8; TS., VII.5.23.2; MS., IV.12.5. 91. RV., VI.1.8. 71

Still pressing on, promoting, purifying,

Agni the Holy One, the Lord of riches.]92

The domestic Agni, the clan-lord, who caused mortals to settle down,93 is set forth by men,94 is the leader of the pious people (netā)95 and a protector of men.96 Agni being the immortal (amṛta)97 has settled down among the mortals.98 So, he is frequently designated as atithi,99 i.e. the „guest‟ in every human abode.

Having been a guest in human habitations, Agni finally has been settled there. Here, a gradual growth of Agni‟s status from a guest to the lord of the house and then to the lord of the whole clan, is clearly visible. This close affinity of

Agni with human beings has made him their kinsman, friend, son, father, mother and brother.100 He is called the nearest kinsman of man – nediṣṭham āpyam.101

And the kinsman of man is described in the Ṛgveda as follows –

tvāṁ vardhanti kṣitayaḥ pṛthivyāṁ tvāṁ rāya u hayāso janānām

tvāṁ trātā taraṇe cetyo hūḥ pitā mātā sadaminmānuṣāṇām 102

[On earth the people magnify thee greatly,

Thee their celestial and terrestrial riches.

92. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 284. 93. cf., RV., III.1.17. 94. cf., ibid., III.2.5. 95. cf., ibid., III.20.4. 96. cf., ibid., I.96.4. 97. Agni is also called amartya, cf., ibid., V.18.1. Agni is the god to whom the term „immortal‟ is much more commonly applied than to any other god of Vedic religion. cf., Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p. 96. 98. cf., yo martyeṣvamṛtaḥ, RV., I.77.1; marteṣvagniramṛtaḥ, ibid., VII.4.4. 99. cf., ibid., X.91.2; V.8.2; I.73.1; I.127.8; I.128.4; II.2.8; III.2.2; IV.1.20; etc. 100. cf., ibid., I.26.5; VII.15.1; I.75.4; II.1.9; VI.1.5; VIII.43.16; X.7.3; etc. 101. cf., ibid., VII.15.1. 102. ibid., VI.1.5. 72

Thou, Helper, must be known as our

Preserver, Father and Mother of mankind

forever.]103

All these words (father, mother, son, etc.) with which Agni was frequently addressed by the worshippers clearly show his intimate relation with them as Agni formed the center of domestic life. Therefore, Macdonell rightly states as follows

– “Such terms seem to point to an older order of things, when Agni was less sacrificial ” 104 and more domestic. And this domestic character of Agni naturally connects him with the past more closely than other gods. It was a very ancient period when Agni was established in human households. History and mythology say that the god of fire was kindled and prayed by the ancestors of human beings.

Thus, mention has been made of Agni belonging to Bharata, to Devavāta,

Trasadasyu, to Divodāsa and to Vadhryaśva, to Manu, to Bhṛgu, to Atharvan and to Aṅgiras, to Vasiṣṭha, to Kauśikas.105 Sometimes the names of certain ancestors such as Aṅgiras are identified with Agni. 106 The mention of these individual fires exhibits Agni‟s domestic feature as well as his familial friendship with his worshippers that are more peculiar to Agni than to any other god. Agni abides in all elements of the earth. And due to the multiplicity of terrestrial fires, the earth is called pregnant with Agni.107

103. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 284. 104. Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p. 96. cf., “an older layer of ideas” and “the echo of an earlier idea”, Oldenberg, H., op. cit., p. 72. 105. cf., RV., II.7.1; VII.8.4; III.23.3; VIII.19.32; 92.2; X.69.1; TS., V.4.10.5; ŚB., 1.4.2.5; VS., I.18; TS., I.1.7; TB., 3.2.7.6; MS., IV.1.8 (X.10). 106. cf., RV., I.1.6; 31.17; 74.5; IV.3.15; 9.7; V.8.4. Agni is also called Bhārata, for being the descendant of Bharata. cf., ibid., II.7.1; IV.25.4; VI.16.19. 107. cf., ibid., VII.4.5. Also see AV., XII.1.19; ŚGS., 1.19.5; HGS., 1.25.1. 73

Thus, Agni has three main forms. Agni in heaven manifests himself not only as the sun, but also as all other gods belonging to that region whom Vedic tradition holds as nothing but manifestations of the solar god.108 Likewise, Agni in the mid-region and on the earth manifests himself respectively as Vāyu or Indra, and terrestrial Agni, as well as the other gods belonging to these two spheres.

Hence, all the gods of Vedic pantheon are but only the various manifestations of one Agni. Thus, the Atharvaveda-Saṁhitā says that in the evening Agni becomes

Varuṇa, rising in the morning becomes Mitra; becoming Savitṛ he extends across the air, becoming Indra he illuminates the sky –

sa varuṇaḥ sāyamagnir havati sa mitro havati prātarudyan

sa savitā hūtvāntarikṣeṇa yāti sa indro hūtva tāpati madhyato

divaṁ tasya 109

It is natural that the sun and the lightning are compared and identified by the Vedic seers with Agni (fire) on the basis of the light, heat and energy these are endowed with. Here may be mentioned one verse of the Ṛgveda quoted by Yāska in his Nirukta (12.19). The verse runs as follows –

idaṁ viṣṇurvicakrame tredhā nidadhe padam

samūḍhamasya pāṁsure 110

The verse says about the famous three strides of Viṣṇu, which he made over this universe with his foot thrice planted for his three fold existence. Here, Yāska

108. cf., Nir., 7.5; 8. 109. AV., XIII.3.13. 110. RV., I.22.17. Also see VS., V.15; SV., 222; 1669; AV., VII.26.4; TS., 1.2.13.1; Nir., 12.19. 74

mentions the view of Śākapūṇi,111 his predecessor, that Viṣṇu‟s threefold existence is there on earth, in the middle space, and in heaven. Similarly, according to Durga, the commentator of the Nirukta, the threefold existence indicated in the above mentioned verse on Viṣṇu actually speaks of the terrestrial, atmospheric and the celestial Agni. 112 This threefold existence of Agni in three spheres has served as a basis for the later triad of Sūrya, Vāyu or Indra and Agni, and for the three sacrificial fires, viz. gārhapatya, āhavanīya and dakṣiṇāgni, and perhaps for the later Hindu trinity of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva.113 The three forms, viz. the sun, the lightning and the sacrificial fire are considered as the manifestations of the one and same Fire-God.

The three-fold nature of Agni as it has been already stated is best expressed in the Vaiśvānara-hymns of the Ṛgveda, as observed by Bora.114 In these hymns Vaiśvānara has been described as Agni in his three existences. Thus, it has been said in one of the Vaiśvānara-stanza that the gods created Vaiśvānara-

Agni for having a three-fold existence. The stanza goes as follows –

stomena hi divi devāso agnimajījanañcchakti hī rodasīprām

tamū akṛṇvaṁstredhā huve kaṁ sa oṣadhīḥ pacati viśvarūpāḥ 115

[Then by the laud the Gods engendered

Agni in heaven, who fills both worlds

111. cf., pṛthivyāmantarikṣe divīti śākapūṇiḥ, Nir., 12.19. Also see BD., II.64. 112. cf., Bakshi, M. J., Niruktavivṛti, NIRUKTAM OF YĀSKA MUNI, Delhi, Chaukhamba Sanskrit Pratishthan, Reprint 2008, p. 506. 113. cf., Macdonell, A.A., A HISTORY OF SANSKRIT LITERATURE, First Edition: London, 1900, Reprinted: Delhi, 1997, p. 79. 114. cf., Bora, M., Facets of Vedic Religion and Culture, Delhi, 2009, pp. 25-41. Also see RV., I.59; I.98; III.2; III.3; IV.5; VI.7; VI.8; VI.9; VII.5; VII.6; VII.13 and X.88. 115. ibid., X.88.10. 75

through strength and vigour.

