Towards a Unified View of Metacognition : Insights from Metamemory Audrey Mazancieux
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The Integrated Nature of Metamemory and Memory
The Integrated Nature of Metamemory and Memory John Dunlosky and Robert A. Bjork Introduction Memory has been of interest to scholars and laypeople alike for over 2,000 years. In a rather gruesome example from antiquity, Cicero tells the story of Simonides (557– 468 BC), who discovered the method of loci, which is a powerful mental mnemonic for enhancing one’s memory. Simonides was at a banquet of a nobleman, Scopas. To honor him, Simonides sang a poem, but to Scopas’s chagrin, the poem also honored two young men, Castor and Pollux. Being upset, Scopas told Simonides that he was to receive only half his wage. Simonides was later called from the banquet, and legend has it that the banquet room collapsed, and all those inside were crushed. To help bereaved families identify the victims, Simonides reportedly was able to name every- one according to the place where they sat at the table, which gave him the idea that order brings strength to our memories and that to employ this ability people “should choose localities, then form mental images of things they wanted to store in their memory, and place these in the localities” (Cicero, 2001). Tis example highlights an early discovery that has had important applied impli- cations for improving the functioning of memory (see, e.g., Yates, 1997). Memory theory was soon to follow. Aristotle (385–322 BC) claimed that memory arises from three processes: Events are associated (1) through their relative similarity or (2) rela- tive dissimilarity and (3) when they co-occur together in space and time. -
The Effects of a Suggested Encoding Strategies on Achievement
The Effects of Metacognition 17 The Effects of Metacognition and Concrete Encoding Strategies on Depth of Understanding in Educational Psychology Suzanne Schellenberg, Meiko Negishi, & Paul Eggen, University of North Florida The study compared the academic achievement, as measured by final examination scores, of an experimental group of undergraduate educational psychology students who were provided with concrete mechanisms designed to promote metacognition and the use of specific encoding strategies to the achievement of a control group of similar students who were not provided with the same concrete mechanisms. The two groups were taught by the same instructor, who used the same teaching methods and identical class activities, homework, quizzes, and tests. The results indicated a statistically significant difference between the two groups, favoring the experimental group. Implications of the study for instruction and suggestions for further research are included. This study explored instructional capacity working memory that designs that encourage learners to consciously organizes information into become responsible for their own conceptual structures that make sense to learning. Responsible learners are the individual, a long-term memory that metacognitive, strategic, and high stores knowledge and skills in a achievers. Therefore, researchers have relatively permanent fashion, and become interested in investigating ways metacognitive monitoring that regulates to foster learners’ metacognition and this processing (Atkinson & Shiffrin, strategy use. 1968; Chandler & Sweller, 1990; Mayer The purpose of the study was to & Chandler, 2001; Paas, Renkl, & examine the impact of concrete Sweller, 2004; Sweller, 2003; Sweller, mechanisms for promoting van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). The metacognition and the conscious use of way knowledge is stored in long-term encoding strategies on the achievement memory has an important impact on of undergraduate educational learners’ ability to retrieve that psychology students. -
Impact of Feedback on Perception and Metacognition 1
IMPACT OF FEEDBACK ON PERCEPTION AND METACOGNITION 1 The impact of feedback on perceptual decision making and metacognition: Reduction in bias but no change in sensitivity Nadia Haddara & Dobromir Rahnev School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA Keywords: perceptual decision maKing, metacognition, criterion, bias, sensitivity, confidence calibration. Corresponding authors: Nadia Haddara Dobromir Rahnev Georgia Institute of Technology Georgia Institute of Technology 831 Marietta St NW 654 Cherry St NW Atlanta, GA 30318 Atlanta, GA 30332 [email protected] [email protected] IMPACT OF FEEDBACK ON PERCEPTION AND METACOGNITION 2 Abstract It is widely believed that feedbacK improves behavior but the mechanisms behind this improvement remain unclear. Different theories postulate that feedback has either a direct effect on performance through automatic reinforcement mechanisms or only an indirect effect mediated by a deliberate change in strategy. To adjudicate between these competing accounts, we performed two large studies (total N = 518) with approximately half the subjects receiving trial-by-trial feedback on a perceptual task, while the other half not receiving any feedback. We found that feedback had no effect on either perceptual or metacognitive sensitivity even after seven days of training. On the other hand, feedback significantly affected subjects’ response strategies by reducing response bias and improving confidence calibration. These results strongly support the view that feedback does not improve behavior through direct reinforcement mechanisms but that its beneficial effects stem from allowing people to adjust their strategies for performing the tasK. Word count: 149/150 IMPACT OF FEEDBACK ON PERCEPTION AND METACOGNITION 3 Statement of relevance How can we help people improve their performance? It is often thought that across a variety of domains from education to worK settings to sports achievements to various cognitive tasks, performance can be improved by simply providing feedbacK. -
