Rethinking Everyday Mobility Results and Lessons Learned from the CIVITAS-ELAN Project

Rethinking everyday mobility Results and lessons learned from the CIVITAS-ELAN project

Edited by Franc Trček & Drago Kos

Ljubljana 2012 Edited by: Franc Trček & Drago Kos Proofreading: Franc Smrke Correctors: Ilija Stojanović & Danijela Tamše Reviewer: Pavle Gantar Design and Layout: Jasmina Ploštajner

Publisher: Založba FDV/The Publishing House of the Faculty of Social Sciences For publisher: Hermina Krajnc Co-Publisher: CIVITAS ELAN For Co-Publisher: Zdenka Simonovič Print: Tiskarna Littera picta d.o.o. Edition: 500

Financial support: The book was published with financial support from the EC within the CIVITAS Initiative in the 7th Framework Research Programme. All work described in the articles was (co)funded by the CIVITAS Initiative in the 7th Framework Research Programme.

Monograph is available in e-book format on: http://www.fdv.uni-lj.si/zalozba/edostop.asp

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RETHINKING everyday mobility : results and lessons learned from the CIVITAS-ELAN project / edited by Franc Trček & Drago Kos. - Ljubljana : Fakulteta za družbene vede, Založba FDV = The Publishing House of the Faculty of Social Sciences : CIVITAS ELAN, 2012

Dostopno tudi na: http://www.fdv.uni-lj.si/zalozba/edostop.asp

ISBN 978-961-235-600-2 (Založba FDV) ISBN 978-961-235-601-9 (ePub, Založba FDV) 1. Trček, Franc 263097088

CONTENT

PREFACE 9

CIVITAS OR THE LEGITIMATION OF THE CITY MOBILITY CHANGES 15 Drago Kos

CONTEXTUAL MOBILITY AND THE NEW “MOBILITY PARADIGM”: THE NATURE OF TRAVEL MODE CHOICES RECONSIDERED 33 Marjan Hočevar, Anže Zorman

PUBLIC PERCEPTION OF CHANGES IN LJUBLJANA’S TRANSPORT AND MOBILITY SYSTEM – IDENTIFYING KEY THEMES, BARRIERS AND RELEVANT STAKEHOLDERS 65 Matjaž Uršič

I WANT TO RIDE MY BICYCLE ... BUT HOW BIKEABLE IS MY NEIGHBOURHOOD? 91 V eronique Van Acker, Elias De Vos, Begga Van Cauwenberge, Frank Witlox

CYCLING IN THE CAPITAL OF A NEW MEMBER STATE: EXPLOITING THE UNTAPPED POTENTIAL OF BIKING TO WORK IN LJUBLJANA 115 Luka Mladenovič, Aljaž Plevnik, Mojca Balant, Lea Ružič

MaxSUMO: A NEW APPROACH TO THE EVALUATION OF MOBILITY MANAGEMENT PROJECTS 131 V eronique Van Acker, Begga Van Cauwenberge, Frank Witlox

DEFINING QUANTITATIVE IMPACTS OF THE PT PRIORITY SYSTEM AND COMPARING DIFFERENT DATA COLLECTION METHODS 153 Marko Matulin, Štefica Mrvelj, Hrvoje Gold, Niko Jelušić

IDENTIFICATION OF RISKS REGARDING THE INTRODUCTION OF MEASURES AIMED AT IMPROVING CITIZEN MOBILITY IN THE CITY OF ZAGREB 179 Ivan Grgurević, Marko Slavulj, Veselko Protega TRANSPORT PLANING: PUBLIC TRANSPORT USER SATISFACTION AS A TOP PRIORITY IN BRNO 199 Jana Válková, Kvetoslavˇ Havlík, Iva Machalová, Daniel Seidenglanz

APPLICATION OF SIMULATION MODELS FOR IMPACT EVALUTION IN URBAN ROAD NETWORKS 219 Cristina Vilarinho, Jose Pedro Tavares

SP Atial PREDICTION OF AIR QUALITY IN AN URBAN SENSITIVE AREA: A SEASONAL OVERVIEW 239 T ânia Fontes and Nelson Barros

COMPOSITE MATERIAL-BASED LIGHT WEIGHT BUS 257 Nuno A. Couto, António Torres Marques, Carlos Aguiar, Fernando Gomes Almeida, Francisco Xavier Carvalho, José Ferreira Duarte, Bernardo Almada-Lobo

ON THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF USING PURE PLANT OIL AS FUEL FOR VEHICLE PROPULSION 281 Viktor Jejčič, Tone Godeša, Tomaž Poje, Marko Gerbec, Davor Kontič

A DISCUSSION ABOUT THE DIFFERENT MODEL SPLIT METHODOLOGIES USED IN CIVITAS ELAN 309 Dirk Engels, Marko Matulin, Štefica Mrvelj, Ljupko Simunović, Cristina Vilarinho, José Pedro Tavares, Begga Van Cauwenberge, Veronique Van Acker, Davor Kontič, Jana Válková, Eliene Van Aken

THE PERPLEXITY OF ACTANTS: SELF-EVALUATION OF THE SCIENTIFIC COORDINATION OF THE CIVITAS ELAN PROJECT 331 Franc Trček

SOME SOCIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS ON URBAN CHANGE AND SUSTAINABLE MOBILITY 359 Pavel Gantar

of urban mobility have become increasingly diverse, temporally and modernity, formally and legally founded on the individual, the patterns family home and one, two or more cars.Inthe consumer society of high growing middle classes, which could afford two basic goods: a detached regions and conurbations emerged. Thisurbandevelopment suited the became the leading trend, cities expanded, and numerous metropolitan succumbed to the intense attacks of automobilization. Suburbanization twentieth century, the cities in the developed parts of the world shall solve the cityproblem by leaving the city.” representative of the branch, the eloquent Henry Ford, exclaimed: “We car ideology. Inthe early stages of automobilization, the most eminent producers comprises numerous interest groups from the cluster of the interests of the powerful automobile complex, which inaddition to car infrastructure investments, is highly convenient for the expansive never finished, and that itconstantly requires new interventions and adapted to massive car use. The fact that the adapted system is inevitably we may rightly refer to them as“automobile societies”, i.e.societies cars hasaffected the nature of contemporary societies to anextent that cities and urbanregions. Moreover, the massive production and useof generalise that the traffic issue isanidentity feature of contemporary manageable. Though there are afew exceptions worth imitating, we may the traffic problems accumulated over decades have become hardly of “dispersed cities” to make longer trips to work, study, or for errands, the expansion and suburbanisation of the cities, forcing the inhabitants issue hasstarted to endanger the “raison d’être” of cities. Together with century hasmade traffic inthe cities into achronic problem. The traffic His prediction haslargely come true. Inthe second halfof the The massive automobilization of the second halfof the 20th PR E F A C E 9 Preface 10 Rethinking everyday mobility transport, and building upacritical massand markets for innovation. and implementing sustainable, clean and (energy) efficient urban provide cleaner and better transport in the cities, while promoting is abasic requirement inthe search for better alternatives, which will laboratories for learning and evaluation, where political commitment for cities”. The initiative derives from the premise that cities are living program coordinated by cities and simultaneously aprogram “of cities VITAlity-Sustainability) Initiative of the European Commission, isa this, too, isquite difficult and requires innovative approaches. administrators, and various groups of users;inourmodernist world the cooperation of technicians, technologists, organisers, logisticians, is aspecific, socio-technical combination, which necessarily requires they were achieved allthe same.It isalsoclear that the traffic issue radical shifts seemed unlikely, butwithsome of the project’s measures “systemic resistance” was often sopowerful that for most of the time and the spreading awareness of the necessity of change. Nevertheless, project hasprovided evidence of bothcontinuing acute traffic problems solutions, as well as obstacles to the introduction of changes. The alternatives within the Civitas Elan project, its successful concrete life. Nevertheless, the time isright for ashift and turn. and at the same time directly affects the common routines of everyday systems because itinterferes withastrongly rooted system of interests, in other words, that itisvery difficult to legitimately change traffic technical, political, social,cultural,and other criteria. Thismeans, turned. These changes indeed have to meet economic, organisational, the complex systems into which modern cities and urbanregions have relatively low operational capacity to legitimately introduce changes to alternative traffic models, isfarfrom simple, especially because of the friendlier forms of mobility for people and goods, and asserting domination of automobilism. However, introducing environmentally – led to broader views and reflections on the absurd and irrational deterioration of the environment –which sensitised many users marginalised. Only constant traffic congestions and the consequent accelerated flows of goods and people, alternative proposals were consumer culture or until itturned into anobstacle to ensuring the urbanareas and, logically, of the ruralareas aswell. long-term projection of these trends leads to aradical transformation of spatially dispersed, and consequently perplex and less predictable. The CIVITAS ELAN, which ispartof the Civitas (stands for CIty- This monograph presents the conceptual reflections on possible As long as automobilism suited the basic features of contemporary with highadded value for the qualityof living inacity. Though such socially legitimate. environment and alsoprove to beeconomically efficient and generally, even trigger anew urbanisation trend, which willnot deteriorate the impossible: to stop the prevailing suburbanisation trends and perhaps are capable of facilitating something that quite recently was thought lowers the qualityof living, and that new approaches and technologies massive caruseinthe cities isunnecessary and even outdated, that it including people’s mobility. The CIVITAS ELAN project showed that an info-urban habitat that enables a high level of individual autonomy, expect ahigher qualityof living inthe cities. The postfordian cityis open decision-making processes -to convince the usersthat they may of new “green” traffic, ITC supported, technologies and legitimately that a“rescue operation” cansucceed only ifismanages -withthe help was alsoavery complex task. The experiences withourmeasures show without leaving them. Though certainly apraiseworthy objective, it action, i.e.how to solve traffic and related problems inthe cities WD 11.4Final Research Report. solutions ispresented inthismonograph, which isalsothe project’s very broad and diverse range of users.Apartof ourreflections and public administrators, representatives of civil society initiatives, and a of traffic, mobility, urbanand regional (infrastructural) development, combines awide range of technical and sociological experts inthe fields the project, and strengthened during itsfour-year course. Thisfamily family emerged already during the preparation of the application for developmental traffic-infrastructure challenges, aCIVITAS ELAN organisational and political cultures, and the specific nature of the level of development of socio-technical traffic infrastructures, seven European countries. In spite of the starting differences in Ghent, Ljubljana, Porto, and Zagreb) that includes 39partners from Energy efficient freight logistics, Transport telematics). behaviour, Safety, security, and health, Innovative mobility services, and intermodal integration, Demand management, Influencing travel policy fields (Alternative fuels and clean vehicles, Collective transport and new, better solutions are searched for within the eight Civitas their common living laboratories much tacit knowledge is exchanged similar traffic challenges inthe form of demonstration projects; in The cities joined inthe project’s consortiums endeavour to solve “Greening” city traffic iscertainly ademanding task, butalsoatask To paraphrase Henry Ford, the project was essentially about The CIVITAS ELAN project is a consortium of five cities (Brno, 11 Preface 12 Rethinking everyday mobility Civitas Initiative. achievements and stimulate further discussions on the objectives of the we hope willcontribute to abetter understanding of the project’s cooperation inthe RTD partof the project. It contains proposals which with the reflections of the project’s scientific coordinator about the and environmentally friendlier citytraffic. The monograph concludes solutions, approaches and products, which contribute to more efficient extensive third part the articles present new techniques, technologies, used to analyze the changing and ever new forms of mobility. In the more presents some of the most successful methodological solutions that were changing urbantraffic systems and traffic policies. The second part circumstances of changing urban mobility and consequently with them synergistically. perplexity and to find ways how to coordinate and perhaps connect even informal, interests and processes. It is important to identify this coordination of many institutionalised and non-institutionalised, depend on economic potential, butare rather caused by the necessary “systemic resistance”. Surprisingly, these difficulties do not primarily difficulties have to beovercome inthe introduction of changes due to city traffic are known and actually available inourcities. However, many is the understanding that the means, ways, or technologies to “green” common points are easy to identify. The startingpoint of allthe articles merely technical and merely sociological components. a new socio-technical entity, which cannot betaken apartcleanly into simple sumor aggregate of itssocialand technical aspects. Rather, itis city traffic as a concrete socio-technical combination, which is not the viewpoints aswell. Thisopens the way to anoperational definition of as well and that ittherefore hasto beaddressed from sociological issue, butitisanimportant shift to acknowledge that itisasocialissue scientific monograph. Citytraffic isbeyond any doubt atechnological introduction. Thisisthe basic ambition and intention of the present improving old transport systems isimportant for their later legitimate of contemporary societies, spreading ideas about new alternatives and precisely because of their reflexive nature. Given the automobilization in modern reflexive societies, which face decision-making blockades views on the development of citytraffic. And that isavery important task gathered inthismonograph may contribute to spreading alternative project, itispossible to approximate them. The publication of the texts ambitious objectives undoubtedly cannot beachieved withasingle The firstpartof the book includes texts dealing withthe social The range of texts inthismonograph isquite diverse, butsome monograph. them for publication, aswell asto Jasmina Ploštajner, who designed the Tamše, who thoroughly checked the texts and technically prepared Smrke. We are particularly grateful to IlijaStojanovic and Danijela visual enrichment of the monograph, and the language editor Franc thank Volker Hoffman, the project’s official photographer, for the proposed many improvements to the texts. We alsowish to sincerely of the articles and the reviewers, who responsibly and rigorously changes and alternative solutions. mobile –partof the problem aswell participants inthe creation of more and more obvious that we are all–even ifwe are not particularly because the increasing perplexity of modern urbanmobility makes it articles alsoaimsat transcending standard “specialist” treatment, urban traffic combinations. The joint publication of these widely diverse selection of texts illustrating the width and depth of “socio-technical” research range of the CIVITAS ELANproject. It israther asample To conclude thispreface the editors would like to thankthe authors The published articles, of course, do not represent the entire of the CIVITAS ELANproject Scientific coordinator Dr. Franc Trcek � Dr. Drago Kos Co-editor ˇ 13 Preface

