Microtubule Organization in Striated Muscle Cells
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Chloroplast Transit Peptides: Structure, Function and Evolution
reviews Chloroplast transit Although the first demonstration of precursor trans- port into chloroplasts was shown over two decades peptides: structure, ago3,4, only now is this area of cell biology becom- ing well understood. Many excellent reviews have been published recently on the evolution of plas- function and tids5, the evolution of organelle genomes6, the mechanism of gene transfer from organelles to the nucleus7 and the mechanism of protein import into evolution chloroplasts8,9. Proteins destined to plastids and other organ- elles share in common the requirement for ‘new’ Barry D. Bruce sequence information to facilitate their correct trafficking within the cell. Although in most cases this information resides in a cleavable, N-terminal sequence often collectively referred to as signal It is thought that two to three thousand different proteins are sequence, the different organelle-targeting se- targeted to the chloroplast, and the ‘transit peptides’ that act as quences have distinct properties and names: ‘signal peptides’ for the endoplasmic reticulum, chloroplast targeting sequences are probably the largest class of ‘presequences’ for the mitochondria and ‘transit peptides’ for chloroplasts and other plastids. This targeting sequences in plants. At a primary structural level, transit review focuses on recent progress in dissecting peptide sequences are highly divergent in length, composition and the role of the stromal-targeting domain of chloro- plast transit peptides. I will consider briefly the organization. An emerging concept suggests that transit peptides multitude of distinct functions that transit peptides contain multiple domains that provide either distinct or overlapping perform, provide an update on the limited struc- tural information of a number of transit peptides functions. -
Bacterial Cell Membrane
BACTERIAL CELL MEMBRANE Dr. Rakesh Sharda Department of Veterinary Microbiology NDVSU College of Veterinary Sc. & A.H., MHOW CYTOPLASMIC MEMBRANE ➢The cytoplasmic membrane, also called a cell membrane or plasma membrane, is about 7 nanometers (nm; 1/1,000,000,000 m) thick. ➢It lies internal to the cell wall and encloses the cytoplasm of the bacterium. ➢It is the most dynamic structure of a prokaryotic cell. Structure of cell membrane ➢The structure of bacterial plasma membrane is that of unit membrane, i.e., a fluid phospholipid bilayer, composed of phospholipids (40%) and peripheral and integral proteins (60%) molecules. ➢The phospholipids of bacterial cell membranes do not contain sterols as in eukaryotes, but instead consist of saturated or monounsaturated fatty acids (rarely, polyunsaturated fatty acids). ➢Many bacteria contain sterol-like molecules called hopanoids. ➢The hopanoids most likely stabilize the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane. ➢The phospholipids are amphoteric molecules with a polar hydrophilic glycerol "head" attached via an ester bond to two non-polar hydrophobic fatty acid tails. ➢The phospholipid bilayer is arranged such that the polar ends of the molecules form the outermost and innermost surface of the membrane while the non-polar ends form the center of the membrane Fluid mosaic model ➢The plasma membrane contains proteins, sugars, and other lipids in addition to the phospholipids. ➢The model that describes the arrangement of these substances in lipid bilayer is called the fluid mosaic model ➢Dispersed within the bilayer are various structural and enzymatic proteins, which carry out most membrane functions. ➢Some membrane proteins are located and function on one side or another of the membrane (peripheral proteins). -
Centrosome-Nuclear Envelope Tethering and Microtubule Motor
