The Effects of Metacognition 17

The Effects of Metacognition and Concrete Encoding Strategies on Depth of Understanding in Educational Psychology

Suzanne Schellenberg, Meiko Negishi, & Paul Eggen, University of North Florida

The study compared the academic achievement, as measured by final examination scores, of an experimental group of undergraduate educational psychology students who were provided with concrete mechanisms designed to promote metacognition and the use of specific encoding strategies to the achievement of a control group of similar students who were not provided with the same concrete mechanisms. The two groups were taught by the same instructor, who used the same teaching methods and identical class activities, homework, quizzes, and tests. The results indicated a statistically significant difference between the two groups, favoring the experimental group. Implications of the study for instruction and suggestions for further research are included.

This study explored instructional capacity working memory that designs that encourage learners to consciously organizes information into become responsible for their own conceptual structures that make sense to learning. Responsible learners are the individual, a long-term memory that metacognitive, strategic, and high stores knowledge and skills in a achievers. Therefore, researchers have relatively permanent fashion, and become interested in investigating ways metacognitive monitoring that regulates to foster learners’ metacognition and this processing (Atkinson & Shiffrin, strategy use. 1968; Chandler & Sweller, 1990; Mayer The purpose of the study was to & Chandler, 2001; Paas, Renkl, & examine the impact of concrete Sweller, 2004; Sweller, 2003; Sweller, mechanisms for promoting van Merrienboer, & Paas, 1998). The metacognition and the conscious use of way knowledge is stored in long-term encoding strategies on the achievement memory has an important impact on of undergraduate educational learners’ ability to retrieve that psychology students. The theoretical knowledge and effectively organize and frameworks that guided this study store new information. Meaningful included (a) information processing and knowledge is more easily retrieved and human memory, (b) metacognition, and more effectively aids the organization (c) strategies for promoting encoding. and storage of new information than is knowledge stored in isolated bits, most Information Processing and Human commonly represented in long-term Memory memory through rote memorization Information processing is the (Lin, 2007; Mayer, 2002). conceptual framework used to describe Meaningfulness describes the the way humans gather, organize, store, extent to which individual elements of a and retrieve information. It describes conceptual structure are interconnected, learning structures in terms of a system such as a history student understanding composed of a sensory memory that the relationships between Marco Polo’s receives and briefly holds information visit to the Far East, the Portuguese until it can be organized, a limited- explorers, and Columbus’s visit to the

Fall, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:2 The Effects of Metacognition 18 new world, as opposed to knowing elaboration, the process of increasing isolated information about each (Gagne, the number of connections among items Yekovich, & Yekovich, 1997). of existing knowledge (Terry, 2006); and Attempting to make content meaningful (d) imagery, the process of forming is essential in all content areas, and it is mental pictures (Schwartz & Heiser, particularly important in educational 2006). Learners who consciously use psychology, because educational encoding strategies are mentally psychology courses are designed to help (cognitively) active as they make students apply their understanding of the decisions about how to make the content to their personal lives and to the information they’re studying as real world of teaching and learning. meaningful as possible. In contrast, simply reading a textbook, for example, Metacognition and Encoding or memorizing information can be a Metacognition refers to relatively passive process. The study individuals’ awareness of and control attempted to measure the extent to which over the way they process information providing concrete mechanisms that (Meltzer, Pollica, & Barzillai, 2007), and promote metacognition and encoding encoding is the process of representing strategies impacts introductory information in long-term memory (J. R. educational psychology students’ depth Anderson, 2007). Research indicates that of understanding. metacognition has an important influence on the way students learn, in Method general, and encode information, in Participants particular (Pressley & Hilden, 2006). Fifty three undergraduate Students who make conscious attempts students (35 females and 18 males) in a to meaningfully encode information 3-credit hour introductory educational consistently achieve higher than those psychology course made up the who are less metacognitively aware experimental group, which was provided (Kuhn & Dean, 2004). with the mechanisms for promoting metacognition and the use of encoding Encoding Strategies and Cognitive strategies. Their achievement was Activity compared to the achievement of the Encoding strategies refer to control group consisting of 64 learners’ conscious attempts to encode undergraduate students (41 females and information into long-term memory in 23 males) who were not offered the ways that are meaningful to the concrete mechanisms. No statistically individual. Four encoding strategies are significant differences existed between commonly described. They include (a) the experimental and control groups with organization, an encoding strategy that respect to aptitude, as measured by the involves the clustering of related items SAT. of content into categories that illustrate relationships (Mayer, 2008); (b) schema Educational Psychology Course activation, a strategy that involves The experimental group and the activating relevant prior knowledge so control group were taught by the same that new information can be connected instructor who used the work of to it (Mayer & Wittrock, 2006); (c) Bransford, Brown, and Cocking (2000)