1. in the light of incoming information about those very practices, thus in the fact that social practices are constantly examined and reformed summarised asaconsequence of modernist reflexivity, which „consists legitimation. The reasons for the legitimation crisisare paradoxically and consultation has become unavoidable and a credible way to achieve reflects awider trend ingovernance, inwhich the useof participation evident. Thisdevelopment isnot unique to citymobility problems but public participation instead of simply “educating” people isincreasingly Nevertheless, the necessity to open the decision-making process to number of known butalsounknown, often quite enigmatic, factors. are much more transparent while public acceptance depends on a possibilities. The reason isevident. The benefits of technical options societies -depend more on public acceptance thanon technical solutions of many urgent problems nowadays – at least in democratic institutions that are responsible for providing information. Infact, the to policy measures are increasingly influenced by distrustinthe public opinion polls or people’s concrete behaviour. People’s reactions domains distrustof official actors isincreasing, asisevident from sometimes decades, of controversy and deadlock. Inanumber of evidence from several casesof progress towards solutions after years, instance, solutions to citymobility. Thisbelief isbased upon growing and public acceptance encountered by pastattempts to implement, for making processes can help to overcome the problems of trust,legitimacy and academics that public and stakeholder involvement indecision

I nt There exists virtualconsensus among policymakers, stakeholders r od uc tion C IVITA THE S C O ITY R THE

MOBILITY

LEGITIMATION C Drago Kos HANGE

O S F 15 Civitas or the legitimation of the city mobility changes 16 Rethinking everyday mobility “the • “... • “the • “missing • “... • planning and promotion of sustainable mobility. are some quotations from different CIVITAS initiatives on participatory difficulties were already addressed by previous CIVITAS projects. Here There isquite extensive evidence of such practices. Legitimation i.e. politically and socially desirable solution to the legitimacy crisis. through participatory decision-making isprobably the most plausible, and market institutions (Habermas, 1975;Offe, 1987)legitimation three options are combined, but due to the critical credibility of state information process and participatory decision-making. Inpractice all market negotiation; 3. consensual: legitimation through atransparent state (municipality) authority; 2. the market: legitimation through procedures exist: 1.authoritative: legitimation through the legal constitutively altering their character.“ (Giddens, 1990:38) deeply integrate afocus on citizen engagement initswork plan. Little have been one of the reasons for the CIVITAS ELAN project to r su en impr issu o on measur a l mod aw At the general level three possible variants of legitimation In fact, the difficulties encountered in previous CIVITAS projects aunching aise ther bout ccessful vironmental

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of changes to mobility it is therefore vital to: 1)structure and select the challenge cognitive as well as a value dimensions. In the implementation motivational ability of the entire urban population, meaning that they urban mobility problems are widely acknowledged, they challenge the mobility practices immediately causes legitimacy problems. Although other way round), itisobvious that any move, any change to urban on legitimation procedures. From the opposite point of view (the difficult to conclude that the solution to the problems largely depends because automobility issuch apopular ideology and practice, itisnot is so “ubiquitous” in the sense that it affects nearly everybody, and where thisconflict isnot acute. Because the mobility issue incities conflict with individual motorists. There ishardly amodern city (Urry, 2005). flexibility, efficiency, privacy, movement, speed, progress, autonomy of modernity. The ideology of automobility represents freedom, Urry, automobility isone of the principal socio-technical institutions has avery strong impact on popular, modern ways of life. According to be explained by the very powerful ideology of “automobility”, which this chief urban problem. At a very general level, its persistence may practices continues to exist. Virtually uncountable sources deal with less explicit confrontation between individual and public mobility i.e. urbanpublic transport, hasbeen known long since butamore or conflict withthe urban(city) way of life. The alternative solution, used technological means for achieving mobility, cars,are inconstant events, etc. Mobility actually makes networking possible and effective. of life. It provides access to people, institutions, businesses, spaces, Mobility isinfact the fundamental defining feature of the urban way issues and hardly any urbanresident or visitor canpossibly avoid it. residents and visitors. In this respect, it is one of the most widespread issue for two general reasons. patterns inurbansettlements isanextremely interesting and complex in contemporary modern societies, planning and changing mobility case inthisrespect. Besides general legitimation problems existing participation of allinterested parties. Urban mobility isaspecial and legal background that isincorporated inthe carefully designed groups. Success depends on the complex historical, cultural, political, problems associated withsuch participation of individuals and interest systematic analysis has however been carried out on the limits and But nevertheless the urbanway of life isindeed aconstant The second reason isthat the most popular and most commonly The firstisthe fact that urbanmobility issues affect nearly allurban 17 Civitas or the legitimation of the city mobility changes 18 Rethinking everyday mobility makes senseto useitinapproaching other topics aswell. 1 urban environment caused by the operation of mobility technologies. thus mainly dedicated to the technical assessment of the impact on the assessments of the effects of mobility practices. The analytical phase is capacity to carryoutasaccurate aspossible empirical measurements and least inprinciple the results of these analyses mainly depend on the level isabove allrelated to the field of technical sciences and that, at transport technologies. At first glance, itisobvious that the analytical bring about more social,economical and environment-friendly useof realistic prediction of possible (technological) innovations, which will assessment of the carryingcapacity of the urbanenvironment and a sustainable urbanmobility behaviours. Anessential element isthe this is about an objective as possible selection of sustainable and non- of present mobility practices and proposed mobility changes. Basically, measure the traffic impact and socialand environmental consequences 1.1. (Becker etal.,1997). change at three levels: a) analytical, b) normative, and c) strategic to act. From thisviewpoint, itmakes senseto observe urbanmobility with general socialvalue contexts, which largely determine ourcapacity would beto constantly confront expert reflection on individual issues state inthisaspect too. Inthese circumstances, apromising approach necessity of interdisciplinary treatment, we are stillinthe embryonic and asserted, because inspite of the inprinciple agreement on the Such an“integral methodology”, however, firstneeds to bedeveloped economic, political, legal, i.e.socialaspects intheir interdependence. This means that we have to simultaneously observe environmental, is one of the key conditions for anexpert approach to mobility changes. terms. Simultaneous disciplinary specialization and integral treatment disciplines and specialists israther questionable inmethodological standard assignment of responsibilities between the numerous relevant numerous individual components and their interdependence. The The task is demanding because we have to simultaneously deal with the introduction of measures that are asdesirable asthey are unpopular. most accute problems and 2)reach aconsensus about the dynamics of

