Authors: Joe Shahir Haddad, Carson Nuzeng Moua, Caroline Phuong Anh ​ Duong Nguyen, Jessica Phuong Linh Nguyen, Aron Perez, Sydney Hiroko Santo, Eric J. Van Note, Jonathan Villafana

ANTHRO 25A: Environmental Injustice Instructor: Prof. Dr. Kim Fortun Department of Cultural Anthropology

Graduate Teaching Associates: Kaitlyn Rabach Tim Schütz

Undergraduate Teaching Associates Nina Parshekofteh Lafayette Pierre White

University of California Irvine, Fall 2019 TABLE OF CONTENTS What is the setting of this case? SYDNEY SANTO 4

What environmental threats contribute to slow disasters in this setting? What data is available to characterize these threats posed by slow disasters in the community? CAROLINE NGUYEN 8

What factors -- social, cultural, political, technological, ecological -- contribute to environmental health vulnerability and injustice in this setting? JONATHAN VILLAFANA 12

Who are the stakeholders, what are their characteristics, and what are their perceptions of the problems? CARSON MOUA 17

What have different stakeholder groups done (or not done) in response to the problems in this case? CARSON MOUA 20

How have big media outlets and environmental organizations covered environmental problems related to worse case scenarios in this setting? JESSICA NGUYEN 23

What local actions would reduce environmental vulnerability and injustice related to slow disaster in this setting? ARON PEREZ 25

What extra-local actions (at state, national or international levels) would reduce environmental vulnerability and injustice related to slow disaster in this setting and similar settings? JESSICA NGUYEN 27

What kinds of data and research would be useful in efforts to characterize and address environmental threats (related to slow disaster, pollution and climate change) in this setting and similar settings? JOE HADDAD 29

What, in your view, is ethically wrong or unjust in this case? ERIC VAN NOTE 31

BIBLIOGRAPHY 33

APPENDIX 38

TYPES OF INJUSTICE SKETCH 40

CHOOSING A SLOW DISASTER COMMUNITY SKETCH 43

COMMUNITY FAST FACTS SKETCH 45

Fig 1: Location within California, USA. Wikipedia, licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0. Retrieved ​ ​ on November 9, 2019, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bakersfield,_California. ​ ​

1. What is the setting of this case? SYDNEY SANTO Bakersfield is a city located in Kern County on the southern side of the San Joaquin Valley. The city is located between the Sierra Nevada Mountains and the California Coast Range with a population of about 383,579 people (“U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: United States” n.d.). Due to the city’s landscape, it has a reputation of agriculture and oil extraction. Since it is surrounded by two mountain ranges, it is in a sort of bowl landscape making for ideal conditions for growing crops. As a result, Bakersfield has an unusually high amount of residents working agricultural jobs and is more specialization in mining, quarrying and oil extraction when compared to other places. The oil extraction of Bakersfield is a main contributor to the city’s major problem with air pollution. The median income is $60,058 and the median housing price is $228,000, both higher than the United State’s median. The income inequality is 0.497, which is more than the national average and there is gender inequality in terms of income differences for men and women in Bakersfield, with men making 1.26 times higher than women (“Bakersfield, CA | Data USA” n.d.). The major employer of Bakersfield is office and administrative jobs and health care is the most common industry and the economy employs about 156,000 people. Seeing the parameters of Bakersfield, you can see that it is a relatively large city, there are many different communities within it that differ socially, economically, and overall exposure to environmental hazards (Fig. 2). The demographics for Bakersfield mainly consists of White and Hispanic or Latino, with White only making up for 31.6% and Hispanics and Latinos making up about 50.9% of the population (“Bakersfield, CA | Data USA” n.d.). The city is also in the 85th percentile for low income population and the 62 percentile for minority population (Fig. 3). “The most common racial or ethnic group living below the poverty line in Bakersfield, CA is White, followed by Hispanic and Other.” (“Bakersfield, CA | Data USA” n.d.). Figure 4 presents the areas affected the most by pollution in Bakersfield and this corresponds to areas of low income and communities of color. Bakersfield is also in the 92nd percentile in the United States for Ozone and the 90th percentile for lead paint indicator (EJ screen report 2019). As you can see there are areas that are not affected even half as badly as other areas in Bakersfield which contributes to the economic and racial injustices occurring in this city in regards to environmental hazards. Seeing as these individuals lack a voice and income, they are affected the most by Bakersfield’s oil extractions and agriculture which is a main part of the city’s dynamic.

Fig. 2. Selected area for the City of Bakersfield. EPA EJ Screen Report, City of Bakersfield, ​ ​ ​ 2018. Retrieved November 7, 2019. Screenshot taken by Sydney Santo. This image shows Bakersfield’s city boundaries.

Fig. 3: Demographic indicators for Bakersfield. EPA EJ Screen Report, City of Bakersfield, ​ ​ ​ 2018. Retrieved November 6, 2019. Screenshot taken by Sydney Santo. This is a graph comparing the demographic indicators of Bakersfield compared to the region, state, and country.

Fig. 4: High scoring census tracts in Bakersfield, CalEnviro Screen 3.0, 2019. Retrieved ​ November 6, 2019. Screenshot taken by Sydney Santo. This image shows the pollution levels in Bakersfield.

2. What environmental threats contribute to slow disasters in this setting? What data is available to characterize these threats posed by slow disasters in the community? CAROLINE NGUYEN The geography and topography, agriculture, transportation, and oil industry contribute to slow disasters in Bakersfield, California. The city is geographically cursed, as the ​ topography of the central valley creates an almost dome-like shape that is perfect for trapping bad air, creating pools of pollution in the ozone that cannot disperse. Bakersfield ranks in the top three of the most- polluted metro areas by average year- round concentration of PM 2.5, most- polluted metro areas by dangerous “spikes” in PM 2.5, and most- polluted cities by ozone pollution (Schlanger 2019). The agriculture in Bakersfield additionally leads to air pollution. Bakersfield is a well known agricultural hub, providing a quarter of food for the United States each year. This region is home to many dairies that emit vast amounts of ammonia gas from cow manure and urine. Once in the air, ammonia gas and nitric acid combine to make ammonium nitrate. According to the California Air Resources Board, ammonium nitrate is responsible for more than half of the region’s PM 2.5 on the area’s most polluted days (Borrell 2018). Specifically, 85 percent of the pollution (Berg 2017). To add on, dust from farming contributes to air pollution. During peak almond harvesting, dust from farming activities and other disturbances account for up to 15 percent of the total PM 2.5 in some areas of the region (Borrell 2018). Another source of pollution that comes from farming stems from the use of nitrogen fertilizer. Use of nitrogen fertilizer has contributed to one third of California’s nitrogen oxide pollution and San Joaquin Valley is one of the heaviest users of nitrogen fertilizers in the state (Borrell 2018). Furthermore, transportation is another contributing factor to the poor air quality in Bakersfield. Diesel trucks transporting dairy products from farms, warehouses, and distribution centers create a lot of diesel pollution. Combined with freight trains carrying oil from refineries, diesel pollution is a major environmental threat in the region (Borrell 2018). Additionally, the oil refineries are an environmental threat to the people of Bakersfield. A U.S. Geological Survey report revealed that oil industry waste fluids containing benzene and other toxic chemicals have migrated into groundwater sites in Kern County. The water used for drinking and irrigation in Bakersfield has been contaminated (Bacher 2019). The health of Bakersfield's residents are being harmed in various ways through the water they drink and the food they eat. There is startling data that shows threats posed by slow disasters in this community. According to the American Lung Association, Bakersfield, California ranked 3 out of 228 metropolitan areas and 1 for 24-hour particle pollution (American Lung Association 2019). To add on , in a Guardian article , it was stated that "of the wider metro area’s 875,000 people, about 70,000 are said to have asthma, 40,000 cardiovascular disease, and 27,000 chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases" (Berg 2017). This data helps demonstrate the health disparities caused by the poor air quality in this area, and how the increased pollution is correlated to increased rates of diseases.