Fall, 2011 Teaching Educational Psychology 7:2 The Effects of Metacognition 19 and Stiggins (2008) as a model for organized in any form they chose. The organizing the learning environments for treatment was an attempt to encourage both groups. Bransford et al. (2000) the students in the experimental group to suggested that productive learning use the encoding strategies described in environments must be learner centered, theoretical frameworks. Therefore, this knowledge centered, and assessment study did not intend qualitative analysis centered; and Stiggins (2008) embraced on the concrete mechanism (i.e., how the conception of assessment for sophisticated they were or which type of learning. Using this work as a guide, the strategies was used more frequently); instructor explicitly stated her learning however, every student created the goals for each topic and carefully information sheet for each of the aligned her assessments with her quizzes, the midterm, and the final learning goals. She developed the exam. content of the classes with real-world Nevertheless, because the examples and high levels of interaction students were limited to information that to promote deep understanding, they could fit on one 8.5 × 11-in. sheet frequently assessed the students’ of paper (one side only), they were understanding of the content and required to be metacognitive about what provided detailed feedback to gain information they would include, and as insight into the students’ thinking and they prepared the sheet they had to increase their learning. The instructor activate relevant schema and organize used the same methods and class and elaborate the information in a way activities, as well as the identical that was as meaningful as possible to quizzes, midterm, and final exam for make it usable. If they created diagrams, both the experimental and the control flow charts, or any other form of visual groups. Students in both groups were representation, they would also be using given detailed feedback about their imagery. Using any or all of the performance on the class activities, encoding strategies required the students quizzes, and midterm. Practice quizzes to be cognitively active. written in the same format as the quizzes This process is very different used in the class were available on the from using an open-book or open-note website for both the experimental and approach to the quizzes and exams, the control groups. Both classes were which doesn’t require the use of any of taught during the day and in a format of the encoding strategies in addition to two 75-min class sessions per week. those they used when they originally took and organized their notes. In Treatment: The Concrete Mechanism addition, beyond their routine quiz and The treatment for the test preparation procedures, an open- experimental group consisted of the book or open-note approach allows opportunity to bring one 8.5 × 11-in. students to remain cognitively passive. sheet of information to each of the 13 In fact, using an open-book–open-note quizzes, the midterm, and the final approach might detract from preparing exam. The students were told that they thoroughly for assessments, because could include any information on the students often overestimate the help their sheet that they believed would help them book or notes will provide during the perform well on the assessment, assessments themselves.