Metacognitive Awareness Inventory
Metacognitive Awareness Inventory What is Metacognition? The simplest definition of metacognition is “thinking about thinking.” This refers to the “self-regulation” effective learners exhibit, meaning they are aware of their learning process and can measure how efficiently they are learning as they study. Essentially, metacognition involves two simultaneous levels of thought: the first level is the student’s thinking/learning about the specific subject content and the second level is the student’s thinking about his/her learning. A student practicing metacognition would ask him/herself “How am I thinking?” or “Where am I in the learning process? Am I learning/understanding this topic? How could I learn more effectively?” These two levels are: knowledge and regulation. Students who are metacognitively aware demonstrate self-knowledge: They know what strategies and conditions work best for them while they are learning. Declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge are essential for developing conceptual knowledge (content knowledge). Regulation refers to students’ knowledge about the implementation of strategies and the ability to monitor the effectiveness of their strategies. When students regulate, they are continually developing and monitoring their learning strategies based on their evolving self-knowledge. Complete the Metacognitive Awareness Inventory to assess your metacognitive processes. The Inventory Check True or False for each statement below. After you complete the inventory, use the scoring guide. Contact an Academic Coach at the Academic Support Center at (856) 681-6250 to discuss your results and strategies to increase your metacognitive awareness. True False 1. I ask myself periodically if I am meeting my goals. 2. I consider several alternatives to a problem before I answer. -
Assessing Metacognition As a Learning Outcome in a Postsecondary Strategic Learning Course
Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 27(1), 51 - 62 51 Assessing Metacognition as a Learning Outcome in a Postsecondary Strategic Learning Course Patricia Mytkowicz Diane Goss Bruce Steinberg Curry College Abstract While metacognition is an important component of the learning process for college students, development of meta- cognitive knowledge and regulation is particularly important for students with LD and/or ADHD. The research- ers used Schraw and Dennison’s (1994) Metacognitive Awareness Inventory (MAI) to assess first year college students’ baseline and follow-up levels of metacognitive awareness during a strategic learning course for students with LD and/or ADHD. Over their first year in college, the students showed significant improvements in a number of metacognitive subprocesses. Several subprocess scores were also found to be positively correlated with GPA. This study’s findings can be helpful to practitioners in the postsecondary LD support field. This approach may also be an appropriate way to evaluate the effectiveness of LD support programs when used as part of a broader programmatic review. Keywords: Metacognition, learning outcomes, learning disability, postsecondary Students with learning disabilities (LD) and/or At- must have adequate self-awareness in order to recognize tention Defi cit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) have and articulate their need for accommodations or other particular learning needs that may place them at risk support services to appropriate personnel. Students with for academic failure. Indeed, in comparison to peers ADHD also face challenges to college success. Blase et without LD, they have lower rates of persistence to al., (2009) found that students with current diagnoses of graduation. -
Externally Induced Frontoparietal Synchronization Modulates Network Dynamics and Enhances Working Memory Performance
RESEARCH ARTICLE Externally induced frontoparietal synchronization modulates network dynamics and enhances working memory performance Ines R Violante1,2*, Lucia M Li1, David W Carmichael3, Romy Lorenz1, Robert Leech1, Adam Hampshire1, John C Rothwell2, David J Sharp1 1The Computational, Cognitive and Clinical Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom; 2Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, United Kingdom; 3Developmental Imaging and Biophysics Section, UCL Institute of Child Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom Abstract Cognitive functions such as working memory (WM) are emergent properties of large- scale network interactions. Synchronisation of oscillatory activity might contribute to WM by enabling the coordination of long-range processes. However, causal evidence for the way oscillatory activity shapes network dynamics and behavior in humans is limited. Here we applied transcranial alternating current stimulation (tACS) to exogenously modulate oscillatory activity in a right frontoparietal network that supports WM. Externally induced synchronization improved performance when cognitive demands were high. Simultaneously collected fMRI data reveals tACS effects dependent on the relative phase of the stimulation and the internal cognitive processing state. Specifically, synchronous tACS during the verbal WM task increased parietal activity, which correlated with behavioral performance. Furthermore, functional connectivity results indicate that *For correspondence: i.violante@ the relative phase of frontoparietal stimulation influences information flow within the WM network. imperial.ac.uk Overall, our findings demonstrate a link between behavioral performance in a demanding WM task Competing interests: The and large-scale brain synchronization. authors declare that no DOI: 10.7554/eLife.22001.001 competing interests exist. -