They made him to appear in threefold

essence : he ripens plants of every form

and nature.]116

This three-fold existence is heavenly, atmospheric and earthly.117 In other words

Vaiśvānara has three forms, viz. the sun, the lightning, and the fire. Vaiśvānara is said as jāyamānaḥ parame vyoman / vyomani, i.e. born in the highest heaven,118 is called diviyoni, i.e. one originated in heaven.119 Vaiśvānara as the sun removes all darkness with his rays.120 Having clearly mentioned the name Sūrya, one

Vaiśvānara-hymn has said that when the sun, the son of Aditi, was set by the gods in heaven, and the ever-wandering pair – the sun and the dawn were born, then they and the gods together behold all the worlds.121 Again, the epithets ahṇāṁ ketu (the sign of the days) 122 and uṣasāṁ ketu (the sign of the dawns),123 given to

Vaiśvānara, assures his existence as the sun. In later Vedic literature too in some places Vaiśvānara Agni has been depicted as the sun. Thus, the following passages have stated – sa yaḥ sa vaiśvānaraḥ asau sa ādityaḥ,124 eṣa vai sūtatejā vaiśvānaraḥ (yadādityaḥ),125 asau vai vaiśvānara yo’sau tapati,126 etc.

116. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 600. 117. cf., tamakurvaṁstredhā hāvāya pṛthivyāmantarikṣe divīti śākapūṇiḥ , Nir., 7.28. 118. cf., RV., VI.8.2; VII.5.7, etc. 119. cf., ibid., X.88.7. 120. cf., ibid., VI.8.3. 121. cf., ibid., X.88.11. Also see Nir., 7.29. 122. cf., RV., X.88.12. 123. cf., ibid., VII.5.5. 124. ŚB., 9.3.1.25. 125. ibid., 10.6.1.8. 126. TB., 4.3.19.2. 76

Vaiśvānara, being depicted as the fire in the atmosphere is given the epithet vṛṣabha, the killer of Vṛtra and Śambara and the releaser of the waters.127

He has been described as worshipped in the atmosphere apāmupasthāne, i.e. in the lap of the waters.128 Besides, he bears epithets like sahasraretaḥ vṛṣabhaḥ tuviṣmān, i.e. the showerer of desires and possessor of profound energy and wealth, adreḥ dhāsi, i.e. bearer of the clouds, purandara, i.e. the destroyer of cities which is an epithet of Indra.129 These accounts seem to present Vaiśvānara

Agni as Indra, the lord of the mid-region.

The most noteworthy depiction of Vaiśvānara, as shown by Bora,130 is as the fire on earth. In one of the stanzas dedicated to Vaiśvānara-Agni he has been described as being brought down to earth from heaven by Mātariśvan.131 Again, he has been described as being placed on earth by the gods,132 and as being brought to earth by Mātariśvan from the distant sun.133 There are a number of epithets which have been applied to Vaiśvānara with reference to the terrestrial fire. These are – hotā,134 kavikratu,135 purohita,136 the dūta of the gods,137 the nā hi of earth,138 the pitā, nā hi and ketu of sacrifice,139 the bestower of treasures

127. cf., RV., I.59.6. Also see Nir., 7.23. 128. cf., RV., VI.8.4. 129. cf., ibid., IV.5.3; VII.6.2. 130. cf., Bora, M., op. cit., pp. 27, 28. 131. cf., RV., III.2.13. 132. cf., devāsa iha suśriyaṁ dadhuḥ, ibid., III.3.5. 133. cf., ibid., VI.8.4. Also see ibid., X.45.1 where Vaiśvānara has been described as being born of the sun. 134. cf., ibid., III.2.1; 13. 135. cf., ibid., III.2.4. 136. cf., ibid., III.2.8; III.3.2. 137. cf., ibid., III.3.2. 138. cf., ibid., I.59.2. 139. cf., ibid., III.3.4; IV.7.2. 77

and the destroyer of enemies,140 jātaveda,141 etc. Vaiśvānara as terrestrial Agni has been eulogized as the protector of the Aryan race as follows –

tvad hiyā viśa āyannasiknīrasamanā jahatīr hojanāni

vaiśvānara pūrave śośucānaḥ puro yadagne darayannadīdeḥ 142

[For fear of thee forth fled the dark-hued

races, scattered abroad, deserting, their possessions,

When, glowing, O Vaiśvānara, for Pūru,

thou Agni didst light up and rend their castles.] 143

Vaiśvānara in his manifestation as the terrestrial fire has also been depicted as the one moving inside the beings,144 residing in plants,145 as the constant light residing inside the moving beings,146 and so forth. In some Brāhmaṇa-passages also he has been presented as the deity presiding over the fire related to earthly beings which resides inside them or prepares their food, etc.147

There are also some Ṛgvedic stanzas which have presented Vaiśvānara

Agni as shining both from heaven and earth,148 as an atmospheric and a terrestrial deity,149 and as the sun and the lightning,150 thus depicting his dual nature.151 In

140. cf., RV., IV.5.1; VI.7.3; VI.8.5. 141. cf., ibid., I.59.3. Also see ibid., I.59.5; IV.5.11; VI.8.1; VII.5.6; etc. 142. ibid., VII.5.3. 143. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 336. 144. cf., RV., III.3.6. 145. cf., ibid., I.98.2. 146. cf., ibid., VI.9.5. 147. cf., TB., 1.2.1; ŚB., 14.8.10.1; etc. 148. cf., RV., I.59.4; IV.5.3. 149. cf., ibid., VII.5.1. 150. cf., ibid., VII.5.7. 151. As per the observation of M. Bora the word dvita used for Vaiśvānara seems to denote his dual nature. cf., Bora, M., op. cit., p.27. Also see RV., III.2.1. 78

the dual nature of Vaiśvānara too his three-fold existence is evident. There are some Brāhmaṇa-passages that mention Vaiśvānara as the earth -- iyaṁ vai

(pṛthivī) vaiśvānaraḥ,152 as the sky -- eṣa vai bahulo vaiśvānaraḥ (yadākāśaḥ),153 and as air -- eṣa vai pṛthagvartmā vaiśvānaraḥ (yadvāyuḥ).154 All the above instances make it clear that Vaiśvānara is none other than Agni manifest in three abodes – the lower, the middle and the upper.

The status of Agni in Vedic religion can also be determined by his manifestation as Rudra, the deity presiding over lightning, thunder and storm.

Thus, the word rudra has been applied in the Ṛgveda as an adjective of Agni155 which characterizes the fire-god as fierce.156 Rudra, as a manifestation of Agni, has been described as yajñasādhana (the accomplisher of sacrifice), kavi (wise), etc.157 Use of the epithets śam hu and mayobhu for Agni in the Vājasaneyī

Saṁhitā,158 which are generally applied to Rudra or Śiva, show the sameness of the two gods.

The Śatarudrīya-chapter of the Yajurveda159 bears the Vedic agnitattva.