Fig. 5: This is a screenshot taken from the World Air Pollution: Real- Time Air Quality Index on October 9, 2019 showing the San Joaquin Valley. This shows how the geography of the region leads to unhealthy air quality because the Valley does not allow air flow. Bakersfield is one of the cities that has the worst air quality in the region on that day.

Fig. 6: Here is an image taken from Undark.Org showing levels of particle pollution in San Joaquin Valley in 2017.

Fig. 7: Here are charts from the U.S. Geological Survey website showing the makeup of water contaminants in Kern County’s water in 2011. Yellow indicates high constituent concentrations, green means moderate, and blue shows low or undetected.

Fig. 8: This image was taken from The California Healthy Places Index website. This image shows how Bakersfield ranks lower in healthy air percentile than regions around it.

3. What factors -- social, cultural, political, technological, ecological -- contribute to environmental health vulnerability and injustice in this setting? JONATHAN VILLAFANA Many factors contribute to health vulnerability and injustice in Bakersfield, CA. The leading eight causes are poverty, economic dependence on oil and agriculture, racial inequalities, lack of representation from the state legislature, disproportionate levels of air quality in ethnic/low-income communities, proximity to polluting sources, economic inequality, and access to education. Furthermore, Bakersfield has a pollution burden percentile of 99 percent diesel and toxic wastes, as well as a pollution burden percentile of 90 percent for cleanups, groundwater threats, hazardous waste, impaired water, and solid waste.

However, this pollution burden is not shared evenly amongst the citizens of Bakersfield. When referencing the CalEnviroScreen data for Bakersfield (Figure 9), it can be seen that levels of air pollution and air particulate matter increases towards South Bakersfield. This disproportionate distribution of air quality contributes to health vulnerability and injustices in Bakersfield because the communities that inhabit these areas tend to be ethnic minorities and low-income citizens. Moreover, the data retrieved from the EJ Screen of Bakersfield (Figure 10) reinforces this idea as South Bakersfield ranked in the 90th percentile for minority composition. Furthermore, Guadalupe Martinez, Assistant Director at the Center on Race, Poverty & the Environment, stated that "In Kern County, 290,000 residents live within one mile of an oil or gas well, and nearly 58 percent are people of color"(Martinez n.d.). This data demonstrates two major points, one being that the proximity to polluting sources greatly affects health, and also that the communities primarily affected tend to be composed of ethnic minorities. Thus, this unequal distribution of air pollution creates an environment that places low-income/ethnic communities at the epicenter of polluting sources and makes them more vulnerable to health complications.

Aside from the uneven distribution of air pollution towards low-income/ethnic communities and the relative location of these communities to polluting sources, the city's dependence on oil and agriculture also contributes to the health vulnerabilities and injustices in this area. The city of Bakersfield experiences a significant amount of pollution caused by local oil mining facilities. However, these oil mining facilities that create massive amounts of pollution also provide several high paying jobs to local citizens. Figure 11 represents the data acquired from the US Census Bureau and demonstrates the highest paying jobs in Kern County. The professions with the highest paying salary jobs that include mining, quarrying, and oil gas extraction. This means that the highest paying jobs are also the jobs that are responsible for the greatest amounts of air pollution in Bakersfield. Emissions from oil refineries and agriculture make Bakersfield America’s most air-polluted city (Berg 2017). This dependency on oil companies for higher wages creates the environmental vulnerabilities experienced in Bakersfield.

Lastly, the health vulnerabilities and injustices within Bakersfield arise from the economic inequality between ethnic communities. Figure 12 represents the data acquired from the American Community Survey conducted by the Census Bureau and displays the average salaries of citizens based on ethnicity and race. It can be seen that White citizens tend to have higher salaries on average when compared to Hispanic or African American Citizens. However, when analyzing the ethnic composition of Bakersfield, it is found that 50.9% of the population is Hispanic, and only 31.6% of the population is White. This demonstrates that the community is primarily Hispanic, but on average, white citizens tend to earn a higher salary. This creates various health vulnerabilities and injustices, as these lower-earning ethnic citizens must find living situations in areas closely located to pollution and polluting sources.

In conclusion, various external factors contribute to the health vulnerabilities and injustices experienced in Bakersfield. However, several of these factors work hand in hand to create a sociopolitical environment that places low-income communities at a distinct disadvantage. The dependency on oil companies for high wages allows for the erection of various polluting sources, and the economic inequality faced by ethnic communities places ethnic minorities in homes that are at the epicenter of this pollution. A state legislator that then ignores the pleas of the citizens most impacted creates an unjust cycle of inescapability that targets low-income ethnic communities.

Fig. 9: This screenshot was taken from the CalEnviroScreen and demonstrates the unequal distribution of air pollution across Bakersfield.

High scoring census tracts in Bakersfield, CalEnviro Screen 3.0, 2019. Retrieved on November 9, 2019. Screenshot taken by Jonathan Villafana.

Fig. 10: This screenshot was taken from the EJ Screen of Bakersfield and shows the minority composition of Bakersfield, and reveals that areas of high air pollution are also areas with the largest composition of ethnic communities.

EPA EJScreen report for the city of Bakersfield, CA. Demographic indicators for Bakersfield. Retrieved October 26, 2019. Screenshot taken by Jonathan Villafana

Fig. 11: This image depicts the data gathered by Data USA, summarizing data from the Census Bureau in 2017 on the highest paying professions in Kern County. It reveals that the highest paying jobs in Bakersfield are in the Oil industry.

Turner, Jeff. 2017. “Kern County, CA.” Data USA. Datawheel. November 10. ​ ​ https://datausa.io/profile/geo/kern-county-ca.

Fig. 12: This graph reveals the Average Full-Time Salary of citizens in Bakersfield, and it categorized by Ethnicity. White citizens tend to have higher salaries across various professions when compared to Hispnaic and African American citizens.

Turner, Jeff. 2017. “Kern County, CA.” Data USA. Datawheel. November 10. ​ ​ https://datausa.io/profile/geo/kern-county-ca.

4. Who are the stakeholders, what are their characteristics, and what are their perceptions of the problems? CARSON MOUA In regards to Bakersfield and the multiple sources that factor into the city’s pollution, some main local and non-local stakeholders are: Bakersfield's mayor, Mayor Karen Goh, the lower class (residents below the poverty line), oil companies, farmers, college students and the EPA.

Mayor Karen Goh is the 26th and second female mayor of Bakersfield, California, since coming into office on January 3, 2017 (Wikipedia 2019). Mayor Goh, although recognizes the fact that her city faces environmental issues, does not seem to view them with priority. Instead, crime and education stands at the top of her list. Her avoidance of the environmental issues could also be contributed to how much power the major companies hold in the city. With the county’s and state’s dependence on these companies, it may be hard and intimidating to act against them.

The lower class residents of Bakersfield, compared to other residents, are in much closer proximity to sources of pollution. They are relatively “inexperienced” with the magnitude of the pollution (compared to professionals). Due to lack of education, finance, political power, and the dependence on jobs from major companies, the lower class residents tend to be pushed around in regards to environmental justice, or injustice. Families making less than $20,000 a year "suffer vehicle pollution levels about 20 percent higher than the state average," whereas people of color can suffer up to 40% (Herald 2019). In order to make a living, they have to work many hours and days. As a result, they lack the time to protest/organize. However, as they are the most directly impacted, facing the most damage from pollution, they are more likely to be driven and seek out change. With a majority of the population of from lower class, they have high potential to mobilize. If they were to band together, they would be able to create major changes in Bakersfield.