bioRxiv preprint doi: https://doi.org/10.1101/442368; this version posted October 12, 2018. The copyright holder for this preprint (which was not certified by peer review) is the author/funder, who has granted bioRxiv a license to display the preprint in perpetuity. It is made available under aCC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 International license. Centrosome-nuclear envelope tethering and microtubule motor-based pulling forces collaborate in centrosome positioning during mitotic entry Vincent Boudreau1, Richard Chen1, Alan Edwards1, Muhammad Sulaimain1, Paul S. Maddox1* 1 Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill * Direct all correspondence to this author at [email protected]. Centrosome positioning relative to the nucleus and cell nuclear envelope and at the cortex to ensure proper centrosome shape is highly regulated across cell types, during cell migration positioning (De Simone et al., 2016). Dynein regulators including and during spindle formation in cell division. Across most sexual- LIS-1 are also required for centrosome separation in the embryo ly reproducing animals, centrosomes are provided to the oocyte (Cockell et al., 2004), although their spatio-temporal contributions through fertilization and must be positioned properly to establish remain elusive. Despite our understanding of microtubule cyto- the zygotic mitotic spindle. How centrosomes are positioned in skeleton-based pulling forces, the contribution of key mitotic kinas- space and time through the concerted action of key mitotic en- es and phosphatases to centrosome positioning remains unclear. try biochemical regulators including Protein Phosphatase 2A The net effect of molecular regulators is a biophysical (PP2A-B55/SUR-6), biophysical regulators including Dynein mechanism required for positioning centrosomes during mitotic and the nuclear lamina is unclear. -
Cytoplasmic Organelles
CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLES OBJECTIVES: After completing this exercise, you should be able to: 1. Recognize features of the cytoplasm in the light microscope. 2. Identify major cellular organelles in electron micrographs. 3. Provide general functions of cellular organelles. ASSIGNMENT FOR TODAY'S LABORATORY GLASS SLIDES - https://medmicroscope.uc.edu/ SL 181 (spinal cord) rough endoplasmic reticulum SL 108 (pancreas) rough endoplasmic reticulum SL 125 (inflammation) rough endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus ELECTRON MICROGRAPHS (Gray envelope) EM 3-6, 4-5, 12-1, 16 plasma membrane EM 1-3, 2-1, 2-2, 3-5, 4-1, 10-5, 14-3 rough endoplasmic reticulum EM 4-2, 10-6, 12-3, 13-7, 14-5 smooth endoplasmic reticulum EM 5-2 and 5-inset ribosomes EM 11-1 to 11-4 Golgi apparatus EM 6-10 to 6-13, 2-3 to 2-5 also 3-4, 1-4, 12-2 and 13-6 mitochondria EM 3, 4, 16 and 17 Magnification and Resolution POSTED ELECTRON MICROGRAPHS # 1 Organelles # 6 Organelles Lab 2 Posted EMs SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIAL: SUPPLEMENTARY ELECTRON MICROGRAPHS Rhodin, J. A.G., An Atlas of Histology Plasma membrane Fig. 2-2; 2-3 Rough ER Fig 2-26; 2-29; 2-30; 2-31; 2-32 Smooth ER Fig 2-33; 2-34; 2-35 Ribosomes Fig 2-27; 2-28; 2-30; 2-31; 2-32 Golgi apparatus Fig 2-36; 2-37; 2-38 Mitochondria Fig 2-39; 2-40; 2-41 In the last lab, you were introduced to cells and extracellular matrix, followed by a focus on the nucleus. -
RASSF1A Interacts with and Activates the Mitotic Kinase Aurora-A
Oncogene (2008) 27, 6175–6186 & 2008 Macmillan Publishers Limited All rights reserved 0950-9232/08 $32.00 www.nature.com/onc ORIGINAL ARTICLE RASSF1A interacts with and activates the mitotic kinase Aurora-A L Liu1, C Guo1, R Dammann2, S Tommasi1 and GP Pfeifer1 1Division of Biology, Beckman Research Institute, City of Hope Cancer Center, Duarte, CA, USA and 2Institute of Genetics, University of Giessen, Giessen, Germany The RAS association domain family 1A (RASSF1A) gene tumorigenesis and carcinogen-induced tumorigenesis is located at chromosome 3p21.3 within a specific area of (Tommasi et al., 2005; van der Weyden et al., 2005), common heterozygous and homozygous deletions. RASS- supporting the notion that RASSF1A is a bona fide F1A frequently undergoes promoter methylation-asso- tumor suppressor. However, it is not fully understood ciated inactivation in human cancers. Rassf1aÀ/À mice how RASSF1A is involved in tumor suppression. are prone to both spontaneous and carcinogen-induced The biochemical function of the RASSF1A protein is tumorigenesis, supporting the notion that RASSF1A is a largely unknown. The homology of RASSF1A with the tumor suppressor. However, it is not fully understood how mammalian Ras effector novel Ras effector (NORE)1 RASSF1A is involved in tumor suppression pathways. suggests that the RASSF1A gene product may function Here we show that overexpression of RASSF1A inhibits in signal transduction pathways involving Ras-like centrosome separation. RASSF1A interacts with Aurora-A, proteins. However, recent data indicate that RASSF1A a mitotic kinase. Surprisingly, knockdown of RASS- itself binds to RAS only weakly and that binding to F1A by siRNA led to reduced activation of Aurora-A, RAS may require heterodimerization of RASSF1A and whereas overexpression of RASSF1A resulted in in- NORE1 (Ortiz-Vega et al., 2002). -