In this chapter Rudra, who has attained prominence as a deity, is identified with

Agni, and both his fearful (ghora) and favorable (śiva) aspects are presented, the

152. ŚB., 13.3.8.3. Also see ibid., 10.6.1.4; TB., 3.8.6. 153. ŚB., 10.6.1.6. 154. ibid., 10.6.1.7. 155. cf., rudrāya agnaye, RV., I.27.10; tvamagne rudraḥ, ibid., II.1.6. 156. cf., kruḍāyāgnaye, Sāyaṇa on ibid., I.27.10. 157. cf., ibid., I.114.4. 158. cf., VS., XVI.41; XVIII.45. 159. TS., V; VS., XVI. For detailed discussion on the Śatarudrīya-chapter of the Yajurveda, see Bora, M., op. cit., pp. 66-80. 79

first aspect being propitiated more earnestly.160 The Rudrādhyāya of the

Taittirīya-Saṁhitā has declared in clear terms that these two gods are identical – rudro vā eṣa yadagniḥ sa etarhi jātaḥ.161 Here, Rudra has also been worshipped as Āditya as well as Indra. Thus, the two following stanzas are read as –

asau yo’vasarpati nīlagrīvo vilohitaḥ

utainaṁ gopā adṛśrannadṛśraudahāryaḥ sa dṛṣṭo mṛḍayāti naḥ

namo’stu nīlagrīvāya sahasrākṣāya mīḍhuṣe

atho ye asya satvāno’haṁ tevyo’karaṁ namaḥ 162

He has also been prayed as Viṣṇu (śipiviṣṭa).163 On the basis of such identification it can obviously be stated that Rudra is none other than Agni in the Rudrādhyāya of the Yajurveda. And in the later part of this chapter Rudra, like Agni, has become the Supreme Soul. He is the oldest as well as the youngest; he was born as Hiraṇyagarbha at the beginning of the world; he is born as kālāgni at the universal dissolution; he exists as devatiryagādi during creation and dissolution.

Thus, Rudra is invoked in the following Śatarudrīya-passage –

namo jyeṣṭhāya ca kaniṣṭhāya ca namaḥ pūrvajāya

cāparajāya ca namo madhyamāya ca 164

Rudra, like Agni, becomes many and resides in each and every element of the creation. It may be added here that the Maruts who are celebrated in the Vedic

160. cf., Bora, M., ibid. p. 71. 161. TS., V.11. 162. VS., XVI.7; 8. 163. cf., ibid., XVI.29. 164. ibid., XVI.32. Also see Mahīdhara on ibid. 80

literature as the offsprings of Rudra seem to be identical to Agni from the point of

Rudra‟s parenthood to these deities, because other Agnis are spoken of as produced from Agni – the fire-god and also because Rudra is identified as Agni in the Veda.

There are found different accounts of the births of Agni in Vedic literature, which are important for bearing reference to his threefold existence.

Agni is said to be the son or offspring of Dyaus, Heaven.165 Agni is said to have been born in the highest heavens.166 Macdonell has rightly stated that Agni‟s heavenly origin is implied in the fact that the acquisition of fire by man is regarded as a gift of the Gods and probably also in Agni‟s frequent epithet of

„guest (atithi) of men‟.167 Here, a myth may be referred to according to which

Agni was brought down to earth from heaven by Mātariśvan,168 who is counted among the aerial Gods of Vedic religion. Agni‟s origin in the waters is often referred to in the Vedas.169 That Agni born out of the waters is the lightning, is the view made by most of the Vedic scholars,170 which was prevalent since the beginning of mythology and supported by the explanations of Indian commentaries. This view indicates Agni‟s origin in the waters to be his aerial birth. On the other hand, there is a Ṛgvedic legend of Agni hiding in the waters

165. cf., RV., IV.15.6; VI.49.2; X.45.8. Also see ibid., III.29.4. 166. cf., ibid., I.143.2; VI.8.2. 167. cf., Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p.92. Also see RV., I.9, etc. 168. cf., RV., III.9.5; VI.8.4. A.A. Macdonell and A.B. Keith call Mātariśvan as lightning. cf., Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p.72; Keith, A.B., THE RELIGION AND PHILOSOPHY OF THE VEDA AND UPANISHADS, Part-I, Reprint. Delhi, 2007, p.156. Hillebrandt calls him as wind. cf., Hillebrandt, A., op. cit., Vol. II, Delhi, pp.149-154. Mātariśvan is lightning with windy character according to Griswold. cf., Griswold, H. D., op. cit., p.163. 169. cf., RV., X.45.1; X.8.1; VIII.91.5; III.1.12; 13; AV., XIII.1.50. Also see RV., V.85.2; AV., XIX.33.1; II.1.1, etc. 170. e.g., cf., Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p.92; Keith, loc. cit., Part-I, p.156. 81

and plants, and being found by the gods.171 Here, the waters are terrestrial. In another place of the Ṛgveda it is stated that Agni rests in all streams.172 In the

Atharvaveda and in some later ritualistic texts, Agni in the waters is distinguished from lightning and is regarded as terrestrial.173

One very important account of the birth of Agni, which is important from the sacrificial point of view, is the one which states the birth of this deity from the two Araṇīs or fire-sticks.174 It refers to the daily terrestrial production of fire from the friction of two fire-sticks. In this connection the Araṇīs are described as

Agni‟s parents, the upper being the male and the lower the female, or as his mothers. The production of terrestrial fire by friction of woods is a natural phenomenon, whether occurring in forest or in the ancient mode of lighting the fire. Agni is said to have been generated by men, by the ten fingers that are used in the fire-drill, i.e. agnimanthana.175 And as force or power is required in agnimanthana, Agni is called the son of strength (sahasaḥ sūnuḥ or putraḥ, ūrjo napāt, etc.).176

Agni is frequently spoken of as having two births (dvijanman).177 These two types of existence of Agni depend undoubtedly on the basis of the concept of two fold division of the universe. The two fold division of the universe, directly

171. cf., RV., X.51. 172. cf., ibid., VIII.39.8. Also see ĀpŚS., 5.2.1. 173. cf., AV., III.21.1; 7; VIII.1.11; XII.1.37; ŚGS., 5.2.5; PGS., 2.6.10. 174. cf., RV., III.29.1; 2; 3; VIII.49.15; X.4.6; VII.1.1; X.7.9; I.31.2; V.9.3; I.141.1; I.68.2; X.79.4; X.115.1, etc. 175. cf., ibid., I.60.3; IV.1.1; VII.1.1; I.95.2; III.23.3. 176. cf., ibid., VI.48.2; I.26.10; I.27.2; I.45.9; II.6.2; III.1.8; IV.11.6; V.3.1; 6; VIII.49.13. 177. cf., ibid., I.60.1; I.140.2; I.149.2; 3. 82

mentioned or implied, consists of heaven and earth,178 or heaven and the waters,179 also being called the upper and the lower spheres.180 Agni, who is born in these two spheres, is called twice-born. The epithet dvijanman (having two births) applied only to Vedic Agni -- the brāhmaṇa (priestly) god of Vedic religion, may have contributed to the later designation dvija which is given to the Brāhmaṇas as well as the Kṣatriyas and the Vaiśyas – the three higher classes of society.

Besides being bestowed various epithets, Agni is also given designations, such as Jātaveda, Vaiśvānara, Tanūnapāt, Narāśaṁsa, and sometimes even

Mātariśvan, and Bṛhaspati, Vanaspati, Brahmaṇaspati. This leads from the polytheistic treatment to the monotheistic notion of Vedic religion, which establishes Agni, the fire-god, as the divine, a unity pervading its various manifestations. Agni has got the status of the Supreme Godhead in Vedic religion.

This fact is echoed in the view of Yāska on the following Vedic verse --

indraṁ mitraṁ varuṇamagnimāhuratho divyaḥ sa suparṇo garutmān

ekaṁ sadviprā ahudhā vadantyagniṁ yamaṁ mātariśvānamāhuḥ 181

[They call him Indra, Mitra, Varuṇa, Agni, and he is

heavenly nobly-winged Garutmān.