T he analyti At the initialanalytical level, we tryto establish and empirically It is clear then that we are dealing with highly complex conditions. This ap c al level proach was developed to deal withsustainable development, butit 1 design of the analysis for each of them) inorder to determine the actual their specific historical development paths by introducing atailor made conducted simultaneously in all the cities of the consortium (respecting • • • • • • activities have been included, asstated inthe Description of work: the demonstration phase had begun. For thispurpose, the following consortium members, and plan and prepare allthe measures before provide adequate scientific working methods and procedures for the well asthose related to perception and preferences of theusers), PT examine the existing circumstances inthe field (technical ones as activities inthe initial,preparatory phase. The aimwas to carefully an ambitious plan for conducting the research and analytical the bestpossible sustainable urbanmobility technology. expected to contribute ascredible aspossible information about what is social legitimacy of specialist assessments. The analytical level isthus produce ahighly important side effect –adecline inthe credibility and implementation of urbansustainable mobility, these disagreements dimension of sustainable urbanmobility. For the discussions on the This issue, of course, belongs to afield that exceeds the sociological that expert assessments of one and the sameeffect often disagree. of environmental effects isaplural undertaking, and thismeans transparent enough to have amobilizing impact. The expert evaluation information generated by expert systems isoften not coordinated and demanding and cannot beentirely achieved asyet. Thismeans that the the relatively clearly defined analytical task turnsoutto bequite between network performance and perceived qualityof service, effect connections are stillunknown, for instance the vague relation environmental effects and consequences, and because many cause-and- environment’s carryingcapacity. rational restrictions and even eliminate effects which willexceed the The gathered data should give us a clear idea how to timely introduce Testing Implementation planning Negotiation &consultation processes User needs assessment Financial &economical studies Technical studies As anexample, amodal split analysis canbementioned. It hasbeen For the aforementioned reasons, CIVITAS ELANhasdeveloped Because of the complexity and interconnectedness of socialand 19 Civitas or the legitimation of the city mobility changes 20 Rethinking everyday mobility 1.2. the implementation. the measures to beimplemented, and the control of their effects during distance/travel time etc. Thiscontributed greatly to the finaldesign of public transport use,average travel times, transport mode inrelation to usually used for various activities, useof carpooling, frequency of Region”. Through these surveys data were collected on transport mode region” and “Travel habits of the respondents inthe Ljubljana Urban “Changes inthe public transport system of Ljubljana and the Ljubljana analysis, inthe cityof Ljubljana two surveys have been conducted: groups and potential conflicts that may arise. Within this modal split help local measures to recognize important themes, issues, vulnerable test the qualityof service satisfaction on public transport modes and use of transportation and travel habits at urbanand suburban level, stakeholders inthe assessment of the changes to beimplemented. The instrument and a very usefulmechanism for the inclusion of various of Ljubljana hasused such surveys, introducing them asaconsultative and effective from the point of view of the final beneficiaries. The city showing to which extent theoretical conclusions are really applicable the ways inwhich usersof thesystem PT respond to them, thus adequate feedback to analytical findings. These surveys were to reveal were beingconducted on apermanent basisinanattempt to get the paid to citizens’ response to mobility management projects. Surveys social context, and the willingness to change. concrete connections between the degree of economic development, determinist forecasts at thislevel. What we cantryto establish are many diverse factors are involved that we do not have available accurate Though analytical methods canbeused at the normative level too, so for concrete changes from non-sustainable to sustainable behaviour. from opposition and indifference to amajor surge inthe motivation reflectively, we may theoretically expect awide range of responses – even the most developed (post)-modern societies often respond urban mobility and the way actors respond to these findings. Because an assessment of the gapbetween analytical findings on sustainable

T he no Within the CIVITAS ELANframework, much attention hasbeen The simplest definition of the normative level would bethat it is r mative level results were very indicative. stakeholders” by Matjaž Uršic. of changes inLjubljana’s traffic system –identifying key themes, barriers and relevant 2 assess why and how major or minor differences are generated between sustainable mobility principles to socialpractices, itisvery important to practices we willbring about changes inbehaviour. To introduce assume that by merely declaring expert findings on sustainable mobility actually occurs when we observe the analytical level only, when we one’s mobility behaviour would behighly reductionist. And thisiswhat between the degree of urbanpollution and the willingness to change accidental factors. Amodel that would take account of the connection of perceptions, interests, financial, cultural,psychological, and even engaged. People’s behaviour isobviously influenced by awide variety enough to change questionable behaviour, and people become actively the key point is,of course, when awareness startsto motivate strongly is awide range of options -from indifference to energetic engagement; relatively homogenous socialgroups. Even insuch circumstances, there sustainable urbanmobility. The differences are alsovery big within course avery important circumstance for the efforts for introducing diverse responses are normal and to beexpected. And thisisof are willingand capable to respond actively to these findings. Widely which socialgroups are aware of the analytical findings and which and tourists equally. they affect virtually everyone: residents, commercial entities, guests, stakeholders inthe decision makingprocesses on mobility issues, since but alsoimposed the necessity to include abroadly defined range of and political factors inthe acceptance of changes inmobility practices, surveys have not only stressed the importance of the economic, social using socio-theoretical concepts to bridge the gap.Furthermore, the benefit) a number of other factors have been taken into account, based considerations, predominantly emphasizing the community individual cost-benefit analysis (asanapparent antithesis to value- practices. In the explanation of this obvious discrepancy, besides the professed attitudes and the actual willingness to change existing mobility in favour of measures foreseen, abig gaphasbeen detected between support. However, as much as these value-based considerations were shift towards more sustainable transport solutions, received professed the system, PT and that most of the proposed measures, aimingat a of the participants were very well aware of the problems related to

Useful information for assessments of sustainable behaviour is F or more detailed explanation, see in this book chapter “Public perception � 2 They have shown that the vast majority 21 Civitas or the legitimation of the city mobility changes 22 Rethinking everyday mobility 1.3. is hard to avoid relativising. the aggregate statistical level, the assessment iseasier, buteven there it true of isolated assessments of individual questionable behaviour. At and thisof course causes difficulties incomparisons. Thisisparticularly The normative assessment of behaviour istherefore hard to standardize behaviour inview of concrete, economic, and cultural characteristics. this concept isthus “calibration”, that isthe assessment of mobility assessment may betotally wrong. One of the essential features of analytical findings and normative responses to them. instrumental action oriented toward success (one-way communication place. Intheory and practice there are two rather different options: 1) differences between the analytical and normative levels willtake elaborate anoperational strategy for sustainable urbanmobility. diverse information willallow usto obtain a clear enough idea how to the evaluation of questionable practices of urbanmobility. Only such it ishardly less important to establish the reasons for differences in analytical findings and their evaluation by different social groups. And strategy must certainly include an estimate of the gapbetween information for the construction and implementation of asuccessful to participation of so-called “civil societies”, i.e.allstakeholders. Key and normative assessments of the situation at hand, and if it is open is based on competently performed previous phases: that isanalytical of sustainable urbanmobility canproduce good qualityresults only ifit communication forum, akind of stakeholders’ arena. The strategic level is a kind of action research where the main protagonists construct a as asocialand political process goes beyond expert competencies. It capacities, and motivation of project managers, because legitimation a demanding task. Such atask isbeyond the management skills, and legitimize policies of sustainable urbanmobility istherefore the local to regional, national, and even international level. To elaborate – must beadapted to the highly diverse conditions at alllevels, from stimulation, and conduct of various policies –inorder to achieve goals achieve sustainable urbanmobility. The management, regulation, it very hard or nearly impossible to implement auniform strategy to

T he If we do not take account of essential contextual influences, our It is of paramount importance how the harmonization of the The differences between the analytical and normative levels make s t r ategi c level present during the implementation. project consortium, sothat the voice of the civil society canbeever structure of the project, several NGO’s have been included inthe preferences. Inorder to harmonize thisstrategic orientation and the from the point of view of the citizens and their habits and personal are, at the same time, sustainable for the systems PT and acceptable ELAN hasaccepted the great responsibility of finding solutions which important and constructive partof the solution. Inthat sense,CIVITAS from perceiving them as a “problem” to their inclusion as the most and risk management. Putting the citizens first means an essential shift it hasanessential role inmany measures, inevaluation, dissemination, on citizen participation isavery important feature of the workplan, and solutions for vitalcities, ensuringhealth and access for all.” The focus ‘mobilise’ ourcitizens by developing withtheir support clean mobility initial phase between the representatives of the consortium cities: “To towards citizens. It is obvious from itsmission statement, agreed at the oriented toward understanding. depends on the implementation of two-way communicative action There are anumber of possible mechanisms, butsuccess decisively harmonise the differences between the analytical and normative levels. legitimacy. It is therefore essential to establish mechanisms which the participation of civil society itwillnot bepossible to achieve city mobility practices willtrigger sointensive responses that without urban public inthe decision-making process. It islikely that changes to a transparent information flow and is open to participation from the campaign and communicative legitimation procedures which include is the difference between areduced, instrumental PR legitimation normative level and back). The difference between these two options (two-way participative interactive communication from analytical to according to Habermas (1987/91)oriented toward understanding from analytical to normative level only), or 2)communicative action analyti 2. identify, and label’ events and occurrences, thus rendering meaning, which enable their users(individuals or groups) ‘to locate, perceive, Goffman (1974: 21)defined frames as‘schemata of interpretation’

F r From the very beginningCIVITAS ELANhasbeen oriented Public understanding of anissue depends on how itisframed. Erving aming the c al, no r ur mative and ban mobility s t r ategi qu e s c tion: a level s s ynthe s i s o f the 23 Civitas or the legitimation of the city mobility changes 24 Rethinking everyday mobility to a 3. interesting to analyze the dynamics between different framingclusters. to them. Frames change intime and between groups. It isparticularly where particular frames may prevail with different groups holding on must alsobeunderstood that multiple frames exist in any given society, problem to the technocratic style of urbandevelopment management. It As aconsequence, these elusive framingprocedures are apersistent that precise management of the framingprocedures isnot possible. to avariety of interventions and therefore socomplex and multileveled about urbanmobility. It isquite obvious that these processes are open are anattempt at “invoking aparticular image of anidea”, for instance less important, safe, dangerous, etc. Inthisrespect, framingprocesses is the person who hasthe power to determine what ismore and what is construction” of socialreality. The person who structures and selects frames are the changeable results of aperplexed and continuous “social processes of selecting and structuring socialproblems. Actually, the making about public issues’ (ibid.: 66).Framing ispartof the broader actors utilizingsymbolic resources to participate incollective sense- public policy. Framing includes ‘the discursive process of strategic of collective and open reasoning and discussingabout the merits of from which to approach the study of public consultation, the process intelligence’. To Michael Kosicki (2002:66)framingisaperspective for events that incorporate the will,aim, and controlling effort of latter are of interest to us, as they provide ‘background understanding frameworks he distinguishes, the natural and the socialones, the organising experiences, and guiding actions. Ofthe two typesof infrastructure to participate inthe planning and implementation some other way facilitating residents and usersof the urbantransport could be akind of local council, board, committee, local partnership, or institutional framework for the participation of interest groups. This take anactive role indecision-making, itmakes sense to consider an of awider range of interests. Since community tendencies exist to from ‘opening up’the decision-making process to the engagement is seen asavirtue for the reasons outlined above, allof which results project’s outline. Ideally, deliberation and the inclusion of stakeholders it makes senseto incorporate the presented theoretical sketch inthe through anopen information flow and participatory decision-making,