Oil companies in Bakersfield and Kern County have huge influences in the policies and decisions that are made. Some of these companies include Berry Petroleum Co, Suburban Propane, Chevron Corporation, Ensign United States Drilling, and Nabors Completion Production. Oil companies are highly depended on by the county, as well as California for the products and the jobs they provide. Because of this dependency, these companies seem to think that they have leeway in the unjust actions they commit, such as ignoring rules and regulations, which inadvertently affects the city. They view the pollution they cause as reasonable means as long as profits are made. Unfortunately, they also tend to get away with many unjust acts. This is shown through the fact that Bakersfield has "one of the country’s worst concentrations of air pollution" (Berg 2017). These large corporations are financially but not socially invested in the situation. Thus, if avoidable, they are the least likely to support change because they perceive the ecological problems as a financial burden.

Kern is the 5th largest agricultural producer in the nation, generating millions of dollars in revenue every year. With Bakersfield being one of the largest cities in the county, many of Kern’s farmers are located in Bakersfield, giving them, to an extent, a high level of importance. Despite that, the farmers are some of the most directly impacted and they also have the experience and knowledge of the polluted air that they operate under. However, most farmers are from low-income families. As a result, they may be less likely to support radical change because the polluting entities of Bakersfield are also their source of income. They would not want to put their jobs at risk for change.

The EPA, or Environmental Protection Agency, as its name suggests, is an agency of the federal government determined to preserve the environment and protect the health of all citizens and communities. The EPA tries to mitigate environmental issues throughout the nation. However, though there have been many successes, just sheer size of the United States makes it extremely difficult for the EPA to solve all issues occurring in every city and town. Companies and corporations that have huge influences and are highly depended on by a state and/or the country can be hard for the EPA to fight against. Moreover, its budget and resources would be cut from year to year, making it even more difficult to create changes.

Fig 13: A field of oil-pumping jacks and drilling pads near Bakersfield, California. This field is one of the many contributors of Bakersfield’s crippling high rate of asthma, cardiovascular disease, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.

Screenshot taken by Mark Ralston from Berg, Nate. 2017. “Breathless in Bakersfield: is the worst air pollution in the US about to get worse?” Retrieved November 8, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/14/bakersfield-california-bad-air-pollution-us

5. What have different stakeholder groups done (or not done) in response to the problems in this case? CARSON MOUA In the city of Bakersfield, the environmental injustice affects many groups. Some of the stakeholders who either fought for, against or did not partake in the injustice are: Bakersfield's mayor, Mayor Karen Goh, the lower class (residents below the poverty line), oil companies, farmers, and the EPA.

Mayor Karen Goh does not participate in matters related to the environmental injustice occurring. Instead, she focuses on different aspects of the city’s issues. For example, in 2018, Mayor Goh traveled to the state Capitol, Sacramento, in order to support “Assembly Bill 3171, which would provide $1.5 billion to local jurisdictions to help their homeless populations” (Luiz 2018). She has also been reported to be in support of a proposition that will help with the crime that will be in the November 2020 ballot (23ABC News 2019). It is clear the mayor does care for the city. However, she does not act on environmental injustices, or at least information of her doing so cannot be found. Even more, in 2017 residents petitioned to get Bakersfield committed to the Paris Climate Change Agreement (Raman 2017). The need for a petition suggests that she does not care too much for environmental justice, or that she cares more about other issues.

The lower class residents, one of the most, if not the most impacted by environmental injustice, although may be uneducated and/or misinformed due to lack of information or other data injustices, are hopeful in their actions to fight for clean and healthy communities. They have been doing so ways such as protesting and promoting clean, renewable energy (Goss 2019). As said above, a petition was made to the mayor to get her to commit the city to the Paris Climate Change Agreement. Residents also protested to help bring an end to to the toxic pesticide, Chlorpyrifos, as well as protested on November 6, 2015 along with other county residents to end fracking, a method of extracting oil through the use of a variety of toxic chemicals (EmilyJ 2015).

For Kern County, one of its greatest sources of income is the major oil companies. For the oil companies, money speaks the loudest. All is fair game, including the impact they have on the environment and communities as a result. To continue profiting, the companies utilized oil fracking all over the county, which releases deadly pollutants to residents. They tried to control these impacts, but ultimate failed in doing so. In order to protect their profits, the companies lobbied $22mil to state legislature in 2015, which played to delay or stop bills they opposed (Rowe 2016). In addition, on November 9, 2015, the Kern County Board of Supervisors passed an oil and gas zoning amendment, which was funded by oil companies. Oil and gas producers were given right to bypass the public and easily receive permission to drill new wells. The amendment approved up to 70,000 new oil wells, many in Bakersfield (Rowe 2016).

As Kern County is a huge agricultural producer, the 5th largest in the nation, its farmers are important stakeholders. The farmers of Bakersfield, as well as of Kern County, are heavily affected by the pollution they face in their line of work. However, by working with multiple groups of other stakeholders, they are able to make changes. In 2017, a coalition of farmers, along with other environmental groups, sued the previous EPA Administrator, Scott Pruitt for reversing “an Obama-era effort to ban chlorpyrifos” (The Associate Press 2018). The court eventually ruled in favor of the plaintiffs. On August 9, 2018, the 9th U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals in San Francisco banned the use and sale of chlorpyrifos nationwide (The Associate Press 2018).

The EPA, although did not have positive involvement with the recent case regarding the pesticide, chlorpyrifos, it has put in its fair share of work. An area that the EPA has been doing well in is the enforcement of the Clean Air Act. For instance, in 2015, the EPA “cited the Bakersfield Crude Terminal for 10 violations of the Clean Air Act, declaring [it]... a major air pollution source that should have been subjected to rigorous environmental review during the permitting process” (Earthjustice 2015). As a result of the EPA bringing this injustice into the light, it led to environmental groups, Earthjustice and Communities for a Better Environment, suing the San Joaquin Valley Air Pollution Control District (Earthjustice 2015).

Due to the many dynamics of stakeholders in Bakersfield, each stakeholder has their own perspectives, goals, and actions. Unfortunately, some stakeholders do not prioritize the lives of the residents. In spite of that, there are many who are trying to better the situation, fighting for the common right to live in a safe environment. Only by continuing to do so will Bakersfield eventually lose its title as one of the most polluted cities in the nation.

Fig 14: A mile-long train at Bakersfield Crude Terminal carrying 3 million gallons of oil. The transportation of oil produces huge amounts of air pollution. The terminal was cited by the EPA for Clean Air Act violations, and eventually sued by Earthjustice and Communities for a Better Environment.

Screenshot taken by John Cox from Henry, Lois. 2017. “LOIS HENRY: Facts about the Bakersfield Crude Terminal court ruling are good enough, no need for activist groups to "pimp" them up” Retrieved November 8, 2019. https://www.bakersfield.com/columnists/lois-henry-facts-about-the-bakersfield-crude-termin al-court-ruling/article_3ee17968-ab20-5cb9-b445-56128e1dbea7.html

6. How have big media outlets and environmental organizations covered environmental problems related to worse case scenarios in this setting? JESSICA NGUYEN Media outlets such as the Los Angeles Times and the Bakersfield Californian, along with Kern Green and the Environmental Protection Agency, have headlined problems and re-outlined solutions in an effort to characterize and address the slow disasters in Bakersfield.

There are not many recent LA Times articles that cover worst case scenarios of high diesel and ozone pollution in Bakersfield because matters such as wage inequality and the city’s controversial approach to end homelessness has taken precedent. Although, if we were to go back to 2009-2015 there was a substantial amount of coverage of the dangerous air in Bakersfield, but it was always outshined by problems in bigger cities of Los Angeles and San Francisco. The LA Times did give some attention to the oil spills taking place in Kern County, especially the spill in July, where a Chevron oil well “leaked nearly 800,000 gallons of crude petroleum and water into a dry creek bed about 35 miles west of Bakersfield” but it wasn’t a big enough headline because no wildlife or community has been directly harmed (Wick 2019).