A Tour of the Cell Overview
Unit 3: The Cell Name______________________ Chapter 6: A Tour of the Cell Overview 6.1 Biologists use microscopes and the tools of biochemistry to study cells The discovery and early study of cells progressed with the invention of microscopes in 1590 and their improvement in the 17th century. In a light microscope (LM), visible light passes through the specimen and then through glass lenses. ○ The lenses refract light so that the image is magnified into the eye or a camera. Microscopes vary in magnification, resolution, and contrast. ○ Magnification is the ratio of an object’s image to its real size. A light microscope can magnify effectively to about 1,000 times the real size of a specimen. ○ Resolution is a measure of image clarity. It is the minimum distance two points can be separated and still be distinguished as two separate points. The minimum resolution of an LM is about 200 nanometers (nm), the size of a small bacterium. ○ Contrast accentuates differences in parts of the sample. It can be improved by staining or labeling of cell components so they stand out. Although an LM can resolve individual cells, it cannot resolve much of the internal anatomy, especially the organelles, membrane-enclosed structures within eukaryotic cells. The size range of cells 1 To resolve smaller structures, scientists use an electron microscope (EM), which focuses a beam of electrons through the specimen or onto its surface. ○ Theoretically, the resolution of a modern EM could reach 0.002 nm, but the practical limit is closer to about 2 nm. Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) are useful for studying the surface structure or topography of a specimen. -
The Endomembrane System and Proteins
Chapter 4 | Cell Structure 121 Endosymbiosis We have mentioned that both mitochondria and chloroplasts contain DNA and ribosomes. Have you wondered why? Strong evidence points to endosymbiosis as the explanation. Symbiosis is a relationship in which organisms from two separate species depend on each other for their survival. Endosymbiosis (endo- = “within”) is a mutually beneficial relationship in which one organism lives inside the other. Endosymbiotic relationships abound in nature. We have already mentioned that microbes that produce vitamin K live inside the human gut. This relationship is beneficial for us because we are unable to synthesize vitamin K. It is also beneficial for the microbes because they are protected from other organisms and from drying out, and they receive abundant food from the environment of the large intestine. Scientists have long noticed that bacteria, mitochondria, and chloroplasts are similar in size. We also know that bacteria have DNA and ribosomes, just like mitochondria and chloroplasts. Scientists believe that host cells and bacteria formed an endosymbiotic relationship when the host cells ingested both aerobic and autotrophic bacteria (cyanobacteria) but did not destroy them. Through many millions of years of evolution, these ingested bacteria became more specialized in their functions, with the aerobic bacteria becoming mitochondria and the autotrophic bacteria becoming chloroplasts. The Central Vacuole Previously, we mentioned vacuoles as essential components of plant cells. If you look at Figure 4.8b, you will see that plant cells each have a large central vacuole that occupies most of the cell's area. The central vacuole plays a key role in regulating the cell’s concentration of water in changing environmental conditions. -
Screening for Copy Number Variation in Genes Associated with the Long QT Syndrome Clinical Relevance