P In order to optimise the legitimation of urban mobility changes r ti c i p a r y p lanning andthede c i s ion-making pr o c e ss considered. Inthisrespect, pastexperiences and comparative practices but alsoto cultural,economic, and historical evidence that should be This context does not refer to the physical and socialenvironment only, and specific characteristics of every caseshould therefore beconsidered. legitimacy. When establishing aparticipatory framework, the contextual context and this willhave an influence on itsdesign, effectiveness, and a neutral environment. It isembedded initsparticular local and national emerge. between stakeholders about mutually important issues hasstarted to facilities, signalizing that aspecific culture of effective communication tourist offer aswell asinfuture activities related to infrastructure An additional synergetic effect isthe increased interest inthe city’s including the final beneficiaries in the essential phases of the project. people, along withverifying anapparently very successful practice of station, designed inaccordance withthe needs and preferences of the and the neighbourhood. Asafinaloutcome there isareconstructed a weekly basis,functioning asabridge between the project partners to the works. Inaddition, reduced hindrance meetings were held on companies and local TV stations on a wide range of topics related several press releases were sent to different newspapers, broadcasting designed asone of the major innovations delivered by the project, and news items). Furthermore, a special digital 3D scale model has been press releases; website items (newsletters, audiovisual presentations, the station area; public fora; aperiodical sent to allinhabitants of Ghent; different tools are beingused: information letters to the people living in and develop aparticipative communication policy and for thispurpose best example of such practice. The goal of the measure isto design (CIVITAS ELAN, 2008:332–336)isone of those, and probably the Measure “2.9-GEN Participatory redevelopment of mainstation area” in some of the measures implemented during the course of the project. (which alsomeans gainingthe necessary legitimacy) was akey issue decision makingprocess regarding the changes that are to beapplied the efficiency and legitimacy of policies. environment. However itisimportant to control the relations between to information and public participation in decisions concerning the the European requirement inthe Aarhus Convention to provide access especially trustbuilding. Community engagement isconsistent with the information flow, transfer of expertise, knowledge building, and of changes to urbantransport. Such an institution cancontribute to As pointed outabove, the institutional framework isnot formed in Institutionalizing the framework for the inclusion of citizens in a 25 Civitas or the legitimation of the city mobility changes 26 Rethinking everyday mobility outputs: been dedicated to thisissue. Just to mention some of their anticipated of urbanmobility. the abovementioned gapbetween the analytical and normative levels Implementing aselection of these approaches may help to overcome resources, ensuringcontinuity of the structure and awareness, etc. over the process, adapting the format to the task, allocating adequate sufficient time, sticking to the rules of the game, establishing control that the decision-making process istransparent and open, allowing that early action does not make desirable action impossible, ensuring stepwise approach, ensuringflexibility and adaptability, makingsure and interests are weighed and balanced, providing a comprehensive and participation, offering and discussingalternatives, ensuringthat values goals, defining roles and responsibility, ensuringearly and inclusive groups inanorganised framework includes their cooperation indefining traffic and the changes to it.Afurther listof the participation of interest their performance, and play arole inthe decisions on the organisation of operation of traffic, give recommendations to other actors, monitor address the impact on the community of infrastructure and the performed by other actors, develop and deliberate on solutions to and disseminate information, keep abreast withthe scientific research improvement of the traffic issues of individual cities. It should gather provide aforum for community discussions on the organisation and case and the participation framework needs to becarefully designed. single-issue problem. Incitymobility changes, thisiscertainly not the is easier to construct and operate aframework ifwe are dealing witha framework depends on the structure and definition of the problem. It in traffic management are of crucial importance. Thismeans that the • • • • A number of measures within the CIVITAS ELANproject have In any case,the institutional participation framework should also “mobility dialogues” withcitizens have been established and Process” for Ljubljana hasbeen initiated (4.9-LJU), a participatory “Sustainable Urban Transport Planning has been adopted) (4.1-LJU), “traffic regime” inLjubljana, based on citizens’ expectations, designed, based on social research on mobility needs (and a an individualised mobility marketing campaignhasbeen agglomeration levels (3.1-LJU), been prepared in cooperation with actors at the national and a sustainable congestion charging scheme for Ljubljana has of Tr and Culture inRisk Management. InSocial Re of the kind that was called CIVITAS inthe ancient world. high level of self-organisation and ahighly developed urbancivil society framework facilitating participation. Thisof course presumes aquite by the project leader or the administration, define the institutional metropolitan region. One option isto let the people themselves, not and people withspecial mobility needs) inthe cityor even the whole public transport users,owners of real estate inthe city, employees, representing allthe interested parties (residents, visitors, carusers, It isdifficult to establish anoperational institutional framework mobility changes, aproblem of representativeness hasbeen exposed. representativeness etc. Inthe planning and implementation of urban insufficient feedback, financial resources, time constraints, ensuring terms of their success inavoiding problems such asstakeholder fatigue, participatory processes are really ‘fitfor purpose’; for example, in and other concerns have led to questions that focus upon whether which can narrow down the range of possibilities considered. These or where consensus building results inforced agreement, bothof down’ deliberation. This canresult when certain groups are excluded concerns that such processes canalsohave the effect of ‘closing Wehling. 1997. Sustainability:

f ansformation. Paris:UNESCO. Ris e r Earle, Timothy. C.and George Cvetkovich. 1999.SocialTrust CIVITAS ELAN(2008):Description of Work, 332–336. However, some researchers (Fisher, 2000),have expressed • • Be en k, eds. George Cvetkovich andLöfstedt, Ragnar 9–21.London: cker, Egon, Thomas Jahn, Immanuel Stiess and Peter c e COM), etc. policy development inallthe cities have been established (7.1- “freight roundtables” of stakeholders about an integrated freight Brno and a“Mobility Shop” inPorto (4.13-BRN, 4.14-OPO), an attractive “Integrated Mobility Centre” hasbeen setupin Brno (4.10-GEN, 4.11-ZAG, 4.12-BRN), marketing campaignshave been carried outinGhent, Zagreb, s

Cr oss-Disciplinary

Trust

and

Conc

t he ept

M anagement

f or

Soci al

27 Civitas or the legitimation of the city mobility changes 28 Rethinking everyday mobility v sust Ljubljana: FDV. ana pr Diskurzivna Reginald G. Golledge, 193–222.Amsterdam: North-Holland. in Geography. InBehavior Jersey: PUP. (I Blackwell Publisher. Cu Press. of California SUP. po Earthscan.

ostora Sl litics experience. Middlesex: Penguin Books. ltural, & lysis ainable oveniji

Kos, Drago etal. 1994/97/02.Socialno Kosicki, Gerald Michael. 2002.The PrimingEffect: News Media Kos, Drago. 2002.Prakticna Kos, Drago. 2004.Tri Kos, Drago, Matjaž Uršic, Franc Trcek and MarjanHocevar. 2006. Kasperson, Roger E.and KirstinDow. 1993.Hazard Perception Inglehart, Ronald. 1997.Modernization Habermas, Juergen. 1987/91.The Habermas, Juergen. 1975.The Giddens, Anthony. 1990.The Goffman, Ervin.1974.Frame Fischer, Frank. 2000.Citizens, II)

. Boston, Cambridge, Oxford: Bacon Press &Polity Press & of

(Practical Ec

ocal text

(Soci development). Teorija 41(1/2):332–339. inpraksa onomic,

ana

kno on o-spatial liza

Ljubljana’s

wledge. Durham and London: Duke University Press. sociology

and

besedi

olitical aspects

and l for

ˇ urbanism). Ljubljana: FDV. avni ˇ o

urban

En Change (lju

soci of

tr ana Consequ vironment, eds. Tommy Gärling and

Legitimati bljanskem) ajnostnega

experts, ologija planners). Ljubljana: FDV. lysis: ghway

Theory

ˇ in

ences

43 A

a c

on and Soci

of onstruction

pr essay and na r

azvoja of ostorski Crisis Communi

crtovalce eties. Princeton, New ˇ banizmu.

t M

P on odernity. Stanford:

ostmodernization: . Boston: Beacon

t (Thr he

vironment: vp

cative in or in ˇ

livi ee

(Disc

ganization Sl ur

l avt ovenia). evels ejevalce

A ourse ocest ction

he of

phtml?id=349&lan=en, 5.1.2012. Available at: http://www.civitas-initiative.org/cms_pages. and 1–24. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sl M J. Atman. 2002.Risk and Michael W. Pfau, 63–81.NJ:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. H and Considerations Affecting Political Judgements. InThe oveniji andbook: odernization

challenges

The Civitas Initiative. Cleaner Urry, John. 2005.Automobilities . London: Sage. Plut, Dušan. 2007.LjubljanaPlut, Dušan. Offe, Claus. 1987.The Morgan, M.Granger, Baruch Fischoff, AnnBostrom and Cynthia Marega, Milena inDrago Kos, eds. 2002.Aarhuška

(The

Dev

Aarhus

of as elopments

sustainable N ormative

convention

Communi

Theory

P development). Ljubljana: Faculty of Art.

olitical Ut

in in opia cation:

and

Slovenia). Ljubljana: REC. izzivi

Crit

Pr of nd

eria. PraxisInternational 7(1):

sonar astice, eds. James Price Dillard A

Zer Bett

M o-Option: avnega ental er

ansport M

r azvoja

odels M

odernity k

onvencija

P (Lju A In ersuasion pproach.

Citi bljana

and es.

29 Civitas or the legitimation of the city mobility changes ELAN Youth Congress I To get to know better the different cultures and backgrounds of the ELAN cities, the students were divided into five groups, each with a representative from every city.