The Bakersfield Californian is a local newspaper serving Bakersfield and the surrounding Kern County, so it is not surprising to see numerous articles documenting its rise of ongoing health problems due to breathing poor air. A consistent topic brought up in every other article is the fact that “geography and topography of the San Joaquin Valley makes Bakersfield particularly vulnerable to smog formation and concentration of particulates” (“Air Pollution Officials Advise Caution Due to Potential Wind, Dust” 2019). They also report on what local businesses and residents are asked to do to exacerbate the problem on the worst days and explains, every time, how exposure to particulate pollution can cause serious health problems, aggravate lung disease, and increase the risk of respiratory infections.

Kern Green is a local non-profit that has partnered with organizations such as Keep Bakersfield Beautiful, Greater Bakersfield Chamber of Commerce, San Joaquin Valley Air District and Pacific Gas & Electric and etc to promote a more sustainable county (“About Kern Green” n.d.). They acknowledge that in recent years, Bakersfield has been at the heart of the pollution problem, with it ranking as having one of the worst air pollution ratings in the country. Kern Green, with every other local organization here, provides heaps of information, programs and resources for businesses and residents to understand how to reduce their environmental impact locally in response to slow disasters impacting their communities.

A national environmental group, the Environmental Protection Agency, in partnership with the California Air Resources Board, has contributed a lot towards the San Joaquin Valley and their struggle with air pollution. The “EPA provided $5 million in funding for cleaner locomotives throughout the San Joaquin Valley, including a state-of-the art locomotive operating between the Port of Stockton and Lodi” (US EPA 2013). Seeing this level of involvement in the community’s slow disaster problem on a national level in an area such as Bakersfield where the air pollution is one of the worst in the nation, sets an example of the great expectations and opportunities to come.

Fig 15: KERO-TV, channel 23, is an ABC-affiliated television station licensed to ​ Bakersfield. It serves audiences and businesses by distributing information through ​ television, social media and digital media. This segment headlined how the American Lung Association found that Bakersfield ranks among the unhealthiest air in the United States in their surveys history.

Screenshot taken by author from 23ABC News. January 2018. " Visibly bad air in ​ ​ Bakersfield unhealthy for everyone." Retrieved November 8, 2019. https://www.turnto23.com/news/local-news/visibly-bad-air-in-bakersfield-unhealthy-f or-everyone. ​

7. What local actions would reduce environmental vulnerability and injustice related to slow disaster in this setting? ARON PEREZ As mentioned above, the city of Bakersfield with the inclusion of the San Joaquin Valley, suffer from an enormous amount of pollution, more specifically, air pollution. The combination of a bowl-shaped topography, vast agriculture fields, transportation and distribution services, and different oil/energy companies results in, “one of the country’s worst concentrations of air pollution,” (The Guardian 2017). Although, the problem is grand, and government interference should occur, there are still a variety of local actions that could be done in order to reduce this environmental vulnerability and injustices related to this air pollution problem. In terms of local, these are actions taken by residents, environmental groups, companies, city government, and stakeholders who are not the U.S Government or apart of a bigger organization. Some of these local actions include, policy changes, legal action, and community opinion.

Policy changes should be of priority due to the drastic impact it could have on the environment in an efficient manner. Examples of policy changes include implementing cleaner burning engines, efficient industrial machinery, reduction of agriculture waste burning, and requiring cleaner furnaces and fireplaces (The Guardian 2017). Residents of the community should also demand for policies that will actually benefit those who are vulnerable to the problem. Policy changes should be aimed towards the companies causing these emissions and fines should be placed if not followed.

With policy changes, comes legal actions that should be taken in response to the implementation of the policies. Not only that, but legal action against companies who cause the problems. Some legal actions have been taken against certain companies such as fining a bakery who failed to install proper air pollution controls, as well as fining a major oil and gas production company who violated rules from the Clean Air Act (United States Environmental Protection Agency). The EPA is not considered local, but these legal actions started due to the reluctance of residents and local organizations such as Kern Green. Other legal actions include, resident Rodrigo Romo suing California Governor Jerry Brown and the Division of Oil, Gas & Geothermal Resources (Rowe 2016) and protesting against unethical company practices. Not only do these actions prevent companies from further polluting Bakersfield, but also inform the community. Hence, residents will be more knowledgeable and alert about what environmental injustices are occuring in their community.

Lastly, community opinion can be an immense factor in reducing environmental vulnerability. One resident of Kern County states “we need leaders who acknowledge the disproportionate environmental and climate impacts suffered by the most vulnerable communities” (Martinez 2016). Another resident, Gustavo Aguirre Jr., who happens to be a local activist, fears Trump’s administration could limit any type of environmental progress, (The Guardian 2017). When residents’ voices are heard and acknowledged by the community and leaders, there is a stronger incentive for action to be done. Overall, there are a variety of local actions that could be done in order to reduce and/or slow down the environmental issues happening in Bakersfield, California, but policy changes, legal action, and community voices are most significant.

Fig 16: A group of environmental activists and families gathering and protesting outside the Kern County Administrative Office waiting to receive public comments on a plan to reopen federal land in California to oil production.

Screenshot taken by author from The Record. May 2019. “Activists speak out against fracking on federal land in California.” retrieved on November 9, 2019. https://www.bakersfield.com/delano-record/activists-speak-out-against-fracking-on-fe deral-land-in-california/article_8367dc64-80ae-11e9-8218-ff38eac728dc.html. ​

8. What extra-local actions (at state, national or international levels) would reduce environmental vulnerability and injustice related to slow disaster in this setting and similar settings? JESSICA NGUYEN Emissions from rail freight, road traffic, and dairy farms, combined with high rates of homelessness and incarceration, makes Bakersfield one of the worst polluted and vulnerable cities, not just in the state but also in the nation. Globally known for being green and progressive, California state and national legislatures need to invest in cleaner transportation to curb diesel pollution, provide affordable housing to curb homelessness, and work to reduce cow flatulence to curb greenhouse gases in Bakersfield.

From the passage of Assembly Bill 617 in 2017, the law set aside California cap-and-trade money to, for example, “pay for specific initiatives with the potential to cut air pollution” (Cox 2019). California can use portions of these funds to implement cleaner options of locomotives operating in Bakersfield and other cities. These zero-emission engines will reduce the public health impact of diesel emissions from trains and trucks moving goods through the valley. And as a dual goal, the state could spend money on electrifying residents’ homes with solar panels and replacing resident’s vehicles to help along the clean-up of local air quality.

Another vulnerability that needs to be addressed is how in 2019, there was a 108% increase in unsheltered homeless people compared to 2018, so Bakersfield officials are trying to curb homelessness by jailing them for misdemeanor drug offenses and trespassing (Wick 2019). This actually only creates a perpetuating cycle of reincarceration of low-income and minority individuals in Bakersfield; state representatives need to intervene and offer a comprehensive approach, one that provides secure permanent housing to ensure long-term stability. This can be done if the government strictly enforces rent stabilization policies. The state should also increase its supply of permanent affordable-housing by setting aside units in “existing zoning, tax incentive, and publicly funded housing programs” (Kende et al. 2017). And all new apartment buildings in Bakersfield should be required to set aside an x number of units and have them priced much lower than market rent.

Diesel pollution and homelessness are both important problems to address but the curbing of cow flatulence (farts) would be the highest priority action because there could be immediate beneficial results but it is sadly being overlooked. Cow flatulence is a major source of methane (a more potent greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide) which heavily contributes to ozone depletion. Although methane doesn’t remain in the atmosphere for long, it is very good at trapping heat (which is the main problem in the valley). California has about 1.7 million dairy cows and more than 200,000 of them are near Bakersfield. Policies can include increasing the prices on milk and other dairy products for consumers all over the country and they can demand all farmers to change the diet of their cows. For example, Professor of aquaculture at James Cook University, discovered that “adding a sprinkle of dried seaweed (specifically Asparagopsis taxiformis) to a cow’s diet reduces the amount of methane it produces by 99%” (Kesteven, 2016). Another idea that is currently being explored by California regulators is to require dairy farms to install methane digesters, which burn methane gas and use it to produce electricity.

By working together towards a shared goal and focusing the joint resources and expertise of city and state agencies, they can make great strides in addressing environmental injustices and vulnerabilities in all cities of California and set an example for the rest of the world.