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Data Sources difference. The findings suggested that The data sources for the study providing concrete mechanisms for were the experimental and control group promoting metacognition and the members’ scores on the final exam for systematic application of encoding the course. The final exam was strategies significantly increased the cumulative; therefore, students’ achievement of the experimental group. understandings of all the topics in the It is believed that the students in class were assessed on the exam. The the experimental group achieved higher final exam created by the instructor since they took active roles in their own consisted of 60 multiple-choice learning by organizing information, questions. All of the items on the final activating relevant prior knowledge, exam were interpretive exercises (Miller, elaborating on existing ideas, and Linn, & Gronlund, 2009), each of which forming mental pictures. Therefore, was composed of a short vignette these results supported the contention combined with four choices that that the encoding strategies outlined in “interpreted” the information in the the theoretical frameworks are effective. vignette. The students were then The nature of the assessment system is required to select the most accurate also likely a factor in this process. An interpretation (see Appendix for a assessment system that requires deep sample item). All of the items could be processing of the course content makes classified into the “understand the use of encoding strategies more conceptual knowledge” cell or the important than they would be if “apply conceptual knowledge” cell using assessments were largely composed of the taxonomy table created by L. items that require only knowledge of Anderson and Krathwohl (2001), or facts and definitions. could be classified into the comprehension or application levels Conclusions using the taxonomy developed by Implications Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill, and This study offers several Krathwohl (1956). Because the items implications for teaching educational were similar in difficulty, the Kuder- psychology as well as other content Richardson Reliability Formula 21 was areas. First, it suggests that providing a used to measure the reliability of the concrete mechanism for promoting exam. The reliability coefficient was .89. metacognition and the use of specific encoding strategies can increase student Results and Discussion achievement. It is reasonable to assume An independent-samples t-test that instructors of educational was used to analyze the data. The results psychology routinely encourage their showed a statistically significant students to be metacognitive as they difference between the mean scores on study the content of their classes as well the final examination of the as encourage their students to use experimental group (M = 38.21, SD = effective encoding strategies. However, 4.998) and that of the control group (M = they probably are less likely to provide 35.66, SD = 6.111), p = .017. In concrete mechanisms for promoting addition, the effect size of .455 indicated metacognition and the use of the a medium to large practical significant strategies. This study suggests a process

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for doing so that is both concrete and, within the limitations of the study, Limitations and Future Research effective. This study is limited in some Second, it supports the widely areas that need to be examined in future held, and intuitively sensible, conclusion research. First, this study focused only that educational psychology is more on cognitive outcomes. Examining effectively taught and assessed at a level students’ emotional reactions to the that requires the deep processing of process of providing concrete information. The following quote mechanisms for promoting underscores this assertion: metacognition and encoding strategies, and their intrinsic motivation as well as All too often, classroom their self appraisals of competence and evaluation places heavy autonomy in response to the process emphasis on the recall or appear to be worthwhile topics for recognition of comparatively further study. Second, this study didn’t isolated pieces of information to include qualitative data. Future studies which the students have earlier should examine students’ information been exposed. This encourages sheet to analyze types of encoding surface (memorizing) approaches strategies (e.g., organization, to learning. Further, it has been elaboration) used and levels of repeatedly demonstrated that sophistication to more fully investigate isolated details are especially the process of effective learning. readily forgotten, and that information is remembered better References and is more useable if students Anderson, J. R. (2007). Information- learn it within a broader processing modules and their framework of meaningful relative modality specificity. interrelationships and Cognitive Psychology, 54, 185– understanding. 217. (Crooks, 1988, p. 467) Anderson, L., & Krathwohl, D. (Eds.). (2001). A taxonomy for learning, These assertions have been consistently teaching, and assessing: A corroborated by other research (e.g., revision of Bloom’s taxonomy of Diperna, 2006; Hussain, 2008; Roach, educational objectives. New Niebling, & Kurz, 2008) since Crooks York, NY: Addison-Wesley (1988) published his review. Longman. Last, it appears that the suggested Atkinson, R., & Shiffrin, R. (1968). mechanism for promoting metacognition Human memory: A proposed and the use of encoding strategies should system and its control processes. generalize to content areas other than In K. Spence & J. Spence (Eds.), educational psychology. By providing The psychology of learning and opportunities for learners to become motivation: Advances in research metacognitive and strategic, instructors and theory (Vol. 2). San Diego, can foster students’ deep understanding CA: Academic Press. of content areas, which would lead Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, higher achievement. W., & Krathwohl, O. (1956).