ELAN Youth Congress I The Mobility Treasure Hunt was not only a sightseeing tour, but also a game in which challenging riddles had to be solved. ELAN Youth Congress I 40 students from all ELAN cities came to Brno to share new ideas on PT.

i 1. forms of mobility have in common that they are largely based on the new, mixed forms of daily, residential, and travel mobility. These new from the combination of physical and virtualmobility, leading to for travelling intime and space. New forms of mobility are emerging people or actors, therefore implying amultiplication of the methods we are witnessing many ways to ensure the simultaneous presence of networks, mobile signal reach, satellite connections, etc. In general, occupying space, there isalsothe functional geography of wi-fi Alongside the growing number of occasional and temporary structures airports, parking lots, crossroads, stations, rest areas, refuges, etc. is dedicated to various forms of builtmobility infrastructure: roads, (and virtual)space, anincreasing portion of the builtenvironment conceptualisation and planning. completely new reflections on trans-sectoral and multilevel spatial interdependent social,political, and spatial dynamics leading to etal.,2005;Axhausen, 2003;Timo,2007; Larsen, 2006),with forms of communication and the structure of socialnetworks (Urry, addressing the nature of mobility inmodern life inrelation to new collaborative projects between transport researchers and sociologists, rapidly evolving complexity. There isanincreasing amount of taken into consideration new dimensions because of the issue’s mobility planning in practise, have not only intensified, buthave ssu

I nt Because of the increased scope of movement inthe physical In recent years, research into spatial mobility, aswell asstrategic e r od uc tion: ho

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ED O W F 33 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 34 Rethinking everyday mobility space consumption, and travel time budgets. interaction asare the spatial and temporal premises, calculations of in which the action occurs is of equal importance to organising human lives (Kakiharaand Sorensen, 2001).Inother words: the contextuality reflexive ways inwhich they interact witheach other intheir everyday importantly, itisabout the interaction individuals perform and the (going somewhere and reaching one’s destination) butthat, more or capable of beingmobile isnot justarational matter of travelling advocate a contextual notion of mobility by arguing that being mobile these travels occur should be contextualised. In this paper we will “in which circumstances”, aswell as“under which considerations” interaction related to mobility, the issues of “why”, “how”, “by whom”, modes, such asvarious modal-split options. ever more sophisticated integration and diversification of transport of information and communication technologies (ICTs), and withthe from spatio-temporal and geographical constraints with the support contexts. Therefore, mobility is (on average) indeed increasingly freed regardless of specific personal, social,cultural,or even political issues of space consumption and the rationale of travel time budgets, experts are consequently and primarily concerned withthe technical and time (“where” and “when”). Urban planners and transportation businesses, has mainly focused on two obvious dimensions: space mobility systems and the everyday life of individuals, institutions and scales (from short-term towards long-term ones). varying spatial scales (from local towards global ones) and temporal environmental, economic, and socialsystems, takinginto account for consideration of the intersections and interactions between in accordance withsustainable development principles. These call environmental costs these new mobilities are increasingly modelled services (Flammand Kaufmann, 2006:168).Inthe face of mounting to appropriate technological systems and new tariffschemes for internet, etc.). They require actors to have awell-developed ability of information and communication technologies (mobile phones, use of transportation systems, aswell as the efficient appropriation aspects or app Furt But interms of broader socialaction and specifically of human We observed that so far the discussion on how to improve

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35 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 36 Rethinking everyday mobility regimes of precarious, despatialised, and flexible arrangements. as such itcanbeeven interpreted asnon-existent inthe new labour of functional transition between spheres of personal involvement; Even ifpassive, the transition time canbeexperienced asavehicle operational, meaningful public policy perspective (see illustration 1). as trains,buses,ships, or planes), giving ourconceptual discussion an associated with various modes of public and/or group transport (such can bepracticed while travelling. Clearly, these activities are likely with one’s private interests or job obligations, i.e.with afixed location, which must bereduced. Anincreasing number of activities, associated the move” (to work, holiday) is not necessarily identified as dead time activities, including travel asanaiminitsown right. The time spent “on transportation) for arriving at adestination, butasarange of social Spatial mobility should no longer beunderstood merely asameans (of ambiguity, nor the subjective rationales behind mobility decisions. adequately consider the increasing degrees of freedom and functional time-r in as ma and speed K fr (e.g. human context separ mo permea spati t Mainstream transport and spatial mobility statistics do not hat asper, ame

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poor health. less common among people from the lowest income brackets and in areas perceive fewer benefits from these practises, and that they are of walking or cycling, itis notable that residents of so-called deprived healthy isone of the most significant factors explaining the frequency notion of environmental responsibility. Also,as the urge to get fitand factors for people opting to walk thantheir subjective sentiment or and b) traffic congestion, bothfunction asless significant explanatory according to the gathered data a) access to local shops and services factors such asbicycle lanes, pedestrian areas, and the like. For example, economic and culturalfactors playing adecisive role alongside objective as aculturally and socially differentiated practice, withbothsocio- research (Anable etal.,2010)proposes active travel to beconsidered viability, they betray acertain level of conceptual reductionism. Recent Though the research findings seem to substantiate their economic either structural or environmental measures to support these practices. subject, measuring cost-effectiveness or the cost benefits of introducing this canbejudged from the large body of economic research on the embedding travel itself inthe self-care paradigm. The rationale behind trips) for reasons of personal health and general well-being, thus for commuting purposes and other necessary trips (rather than leisure institutions inrecent years. The concept assumes walking and cycling has been actively promoted by government agencies and health In the samevein, aconcept of “active travel” hasemerged and Illustration 1:Categories of activities conducted while on atrain, grouped by types(leisure, business, commuting) of journey. Source: Lyons, Gleen etal.,n.d. 37 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 38 Rethinking everyday mobility where travel is perceived asanintegral partof socialrelations and is emerging (Wellman, 2001;Urry, 2004;Sheller and Urry, 2006), Alongside the “network paradigm”, a parallel “mobility paradigm” dynamics and the nature of socialisingto have anontological meaning. movement of people, goods, and information assumes these social illustrate the development inthese words: interurban and supranational flows and networks. Carasco and Miller of production and collective consumption into points of functional morphological urbanareas are redefined inthiscontext from spaces patterns, e.g. in a town or between places. Administrative and geo- explain the activities of anindividual, either inspace or hisdaily travel units ingeographical space, do not suffice inany way to satisfactorily (Castells, 1996).The qualities of places, either as location points or area places -resulting from technological and telecommunication changes notion of networks and flows –the spaces of flows and the spaces of interconnectedness of socialand spatial dynamics and statics isthe as transitory. Analready established way of discussingthe modern entities inasimilarway astravelling should not beperceived merely not, travel isalways active. into account various ICT effects, presences and flows. Deliberate or same time, asasetof meanings, decisions, or positions and, iftaking these other actions, they canalsobeperformed independently at the While the physical mode of transition canalready beembedded in social, cultural,symbolic, economic, psychological, and physical acts. perceiving spatial transitions asasynchronised and intertwined setof the concept inawider framework. To us,active travel isthus away of c p a z usefu tr among t mu Gi Spaces, places, towns, or regions are no longer stable destination Still, the term’s suggestive implications lead usto propose to place he onfiguration one-based lay ctivities avel. ven that high-mobility societies are network societies, the

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public and working spaces. and timeframes, and thus further delimiting ournotions of domestic, action” (Jain,2003),makingreal-time modifications to schedules multiple flows of activity and the interplay of planned and improvised due to the contemporary ICT, which enables harmonising “among of co-presence hasbecame more individualised and heterogeneous result and feature of new socialconfigurations. The spatial distribution co-presence) of different socialgroups and heterogeneous areas isthe patterns of mobility. made itpossible to locate ourselves and benetworked withinmultiple moving through physical spaces. Location-aware technology hasthus enter the Internet, but carryitwithus.We experience itwhile between the actors invirtualnetworks. For example: We no longer co-presence and different forms of telecommunication connections networks, especially in the complementary combination of physical vicinity thus explains the steadily fallingshare of the operation of social (business and other) networks isconstantly growing. Spatial because the geographical dispersion and remoteness included in relationship between travel and sociability isincreasingly important within towns, between towns, regions, and countries. The contextual reality: inthe family, among friends, between business partners and The above rule canbeapplied at alllevels of socialand spatio-temporal time highly selective, are one of the key features of modern societies. Dense, dispersed, and heterogeneous networks, which are at the same social networks and the strengthening of socialand culturalcapital. not justadestination means butalsothe “glue” of human interactions, as arefurbished concept of transport’s usefulcalculability. Travel is processes, inthe narrow senseof “socialnetworking”, and not merely 3. transport, etc., isdirectly related to science’s response to intense buildings, objects, capital, culture, information, ideas, symbols, forms, types,and complex combinations of the movement of people, global) inthe pastdecade. The ubiquity of research into the different everyday socio-spatial reality (whether individual, local, national, or cross-disciplinary issues in different socialcontexts and at alllevels of turned into one of the most widely discussed interdisciplinary and

M obilitie Seen from the socialand spatial viewpoints, the co-existence (or As we already mentioned in the introduction, mobility has s and movement s »in p l ur al« 39 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 40 Rethinking everyday mobility the entire social structure as thoroughly embedded with (spatial, one of the key features of modern societies. Thisapproach sees and sub-disciplines, and is aimed at explaining, and later solving, attempt at anintegrated approach, combining allspatial disciplines movement inspace . need of usersfor individualisation, customization, and accessibility of and between them and, on the other hand, through the increasing intersections of (un)coordinated connections within mobility systems of increasingly numerous infrastructural and socialnetworks, mobility isexpressed, on the one hand, through the (un)manageability contrasting withtraditional spaces of places. The complexity of the move”). Acommonly accepted image isthat of spaces of flows, people are constantly moving, butentire societies (“Societies on capital that effectively moves them towards ever fluid socialrelations. has canonly beleveraged properly when combined withanetwork Knowledge, skills, resources, and other attributes of the potentials one them isacrucial determinant of hisvertical socialmobility capacity. The structure of one’s personal networks and his positioning in a function of and asupplement to his(its)socialand culturalcapital. so-called network capital that anindividual or group possesses, being and managingthe subsequent connections isthus acomponent of the virtual networks. The level of proficiency inusingmovement options forms of telecommunication connections between the actors in the complementary combination of physical co-presence and various the rapidly fallingshare of the operation of networks, especially in networks isconstantly growing. Spatial vicinity isable to explain only remoteness of the actors included insocial(business and other) is increasingly important because the geographic dispersion and and countries. The ratio between spatial mobility and sociability business partners, withintowns, and between towns, regions, variety of socialrelations: inthe family, among friends, between of modern societies. The application of thisrule concerns the entire differentiated movement of people isone of the key characteristics and less explanatory or action power. ideas on stable, territorially delimited socio-spatial entities have less static, unchangeable practices) isgenerally falling,and the accepted commuting, recreating, etc.) the share of socialsedentarity (settled, social change. Compared to spatial mobility (travelling, moving, The emerging meta-paradigmatic framework of mobilities isan Often, adramatic designation isused, illustrating that not only Dispersed, geographically unlimited, butselective and illustration 2). uses them” (Kaufmann, 2002;Canzler etal.eds., 2008)(see also individual or group endorses the field of movement possibilities and intentions, strategies and choices. Consequently, motility ishow an about movement butalsoasystem of potentials characterized by of anactor to move socially and spatially”, and “Mobility isnot only mobilities paradigm: the motility concept isdefined asthe “capacity on it, because the attention of its proponents isclearly similar to the illustration, we willmention only one of these exercises and elaborate approach to the highly complex body of mobility issues. For the sake of disciplinary conceptual exercises, aimed at achieving anintegrated territorial identities, and the like. as possible forms of socialescape,the deterioration of collective and restrictions and other risky forms of mobility, new-age nomadism undesirable or forced mobility, confrontations withenvironmental contrary, functions as an apt criticism of so-called hypermobility, itself asanaffirmative approach towards mobility perse,but,on the movement. Thisbroadly defined framework does not aimto posit and limitthese flows of (systematic or sporadic, deliberate or forced) tools and immobile infrastructures which organise, enable, regulate, a new setof focal points altogether, shifting ourattention to certain questions inindividual socialscience disciplines. Butitisalsoopening into account these dimensions when considering the regular setof and viscosities. Consequently, the paradigm suggests that we take of `endless regimes of flow’, which move at different speeds, scales, Law (2006)points out,we are dealing with complex intersections information, machines, money, dangers, and image transitions. As virtual, even imaginative) movements and the dynamics of people, t maximum of a spa (Fl Along withthe mobilities paradigm, there are some other cross- ools ccessibility