Fig 17: The figure above is a map of observed methane concentrations in California's ​ Central Valley shown as individual circles, sized and colored by methane concentration. Methane enhancements in aircraft data show good correlation with the location of dairy operations, open black circles are sizes of cow population.

Screenshot taken by author from Research Gate. May 2014. "Emissions of organic carbon and methane from petroleum and dairy operations in California's San Joaquin Valley." Retrieved November 8, 2019. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/307717057_Emissions_of_organic_carbon_a nd_methane_from_petroleum_and_dairy_operations_in_California's_San_Joaquin_Valley

9. What kinds of data and research would be useful in efforts to characterize and address environmental threats (related to slow disaster, pollution and climate change) in this setting and similar settings? JOE HADDAD Oil drilling and agricultural use in the Bakersfield area causes soil, water, and air contamination and results in impact to human health and climate. Data about soil contamination show the extent of petroleum hydrocarbon contamination from oil drilling. Soil data from agricultural fields show the level and extent of residual pesticides used in these fields. Proximity of contaminated soil to residents affects their health and well being. Chemicals such as Benzene, for example, causes cancer and other harmful effects. Agricultural chemicals used historically, such as arsenic and DDT are still present in soil (“Historic Pesticide Contamination Task Force” 1999). People can get ​ ​ exposed to these chemicals when wind blows the topsoil into homes and neighborhoods.

Surface water and groundwater data is another type of research that could be useful in studying environmental pollution. Rain water comes in contact with the contaminated soil and results in runoff of these chemicals into lakes and rivers. These agriculture and petroleum are found in lakes and rivers. Rain water goes deep into the soil and carries the chemicals with it into groundwater. Data from groundwater in Bakersfield show that petroleum related chemicals are found such as volatile organic compounds and disinfection byproducts. When people are exposed to these chemicals in drinking water, they suffer from diseases such as cancer and nervous system problems (Dyjak 2019).

Air quality data shows the effect of the agricultural and petroleum industry on the air. The American Lung Association’s State of the Air 2016 report found the city’s air to be ​ ​ the worst in the United States for short-term and year-round particle pollution (Berg 2017). Chemicals such as Benzene and Methane from oil operation are found in the air. Nitrogen oxide from agricultural use has been found in the air. These chemicals are greenhouse gases that cause global warming and climate change. In addition, they have a negative effect on people's health when they breathed in.

The fourth type of data is related to the number of incidents of cancer and other diseases related to these chemicals found in air and water. Research to compare the number of incidents in Bakersfield related to areas that do not have such pollution is needed. There should also be an evaluation of whether people that live in close proximity to oil wells have higher incidences of cancer and other diseases. Data relating to how long people lived in these areas is another important aspect of the research. Residents exposed for a long period of time may have a higher incidence of cancer or other diseases as compared to people that live for a short period in this area.

Fig 18: Typical oil wells scene in Bakersfield that produce pollution that harms nearby residents.

Screenshot taken by Nate Berg from Berg, Nate. 2017. “Breathless in Bakersfield: is the worst air pollution in the US about to get worse?” Retrieved November 9, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/14/bakersfield-california-bad-air-polluti on-us

10. What, in your view, is ethically wrong or unjust in this case? ERIC VAN NOTE Air pollution in Bakersfield is one of the worst in America. Furthermore, the issue presented is compounded with many injustices such as: racial, intergenerational, economic, and media injustice.

People of color are disproportionately exposed to the emissions from the oil refineries and agriculture. According to The Guardian, these conditions are made worse due to the fact that these emissions are “exacerbated by geographic and climatic conditions that trap dry, dirty air over this southern section of Central Valley like the lid over a pot”(Berg 2017). These factors have caused much air pollution over the city which affect the lives of everybody living there. The city builds these refineries and agriculture lands close to resident living which has made a negative impact on their health. The racial injustice in this equation can be found by peering into “census.gov”, where the California state population percentile of people of color is 27.9% (census.gov 2018). When juxtaposed with data on Bakersfield from “suburbanstats.org” whose population percentile of people of color is 44% (suburbanstats.org 2019). Cross-referencing the two sources, and the conclusion is that air quality is disproportionately affecting communities of color in Bakersfield.

Another example pulled from the multitude of injustices plaguing Bakersfield is the epistemic justice in the context of fertilizers and pesticides. The chemicals utilized in the fertilizers are not fully explored and should be in order for them to be safely used. The farmhands and even the consumers are at risk; a risk exacerbated by the lack of knowledge of the chemicals in use.

The economic injustice present in Bakersfield is distinguished by the large poverty rate in Bakersfield. According to “welfareinfo.org” the poverty rate in Bakersfield is 19.2% which is significantly higher than the California average of 15.1% (wellfareinfo.org 2017). The poverty rate is an important statistic when looking within the context of the abysmal air quality because it means that the people living in Bakersfield do not actively seek out their residence there. This leaves residents below the poverty line in a “poverty cycle” where they are locked below that line and their children are also exposed making the poverty rate an intergenerational injustice as well.

The disproportionate ecological burden Bakersfield lives under is unjust: intergenerationally, racially, economically and epistemically. These injustices in Bakersfield all compound together with the environmental condition to create the living conditions the residents are forced to live with.

Fig 19: A man of color is proceeding down a street in Bakersfield, while being assailed by the air conditions from local facilities and traffic.

Screenshot taken by author from High Country News 2016. “Photos: The costs of air pollution in Bakersfield, California” Retrieved November 8th, 2019. https://www.hcn.org/articles/photos-from-bakersfield-where-agriculture-asthma-and- oil-live-side-by-side-2

BIBLIOGRAPHY

23ABC News. 2019. “Mayor Karen Goh Backing ‘2020 Reducing Crime and Keeping California Safe Initiative.’” KERO. September 6, 2019. https://www.turnto23.com/news/local-news/mayor-karen-goh-to-support-202 0-reducing-crime-and-keeping-california-safe-initiative. ​

“About Kern Green.” n.d. Kern Green (blog). Accessed November 9, 2019. https://www.kerngreen.org/about.

“Air Pollution Officials Advise Caution Due to Potential Wind, Dust.” 2019. The Bakersfield Californian. October 19, 2019. https://www.bakersfield.com/news/air-pollution-officials-advise-caution-due-to -potential-wind-dust/article_04e7df08-f2e4-11e9-92ad-a7bab8d1fb8b.html.

American Lung Association, 2019.“Bakersfield, CA.” n.d. American Lung Association. Accessed November 6, 2019. https://www.lung.org/our-initiatives/healthy-air/sota/city-rankings/msas/baker sfield-ca.html. ​

The Associated Press. 2018. “Court Orders Ban on Harmful Pesticide, Says EPA Violated Law.” The Bakersfield Californian. August 9, 2018. https://www.bakersfield.com/news/court-orders-ban-on-harmful-pesticide-say s-epa-violated-law/article_90c8999a-9c32-11e8-a710-8382aef4b0f8.html.

August, Laura. 2016. “CalEnviroScreen 3.0.” Text. OEHHA. December 29, 2016. https://oehha.ca.gov/calenviroscreen/report/calenviroscreen-30.

Bacher, Dan 2019.“New Report Reveals Oil Waste in CA Aquifers.” n.d. CounterPunch.Org. Accessed November 8, 2019. https://www.counterpunch.org/2019/10/11/new-report-reveals-oil-waste-in-c a-aquifers/. ​

“Bakersfield, CA | Data USA.” n.d. Accessed November 7, 2019. https://datausa.io/profile/geo/bakersfield-ca/#economy. ​

“Bakersfield | California, United States.” n.d. Encyclopedia Britannica. Accessed November 7, 2019. https://www.britannica.com/place/Bakersfield. ​ ​ ​

“Bakersfield Ranked Worst, Second Worst and Third Worst in Three Air Quality Rankings.” 2018. The Bakersfield Californian. April 18, 2018. https://www.bakersfield.com/news/bakersfield-ranked-worst-second-worst-an d-third-worst-in-three/article_2aa86d06-432d-11e8-b708-9f1da10f570d.html.