Journal of the American College of Cardiology Vol. 57, No. 1, 2011 © 2011 by the American College of Cardiology Foundation ISSN 0735-1097/$36.00 Published by Elsevier Inc. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2010.08.621 Heart Rhythm Disorders Screening for Copy Number Variation in Genes Associated With the Long QT Syndrome Clinical Relevance Julien Barc, PHD,*‡§ François Briec, MD,*†‡§ Sébastien Schmitt, MD,ʈ Florence Kyndt, PharmD, PHD,*‡§ʈ Martine Le Cunff, BS,*‡§ Estelle Baron, BS,*‡§ Claude Vieyres, MD,¶ Frédéric Sacher, MD,# Richard Redon, PHD,*‡§ Cédric Le Caignec, MD, PHD,*‡§ʈ Hervé Le Marec, MD, PHD,*†‡§ Vincent Probst, MD, PHD,*†‡§ Jean-Jacques Schott, PHD*†‡§ Nantes, Angoulême, and Bordeaux, France Objectives The aim of this study was to investigate, in a set of 93 mutation-negative long QT syndrome (LQTS) probands, the frequency of copy number variants (CNVs) in LQTS genes. Background LQTS is an inherited cardiac arrhythmia characterized by a prolonged heart rate–corrected QT (QTc) interval as- sociated with sudden cardiac death. Recent studies suggested the involvement of duplications or deletions in the occurrence of LQTS. However, their frequency remains unknown in LQTS patients. Methods Point mutations in KCNQ1, KCNH2, and SCN5A genes were excluded by denaturing high-performance liquid chromatography or direct sequencing. We applied Multiplex Ligation-dependent Probe Amplification (MLPA) to detect CNVs in exons of these 3 genes. Abnormal exon copy numbers were confirmed by quantitative multiplex PCR of short fluorescent fragment (QMPSF). Array-based comparative genomic hybridization (array CGH) analysis was performed using Agilent Human Genome 244K Microarrays to further map the genomic rearrangements. -
Defining Functional Interactions During Biogenesis of Epithelial Junctions
ARTICLE Received 11 Dec 2015 | Accepted 13 Oct 2016 | Published 6 Dec 2016 | Updated 5 Jan 2017 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms13542 OPEN Defining functional interactions during biogenesis of epithelial junctions J.C. Erasmus1,*, S. Bruche1,*,w, L. Pizarro1,2,*, N. Maimari1,3,*, T. Poggioli1,w, C. Tomlinson4,J.Lees5, I. Zalivina1,w, A. Wheeler1,w, A. Alberts6, A. Russo2 & V.M.M. Braga1 In spite of extensive recent progress, a comprehensive understanding of how actin cytoskeleton remodelling supports stable junctions remains to be established. Here we design a platform that integrates actin functions with optimized phenotypic clustering and identify new cytoskeletal proteins, their functional hierarchy and pathways that modulate E-cadherin adhesion. Depletion of EEF1A, an actin bundling protein, increases E-cadherin levels at junctions without a corresponding reinforcement of cell–cell contacts. This unexpected result reflects a more dynamic and mobile junctional actin in EEF1A-depleted cells. A partner for EEF1A in cadherin contact maintenance is the formin DIAPH2, which interacts with EEF1A. In contrast, depletion of either the endocytic regulator TRIP10 or the Rho GTPase activator VAV2 reduces E-cadherin levels at junctions. TRIP10 binds to and requires VAV2 function for its junctional localization. Overall, we present new conceptual insights on junction stabilization, which integrate known and novel pathways with impact for epithelial morphogenesis, homeostasis and diseases. 1 National Heart and Lung Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK. 2 Computing Department, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK. 3 Bioengineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK. 4 Department of Surgery & Cancer, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK. -
Conserved Microtubule–Actin Interactions in Cell Movement and Morphogenesis
REVIEW Conserved microtubule–actin interactions in cell movement and morphogenesis Olga C. Rodriguez, Andrew W. Schaefer, Craig A. Mandato, Paul Forscher, William M. Bement and Clare M. Waterman-Storer Interactions between microtubules and actin are a basic phenomenon that underlies many fundamental processes in which dynamic cellular asymmetries need to be established and maintained. These are processes as diverse as cell motility, neuronal pathfinding, cellular wound healing, cell division and cortical flow. Microtubules and actin exhibit two mechanistic classes of interactions — regulatory and structural. These interactions comprise at least three conserved ‘mechanochemical activity modules’ that perform similar roles in these diverse cell functions. Over the past 35 years, great progress has been made towards under- crosstalk occurs in processes that require dynamic cellular asymme- standing the roles of the microtubule and actin cytoskeletal filament tries to be established or maintained to allow rapid intracellular reor- systems in mechanical cellular processes such as dynamic shape ganization or