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41 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 42 Rethinking everyday mobility 4. to mobility does not have, of course, amerely theoretical explanatory up (integration) and their internal divisions (differentiations). social complexity is precisely the relationship between systems linking of horizontal mobility. The most general startingpoint for understanding relations, isof key importance for understanding spatial and other forms stratification, inequality, hierarchies, and the dynamics of social or sliding down the socialstatus scale) asaninstrument for establishing and differentiation. Understanding vertical socialmobility (climbing up movement initisareflection of society, itsstratification, organisation, technological innovations. Inother words: the built environment and and cannot bemanaged or controlled merely withtechnical or constellations indeed inevitably depend on the existing socialstructure epistemological role, especially the sociology of space. Spatial spontaneously and partly systematically –acoordinating and mobility and to reconsider travel modes, sociology has – partly competence, whereas mobility isaperformance.

So Studying thisrelationship inthe context of an integrated approach In establishing aframework of scientific relevance for integrated To useaconceptual frame of linguistics, motility then isa c ial s t r ati f i c ation andmobilitie Illustration 2:Mobility, motility and movement. s

Source: Canzler, Weert etal.,2008. Kaufmann etal.asfollows: access, competence, and appropriation. The elements were explained by mobility. It is a three-component theoretical construct that encompasses aforementioned concept of motility asthe ability to move -potential job acquisition, access to healthcare and educational facilities, etc. resources, and goods. Geographical positioning canthen allow or hinder the levels of socialinequality and operationalised asaccess to activities, dispersion and connectibility of the available nodes are directly linked to environment, the technological constitution of spatial networks, and the patterns, focusing on observable and measurable factors. The material spatial structure isaddressed interms of accessibility and movement inequalities, spatial dispositions, and mobilities. At the firstplane, the perspective canbe applied to the interconnections between social those withlesser means. or they can stand as anempowering factor in the socialpositioning of precursor of the existing differences insocialposition, status and power, prevalent dynamic systems inmodern societies canbothfunction asthe inequality structures and expanded horizontally. Mobilities asthe these vertical differentiations are alsodiffused withmore complex variability of lifestyles, attitudes, life rhythms, and network positions, or improve one’s status. When takinginto account the increasing goods or resources, and the disparityof opportunity to maintain only the differential distribution of (and access to) scarce, butdesirable, the “inplural” view extends to inequality aswell, encompassing not relationship between patterns of socialinequality and mobilities. Also, questions have avalid startingpoint, they canoverlook the reciprocal questions of spatial accessibility and economic affordability. While these of socialstratification canbeeasily neglected or narrowed down to • • meaning: society? Do they contribute to strengthening or reducing inequality in old ones? Do mobilities establish new socialcontradictions or eliminate t The second, less often discussed perspective isbased on the As outlined by Manderscheid (2009),amulti-dimensional The complex positioning of mobility withinthe broader context o

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43 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 44 Rethinking everyday mobility but alsothe wider responsibilities included inmobility management systemic level. They show not only the extent of mobility complexity urban and transportation planning when decisions are taken at the it isof paramount importance that these perspectives should inform what itmeans to different socialgroupings. always socially appropriated and situated, functioning inaccordance to of mobilities, astechnology itself isnot anenabling force perseand is perspective functions asacritique of the techno-deterministic concepts needs, and sociocultural composition of individual societies. This between their inprinciple capacity and the actually existing priorities, excluding, and stratifying phenomena, questioning the divergence the fourth perspective deals with questions of technologies asarbitrary, residentswell-off) of the peripheral areas. Inacomplementary way, which reduced the options of contemporary mobilities for the (less to the rampant patterns of social inequality and their spatial attributes, of vandalised Velib bikes (abike-sharing system inParis)asaresponse New York Times in 2009, which interpreted the unusually highnumber transmission of dominance were the theme of amuch cited article inthe symbolic meanings. Travel modes asafunction of asymbolic on power relations and assuch infusemobilities withcorresponding into account representations and discourses, which are inherently based them from doing so. participation itself inthe preferred sociocultural spheres, or prevents an individual or agroup to participate and even imagine (desire) mechanism for its reproduction, where its composition either enables and A a d is appr wit and influenced and (inc c Though we touched upon the question of inequality only cursorily, The third view focuses on the socialmeaning of movement, taking As such, motility can beviewed asaform of socialinequality or a onstrained gents, ecisions

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political processes. and itsessential connections withsocial,cultural,economic, and 5. • • mobility governance: profiles of experts are to operate incoordination at three levels of for governance officials when makinglong-term decisions. Allthese with the broader issues of modal split withinCIVITAS ELAN, asatool integrated mobility systems. We consider ourresearch efforts, dealing political (public) decision-making related to changing and introducing and public relations consultants, who are to establish the framework for fields of public opinion surveys and user(inhabitant) participation, conceptualists and theoreticians, aswell aspractitioners from the science. Thisdiscipline isto incorporate technical and sociological emergence of aspecific scientific discipline -urbangovernance transport networks with real “instruments” hasaccelerated the regions, and applying thisknowledge to integral and interchangeable implications of general socialtrends into mobility systems incities and

L evel personal health and environment protection), to abandon driving and take up cycling in connection with based identification with the proposed forms of mobility (e.g. users towards areflective-rational understanding and values- continuous, comprehensible, and convincing stimulation of persuasion it will be necessary to develop instruments for be honest -vice versa). Inthe context of education and particular, individual, and community interests (and –to persuasion –that the strategic goals are inharmony with especially direct users,witheducation and consensual techniques of inclusion and participation of the public, the tactical level should strive to ensure –by combining transport corridors by reducing the roadway available to cars), connected with mobility (e.g. planning bicycle lanes or public the long-term, broader socialtrends that are not exclusively of the users as closely as possible, while taking account of with means and goals that willmeet bethe collective needs mobility policy, adapted to the actual urbaninfrastructure, the strategic level should elaborate anambitious and coherent The difficulties of “translating” conceptual knowledge about the s o f mobilitygove r nan c e andit s

c hallenge s

45 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 46 Rethinking everyday mobility thematic subsets, whose validity we empirically tested (on some of integrated mobility paradigm canbedivided analytically into several the European territorial system. The potential range of the emerging integrated mobility inany national society or (city) region within a comprehensive selection of indicators to empirically measure operationally improve. us to reflect on how to research, substantiate, conceive, and finally basis and generalised background of different real situations, helping trends and perspectives. Briefly outlined, they are of course justthe elaborate the concrete local specifics of these generalised socio-spatial laboratories) of the Civitas initiative, followers should firstextensively policy measures from the so-called demonstration cities (or urban mobility patterns and the ways and pace of changing them. value orientations of the actors, which have astrong impact on existing are the nationally specific and locally deep-rooted differences inthe execution. An additional circumstance in managing the modal split particular modalities of tactical and operational consideration and contexts of different European countries, because these define the depending on the political culture, planning traditions, and local sectorial coordination of urbanand transport policies. that success predominantly depends on effective and efficient inter- sustainable urbandevelopment measures, HanjaMaksim(2012)notes complex planning procedures. Dealingwithquestions of implementing legislators, and regulators to meet these expectations, demands of mobility services inthe city, and the capability of planners, operators, • the users. the timely detection of emerging new mobility patterns among will have to bemonitored, especially from the standpoint of and changing the system to meet new, emerging circumstances concrete usefulness to the users. Complementing, expanding, economics, socialequity, maintenance, ecological criteria, and authorised operators willbenecessary from the viewpoint of the general sense.Continuous monitoring of the execution by viewpoint of transport inthe narrow sense,withmobility in implemented inthe execution of amobility system from the at the operational level, strategy and tactics should be Based on researches and conceptual consideration, we can list Consequently, when transferring and mirroring concepts and She alsonotes the impact of the large differences inpractice, The highly sensitive balance between the expectations of the users • • • • • • • • • • • • • surveys withinthe CIVITAS ELANproject: them) by means of a public opinion survey on modal split and other s 6. • • structural problem because: present among the lowest inthe European Union. Thisisaserious circumstances obstruct settlement and job mobility, which are at (smaller) municipalities and even more dispersed settlement. These is accompanied by atendency toward further fragmentation into the administrative territorial system hasremained unchanged, and is nearly finished, accessibility hasingeneral greatly increased, but sedentarity or settlement mobility. Now that the motorway network self-sufficiency, hasacurbing effect on working and especially living area. Butthissmallness, combined withdispersed settlement and local well asmaterial and immaterial goods) because of itsrelatively small of approximating integrated mobility (inthe movement of people as the Slovene territorial system isseemingly ideal from the viewpoint o