Berg, Nate. 2017. “Breathless in Bakersfield: Is the Worst Air Pollution in the US about to Get Worse?” The Guardian, February 14, 2017, sec. Cities. ​ ​ https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/14/bakersfield-california-bad-air -pollution-us. ​ Borrell,Brendan.2018.“In California’s Fertile Valley, a Bumper Crop of Air Pollution.” n.d. Accessed November 7, 2019. https://undark.org/2018/12/03/air-pollution-california/. ​

Cox, John. 2019. “Shafter’s Air-Pollution Debate Exposes Ideological Divide.” The Bakersfield Californian. August 17, 2019. https://www.bakersfield.com/news/shafter-s-air-pollution-debate-exposes-ideo logical-divide/article_890a9664-c070-11e9-aeb2-4362f5542e05.html.

“Current Bakersfield, California Population, Demographics and Stats in 2019, 2018.” n.d. SuburbanStats.Org. Accessed November 8, 2019. http://suburbanstats.org/population/california/how-many-people-live-in-Baker sfield. ​

Dyjak, Analies. 2019. “Problems We Found In Bakersfield Drinking Water.” Hydroviv. ​ ​ June 13. https://www.hydroviv.com/blogs/water-quality-report/bakersfield.

Earthjustice. 2015. “EPA Cites Bakersfield Oil Terminal for Clean Air Act Violations.” Earthjustice. May 4, 2015. https://earthjustice.org/news/press/2015/epa-cites-bakersfield-oil-terminal-for -clean-air-act-violations. ​

EmilyJ. 2015. “Kern Residents Fasting for a Healthy Future.” 350.Org. November 6, 2015. https://350.org/kern-residents-fasting-for-a-healthy-future/. ​ ​

Gentner, D.R., T.B. Ford, and Abhinav Guha. 2014. "Emissions of organic carbon and methane from petroleum and dairy operations in California's San Joaquin Valley." Research Gate. May 2014. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Aircraft-canister-measurements-of-ethan ol-in-Californias-Central-Valley-shown-as_fig13_307717057.

Goss, Emma. 2019. “Local Youth, Environmental Activists Protest at Chevron in National Climate Strike.” KBAK. September 20, 2019. https://bakersfieldnow.com/news/local/local-youth-environmental-activists-pro test-at-chevron-in-national-climate-strike. ​

Henry, Lois. 2017. “Lois Henry: Facts about the Bakersfield Crude Terminal Court Ruling Are Good Enough, No Need for Activist Groups to ‘Pimp’ Them Up.” The Bakersfield Californian. July 4, 2017. https://www.bakersfield.com/columnists/lois-henry-facts-about-the-bakersfield -crude-terminal-court-ruling/article_3ee17968-ab20-5cb9-b445-56128e1dbea 7.html.

Herald, Compton. 2019. “Air Pollution Greatly Impacts the Poor, Study Finds | Compton Herald.” February 23, 2019. https://comptonherald.org/air-pollution-greatly-impacts-poor-study-finds/. ​

“Historic Pesticide Contamination Task Force.” 1999. Findings and Recommendations for the Remediation of Historic Pesticide Contamination. March. https://www.nj.gov/dep/special/hpctf/final/hpctf99.pdf.

Kende, Judi, Jennifer March, and Carol Corden. 2017. “7 Policies to End Family Homelessness.” Shelterforce (blog). July 12, 2017. https://shelterforce.org/2017/07/12/homelessness-housing-integrated-plan-ne w-york/.

Kesteven, Sophie. 2016. “Will Feeding Cows Seaweed Help Save the Planet?” Text. ABC News. October 19, 2016. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-10-19/environmental-concerns-cows-eatin g-seaweed/7946630.

Luiz, Joseph. 2018. “Karen Goh, Other Mayors Visit Capitol to Advocate for Bill Addressing Homelessness.” The Bakersfield Californian. April 18, 2018. https://www.bakersfield.com/news/karen-goh-other-mayors-visit-capitol-to-ad vocate-for-bill/article_f81dc9bc-4359-11e8-90bb-038344940ea2.html. ​

Martinez, Guadalupe. “Valley Legislators Need to Improve on Environmental Justice.” The Bakersfield Californian. Accessed November 1, 2019. https://www.bakersfield.com/opinion/valley-legislators-need-to-improve-on-en vironmental-justice/article_3b113d55-0742-5963-8b75-8038f5aa79b4.html. ​ “19.2% Poverty Rate in Bakersfield, California.” 2017. 2017. https://www.welfareinfo.org/poverty-rate/california/bakersfield.

Raman, Anita. 2017. “Sign the Petition.” Change.Org. 2017. https://www.change.org/p/karen-goh-commit-bakersfield-to-the-paris-climate- agreement.

Rowe, Allison. 2016. “Kern County, California: Where Big Oil, Dirty Air, and a Tenacious Community Converge | Environmental Justice.” May 30, 2016. https://sites.williams.edu/envi-322-s16/ca-by-allie-rowe/kern-county-california -where-big-oil-dirty-air-and-a-tenacious-community-converge/. ​

Ruas, Carla. 2019. “New Drilling and Fracking in California Will Hurt Latino Communities.” EcoWatch. June 4, 2019. https://www.ecowatch.com/drilling-california-pollution-latino-2638680269.ht ml

Schlanger, Zoe. 2019. “These Are the US Cities with the Worst Air Pollution.” Quartz. Uzabase, Inc. April 25. https://qz.com/1604654/the-us-cities-with-the-worst-air-pollution-are-in-califo rnia/ Swall, Lexey. 2016. “Photos: The Costs of Air Pollution in Bakersfield, California.” March 29, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/articles/photos-from-bakersfield-where-agriculture-asthm a-and-oil-live-side-by-side-2.

Turner, Jeff. 2017. “Kern County, CA.” Data USA. Datawheel. November 10. ​ ​ https://datausa.io/profile/geo/kern-county-ca.

“U.S. Census Bureau QuickFacts: California.” 2018. https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/fact/table/CA/RHI125218#RHI125218.

US EPA. 2013. “EPA Activities for Cleaner Air.” Overviews and Factsheets. US EPA. March 7, 2013. https://www.epa.gov/sanjoaquinvalley/epa-activities-cleaner-air.

“Visibly Bad Air in Bakersfield Unhealthy for All.” 2018. KERO. January 3, 2018. https://www.turnto23.com/news/local-news/visibly-bad-air-in-bakersfield-unh ealthy-for-everyone.

Wick, Julia. 2019. “A Major Kern County Oil Spill in Environmentally Conscious California.” LA Times. July 17, 2019. https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-07-16/kern-county-oil-spill-cali fornia.

Wick, Julia. 2019. “Bakersfield Wants to End Homelessness by Putting People in Jail.” LA Times. September 27, 2019. https://www.latimes.com/california/story/2019-09-26/homeless-bakersfield-jai l-misdemeanor-drug-trespassing.

Wikipedia. 2019. “Karen Goh.” In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Karen_Goh&oldid=919236481.

APPENDIX

FIGURES Fig.1: “Bakersfield, California.” 2019. In Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bakersfield,_California&oldid=9240 55785.

Fig. 2: August, Laura. 2016. “CalEnviroScreen 3.0.” Text. OEHHA. December 29, 2016. https://oehha.ca.gov/calenviroscreen/report/calenviroscreen-30.

Fig. 3: August, Laura. 2016. “CalEnviroScreen 3.0.” Text. OEHHA. December 29, 2016. https://oehha.ca.gov/calenviroscreen/report/calenviroscreen-30.

Fig. 4: “EJSCREEN.” n.d. Accessed November 7, 2019. https://ejscreen.epa.gov/mapper/.