To what is One, sages give many a title: they call it

Agni, Yama, Mātariśvan.]182

178. cf., RV., III.54.1; X.45.10; I.164.51; VI.2.3. Also see AB., 2.34. 179. cf., RV., VIII.43.28. 180. cf., ibid., I.128.3. Agni‟s upper and lower births are mentioned in ibid., II.9.3. 181. ibid., I.164.46. Also see AV., IX.10.28. 182. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 113. 83

Commenting on the verse quoted above (Ṛgveda, I.164.46) Yāska says that the ekaṁ sat is but Agni. He says -- imamevāgniṁ mahāntamātmānamekamātmānaṁ

ahudhā medhāvino vadantīndraṁ mitraṁ varuṇamagniṁ divyaṁ ca garutmantaṁ divyo divijo garutmān garaṇavān gurvātmā mahātmeti vā.183

Furthermore in the Veda he is described as the germ (garbha) of all that exists and moves.184

In Vedic religion however, Agni has got highest importance and treatment in his terrestrial form. The terrestrial Agni is highly eulogized and worshipped by the Vedic seers and priests. The Vedic religion presents even the most primitive aspects of Agni which proves the high status occupied by this god in this field. The first primitive trait of Agni is expressed in the oldest function of fire of burning, and dispelling darkness, evil-spirits, hostile magic and illness.

Burning is the most natural function of fire, and that is why the fire-god is described as eating the forests185 and as all-devouring,186 and his sparks grass- devouring.187 Another very important trait of Agni is that he is the dispeller of darkness.188 Agni also plays the role of the destroyer of enemies.189 Warding off hostile magic is another task performed by the fire-god.190 Driving away or destroying the demon is another great function accomplished by Agni for which he has received the epithet rakṣohan, „demon-slayer.‟191 The fire-god is eulogized

183. Nir., 7.18. 184. cf., RV., I.70.3. Also see AV., V.25.7. 185. cf., RV., I.143.5; VI.60.10; X.79.2. 186. cf., ibid., VIII.44.26. 187. cf., ibid., I.94.11. 188. cf., ibid., III.5.1; VIII.43.32; X.88.2; etc. 189. cf., ibid., I.12.5; VII.5.3. 190. cf., ibid., V.3.7; AV., I.8.4, etc. 191. cf., RV., X.87.1. 84

for protection from the sorcerers and demons.192 The belief that diseases are caused by certain demons or evil spirits is of primitive nature, which seems to continue to the minds of Vedic Aryans when they pray Agni, the banisher of illness or demons causing illness, for protection.193 In all these works of destroying enemies, warding off hostile magic of the evil sorcerers, driving away the demons and destroying them, Agni serves as the magic fire. Another very important primitive aspect of Agni is his domestic character as the fire on the domestic hearth and the center of domestic life.

B. STATUS OF AGNI IN SACRIFICIAL RITUAL:

By the side of the domestic aspect, the sacrificial aspect of Agni has also developed in Vedic period. The rituals of the Vedic age have bestowed another level of significance upon the god of fire. The Vedic ritual mainly centers around the sacrificial fire, although references are found in Vedic literature to the fireless offerings laid out on the sacred grass194 along with the offerings made in the sacred fire. Griswold has made an interesting note on the oblations offered to the gods. According to him, „the psychological origin of the chief sacrificial use of fire‟ lies in the fact that in early periods people, who at first had no knowledge of cooking, gradually learnt this skill and used to honor their human guests as well as their divine guests, i.e. gods with food prepared by fire instead of uncooked

192. cf., RV., III.15.1; X.87.2; 14, etc. 193. cf., ibid., I.12.7. 194. References are found to fireless offerings made into the water in sacrifice to the water- deities (cf., KŚS., 1.1.16; 9.3.7; 10.8.24; etc.), pits covered with sacred grass in sacrifice to the departed (cf., GGS., 4.2.3), and also thrown into the air or buried in mole-hills or hung on trees, etc. in sacrifice to Rudra and the demons similar to Rudra (cf., KŚS., 5.10.13; 18). 85

food.195 Thus, the fireless offerings seem to be more primitive than the other one.

This shows a growing significance of Agni – the god of fire in the field of religion. In connection with this, Oldenberg refers to the description of the Persian

Animal-sacrifice as given in Herodotus (I.132), according to which, the animal is cut into pieces and its meat is cooked and then instead of being offered in the fire, is placed upon a carpet of the most tender grass.196 The sacred grass of the

Persians -- baresman of the Avestā, corresponds to the barhis of the Veda -- the sacred strew of the Indians. The Vedic Aryans being closely related to their

Persian kinsmen had naturally received, although with a little difference,197 this kind of fireless sacrificial customs. In the Vedic ritualistic tradition both the fireless sacrifice in barhis –indicating a primitive method of practice and the sacrifice in the fire-altar – denoting a later innovation, are preserved together. And the fact that barhis is adored in the Āprī-hymns as a form of Agni,198 adds more to the status of the fire-god in Vedic religion.

At the center of Vedic sacrifice Agni plays some important roles, and performs different activities. First of all, Agni plays his role as the sacrificial fire.

He is the primary element or means of performing sacrifice (yañjasādhana).199 No

śrauta-sacrifice can be performed without the sacrificial fire. In the place of sacrifice there is an agnikṣetra, i.e. site of fire which is located on the eastern

195. cf., Griswold, H.D., op. cit., p. 158. 196. cf., Oldenberg, H., op. cit., p. 196. 197. In case of the fireless offerings enumerated in the Avestā and the Veda, the only difference is that in Persian sacrifice the offerings meant for the gods are laid out on the sacred grass – the seat of the gods, and then it is taken away by the sacrificer whereas, in Indian sacrifice after making the offering on the barhis, these grass are again thrown into the fire. cf., Oldenberg, H., op. cit., pp. 196-197. 198. see chap. IV of this thesis. 199. cf., RV., III.27.2; VIII.23.9. 86

direction of the mahāvedi where the fire-altar is built in the shape of a bird.200 The usual size of the agnikṣetra is saptavidha or saptapuruṣa, i.e. the sum of the seven times of the length of the sacrificer,201 which can be extended up to double

(caturdaśavidhā) or triple (ekaviṁśavidha) in certain cases, like in the Horse- sacrifice.202

A very important ceremony to be performed before the commencement of śrauta-sacrifice is agnicayana or agniciti. This is the name of a rite of building a bird-shaped superstructure made of five layers of baked bricks. It is shaped like a bird in flight with its wings spread out and its beak pointing to the east. This ritual of building a fire-altar in the uttaravedi for setting the āhavanīya-fire continues for a year, and it forms a part of the soma-sacrifice. As many as 10,800 bricks are used to build the altar. For building the altar the yajamāna has to undergo a special dikṣā, without interrupting his other duties as a soma-sacrificer.

The performance of agnicayana is obligatory for certain rituals. The importance of this rite can be well understood from the fact that in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa five out of its fourteen Kāṇḍas (i.e. one-third of the text) are devoted to the rules, regulations and procedures of agnicayana.203

For the purpose of performing sacrifice the sacrificial fires have to be consecrated first with predetermined rules. The ceremony of the establishment of sacrificial fires is called agnyādhāna or agnyādheya or simply ādhāna. It is an iṣṭi-type of sacrifice and is performed by four priests, viz. adhvaryu, āgnīdhra,

200. cf., paścādyūpāvaṭyātpādamātre cityasya , KŚS., 16.7.31. Also see, sthānaṁ havatīti śeṣaḥ , Karka on ibid. Also see Sen, Chitrabhanu, A DICTIONARY OF THE VEDIC RITUALS, Delhi, 1976, Reprint 2001, p. 31. 201. cf., ĀpŚS., 16.17.9. 202. cf., ādyo’gnirdviguṇastriguṇa ekaviṁśatividho vā , KŚS., 20.4.15. 203. cf., Sen, Chitrabhanu, op. cit., pp. 31-32. Also see KŚS., 16.1-18.6. 87

hotṛ and brahman. This ceremony takes two days – the first day is called upasad on which the preliminary rites are performed, and on the second day the main rite is accomplished. The establishment of fire may be done either on the new-moon day or the full-moon day, but in different seasons in accordance with the caste of the yajamāna.204 The agnyādhāna and the agnicayana form two important Vedic rituals. After performing these two rites only, the main body of the sacrifice can be started.