M c contemporary spatial management competences. infrastructures, transterritorial and transitive connectedness of mobility transport and communication technology, migrations and diasporas, mobility, travelling (leisure) and commuting (daily, job-related) access and availability of mobility networks, hypermobility, immobility and socialexclusion, new socialnetworks and mobile media, mobility rights and risks, environmentally sustainable and alternative forms of mobility, temporal-cost mobility matrices, mobile spatiality and temporality, obstructs the integral socio-spatial development of Slovenia, flexible and modernized, it makes itimpossible for social relationships to become iety: ode In the caseof Slovenia, we willstartfrom the following hypothesis: s s o ele f t c r ted avel andthe r e s ea rc h analy s y s tem o s e s f

and s o c ial val f inding u e s s

inSlovenian 47 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 48 Rethinking everyday mobility later stagnant population growth, the number of dwellings average isonly half that percentage (34%). Along with a low (17%) and (followed by Hungary, Romania, Denmark and Norway), while the EU the highest share of people living indetached houses –around 69% (2009), among the member states of the European Union Slovenia has compared to other territorial systems in Europe. According to Eurostat characteristics inSlovenia isthat itishighly fragmented and diverse, and symbolic representations. One of the essential spatio-demographic specific aspects of the perception of space inSlovenia, itssymbolisation orientations, aswe label them, constitute the essential characteristics and the mobility patterns resulting from it,show that “anti-urban” value based on the country’s historically rooted territorial development and to dynamic socialconditions. autonomy and responsiveness to the turbulent demands for adaptation parents), and itdoes not accelerate the strengthening of individual and groups (e.g. kinship, where young people keep on living with their • • houses, etc.) are included (see Hocevar, 2012). intended for habitation invarious buildings (apartment blocks, skyscrapers, detached (definition by the Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia). Allpremises that are been taken of alloccupied and unoccupied dwellings and dwellings for occasional use toilet, anteroom, larder, etc.) and with at least one separate entrance. Account has with one or more rooms, with or without appropriate utility spaces (kitchen, bathroom, 1 1000 m (gross) area of consumed land (building lot) per single house isaround is at least 15%lower thaninthe ruralenvironment. The average entire average net size of residential area percapita inthe urbanenvironment multi-dwelling construction (Drug,1999;Uršic and Hocevar, 2007).The individual housing construction consumes upto 15times more land than space, but in Ljubljana, Maribor, Celje, Škofja Loka and the coastal towns it isstillthe third highest inthe EU(behind Hungary and Romania). 2002) and although the share dropped to around 88% inthe pastdecade, were privately owned in Slovenia (Statisticni urad Republike Slovenije, increased sharply from 1960onwards. In2001,92%of allhousing units increased by 72%between 1971in2007,and the share of detached houses

integration. prevents processes of supranational (European and global) strengthens self-sufficient local interests and Our previousOur research attempts at investigating value orientations, Rigid mobility reinforces traditional socialnetworks of individuals In most Slovene towns the residential areas cover 2/3of the urban 2 W insuburban settlements, withatotal residential space between e define dwelling asany structurally unified whole intended for residence, � � � � 1 in Slovenia 3) (Hocevar, 2000;2004, Uršic and Hocevar, 2007). out on arepresentative sample of the Slovene population (See illustration interpretation of the public opinion survey “Spatial values, 2004”, carried urban values of the population. These findings are supported by the the Slovene territory and the use of space correspond with the anti- desired ways of living. The actual spatial dispersion of settlement in of Slovene society concerning the population’s settlement pattern and position the development and mobility indicators inthe value system concept (Rebernik, 2007: 30). unsystematically and without auniform urbanistor morphological former ruralvillages. Like elsewhere inSlovenia, these areas developed city of Ljubljana, which emerged through the gradual transformation of rural settlements inthe immediate vicinity of the central areas of the areas of unlicensed construction, later legalised, aswell as“urbanised” city of Ljubljana. Inthe caseof Ljubljana, these were initially residential houses, and low spatial use are typical even of individual areas within the with low population densities, prevailing freestanding single-family include less than35%of the population. Areas of dispersed settlement of the population. The 15urbansettlements withover 10,000inhabitants all settlements have less than500inhabitants and these are home to 35% the country’s population lives inthese 200settlements. Around 90%of only 200(or 3%)have the status of anurbansettlement and about half are outside the urbansettlements. Ofatotal of around 6000settlements, 200m The essential spatio-demographic characteristics outlined above 2 and 300m � Illustration 3:Preferred modes of urbanor ruralsettlement for living. 2 (Rebernik, 2007).Nearly halfthe dwellings inSlovenia � � Source: Uršic, Matjaž and MarjanHocevar, 2007. � � 49 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 50 Rethinking everyday mobility • with the objective morphological factors. These findings are: with various governance actions, and how allthese findings correlate patterns, motility externalities), the ways and pace of changing them actual modal split situation, the value orientations of the actors, mobility constellations isthus crucial for understanding the findings about the inclined perspective on urbanquestions, the respondents showed a motor vehicles afew years ago. Despite their otherwise very automobile terms of infrastructure (see illustration 4). perceived conditions for pedestrians are very well arranged in city’s perimeter partly explain the survey’s findings that the and the relatively short distances to becovered within the travel modes. Its densely concentrated historical citycentre as hasitcapacity for more efficient, inclusive and diverse enabling factor, which until recently hasbeen overlooked, goals of the CIVITAS ELANproject. Assuch itfigures asan a system of mobilities that isinprinciple compatible withthe The geographic and urbanconfiguration of Ljubljana requires The value system of the Slovenian population concerning spatial This perception also results from the closure of the city centre to Illustration 4: The perceived adequacy of Ljubljana’s traffic system for Source: Uršic etal.,2009. different usergroups. � • very unevenly focused. reduced for the already disadvantaged, showing that inclusiveness is traffic user groups: the urban accessibility factor has been additionally much less userfriendly ifwe focus on the handicapped or some other and paradoxically even inclusive mode. areas, re-structuring the city’smobility interms of amore differentiated the cityadministration hasactually excluded cartraffic from additional this asakind of conscious self-limiting. Since the survey was applied, areas withdistinct ambience and reflexive values, and we may interpret marked inclination towards further pedestrianisation of certain city Illustration 5:Preferred ways of usingmoney gathered withahypothetical congestion with ahypothetical congestion charge (see illustration 5). an example we refer to the preferred useof the money collected chief, and much appreciated, alternative for spatial movement. As 2011 and 2012),the city’sresidents consider bicycles to bethe context; following the findings of a later survey (performed in very problematic in2009)would allow for awhole new mobility development of itscycling infrastructure (which was perceived as relatively small,aproper adaptation of traffic spaces and further bicycles and itsusers favour them very much. Asthe cityis The city space of Ljubljana is hypothetically well adapted to It should alsobenoted that thissamepedestrian infrastructure is Source: Uršic etal.,2011. charging scheme. � 51 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 52 Rethinking everyday mobility dominant mobility categories. thus functions more asanegative definition inthe interplay of the supplementary benefit -no parking issues (see illustration 6).Cycling do play a role, but they are all secondary to speed and a bicycle’s speed. Environmental sustainability, personal health and recreation the samelogic that propels the useof automobiles inthe firstplace – • worsens the existing uneven mobility options. the principles of equal accessibility and inclusiveness, and actually bicycle rental points follows acertain logic, which diverges from trains. quarters of the population do not use suburban busesor would never consider using a city bus and more than three (excluding school-goers). Asmany as 40%of the population suburban levels, especially iflook at the active population of public transport isrelatively low, bothat the urbanand the citybusinfrastructure was appropriate, the actual use picture emerges. Although there was ageneral consensus that Moving ourfocus to the means of public transport, adifferent However, thisaffinityfor the useof bicycles curiously stems from It should alsobenoted that the spatial distribution of public Illustration 6:Reasons for bicycle usage inthe city. Source: Uršic etal., 2009. � seniors. claim that itssociability dimension plays asignificant role init useby the potential of public transport asanenabling factor, we support the the current useof public transport inthe region. talking about economically peripheral groups of userswhen discussing transport fees are anoften hotly debated issue shows that we are indeed and perceivably freer mode of travelling by car. The fact that public collective means of transport -instead of the individualised, private, ones who cannot individualise themselves symbolically and must use with lower education levels (see illustrations 7and 8).They are the and, inaddition to these two groups, the unemployed and people frequent usersare older, retired people or younger people, students, by a person’s position in the social stratification scheme, and its most developing public transport. transportation policy, which prioritised building motorways instead of city’s actual modal split isthus largely determined by the government’s based” ones (speed, schedules, frequency, ticket price, accessibility). The factor and much more based” (staff), dissatisfied with “objectively consistently satisfied withthe aspects of the service that are “human Illustration 7:Usage of public transport for work or school commuting, grouped by age. While the gathered data make ithard to draw conclusions about Consequently, the useof public transport islargely determined The respondents who used public transport were relatively and Source: Uršic etal.,2011. � 53 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 54 Rethinking everyday mobility • especially when taking into account the distances the commuters from time spent on the move isactually relatively low (see illustration 10), Illustration 9:The distribution of modes of transport for commuting to school or work. dominant form of transport (see illustration 9). urban configuration isnot adapted to automobiles asthe hugely closely by parking space issues. We may conclude that the quoted firstasthe biggest problem inLjubljana, followed According to a number of surveys, traffic jams are always On the other hand, however, the data tells usthat the average Illustration 8:Usage of public transport for work or school commuting, grouped by Source: Uršic etal.,2011. Source: Uršic etal.,2011. educational levels. � � that the time consumption listed below ishighly problematic. claim that Slovenia’s specific sedentary culture affects ourperception neighbouring towns –about halfthe respondents -have to cover. We may rooted inhard to detect reasons. an increasingly irrational choice for many people, and assuch must be relatively short distances the respondents had to cover, usingacaris (since other means of transport canbecheaper and faster) and the (see illustration 11).Further takinginto account time management used by asingle person percarfor work or school related travels 2011) and they were –againat aconsiderable cost –more or less were owned by 88%of respondents from the 2009survey (85%in keeping acarisconsiderable expense inalmost any household, cars of mobility inLjubljana and itswider regional hinterland. Although Automobile usefunctions asthe core attitude and value orientation Illustration 11:Number of passengers by carwhen commuting to school or work. Illustration 10:Average time usage for one-way commuting to school or work. Source: Uršic etal.,2011. Source: Uršic etal.,2011. � � 55 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 56 Rethinking everyday mobility 7. instance, Google maps. extending into the virtualworld withthe useof applications like, for more flexible means of transport, usingdifferent mobility modes, less sedentary life withasymmetric rhythms of obligations and endorse agenda isvalued relatively higher by younger respondents, who live a • stratification patterns established elsewhere. and aslight majority of them were men; thiscorresponds withthe in the demographic groups of people between 25to 45years of age, and socialmatrix of hisown, based on hislifestyle or “philosophy of This is the individual’s ability or competence level to create a mobility “network capital” and ispart of the wider principle of “social capital”. options, while taking account of objective limitations, isdefined as their individuals. The way people actually make useof the given mobility explained through the interlacing instrumental and reflexive actions of the socio-spatial network theory (Castells). Mobility complexity isfirst the mobilities paradigm (Urry), the motility concept (Kaufmann) and together different modern sociological and interdisciplinary concepts: between mobility and sociability. Contextual mobility attempts to bring movement inspace ingeneral, but inparticular on the interconnections by itsfocus on some important socialaspects of travelling and people’s