Fig. 5: The World Air Quality Index. n.d. “World’s Air Pollution: Real-Time Air Quality ​ Index.” Waqi.Info. Accessed November 10, 2019. https://waqi.info/. ​ ​ Fig. 6: Borrell, Brendan. 2018. “In California’s Fertile Valley, a Bumper Crop of Air ​ Pollution.” December 3, 2018. https://undark.org/2018/12/03/air-pollution-california/. ​ Fig. 7: “USGS Fact Sheet 2011-3150: Groundwater Quality in the Kern County ​ Subbasin, California.” n.d. Accessed November 10, 2019. https://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2011/3150/. ​ Fig. 8: “California Healthy Places Index Map.” n.d. Accessed November 10, 2019. ​ https://map.healthyplacesindex.org/. ​ Fig. 9: August, Laura. 2016. “CalEnviroScreen 3.0.” Text. OEHHA. December 29, 2016. ​ https://oehha.ca.gov/calenviroscreen/report/calenviroscreen-30.

Fig. 10: “EJSCREEN.” n.d. Accessed November 9, 2019. https://ejscreen.epa.gov/mapper/.

Fig. 11: Turner, Jeff. 2017. “Kern County, CA.” Data USA. Datawheel. November 10. ​ ​ https://datausa.io/profile/geo/kern-county-ca.

Fig. 12: Turner, Jeff. 2017. “Kern County, CA.” Data USA. Datawheel. November 10. ​ ​ https://datausa.io/profile/geo/kern-county-ca.

Fig. 13: Berg, Nate. 2017. “Breathless in Bakersfield: Is the Worst Air Pollution in the US about to Get Worse?” The Guardian, February 14, 2017, sec. Cities. ​ ​ https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/14/bakersfield-california-bad-air -pollution-us. ​

Fig. 14: Henry, Lois. 2017. “Lois Henry: Facts about the Bakersfield Crude Terminal Court Ruling Are Good Enough, No Need for Activist Groups to ‘Pimp’ Them Up.” The Bakersfield Californian. July 4, 2017. https://www.bakersfield.com/columnists/lois-henry-facts-about-the-bakersfield -crude-terminal-court-ruling/article_3ee17968-ab20-5cb9-b445-56128e1dbea 7.html.

Fig. 15: “Visibly Bad Air in Bakersfield Unhealthy for All.” 2018. KERO. January 3, 2018. https://www.turnto23.com/news/local-news/visibly-bad-air-in-bakersfield-unh ealthy-for-everyone.

Fig. 16: Cox, John. 2019. “Activists Speak out against Fracking on Federal Land in California.” The Bakersfield Californian. May 30, 2019. https://www.bakersfield.com/delano-record/activists-speak-out-against-frackin g-on-federal-land-in-california/article_8367dc64-80ae-11e9-8218-ff38eac728 dc.html.

Fig. 17: Gentner, D.R., T.B. Ford, and Abhinav Guha. 2014. "Emissions of organic carbon and methane from petroleum and dairy operations in California's San Joaquin Valley." Research Gate. May 2014. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Aircraft-canister-measurements-of-ethan ol-in-Californias-Central-Valley-shown-as_fig13_307717057.

Fig. 18: Berg, Nate. 2017. “Breathless in Bakersfield: Is the Worst Air Pollution in the US about to Get Worse?” The Guardian, February 14, 2017, sec. Cities. ​ ​ https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017/feb/14/bakersfield-california-bad-air -pollution-us. ​

Fig. 19: Swall, Lexey. 2016. “Photos: The Costs of Air Pollution in Bakersfield, California.” March 29, 2016. https://www.hcn.org/articles/photos-from-bakersfield-where-agriculture-asthm a-and-oil-live-side-by-side-2.

SKETCHES

TYPES OF INJUSTICE SKETCH

Types of Environmental Example of type of justice Data collection/research Injustice listed that you’ve learned needed to respond to this about through the course type of environmental and your research. Try to injustice . use course concepts (example: “health disparities”). In North Richmond, there Data about the pollution in DATA INJUSTICE: was not enough data about the air, ground, and water Do stakeholders have the the health of people living in North Richmond should data they need to around the Chevron oil be collected. More should understand and respond to refinery even though it is be done to alert the people environmental hazards in widely known that the air of Richmond about how this setting? in the region is heavily polluted their city is to polluted. motivate them to fight for data to be collected in order to stop the release of pollution.

Data showing the rates of ECONOMIC INJUSTICE: Communities in North unemployment and those Does poverty or uneven Richmond are worse off that make less than the wealth exacerbate economically than in median salaries. environmental hazards in Richmond. People of color this setting? with low incomes were pushed to the periphery.

Companies need to EPISTEMIC JUSTICE: In Bhopal, the Union research the effects of the Carbide Company told Are some ways of chemicals they are doctors to treat patients as understanding producing in order for if they were exposed to environmental hazards and people exposed to be tear gas with cough harms discounted or properly treated. medicine and to rinse their silenced? eyes out with water.

More data about how GENDER JUSTICE: In poorer communities, pollution enters homes in there is a higher change of How do gender disadvantaged gender hierarchies to exist. hierarchies shape both communities in order to In North Richmond, there exposure to environmental reduce the likeliness of was known to be pollution hazards and capacity to exposure to pollutants in in homes. In these address them? homes. communities, women are more likely to stay at home and take care of their kids. Therefore, they are more exposed to pollution than men aren’t home as often because they have to work.

Example. Research to HEALTH JUSTICE: Example. Children in Long identify interventions Beach have higher levels of Are there health specifically designed to asthma compared to others disparities or uneven reduce children’s exposure to in the region, contributing to access to health care in this air pollution (bans on bus health disparities setting? idling near schools)

Data related to the health INTERGENERATIONAL After the MIC tragedy in of children in such a city INJUSTICE: Bhopal, the negative compared to the national effects that came after Will future generations be average could be seen through the impacted by generations. Today environmental hazards in residents suffer from this setting today? sickness such as cancer, blindness, respiratory problems, immune and neurological disorders.

There needs to be data on MEDIA JUSTICE: There are many films of how much North North Richmond and the Is there adequate news Richmond has progressed film Place Matters, it coverage of the since these films have revealed the environmental hazards in come out to track if North vulnerabilities residents the setting? Does news Richmond has gotten any faced and how different convey the perspectives better. stakeholders responded. and vulnerabilities of all stakeholders?

Data pertaining to the PROCEDURAL JUSTICE: Some large corporations ecological burdens from Have all stakeholders had like Chevron have a corporations and their fair access to government disproportionate amount spending on local support and law to address of government support communities environmental hazards in this setting? The data needed to collect RACIAL JUSTICE: Communities of color with information about this high poverty rates and low Do environmental hazards injustice should include education tend to have in this setting figuring out how many higher health risks as disproportionately impact factories/industrial plants opposed to white affluent particular social groups, are present, the communities. An example especially communities of demographics of low of this would be the cities color? income communities, the of Richmond, California areas where air pollution/ and Flint Michigan. general pollution is highest, and major racial and economic differences in exposures to specific particle ingredients.

CHOOSING A SLOW DISASTER COMMUNITY SKETCH

Resources: ● Search community name and “pollution” or “disparities” or “environmental injustice” or “just transition” or “racism” ● US EPA My Environment ● CalEnviroScreen 3.0 ● Value of Lead Prevention (California) – Overall cost of lead prevention and ​ cost calculator ● Bombs in Your Backyard (USA) – Pollution caused by military operations ​ ● Coal Ash Ponds (USA) ​ ● World's Air Pollution: Real-time Air Quality Index (Worldwide) ​ ● U.S. Government Accountability Office (USA) – Disposal of High-Level ​ Nuclear Waste ● Nuclear Regulatory Commission Map (USA) – Nuclear facilities undergoing ​ decommission ● California Open Data Portal (California) ​ ● EdSource: Chronic School Absenteeism (California) ​ ● California Healthy Places Index (California) ​ ● Lung.org Most Polluted Cities (USA) ​ ● Mapping LA (Los Angeles) – Crime, Education, Income by neighborhood) ​ ● RWJ Resources for Cultures of Health ● California Poverty Facts

Questions to Consider: Community 1: San Community 2: Bakersfield Francisco

Does the community’s Spread of harmful - At risk for another Wikipedia page give any pesticides earthquake that clues to worse case could flood city scenarios? Are there - Industries in and hazardous industries? (Look around Bakersfield in the economy section) include natural gas and other energy extraction, mining, petroleum refining, distribution, food processing, and corporate regional offices (these industries could create potential worst case scenarios).