There are different other important rituals centering round Agni – the sacrificial fire among which agnihotra, agniṣṭoma, etc. are worth mentioning. The agnihotra forms the important rite of offering the milk of cow into the fire. The oblation of milk is also known by the term agnihotra. This rite is performed every day in the early-morning and the evening. It first requires the setting up of the sacrificial fires. In case of the one who has maintained only the gārhapatya-fire, he has to establish the other two fires out of the gārhapatya for making the offering. Again, in case one has maintained all the three fires, only firewood is to be added to them. After milking the cow, the milk is heated over the burning coals taken out of the gārhapatya-fire and is left to cool. A portion of the milk is offered with the ladle in the evening first to Agni and secondly to Prajāpati, and in the morning first to Sūrya and secondly to Prajāpati. Having offered the oblations the adhvaryu-priest drinks the remnants of the milk in the ladle and wipes the rest with his hand and darbha-grass. In the evening after the offering of agnihotra- oblations, agnyupasthāna is performed. This is the rite of paying homage to the sacrificial fires in which the sacrificer offers prayers either to the āhavanīya and

204. cf., Sen, Chitrabhanu, ibid., p. 34. Also see ĀpŚS., 5.3.17-20; KŚS., 4.7-10; ŚB., 2.1.3.5-8. 88

then to the gārhapatya, or to the āhavanīya, then the gārhapatya, then to a new

āhavanīya as well as to the cow of the agnihotra-ritual.205

The agniṣṭoma which literally means „praise of Agni‟ is the model of all types of soma-sacrifice. This sacrifice forms the first of the seven soma-Saṁsthās.

The name of this soma-sacrifice comes from the last stotra called agniṣṭoma recited here which is also called yajñāyajñiya. The agniṣṭoma requires one day called sutyā for accomplishing the main rites, and therefore it is categorized under ekāha-types of soma-sacrifice. But it is preceded by four preparatory days, altogether making it a five-day ritual. The first day comprises sending

Somapravākas to the priests and selecting the priests, preparing madhuparka, performing dīkṣā of the yajamāna, dīkṣaṇīyeṣṭi and constructing the prācīnavaṁśa and the vrataśrapaṇāgāra. The second day includes the performances of prāyaṇīyeṣṭi, samakrayaṇa, ātithyeṣṭi, pravargya and upasad. On the third day pravargya, upasad and construction of the mahāvedi and the uttaravedi are accomplished. On the fourth day pravargya and upasad are followed by agnipraṇayana, agnīṣomīyapaśuyāga, agnīṣomapraṇayana, etc. The fifth and last day called sutyā includes three Savanas -- prātaḥsavana, mādhyandinasavana and tṛtīyasavana, in each of which the chanting of Stotras and the recitation of Śastras, the pressing of soma-Stalks, the libations of soma and also of cakes and the like are performed. These are followed by the drinking of soma and another sacrifice of a goat. The ritual concludes with a sacrificial bath

205. cf., Sen, Chitrabhanu, ibid., pp. 33, 34, 55. 89

called avabhṛthasnāna. The agniṣṭoma and the jyotiṣṭoma are described as closely related and at the same time as equivalent.206

At the time of the Animal-sacrifice (agnīṣomīyapaśuyāga) in the agniṣṭoma the āhavanīya-fire is carried to the nā hi of uttaravedi in a ceremonial procession. This rite is called agnipraṇayana. The agnīṣomapraṇayana is another significant rite related to Agni as well as soma and is included in the agniṣṭoma.

This is the name of the rite of carrying the fire taken from the old āhavanīya- hearth and the soma-Stalks in a ceremonial procession. In this rite the adhvaryu places the fuel of the sacred wood at the śālāmukhīya, i.e. old āhavanīya, and then carries the fire with the help of upayamanī-earth. The rite proceeds with the touching of adhvaryu by the sacrificer, of the sacrificer by his wife, of the wife by her sons, and of her sons by the grandsons. In this way, the process of touching continues to the next living generations, and it takes place on the day before the sutyā. On the day of pressing the soma-Stalks are kept in the maṇḍapa called havirdhāna. Then the adhvaryu, the sacrificer and his wife, and the persons connected with the process of touching offer the oblations called vaisarjana and go out of the prācīnavaṁśa. They, along with the brahman-priest who carries the soma, arrive at the āgnīdhrīya-shed where the hearth is kindled. Here, the brahman transfers the soma to the pratiprasthātṛ-priest. The āgnīdhrīya-fire is carried to the newly made āhavanīya-hearth of the mahāvedi, and the soma-stalks are carried to the havirdhāna-cart and deposited on it.207

206. cf., Sen, Chitrabhanu, ibid., pp. 32, 33, 70. 207. cf., Sen, Chitrabhanu, ibid., pp. 33, 34. 90

Another factor contributing to the pre-eminence of fire is the role of ritual cooking in Vedic sacrifices.208 The cooking of the oblation is so significant to the Vedic Indians that uncooked ingredient is neither considered as an appropriate offering to the gods nor a proper meal, and therefore eating raw food is considered as a way of eating without breaking the ritual fasting.209

Agni dwells in the vedī, i.e. fire-altar which is called „the navel of the earth‟, which seems to mean the pivot of the earth, where he is kindled for the sacrifice. Thus, the seer has eulogized Agni in the following words –

sa tu vastrāṇyadha peśanāni vasāno agnirnā hā pṛthivyāḥ

aruṣo jātaḥ pada iḷāyāḥ purohito rājan yakṣīha devān 210

[So Agni stands on earth‟s most central

station, invested in well-decorated

garments.

Born, red of hue, where men pour out

libations, O King, as great High Priest

bring the Gods hither.] 211

It can be mentioned here that out of the three sacrificial fires the Vedic tradition212 assigns the āhavanīya kindled in the east direction, to heaven – the abode of the gods, the gārhapatya kindled in the west, to earth – the abode of human beings,

208. cf., Vesci, U. M., HEAT AND SACRIFICE IN THE VEDAS, Delhi, First Edition 1985, Second Revised Edition 1992, pp. 16-19. 209. cf., ŚB., 1.1.1.9. Also see Vesci, U. M., ibid., p. 19. 210. RV., X.1.6. 211. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 530. 212. cf., etad vai devānām āyatanam yad āhavanīyo’ntarāgnī paśūnāṁ gārhapatyo manuṣyāṇām anvāharyapacanaḥ pitṝṇām, TS., I.6.7.1; divaṁ tṛtīyaṁ devān yajño’gāt antarikṣaṁ tṛtīyaṁ pitṝn yajño’gāt pṛthivīṁ tṛtīyaṁ manuṣyān yajño’gāt, AB., 7.5.3. 91

and the dakṣiṇa or anvāhāryapacana kindled in the south, to atmosphere – the place of the Manes. Accordingly, it is enumerated in the Vedic texts that the

āhavanīya Agni bears or carries the sacrificial oblations offered to the gods; the gārhapatya serves in the main the purpose of preparing the sacrificial food, etc. and the dakṣiṇāgni bears or carries the offerings made for the Manes.213 Out of these three fires the name of only one, i.e. the gārhapatya occurs in the Ṛgveda.

