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Swimming Biomechanics

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Swimming Biomechanics SWIMMING BIOMECHANICS INVITED CONTRIBUTION In an ideal situation the hand is fixed in the water (no dis- placement and zero velocity) and the net shoulder muscles contraction produces a full body displacement forward of the FUNDAMENTAL HYDRODYNAMICS OF SWIMMING PROPULSION. swimmer’s body (for example using the MAD system); there is no interaction between the hand and the water around it. In a Raúl Arellano1, José M. Terrés-Nicoli2, Jose M. Redondo3 real situation the hand interacts with the water and its velocity 1Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Science, Spain is increased. But increasing the backward velocity of the hand 2Wind Engineering Lab, CEAMA University of Granada, Granada, alone will not produce the desired forward velocity (similar to a Spain caterpillar paddlewheel); a combination of curvilinear hand 3Dept. Física Aplicada, Univ. Politécnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, movements (up-down, left-right and backward) will produce Spain. the desired effect on body velocity (46). The propulsive force is a vector addition of lift (L) and drag (D) forces generated by the The purpose will be to describe the different methods applied in hand and they are proportional to velocity squared (see eq. 1,2) 2 swimming research to visualize and understand water move- L = 1/2 ρ u CL S (Eq. 1) 2 ments around the propulsive limbs and their application to D = 1/2 ρ u CD S (Eq. 2) improving swimming technique. A compilation of flow visuali- Where u is the relative velocity with respect to the fluid (m/s), zation methods applied in human swimming research is pre- S is the hand’s surface area (m2), ρ is the water density 3 sented. Simple propulsive actions will be analyzed combining (kg/m ), CL is the lift coefficient and CD is the drag coefficient. the kinematic analysis with the flow visualization: underwater The values of these coefficients are characteristic of the object undulatory swimming and sculling propulsion. The analysis of tested and are a function of the angle of attack (α) and the vortices generated and 3D analysis of the pulling path seems sweep-back angle (ψ) as Schleihauf (44, 45) and Berger (7, the most adequate method to develop a new understanding of 37) investigated. Maximum values of CL (about 0.8-1.0) are swimming propulsion. The development of flexible and portable obtained between 35º and 45º-attack angle, and maximum val- laser systems such as the recently incorporating fiber optics and ues of CD (about 1.3) are obtained at 90º. The values of CL and fiberscopes, will enable the applicability of PIV in real swim- CD are more similar when all possibilities of sweep-back (dif- ming conditions to quantify the wake momentum and vorticity. ferent “leading edges” orientations of the hand) angles are con- New and attractive ideas are emerging: the possible use by the sidered. This indirect method of propulsive force calculation is swimmer to his advantage of the vorticity if it is produced by an based on the proper knowledge of the hand position and its external source, such as the environment, another swimmer or velocity in a three-dimensional reference system (water volu- the re-use of his own vortices during the stroke or after the turn me) and in conditions of extreme accuracy the coefficients can will be topics for research in the near future. be calculated (26, 37) and the water refraction controlled in order to apply adapted DLT methods (25). Considering these Key Words: wake, sculling, undulatory, flow visualization, limitations some index characteristic have been defined in the Strouhal number. 3D pulling path (47): a) Diagonality index: the average angle of the negative hand INTRODUCTION line motion and the forward direction at the points of first, sec- The study of human swimming propulsion is one of the more ond and third maximal resultant force production (57); complex areas of interest in sport biomechanics. Over the past b) Scull index or lift-drag index: the average ratio of lift and decades, research in swimming biomechanics has evolved from drag forces (CL / CD) at the three greatest occurrences of the observation subject’s kinematics to a basic flow dynamics resultant force (57); approach, following the line of the scientists working on this c) Force distribution index: is the average location of the three subject in experimental biology (20, 56). As Dickinson stated greatest resultant forces expressed as a percentage of the total (20) “at its most fundamental level, locomotion is deceptively duration of the underwater phase of the arm pull (57). simple, an organism exerts a force on the external environment A similar approach was used by Sanders (43) to obtain the and through Newton’s laws, accelerate in the opposite direc- propulsive forces alternative vertical breaststroke kicking tion”, but the dynamics of force application are not as simple