Is the community listed in YES YES either of these resources? Who’s in Danger? (starting ​ on page 59) /// California ​ Fact Sheet

According to the American Ranked 8 for high ozone - Ranked 3 for high Lung Association, is the days out of 228 ozone days out of community’s state of air metropolitan areas 228 metropolitan ​ rating? areas - F (Kern, failed both ozone, and particle pollution)

Are there local - Sierra Club - Water Education environmental groups in this - Save the Bay - M P Environmental community? (Possible search - Greenbelt Alliance Services Inc term: environmental justice) - National Resources - Kern Green Defense Council - Green for All - Project Clean Air

According to the EPA, is this Not Likely to Be Likely to Be ​ ​ location likely to be in at least 1 RMP vulnerability zone?

What is the RMP potential in State Percentile: 54, EPA State Percentile: 69, EPA EPA EJ Screen? region Percentile: 58, USA region Percentile: 73, USA Percentile: 76 Percentile: 83

COMMUNITY FAST FACTS SKETCH

Slow Disaster Community: Bakersfield

Conduct a “quick” Google search for fast facts about your community: What is the landscape? How densely populated? Main industries? Overall wealth of the region? Brief history? Find quick resources/articles about the community: Recent news? What are the environmental groups? Environmental News? Community vulnerabilities?

Google Search News Resources

1. The poverty rate in Bakersfield is 1. https://www.welfareinfo.org/pove 19.2%. One out of every 5.2 rty-rate/california/bakersfield residents of Bakersfield lives in poverty.70,771 of 369,380 2. https://time.com/3399134/air-pol ​ Bakersfield residents reported lution-climate-change-bakersfield income levels below the poverty -caifornia/ line in the last year. 3. https://time.com/3399134/air-pol 2. “...its geography — the valley is lution-climate-change-bakersfield surrounded on all sides by -caifornia/ mountains — creates a bowl that traps air pollution” 4. https://www.labormarketinfo.edd. ca.gov/majorer/countymajorer.as 3. “School officials in Bakersfield p?CountyCode=000029 have used colored flags to indicate air quality: green for good, yellow 5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bak for moderate, orange for ersfield,_California unhealthy for sensitive groups and red for unhealthy for all groups” 6. https://biologicaldiversity.org/w/n ews/press-releases/federal-studie 4. The County of Kern, Grimmway s-oil-waste-fluid-contaminated-cal Farms, and Western Power ifornia-groundwater-2019-10-03/ Products are the major employers in Bakersfield. 7. https://www.counterpunch.org/2 019/10/11/new-report-reveals-oil 5. It lies near the end of the San -waste-in-ca-aquifers/ Joaquin Valley and the city limits extend to the Sequoia National 8. https://www.bakersfield.com/new Forest s/new-environmental-justice-bure au-aims-to-aggressively-target-en 6. A U.S. Geological Survey report vironmental-health/article_34a9c published in September reveals eae-181b-11e8-a275-87d5ee5cd that oil industry waste fluids 579.html containing benzene and other toxic chemicals have migrated into 9. https://comptonherald.org/air-pol California’s groundwater through lution-greatly-impacts-poor-study multiple pathways at sites in Kern -finds/ County, west of Bakersfield.

7. African Americans and Latinos breathe in 40% more particulate matters that white Californians; Asians breathe 20% more particulate matters. Households with incomes less that $20k and those who do not own a vehicle breathe 20% more particulate matters.

8. Due to the topography, meteorological factors and other natural challenges, air pollution is a big concern because the bad air stays trapped in the valley

9. “Low-income communities of color are bearing a disproportionate burden from air pollution, and the air pollution related to vehicle traffic is the source of most of the problem.”

BIOGRAPHICAL STATEMENT PHOTO

Joe Haddad is a second year Biomedical engineering student at UC Irvine. He is currently trying to switch into business economics. He was born in San dimas, California. He has a passion to help the environment and study ways to avoid dangering it. His father is an environmental engineer which allowed him to be introduced to these topics at a young age. He does not attend any activism rallys but does not oppose the idea of people standing up for change. In the future he hopes to start his own company. With the knowledge from this class he hopes to be able to make a change in his community.

Carson Moua is a third year Computer Science and Engineering major studying at UC Irvine. He was born and raised in Sacramento, California. He enjoys learning new things, as well as coding and programming. In the future, he wants to work for a software company. Coming from a low-income community, he recognizes the challenges that families struggling financially face. He aspires to give back to his community once successful. He does not have much knowledge and experience with environmental justice and activism, however, he hopes to learn more about the environmental injustices that happens today and the issues surrounding them.

Caroline Nguyen is currently a second year biomedical engineering student at the University of California, Irvine. Growing up in Southern California, she has seen how fortunate she has been and wants to give back to others. She is interested in helping developing countries become more medically advanced and would like to work at a biotech company after she recieves her degree. Outside of school she, find wants to find ways to mitigate the effects of climate change and advocate for those who are disadvantaged. She believes there is a strong correlation in how climate change plays a big role in creating injustices in developing countries and would like to solve some of these complex issues with biomedical engineering.

Jessica Phuong Linh Nguyen is a second-year undergraduate studying at the University of California, Irvine; she is currently undeclared but is planning to declare a major in quantitative economics. She likes the math and statistics behind business operations so her pursuits are in the fields of analytics, being an actuary and etc. She is interested in the relationship between progress vs profit in the context of environmental sustainability and how as of recently, with the Global Climate Strike, the balance between them are being tipped. She hopes that whatever field she ends up in, she will continue to be active in the fight for environmental justice in any way she can.

Aron Perez is a second year Business Economics major from the University of California, Irvine. He grew up in the San Fernando Valley located in Southern California. Some of his many educational interests include learning about money management, marketing, and economic decision making. He hopes to open his own financial advising firm in order to assist and educate families and small businesses in the money cycle and how to spend/use their money wisely. He strongly believes in inheriting wisdom through experience and gaining connections. Outside of school, he enjoys spending time with friends and family, watching movies, and learning about environmental issues and how we can contribute to the improvement of them.

Sydney Santo is a 2nd year Social Ecology Major who hopes to switch into Urban Studies and possibly double in Psychology. She studies at the University of California, Irvine and looks forward to learning more about environmental issues and how they can affect city development. I think this is very important especially for this class because I can focus on how cities are developed and the psychological aspect of this and how this development can affect the environmental problems in the community. I hope to pursue a career that aims to design cities that are the most beneficial to all parties. Eric Van Note is a first-year Mechanical Engineering student studying at the University of California, Irvine. He grew up in Northern California and has been extremely involved in Scouting throughout his life. In his field he hopes that he can keep the environment in mind with the implementation and use of eco-friendly pieces but wholistically aims to be informed. In his exploration of the world’s environmental injustice, he is preparing himself for his inevitable exposure when he leaves University. He hopes to work to preserve the beauty he has experienced and become more cognizant of the issues that it is faced with.

Jonathan Villafana is a second-year neurobiology major student studying at the University of California, Irvine. He is interested in the human mind and how socioeconomic status influences perceptions about environmental issues. After completing his undergraduate degree at UCI he plans to apply to John Hopkins University School of Medicine and someday become a neurosurgeon. He wants to be more informed about which communities are suffering the most from environmental hazards and find ways to help them. His end goal is to open a clinic in his hometown Santa Ana and travel the world, lending medical relief to communities impacted by environmental disasters.