However, reference is found in this Saṁhitā to the later practice of illuminating one fire from another that has been already lit.214 Agni is also described as being led round, as rotating around the sacrifice three times, and as being taken to the east and then to the west when he is delivered from his parents.215 Such descriptions verify the fact that the Ṛksaṁhitā is familiar with all the three sacrificial fires, although with older designations, except the gārhapatya. In view of some scholars, in the Ṛksaṁhitā the names of the deities Narāśaṁsa and

Vaiśvānara respectively represent the fire of the Manes, i.e. dakṣiṇāgni, and the fire of the gods, i.e. āhavanīya.216 It is evident from the Vedic hymns217 in which

Narāśaṁsa and Vaiśvānara are said to be designations or forms of Agni, and from the later ritual texts218 in which the former (Narāśaṁsa) is associated with the cult of the Manes and the later (Vaiśvānara) with the sun as well as the āhavanīya fire

213. cf., TB., 3.7.4.5; ĀpŚS., 1.8.3; 8.13.8; 9; 18; 19.3.11; KŚS., 4.1.2; 3; 8; 5.8.6; 16; 21; 22; 15.10.17; 19.3.20; 23, etc. 214. cf., agnināgniḥ sam idhyate, RV., I.12.6. 215. cf., ibid., I.31.4. 216. cf., Hillebrandt, A., op. cit., pp. 74, 80. 217. cf., RV., II.3.1; 2; 3; V.5.1; 2; 3; VII.2.1; 2; 3; X.70.1; 2; 3; III.29.11; AV., V.27.3; RV., I.59.2; 3; X.88.14; VI.9.3; III.2.1; VI.8.4; I.98.1; V.4.4; VII.5.4; AV., XVIII.4.35; VIII.7.16. 218. cf., yaddhavirdhānayornārāśaṁsāḥ sīdanti tat pitṛṣu juhoti tasmāt pitaraḥ santi, ŚB., 3.6.2.25. Also see ibid., 12.6.1.33; AB., 2.24.3; 7.34; KŚS., 9.12.7; 8.12.25.25-27; 12.24.7; VS., VIII.58; XIX.61; ŚŚS., 7.5.22; RV., X.57.3; ŚŚS., 3.17.3; ĀŚS., 2.7.8; ŚB., 9.3.1.13; 3.8.5.4; TB., 3.8.6.2, etc. 92

which represents the sun. Under any designation the three sacrificial fires play their specific roles prescribed for them. And as a whole, the sacrificial Agni accomplishes almost all the important rites of the ritual, either directly or indirectly.

Two most important activities performed by the sacrificial deity Agni are that he not only brings the gods to the sacrifice on the earth, but also carries the sacrifice to the gods in heaven.219 Both the activities are well illustrated in the two following stanzas of the Ṛgveda --

agniḥ pūrve hirṛṣi hirīḍyo nūtanairuta

sa devān eha vakṣati

agne yaṁ yajñamadhvaraṁ viśvataḥ pari hūrasi

sa iddeveṣu gacchati 220

[Worthy is Agni to be praised by living as

by ancient seers.

He shall bring hitherward the gods.];

[Agni, the perfect sacrifice which thou

encompasses about

Verily goeth to the Gods.]221

Agni after bringing the gods to the sacrificial place makes them sit on the carpet of holy grass222 to consume the oblation.223 At the same time Agni conveys

219. cf., RV., I.58.1; VII.11.5; X.2.1; X.80.4, etc. 220. ibid., I.1.2; I.1.4. Also see ibid., II.2.6. 221. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 1. 222. cf., RV., I.31.17; VIII.44.3. 223. cf., ibid., V.1.11, etc. 93

through his flames and smoke, the sacrifice (in the form of oblations offered) to the gods.224 So, he is termed as the oblation-bearer (havyavah or havyavāhana),225 who is thus appointed by the gods and men. Agni is also the mouth of the gods – agnirmukhaṁ prathamo devatānām,226 because they eat the sacrificial oblation through him,227 and get exhilarated.228 In relation to sacrifice

Agni is termed as juhvāsya, i.e. having a sacrificial spoon called juhu in mouth, because with a juhu the clarified butter as a drink of gods is poured into the fire.229

Again, Agni leads the other gods to the place of sacrifice for which he is called the leader of the gods. Agni‟s leadership is expressed in the following verse –

agnirnetā haga iva kṣitīnāṁ daivīnāṁ deva ṛtupā ṛtāvā

sa vṛtrahā sanayo viśvavedāḥ parṣad viśvāti duritā gṛṇantam 230

[Agni, like Bhaga, leads the godly people,

he who is true to Law and guards the

seasons.

Ancient, all-knowing, he the Vṛtra-slayer

shall bear the singer safe through every

trouble.]231

224. cf., RV., I.12.6; I.72.7; VII.11.5; VIII.80.4. 225. cf., ibid., I.12.6; V.8.6; X.46.10; etc. Also see, agniryajñasya havyavāṭ, ibid., III.27.5, and see Sāyaṇa on ibid., III.27.5 -- havyavāṭ havyānāṁ voḍhā havati. 226. AB., 1.4. 227. cf., RV., II.1.14; I.94.3. 228. cf., ibid., I.59.1; VII.11.1. 229. cf., ibid., I.12.6. 230. ibid., III.20.4. 231. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 170. 94

That the god of fire represents or includes all other gods is strengthened from the sacrificial point of view also. In the sacrificial fire alone the oblations, meant for all other deities, are offered.232 Thus, by worshipping Agni all the gods are worshipped. That is the reason why Agni is called the sacrificial representative of the Gods.233 On account of performing this two-fold work between heaven and earth moving through the paths leading both to these worlds and knowing these paths, Agni becomes the mediator and messenger (dūta)234 between the gods and the men.235 The following verses of the Ṛgveda express these two characteristics of the fire-god –

mūrdhā divo nā hiragniḥ pṛthivyā athā havadaratī rodasyoḥ

taṁ tvā devāso’janayanta devaṁ vaiśvānara jyotiridāryāya 236

[The forehead of the sky, earth‟s centre,

Agni became the messenger of earth and

heaven.

Vaiśvānara, the Deities produced thee, a

God, to be a light unto the Ārya.];

[Thou unto whom resort the gathered peo-

ple, as the kine seek the warm stall,

O Most Youthful.

Thou art the messenger of Gods and

232. cf., RV., I.26.6. 233. cf., arati, ibid., IV.1.1; VII.5.1. 234. cf., ibid., I.12.1; VI.16.6; IV.8.4; IV.7.8; VIII.44.3; X.4.2. Also see, TS., 2.5.8.5; AV., XX.101.1, etc. 235. Agni is also mentioned as the messenger of Vivasvat in the Ṛgveda. cf., ibid., I.58.1; IV.7.4; VIII.39.3; X.21.5. 236. ibid., I.59.2; X.4.2. 95

mortals, and goest glories with thy

light between them.] 237

Like the Ṛksamhitā, the Taittirīya-Saṁhitā 238 too depicts Agni as the messenger of the gods, and also of Kāvya Uśanas or Daivya or the Asuras. The Taittirīya

Brāhmaṇa 239 calls Agni the path leading to the gods.

Besides the work of bearing or carrying the oblation for the gods

(havyavah or havyavāhana) Agni also performs the work of bearing or carrying the offerings for the Manes (kravyavāhana or kavyavāhana).240

In addition to the three sacrificial fires there came two more fires, viz. sabhya and āvasathya, within the sphere of Vedic religion, the former being mentioned for the first time in the Atharvaveda.241 The sabhya Agni is the fire, placed in the sa hā or assembly, and āvasathya Agni is the fire installed in households. The installation of the sabhya as well as the āvasathya fire is entitled to the Traivarṇikas only, and these are to be maintained and worshipped life- long.242 Besides these fires, there are also fires named śuci, pāvaka, pavamāna, sviṣṭakṛt, etc.243 Thus, Agni not only serves as the means of accomplishing the desire of an individual, but also of the clan or community as a whole.

237. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., pp. 39, 531. 238. cf., TS. II.5.8.5; II.5.11.8. 239. cf., TB., 2.4.1.6. 240. cf., RV., X.16.11 (VS., XIX.65). Also see TS., II.6.12; havyavāhano vai devānāṁ kavyavāhanaḥ pitṝṇām, ŚB., 2.6.1.30. The word kravya seems to be the old form of the word kavya. cf., kravyād, RV., X.16.9 (VS., XXXV.19; AV., XII.2.8); 10 (AV., XII.2.7); kavyavāhana, ibid., X.16.11. 241. cf., AV., XIX.55.6. Also see ibid., VIII.10.2-7 (gārhapatya, āvananīya, dakṣiṇāgni, sa hā, samiti and āmantraṇa); KS., VI.8 (odanapacana, gārhapatya, āvananīya, madhyādhidevana, āmantraṇa). 242. cf., KŚS., 4.9.20; ĀpŚS., 5.19.2, etc. 243. cf., RV., II.7.4; I.12.9; V.26.1; IX.66.20, etc. 96

Another very significant role played by Agni in Vedic religion, as already mentioned above, is that of priesthood. In the Vedic literature Agni is very often enumerated as the priest of sacrifice. As a matter of fact, the priestly functions were naturally ascribed to Agni with the beginning of Vedic fire- sacrifice. Accordingly, Agni is praised as „the divine counterpart of the earthly priesthood.‟244 Agni serves as the model for the human priests. Thus, Agni is called the ṛtvij and vipra or priest in general, the purohita or domestic priest, the hotṛ or invoker, the chief priest, the advaryu, and the brahman.245 He is described more frequently as a hotṛ, appointed by men as well as by gods, and as the most adorable and distinguished of the Hotṛs.246 The two following Ṛgvedic verses mention the priestly designations applied to Agni –

tvamadhvaryuruta hotāsi pūrvyaḥ praśāstā potā januṣā purohitaḥ

viśvā vidvān ārtvijyā dhīra puṣyasyagne sakhye mā riṣāmā vayaṁ tava

tavāgne hotraṁ tava potramṛtviyaṁ tava neṣṭraṁ tvamagnidṛtāyataḥ

tava praśāstraṁ tvamadhvarīyasi rahma cāsi gṛhapatiśca no dame 247

[Thou art Presenter and the chief Invoker,

thou Director, Purifier, great High Priest

by birth.

Knowing all priestly work thou perfectest

it, Sage. Let us not in thy friendship,

244. Macdonell, A.A., op. cit, p.96; Griswold, H.D., op. cit., p.164. Of the four main priests, hotṛ is the priest of the Ṛgveda, adhvaryu of the Yajurveda, udgātṛ of the Sāmaveda, and brahman is versed in all the Vedas. cf., Nir., 1.8. 245. cf., RV., I.1.1; III.5.4; IV.9.4; VI.16.1; VIII.49.1; X.7.5, etc. 246. cf., ibid., VIII.49.1; X.7.5; VI.16.1; X.2.1; X.91.8, etc. 247. ibid., I.94.6; II.1.2. 97

Agni, suffer harm.];

[Thine is the Herald‟s task and Cleanser‟s

duly timed; Leader art thou, and

Kindler for the pious man.

Thou art Director, thou the ministering

Priest: thou art the Brahman, Lord and

Master in our home.]248

In this way Agni, the divine priest alone is depicted in the Ṛksaṁhitā as the performer of the multifarious activities that are collectively performed by the human priests. In connection to Agni‟s priesthood, it is said in one Ṛgvedic hymn249 that once Agni was hesitant to do his priestly duties, but when he was promised to be offered rich reward from gods, he continued to perform his office as the great priest. Agni is very often invoked to worship the gods.250 As the priest

Agni promotes the sacrifice by his secret power, makes the oblation fragrant, protects offering and causes it to reach the gods, and thus he becomes the accomplisher of the rite of sacrifice.251 This great priest is the father, the king, the superintendent, the ruler, the banner, of sacrifice.252 These roles of Agni are beautifully depicted in the Ṛgvedic verses like – III.3.4; VII.11.4; VIII.43.24;

X.6.3; III.3.3, etc.

248. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., pp. 60, 130. 249. cf., RV., X.51. 250. cf., ibid., III.25.1; VII.11.3, etc. 251. cf., ibid., III.27.7; X.15.12; I.1.4; III.3.3; III.27.2. 252. cf., ibid., III.3.4; IV.3.1; VIII.43.24; X.6.3; III.3.3; III.10.4; VI.2.3; X.1.5, etc. 98

Agni‟s priesthood is accompanied by his seer-hood.253 Thus, the Ṛgveda depicts Agni as an eminent seer, the most gracious seer, the first seer Aṅgiras, the divine one (asura) among the sages. The following verses express these qualities of Agni –

tubhyaṁ stokā ghṛtaścuto’gne viprāya santya

ṛṣiḥ śreṣṭhaḥ samidhyase yajñasya prāvitā hava

agniriddhi pracetā agnirvedhastama ṛṣiḥ

agniṁ hotāramīḷate yajñeṣu manuṣo viśaḥ

tvamagne prathamo aṅgirā ṛṣirdevo devānāma havaḥ śivaḥ sakhā

tava vrate kavayo vidmanāpaso’jāyanta maruto hrājadṛṣṭayaḥ

pitā yajñānāmasuro vipaścitāṁ vimānamagnirvayunaṁ ca vāghatām

ā viveśa rodasī hūrivarpasā purupriyo handate dhāma hiḥ kaviḥ 254

[Agni, Most Excellent ǃ for thee the Sage

are drops that drip with oil.

Thou art enkindled as the best of Seers.

Help thou the sacrifice.];

[Agni, in truth, is passing wise, most skil-

led in ordering, a Seer.

At sacrifices Manu‟s sons glorify Agni as

their Priest.];

253. cf., RV., IX.66.20. 254. ibid., III.21.3; VI.14.2; I.31.1; III.3.4. 99

[THOU, Agni, wast the earliest Aṅgiras, a

Seer; thou wast, a God thyself, the

Gods‟ auspicious Friend.

After thy holy ordinance the Maruts, sage,

active through wisdom, with their glitter-

ing spears, were born.];

[The Sire of sacrifice, great God of holy

bards, Agni, the measure and the sym-

bol of the priests,

Hath entered heaven and earth that show

in varied form : the Sage whom many

love rejoiceth in his might.]255

Agni is endowed with priestly wisdom. He knows the sacrifice and all rites perfectly –

sadyo jāto vyamimīta yajñamagnirdevānāma havatpurogāḥ

asya hotuḥ pradiśyṛtasya vāci svāhākṛtaṁ haviradantu devāḥ 256

[Agni, as soon as he was born, made ready

the sacrifice, and was the Gods‟

preceder.

May the Gods eat our offering consecrated

according to this true Priest‟s voice and

255. Griffith, R. T. H., op. cit., pp. 170, 291, 19, 162. 256. RV., X.110.11. 100

guidance.]257

He has the knowledge of the proper seasons for the rituals. And with the help of this wisdom Agni, the best worshipper (yajiṣṭha) amends the mistakes committed by the ignorant men in the worship of Gods.258 Agni is omniscient. That is why he is given epithets like viśvavid, i.e. all knowing, viśvavedas, i.e. possessor of all knowledge, kavi, i.e. the wise one, kavikratu, i.e. possessor of supra sensory intelligence, and very frequently he is called jātavedas, i.e. one who knows all generations.259 Agni acquired wisdom as soon as he was born, and he embraces it as the felly does the wheel.260 These qualities of Agni remind people of brahman, the sarvavid priest. When Agni is described as the first inventor of prayer, an inspirer, an inventor of brilliant speech, and as eloquent,261 his hotṛ-quality is extolled. The quality of being the udgātṛ-priest is expressed when Agni is described as a singer (jaritṛ).262 In this way Agni is the all-in-one divine priest of the Vedic sacrificial ritual. Seeing this important role of Agni Macdonell has rightly stated, “Agni‟s priesthood is the most salient feature of his character.”263