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Taxonomy of educational educational psychology: Volume objectives: The classification of II. Teaching for meaningful educational goals: Handbook 1. learning. Upper Saddle River, The cognitive domain. White NJ: Merrilll/Pearson. Plains, NY: Longman. Mayer, R. E. (2008). Learning and Bransford, J., Brown, A., & Cocking, R. instruction (2nd ed.). Upper (Eds.). (2000). How people Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. learn: Brain, mind, experience, Mayer, R., & Chandler, P. (2001). When and school. Washington, DC: learning is just a click away: National Academy Press. Does simple user interaction Chandler, P., & Sweller, J. (1990). foster deeper understanding of Cognitive load theory and the multimedia messages? Journal of format of instruction. Cognition Educational Psychology, 93, and Instruction, 8, 293–332. 390–397. Crooks, T. (1988). The impact of Mayer, R. E., & Wittrock, M. C. (2006). classroom evaluation practices Problem solving. In P. A. on students. Review of Alexander & P. H. Winne (Eds.), Educational Research, 58, 438– Handbook of educational 481. psychology (2nd ed., pp. 287– Diperna, J. C. (2006). Academic 303). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. enablers and student Meltzer, L., Pollica, L., & Barzillai, M. achievement: Implications for (2007). Executive function in the assessment and intervention in classroom: Embedding strategy the schools. Psychology in the instruction into daily teaching Schools, 43, 7–17. practices. In L. Meltzer (Ed.), Gagne, E. D., Yekovich, F. R., & Executive function in education: Yekovich, C. W. (1997). The From theory to practice (pp. cognitive psychology of school 165–193). New York, NY: learning (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Guilford Press. Allyn & Bacon. Paas, F., Renkl, A., & Sweller, J. (2004). Hussain, A. (2008). Effects of classroom Cognitive load theory: assessment practices on students’ Instructional implications of the achievement goals. Educational interaction between information Assessment, 13, 243-266. structures and cognitive Kuhn, D., & Dean, D., Jr. (2004). architecture. Instructional Metacognition: A bridge between Science, 32, 1–8. cognitive psychology and Pressley, M., & Hilden, K. (2006). educational practice. Theory Into Cognitive strategies. In D. Kuhn Practice, 43, 268–273. & R. Siegler (Eds.), Handbook of Lin, J-R. (2007). Responses to child psychology (6th ed., Vol. 2, anomalous data obtained from pp. 511–556). Hoboken, NJ: repeatable experiments in the Wiley. laboratory. Journal of Research Roach, A. T., Niebling, B. C., & Kurz, in Science Teaching, 44, 506– A. (2008). Evaluating the 528. alignment among curriculum, Mayer, R. E. (2002). The promise of instruction, and assessments:

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Implications and applications for learning. Upper Saddle River, research and practice. NJ: Pearson. Psychology in the Schools, 45, Sweller, J. (2003). Evolution of human 158–176. cognitive architecture. The Schwartz, D., & Heiser, J. (2006). Psychology of Learning and Spatial representations and Motivation, 43, 215–266. imagery in learning. In R. K. Sweller, J., van Merrienboer, J., & Paas, Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge F. (1998). Cognitive architecture handbook of the learning and instructional design. sciences (pp. 283–298). New Educational Psychology Review, York, NY: Cambridge University 10, 251–296. Press. Terry, S. (2006). Learning and memory: Stiggins, R. (2008). An introduction to Basic principles, process, and student-involved assessment FOR procedures (3rd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Suzanne Schellenberg has worked in public school and higher education for more than 15 years. She has consulted for schools and businesses and has presented a number of refereed papers at regional and national conferences. Suzanne is widely known for her outstanding teaching.

Meiko Negishi has worked in higher education and taught educational psychology for pre-service and in-service teachers. Her research interest includes comparative education, self-efficacy, and learning outcomes. She has presented papers and posters at national and international conferences.

Paul Eggen has worked in higher education for nearly 40 years. He is a consultant for public schools and colleges and has also worked with teachers in international schools in 23 different countries in Africa, Europe, South Asia and South America. He has published several articles in national journals, is the co-author of six books, and presents regularly at national and international conferences.

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Appendix

Sample Item

Morgan, who is taking a math test, looks it over and decides to answer all the multiplication problems first, because those are easy for her. Next, she will turn to the division problems, which are a little “tricky.” She saves the word problems for last, because she finds them fun. Morgan always leaves five minutes at the end of the test to go back and check any answers she’s unsure about, especially the division problems. The concept from information processing best illustrated in this description is:

A. activity B. metacognition C. rehearsal D. retrieval

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