Nutrition and Cognition in Older Persons
Nutrition and Aging: I.H. Rosenberg; A. Sastre (eds), Nestle´ Nutrition Workshop Series Clinical & Performance Program, Vol. 6, pp. 121–134, Nestec Ltd.; Vevey/S. Karger AG, Basel, 2002. Nutrition and Cognition in Older Persons John E. Morley GRECC, St. Louis VA Medical Center, and Division of Geriatric Medicine, Saint Louis University, St. Louis, Mo., USA The concept that ‘we are what we eat’ is by no means a new one and appears to be particularly true when one examines the effect of food intake on cognitive function. Even in the case of mild protein energy malnutrition, poor nutritional state is associated with a decline in cognitive function [1]. Food intake, or the lack thereof, can modulate thought processes in multiple ways (Table 1). This chapter will focus on a number of mechanisms that appear to play a role in modulating cognition in older persons. Modulation of Memory by Gastrointestinal Peptide Release Cholecystokinin (CCK) has been shown to enhance memory retention [2]. It produces this effect by stimulating ascending fibers in the vagus nerve (Fig. 1). These then send messages to the nucleus tractus solitarius and from there to the amygdala and the hippocampus [3]. When mice are fed immediately after learning a task, they demonstrate improved memory [2]. This enhanced retention can be abolished by utilizing a CCK antagonist. Circulating CCK levels are elevated in older persons and increase to a greater degree following fat administration [4]. CCK levels are elevated to a greater degree in malnourished compared to healthy older individuals [5]. Food intake improves cognition in humans [6]. -
Using Metacognitive Strategies to Support Student Self-Regulation
Professional Practice Note 14 Teaching students metacognitive strategies1 offers students USING tools to “drive their brains”2. WHO BENEFITS FROM THE USE OF METACOGNITIVE METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES? ‘Explicit attention to and application of thinking STRATEGIES TO skills enables students to develop an increasingly sophisticated understanding of the processes SUPPORT STUDENT they can employ whenever they encounter both the familiar and unfamiliar, to break ineffective habits and build on successful ones, building a SELF-REGULATION capacity to manage their thinking.’ AND EMPOWERMENT Victorian Curriculum and Assessment Authority All students, regardless of their age, background or ‘Where students have developed strong metacognitive skills, we see them evaluating and achievement level, benefit from the use of metacognitive sharing evidence about their thinking.’ strategies. This journey, which starts in early childhood and continues through primary school, secondary school and Dean Bush, Assistant Principal, Seymour College beyond, is mapped in the Critical and Creative Thinking OVERVIEW capability of the Victorian Curriculum F-10 (the Curriculum). Teaching metacognitive strategies can greatly enhance The sophistication of the metacognitive skills students can learning for all students in all subject areas. master increases as they progress through education. This professional practice note provides advice to support Students can start with the ability to monitor progress school leaders and teachers in the integration of towards the achievement of learning goals negotiated with metacognitive strategies in everyday teaching. the teacher. This negotiation and monitoring plays an important role in the learning of all students, regardless of In addition, it includes examples of how schools can their background or previous achievement. implement metacognitive strategies to assist students to build self-regulation and develop a strong sense of agency Metacognitive strategies can also be differentiated to bolster in their learning. -
Unit VII Module 33.Pdf
Unit VII: Cognition Module 33 Forgetting, Memory Construction & Memory Improvement Forgetting 33-1 Encoding Failure 33-1 We cannot remember what we do not encode. Storage Decay 33-1 • Poor durability of stored memories leads to their decay. • Ebbinghaus’ research: Retrieval Failure 33-1 Although the information is retained in the memory store, it cannot be accessed. Tip-of-the-tongue is a retrieval failure phenomenon: Given a cue (What makes blood cells red?) the subject says the word begins with an H (hemoglobin). Interference 33-1 Amnesia 33-1 • Anterograde amnesia – can recall the past, but cannot form new memories • Some people with anterograde amnesia can form new implicit memories (how to do something), but will have no conscious recall of learning the new skill • Retrograde amnesia – cannot recall the past (memories stored in long-term memory) Repression 33-1 • Sigmund Freud suggested that we may banish unpleasant memories from our consciousness as a defense mechanism • Current research indicates that this rarely, if ever, occurs • Memories of traumatic experiences are often the most challenging to forget Memory Construction Errors 33-2 Memory Construction 33-2 • Memory is not precise: we infer our past from stored information plus what we imagined later, expected, saw, and heard • Information acquired after an event alters memory of the event; we often construct memories as we encode them and every time we “replay” them Misinformation Effect 33-2 • When exposed to misleading information, we tend to misremember • When it was falsely suggested to university students that they became ill as children after eating spoiled egg salad, they became less likely to eat egg salad sandwiches Misinformation 33-2 Elizabeth Loftus’s research: Group A: How fast were the cars going when they hit each other? Group B: How fast were the cars going when they smashed into each other? Memory Construction 33-2 A week later they were asked: Was there any broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported more broken glass than Group A (hit). -