Like the Vedic hymn-poetry the later Vedic literature, especially the

Brāhmaṇas also include a number of passages which show the identity of Agni with other gods, and ultimately establish his supremacy in Vedic pantheon. Thus, in the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa Agni is often identified with the sun –

257. Griffith, R. T. H., op. cit., pp. 622. 258. cf., RV., X.2.4-5. 259. cf., ibid., III.1.17; X.11.1; X.21.5; 1.1.5; VI.15.13, etc. The epithet jātavedas occurs about 120 times in the RV. 260. cf., ibid., I.96.1; II.5.3. 261. cf., ibid., VI.1.1; X.45.5; II.9.4; VI.4.4, etc. 262. cf., ibid., Vālakhilya, VIII.49.1. 263. Macdonell, A.A., op. cit., p. 97. 101

agnirvā’rkaḥ,264 ayaṁ vā’agnirarkaḥ,265 asau vā’āditya eṣo’gniḥ.266 It is also said that heaven is the supreme (place of) origin of Agni – dyaurvā asya (agneḥ) paramaṁ janma,267 the sun is Agni‟s heavenly luster – ādityo vā’asya (agneḥ) divi varcaḥ.268 In the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa Agni is stated as the lord of heaven – agnirvai svargasya lokasyādhipatiḥ.269 The god of fire is overspread on the earth; he is the glory of the mid-region, as stated in the Taittīriya Brāhmaṇa – agnirasi pṛthivyāṁ śritaḥ ǀ antarikṣasya pratiṣṭhā.270 Agni produced his own three bodies named pavamāna, pāvaka and śuci in three regions, i.e., earth, atmosphere and heaven, respectively – sa [agniḥ] etāḥ [pavamānapāvakaśucyākhyāḥ] tisraḥ

[ātmiyāḥ] tanureṣu lokeṣu [pṛthivyantarikṣadyulokeṣu yathākramaṁ] vinyadhatta.271 For having three existences in three regions Agni is called trivṛt.272

Agni is the chief or leader of the gods.273 He is the head of all – śira evāgniḥ.274

He being produced every day on earth is the youngest of the gods – agnirvai devānāmavamaḥ.275 Again, he is the first of all – agnirvai sarvamādyam.276 It has been said in the Taittīriya Brāhmaṇa that while generating the gods Prajāpati first created Agni -- prajāpatirdevatāḥ sṛjamānaḥ agnimeva devatānāṁ

264. ŚB., 2.5.1.4; 10.6.2.5. 265. ibid., 8.6.2.19; 9.4.2.18. 266. ibid., 6.4.1.1; 6.4.3.9; 10. 267. ibid., 9.2.3.39. 268. ibid., 7.1.1.23. 269. AB., 3.42. 270. TB., 3.11.1.7. 271. ŚB., 2.2.1.14. 272. cf., ibid., 6.3.1.25. 273. cf., agnirnetā, AB., 5.16; agnirvai devānāmanīkam, ŚB., 5.3.1.1. Also see agnirvai devānāṁ senānīḥ, quoted by Durga on Nir., 7.14. 274. ŚB., 10.1.2.5. 275. AB., 1.1.1. 276. TāṇB., 25.9.3. 102

prathamamasṛjata.277 Going a step further like the Ṛgveda where Agni is called the father of the gods,278 the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa has stated that Agni is the source of gods – agnirvai devayoniḥ.279 Another Brāhmaṇa-passage seems to identify

Agni with Prajāpati when it says that Agni is the generator (prajanayitā) of the created beings.280 As a matter of fact, Agni is all the deities according to the

Brāhmaṇas – sarvadevatyo’gniḥ.281 The supremacy of Agni is stated by another

Brāhmaṇa-passage in clear words as – agnirvai sarvā devatāḥ.282 This statement is also quoted by Yāska in his Nirukta283 in the same context. Agni is the soul of the gods, and he manifests himself in all the different bodies, i.e. the gods like

Vāyu, etc. Thus, the following Brāhmaṇa-passages say – agnirvai sarveṣāṁ devānāmātmā,284 sarveṣāmu haiṣa devānāmātmā yadagniḥ,285 agnirvā etāḥ sarvāstanvo yadetā [vāyvādayaḥ] devatāḥ.286 The supreme God Agni is the life

(āyuḥ, prāṇaḥ) of all.287 As in Vedic hymn-poetry, in the Brāhmaṇas also Agni has been recognized as the Supreme Brahman – agnireva brahma.288

The supreme status of Agni in sacrificial ritual has also been well established in the Brāhmaṇa-literature. Thus, it has been stated that Agni is the

277. TB., 2.1.6.4. 278. RV., I.69.1. 279. AB., 1.22; 2.3. 280. cf., TB., 1.7.2.3. 281. ŚB., 6.1.2.28. 282. AB., 1.1; 2.3; TB., 1.4.4.10; ŚB., 1.6.2.8; TāṇB., 2.1.12; 18.1.8; ṢaḍB., 3.7; GB., 2.1.12; MS., I.4.14. 283. cf., agniḥ sarvā devatāḥ, Nir., 7.17. The word vai is omitted in the Nirukta. 284. ŚB., 14.3.2.5. 285. ibid., 7.4.1.25; 9.5.1.7. 286. AB., 3.4. 287. cf., ŚB., 6.7.3.7; 9.5.1.68. 288. ibid., 10.4.1.5. Also see ibid., 1.3.3.19; 2.5.4.8; 5.3.5.32; TB., 3.9.16.3; KB., 9.1; 5; 12.8. 103

source of sacrifice – agnirvai yoniryajñasya.289 For the leading quality of Agni in sacrifice, the Aitareya Brāhmaṇa calls him „netā‟ i.e. the leader. He is the head

(śira) of sacrifice.290 Agni is the one among the gods who plays the role of the sacrificer (yaṣṭā),291 and the performer of homa or the invoker of gods (hotā).292

Agni has also been designated as the dūta of the gods.293 He is the mouth of the gods -- agnirvai devānāṁ mukham.294

The above discussion shows that Agni, the god of fire plays a vital role in the ritualistic religion of the Vedic people. He is the soul and center of the domestic as well as the religious activities of the Vedic Indians. It can be well said that there would have been no religion in Vedic civilization had Agni not been there for the Vedic Indians as the object, medium and means of worship. The

Ṛksaṁhitā begins with an invocation to Agni and ends with it. In the hymn I.1 of this Saṁhitā the worshipper seeks Agni‟s blessings for material prosperity and in

X.191 he invokes Agni for a blissful co-existence among his worshippers so that there be peace and unity in the society --

samāno mantraḥ samitiḥ samānī samānaṁ manaḥ saha cittameṣām

samānaṁ mantramabhi mantraye vaḥ samānena vo haviṣā juhomi

samānī va ākūtiḥ samānā hṛdayāni vaḥ

samānamastu vo mano yathā vaḥ susahāsati

289. ŚB., 1.5.2.11; 14; 3.1.3.28; 11.1.2.2. 290. cf., ŚB., 9.2.3.31. 291. cf., TB., 3.3.7.6. 292. cf., AB., 1.28; 3.14; Also see, agnirvai devānāṁ hotā, ibid., 12.3. 293. cf., ŚB., 1.4.1.34; 3.5.1.21. 294. KB., 3.6. cf., AB., 7.16; ŚB., 3.9.1.6; TāṇB., 25.14.4. 104

[The place is common, common the assem-

bly, common the mind, so be their

thought united.

A common purpose do I lay before you,

and worship with your general oblation.];

[One and the same be your resolve, and

be your minds of one accord.

United be the thoughts of all that all may

happily agree.]295

295. Griffith, R.T.H., op. cit., p. 651.