changes in shape or direction in response to stimuli. change, shape maintenance and intracellular organelle movement. Furthermore, the widespread occurrence of these interactions under- These functions are attributed to the ability of polarized cytoskeletal scores their importance for life, as they occur in diverse cell types polymers to assemble and disassemble rapidly, and to interact with including epithelia, neurons, fibroblasts, oocytes and early embryos, binding proteins and molecular motors that mediate their regulated and across species from yeast to humans. Thus, defining the mecha- movement and/or assembly into higher order structures, such as radial nisms by which actin and microtubules interact is key to understand- arrays or bundles. -
Absence of NEFL in Patient-Specific Neurons in Early-Onset Charcot-Marie-Tooth Neuropathy Markus T
ARTICLE OPEN ACCESS Absence of NEFL in patient-specific neurons in early-onset Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy Markus T. Sainio, MSc, Emil Ylikallio, MD, PhD, Laura M¨aenp¨a¨a, MSc, Jenni Lahtela, PhD, Pirkko Mattila, PhD, Correspondence Mari Auranen, MD, PhD, Johanna Palmio, MD, PhD, and Henna Tyynismaa, PhD Dr. Tyynismaa [email protected] Neurol Genet 2018;4:e244. doi:10.1212/NXG.0000000000000244 Abstract Objective We used patient-specific neuronal cultures to characterize the molecular genetic mechanism of recessive nonsense mutations in neurofilament light (NEFL) underlying early-onset Charcot- Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease. Methods Motor neurons were differentiated from induced pluripotent stem cells of a patient with early- onset CMT carrying a novel homozygous nonsense mutation in NEFL. Quantitative PCR, protein analytics, immunocytochemistry, electron microscopy, and single-cell transcriptomics were used to investigate patient and control neurons. Results We show that the recessive nonsense mutation causes a nearly total loss of NEFL messenger RNA (mRNA), leading to the complete absence of NEFL protein in patient’s cultured neurons. Yet the cultured neurons were able to differentiate and form neuronal networks and neuro- filaments. Single-neuron gene expression fingerprinting pinpointed NEFL as the most down- regulated gene in the patient neurons and provided data of intermediate filament transcript abundancy and dynamics in cultured neurons. Blocking of nonsense-mediated decay partially rescued the loss of NEFL mRNA. Conclusions The strict neuronal specificity of neurofilament has hindered the mechanistic studies of re- cessive NEFL nonsense mutations. Here, we show that such mutation leads to the absence of NEFL, causing childhood-onset neuropathy through a loss-of-function mechanism. -
Cell Division- Ch 5
Cell Division- Mitosis and Meiosis When do cells divide? Cell size . One of most important factors affecting size of the cell is size of cell membrane . Cell must remain relatively small to survive (why?) – Cell membrane has to be big enough to take in nutrients and eliminate wastes – As cells get bigger, the volume increases faster than the surface area – Small cells have a larger surface area to volume ratio than larger cells to help with nutrient intake and waste elimination . When a cell reaches its max size, the nucleus starts cell division: called MITOSIS or MEIOSIS Mitosis . General Information – Occurs in somatic (body) cells ONLY!! – Nickname: called “normal” cell division – Produces somatic cells only . Background Info – Starts with somatic cell in DIPLOID (2n) state . Cell contains homologous chromosomes- chromosomes that control the same traits but not necessarily in the same way . 1 set from mom and 1 set from dad – Ends in diploid (2n) state as SOMATIC cells – Goes through one set of divisions – Start with 1 cell and end with 2 cells Mitosis (cont.) . Accounts for three essential life processes – Growth . Result of cell producing new cells . Develop specialized shapes/functions in a process called differentiation . Rate of cell division controlled by GH (Growth Hormone) which is produced in the pituitary gland . Ex. Nerve cell, intestinal cell, etc. – Repair . Cell regenerates at the site of injury . Ex. Skin (replaced every 28 days), blood vessels, bone Mitosis (cont.) – Reproduction . Asexual – Offspring produced by only one parent – Produce offspring that are genetically identical – MITOSIS – Ex. Bacteria, fungi, certain plants and animals .