Predicting Biases in Very Highly Educated Samples: Numeracy and Metacognition
Judgment and Decision Making, Vol. 9, No. 1, January 2014, pp. 15–34 Predicting biases in very highly educated samples: Numeracy and metacognition Saima Ghazal∗ Edward T. Cokely,∗ † Rocio Garcia-Retamero†‡ Abstract We investigated the relations between numeracy and superior judgment and decision making in two large community outreach studies in Holland (n=5408). In these very highly educated samples (e.g., 30–50% held graduate degrees), the Berlin Numeracy Test was a robust predictor of financial, medical, and metacognitive task performance (i.e., lotteries, intertemporal choice, denominator neglect, and confidence judgments), independent of education, gender, age, and another numeracy assessment. Metacognitive processes partially mediated the link between numeracy and superior performance. More numerate participants performed better because they deliberated more during decision making and more accurately evaluated their judgments (e.g., less overconfidence). Results suggest that well-designed numeracy tests tend to be robust predictors of superior judgment and decision making because they simultaneously assess (1) mathematical competency and (2) metacognitive and self-regulated learning skills. Keywords: numeracy, risk literacy, individual differences, cognitive abilities, superior decision making, judgment bias, metacognition, confidence, dual systems. 1 Introduction Furlan, Stein, & Pardo, 2012; Lindberg, & Friborg, 2013; Schapira et al., 2012; Weller, Dieckmann, Tusler, Mertz, Statistical numeracy—i.e., one’s practical understanding Burns, -
Teaching Implications of Information Processing Theory and Evaluation Approach of Learning Strategies Using LVQ Neural Network
WSEAS TRANSACTIONS on Andreas G. Kandarakis and Marios S. Poulos ADVANCES in ENGINEERING EDUCATION Teaching Implications of Information Processing Theory and Evaluation Approach of learning Strategies using LVQ Neural Network 1ANDREAS G. KANDARAKIS and 2MARIOS S. POULOS 1Department of Special Education and Psychology University of Athens Greece [email protected] 2Department of Archives and Library Sciences Ionian University, Corfu, Greece [email protected] Abstract: - In terms of information processing model, learning represents the process of gathering information, and organizing it into mental schemata. Information-processing theory has definite educational implications for students with learning and behavior problems. Teachers with a greater understanding of the theory and how it is formed to, select learning strategies in order to improve the retention and retrieval of learning. But it must also be taken into consideration that the learning environment has specific effects on academic achievement. Socialization alters the levels of stress, confidence, and even the content knowledge. Social support provides encouragement, stress reduction, feedback, and communication factors which enable learning. Furthermore, an evaluation of 4 learning strategies attempted via a well-formed LVQ Neural Network. Key-Words: - information processing, memory, matacognition, learning strategies, general education classroom, learning, behavioral problems and neural networks. 1. Introduction 2. The information-processing While behaviorists talk about learning as the result of theory the interactions between an organism and its At a first glance, the gathering and storage of environment or changes in responses, the cognitive information may seem less efficient as a approach focuses on the knowledge which guides those learning system compared to the behaviorist responses. -
Viewing Instructions Impact Emotional Memory Differently in Older and Younger Adults
View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by The University of North Carolina at Greensboro Emery, L., & Hess, T.M. (2008). Viewing instructions impact emotional memory differently in older and younger adults. Psychology and Aging, 23(1), 2-12. (Mar 2008) Published by the American Psychological Association (ISSN: 1939-1498). Doi:10.1037/0882-7974.23.1.2 Viewing Instructions Impact Emotional Memory Differently in Older and Young Adults Lisa Emery, Thomas M. Hess ABSTRACT The current study examines how the instructions given during picture viewing impact age differences in incidental emotional memory. Previous research has suggested that older adults' memory may be better when they make emotional rather than perceptual evaluations of stimuli and that their memory may show a positivity bias in tasks with open-ended viewing instructions. Across two experiments, participants viewing photographs either received open-ended instructions or were asked to make emotionally focused (Experiment 1) or perceptually focused (Experiment 2) evaluations. Emotional evaluations had no impact on older adults' memory, whereas perceptual evaluations reduced older adults' recall of emotional, but not of neutral, pictures. Evidence for the positivity effect was sporadic and was not easier to detect with open- ended viewing instructions. These results suggest that older adults' memory is best when the material to be remembered is emotionally evocative and they are allowed to process it as such. The traditional focus in the study of memory and aging has been on determining which basic cognitive factors may account for age-related declines or differences in memory performance.