applied by the water-polo goalkeepers. as they might at first appear, specially during swimming or fly- Under this methodology four basic hand propulsive move- ing where the force is applied to a fluid. In fact, it results from ments were defined (31, 32): Downsweep, insweep, upsweep the complex three-dimensional interaction between a station- and outsweep. Each stroke was therefore composed of a combi- ary fluid and a moving body with soft boundaries. The hydro- nation of these movements. For example, breaststroke is com- dynamics of this phenomenon are yet not clear. The muscle posed of outsweep and insweep. contraction flexes or extends a particular joint, moving the The previous paragraphs based the understanding of swimming limb though the water. The water previously occupied the propulsion on steady-state flow mechanics that has left many limb’s volume; the subsequent position required the displace- questions unanswered. Some trials observing the flow behav- ment of its particles. At very slow limb displacement, the water iour around the swimmer’s body lead us to try to apply particles will occupy steadily and in an orderly way, but at unsteady mechanisms of force production to resolve them. higher limb velocities the water is moving unsteadily, generat- However, such approach needs to analyze the flow behaviour ing a turbulent wake behind. This subject was analyzed by around the propulsive limbs to identify the phenomena, a diffi- Counsilman (18), who considered that “eddy resistance is cult task in a swimming pool, but quite common in fluid more important than frontal resistance and that, at least theo- dynamic laboratories. retically, more propulsion is derived from the back of the hand The traditional semantic classification of the propulsive forces than from the front of it”. in terms of drag and lift is not relevant when applying a non- Rev Port Cien Desp 6(Supl.2) 15–113 15 SWIMMING BIOMECHANICS steady hydrodynamic analysis and it is probably more useful to movements; however in real swimming the observations are investigate the momentum and the vorticity or their respective more complex and less accurate, as it is only possible to ana- scalar indicators the energy and the enstrophy applied by the lyze the problem in a qualitative and descriptive way at the swimmers limbs on the water. moment. Our purpose will be to describe the different methods applied The approach developed in Tsukuba University is a first trial to in swimming research to visualize and understand water move- apply PIV in freestyle swimming. A sophisticated swimming ments around the propulsive limbs and their application to flume, a tool similar to that the applied in fish swimming improving swimming technique. research, is being used. The flume is filled with small close-to- buoyant particles. A laser light sheet within the working area OBSERVING WATER MOVEMENTS illuminates a horizontal plane, parallel to the water surface. During aquatic locomotion forces are exerted by the body and The arm pull action of the swimmer enables his hand to cross limbs against the surrounding water, which is not fixed in posi- the illuminated slice of the flow during the insweep and tion but instead yields in response to the action of propulsive outsweep. A triggered high-speed camera records the illumi- surfaces (27). Colwin (12, 13) and Ungerechts (54) suggested nated plane while the hand crosses this specific zone, so that it new ways of analysing the swimming propulsive movements is possible to observe the hand displacement and water parti- based on the observation of water around the propulsive limbs. cles movements. Pairs of consecutive images from the video All bodies (including propulsive limbs) displacing water will sequences are then input into a cross-correlation processing create vortices (rotating water masses) in their wakes; they algorithm, which takes a small, user-defined area of the image carry a fairly high momentum, which can transfer a strong and calculates the direction and magnitude of each particle’s propulsive impulse to the body (55). As Bixler (9) stated velocity within that region. This yields a single velocity vector when an object accelerates, decelerates, or changes its shape or representing the average flow within that small area. Repeating orientation as it moves through a fluid, the flow will be this analysis at each location, a map of velocity vectors can be unsteady. Thus, the resulting pressure field exerted by the fluid calculated that provides a snapshot of wake structure and on the body’s surface, responsible for the propulsion, will be strength (27, 35, 49) [see figure 1.7]. again unsteady, varying differently with both time and position. In this conditions the propulsive drag and lift forces developed Table 1. Flow visualization methods applied in swimming research (PIV by a swimmer’s hand at a given time are dependant not only listed bellow is not a flow visualization technique but a mechanism one).
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