Con population. lifestyles, and socialnetworks of aconsiderable segment of the may result from the relatively archaic patterns of the economy, well-being, income use,or other relevant contexts, and this agendas, rational and holistic consideration of one’s personal spatial constraints. We notice indifference towards collective values, which stillrest on speed, individualism, freedom from and therefore have not been able to have animpact on mobility yet to become partof individual stances and public debates, sustainable traffic options. Certaindiscourses and themes have the disregard of questions about environmental costs and The presented “auto-mobility” paradigm ismirrored in In line withthis,we alsonotice that the contemporary mobilities Respondents who used acarto drive to work or school dominated The article addresses contextual mobility, which ischaracterized c l us ion where most people live inindividual houses, we examined the existing circumstances, including its dispersed settlement insmallsettlements, consideration. and draws attention to aseries of aspects that have to betaken into mobility management at the strategic, tactical, and operational levels, and traffic users.The article alsobriefly presents the challenges of dissemination of the project’s measures and results to the inhabitants extreme significance of automobility inSlovenia) play akey role inthe persistent specific values inpeople’s mobility patterns (e.g. the engagement inmobility strategies and to mobility management; here, Within the CIVITAS ELANproject, major emphasis isgiven to civil these essentially influence the success or failure of mobility strategies. account of the specific value systems of individual societies, because habits inSlovenia and itestablishes the highimportance of taking discourse is linked to the example of mobility patterns and travelling be perceived and used asplaces. The article’s conceptual sociological multi-purpose spaces, including socialones. Only then willsuch spaces should no longer betreated merely asinstrumentally transitive, butas space and time. From the aspect of spatial planning, these movements on mobility, butitincreasingly refers to daily, routinized movement in merely the domain of leisure travels, as is suggested by most literature relaxing, or other activities. Inthese cases,reflexive mobility isnot to socialize or to spend time on different activities, e.g.work, reflecting, mode or means of transport (e.g. train) may beconnected withhiswish responsibility). Butas we show inthe article hisdecision on histravel contextually, asacomponent of socialresponsibility (e.g. environmental destination, e.g.from point Ato Point B,ifhe considers the benefits Someone may choose alonger or even more expensive route to his (e.g. health benefits) or socialbenefits (environmental awareness). travelling” (walking, cycling), which assumes either personal benefits people’s reflexivity relates to the already asserted concept of “active orientation of every individual inagiven society. We established that not reflexive ones, which refer to the (e.g. environmental, social)value motives of mobility inthe senseof “asfastand as cheap aspossible”, but spatial-temporal and cost budgets may explain merely the instrumental article advances the thesis that the ordinary focus of travelling on increasingly influences the life courses of individuals and groups. The new forms of inequality are established insociety, because mobility higher competence levels canalsobeunderstood inthe sensethat living“, and takingaccount of the objective circumstances. Lower and In the light of the socialvalues inSlovenia and other socio-spatial 57 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered 58 Rethinking everyday mobility reflexivity of the inhabitants; they inturncaninfluence change inthe established, great mobilisation and demonstration importance for the the measures and activities of the CIVITAS ELAN project have, aswe the Ljubljana region thus reflects itswider socio-spatial circumstances; radically, transforming society’s value system. The mobility image of fruit unless the development paradigm of society asawhole changes and mobility management at the level of cities and regions cannot bear modern, regressive societies of atomised individuals. Mobility strategies social development and, on the other hand, the value systems of non- lifestyles withactive participation inthe long-term sustainability of communities, orientated toward combining people’s individualised the one hand, the value systems of modern, progressive societies and contextual mobility itisessential that we differentiate between, on one-dimensional (instrumental) or traditionalist way. To understand individual freedom of mobility choices isperceived inadistinctly mode remains deeply rooted inpeople’s value system, where the project and other researches reveal that automobility as a mobility The findings of the empirical researches withinthe CIVITAS ELAN who attribute to cycling different, not exclusively transitive meanings. travels with public transport for socializing as well, and young people in part a shift towards contextual mobility, are seniors who usetheir who do not have the option to use a car. Exceptions, suggesting at least transport isoften used by the lower classes, seniors, and the young, a classical stratification inthe useof mobility modes, because public mobility isnot significantly important to the users.The results reveal that one’s lifestyle and consequently reflexive perception of contextual frequency of usingmeans of public (city and regional) transport show socialising, environmental sustainability. analysis Our of the modes and mostly withefficiency (speed, cheapness), and quite less with health, instance, hasbeen increasing, butpeople continue to associate cycling part of the value patterns of the inhabitants. The role of cycling, for mobility matrix inthe Ljubljana region, and that ishasnot yet become One basic finding isthat contextual mobility isnot yet perceived asa in the territory of Slovenia and especially inthe Ljubljana region. project, and partly stem from previous surveys and mobility patterns with public opinion surveys performed aspartof the CIVITAS ELAN which formed the basis for our interpretation were partly acquired efficiency, inclusivity, and diversity of travelling modes. The data the success/failure of implementing mobility strategies aimed at higher circumstances have astrong impact on people’s travel habits and on travelling habits of the inhabitants of the Ljubljana region. Allthese Ministrstvo zaokolje inprostor, 1–48.Ljubljana: MOP. of Sl raziskava. (Values inspace: public opinion research). InProstor 54(1): 123–152. Attitudes over the residential space consumption inSlovenia. Sociologija the Concept of Motility: AQualitative Study. Mobilities 1(2):167–189. 225. 2008. European Trajectory and Coordination of Transport and Urban PlanningPolicy. Routledge. Re principles. entire Slovene society withachanged perception of modern mobility Oxford, Blackwell. economic status inScotland: Mark Beecroft and John Nelson. 2010.Walking, Cycling and socio- Inf r Transportation 33(5):463–480. propensity to perform socialactivities: Asocialnetwork approach. esearch. Ashgate: Aldershot. ovenije

f the ormation e r Hocevar, Marjan.2004.Vrednote vprostoru: javnomnenjska Hocevar, Marjan.2012.Dispersed settlement indetached houses: Flamm, Michael and Vincent Kaufmann. 2006.Operationalizing Canzler, Weert, Vincent Kaufmann and Sven Kesselring (eds.). Maksim, Hanja. 2012. Car-euphoria to Opening of the Borders: Ana Elliott, Anthony and John Urry. 2010.Mobile Castells, Manuel. 1996.The Carrasco, Juan Antonio and Eric J. Miller. 2006.Exploring the en

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ology. Aldershot: Ashgate. Inequ 27:17–38. Larsen, Jonas,Larsen, John Urry and Kay Axhausen. 2006. Kaufmann, Vincent. 2002.Re-thinking Kaufmann Vincent, Manfred Max Bergman and Dominique Joye. Rebernik, Dejan. 2007.Trajnostni prostorski razvoj in novejši Ohnmacht, Timo, HanjaMaksimand Manfred MaxBergman. Lyons, Glenn, Juliet Jain and David Holley. n.d.The useof travel Law, John. 2006.Disaster inagriculture: or foot and mouth Ohnmacht, Timo, HanjaMaksimand Manfred MaxBergman(eds.). Manderscheid, Katharina. 2009. Integrating Space and Mobilities Jain, Juliet. 2006.Bypassingand WAPing: Reconfiguring Timetables futur

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61 Contextual mobility and the new “mobility paradigm”: The nature of travel mode choices reconsidered LJUBLJANA I Several riverbanks of the Ljubljanica have been renovated in the past few years. LJUBLJANA I The city aims to reduce motorised traffic in the streets. Many areas have recently been turned into pedestrian zones.

LJUBLJANA I Two free-of-charge Kavalir electric vehicles operate in the pedestrian zones, based on a call-on-demand system, and their popularity is growing.

t 1. sensitivity of organizing transport, spatial planners are to adapt as it comes to the decisions about interventions inspace. Because of the level, which may betranslated into group power, i.e.influence when regard to aimsand expectations butalsoaccording to the acceptance These groups may have conflicting interests and differ not only in groups that are present inagiven space (Healey, 2003;Wilson, 2006). different (political, class, ethnic, cultural,capital) socio-economic management, where the objective isto harmonize the interests of the is inthiscontext perceived asaform of consultation or interactive groups of stakeholders. Planningthe mobility and transport system qualitative data and long processes of coordination between different in terms of socialand culturalvalues, and requires agreat deal of transport infrastructure inanurban area isavery sensitive undertaking yield more ‘informed decisions’ on interventions into space. Placing required is to connect population groups withplanning practices that merely ‘technical’ or formalized measures; much more often, what is in very rare situations canspatial problems actually besolved with that willwork to the benefit of the entire community. However, only urban policies, limitingnegative spatial processes and favouring such planning willfollow indetail the procedures and selected objectives of measurements and instruments. Isitassumed inadvance that spatial infrastructures, whose functions are determined on the basisof accurate as amerely ‘technical’ undertaking that positions adequate systems and r

T an I R nt Planning transport and mobility systems isalltoo often regarded AN sp THEME r PU od o SP r uc BLI t andmobility O tion –the S, R C P T BA

AND E RC RR r

E MOBILITY IE ole o P s RS TION y s tem f AND

s O bli F C S R c Y ELEVANT o HANGE S p TEM inion – sur S IDENTI S IN TAKEHOLDE vey

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65 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 66 Rethinking everyday mobility which are often connected withthe activism of civil socialmovements, not on actions’. Similarly, elements of self-organisation and self-action, It isa form of support to certain trends that is‘based on words but we see isapparent socialengagement that isnot realised inpractice. activism” (Gladwell, 2010;2011). like for instance professed (vs actual) opinions or so-called “passive a firstglance and canbeexplained withsocio-theoretical concepts, not surprising. The opinions of respondents are contradictory only at transport solutions, the discrepancies inthe respondents’ answers are rejection of the practical implementation of sustainable mobility and in the caseof professed support that iscombined withsimultaneous system and mobility practices. We must however emphasize that of respondents when considering desirable changes to the transport Ljubljana region often reveal apparent discrepancies inthe attitudes opinion surveys on the theme of organizing mobility and transport in transport practices into the population’s everyday life. the practical level, i.e.inattempts which tryto transfer sustainable simultaneous rejection of the implementation of these measures at sustainable mobility and transport development, combined withthe ELAN project, isthe highprofessed support for measures related to in the public opinion surveys carried outfor the needs of the CIVITAS orientations. One of these seemingly paradoxical situations, registered respondents bothaccept and reject certain transport development they alsoreveal certain seemingly paradoxical situations, where the range of clear opinions and attitudes to the ways of organizing transport, that the information gathered by public opinion surveys indicates a sufficient participation of different users/the public. Despite the fact for transport solutions and give voice to deprivileged groups, i.e. assure surveys can give orientations on how to prepare the processes of planning power relations between various groups of stakeholders, public opinion development priorities. Byidentifying the interests, needs, expectations, of the public injoint planning of mobility and determining transport an important instrument for ensuringahigher degree of inclusivity the entire community. limiting harmfuland favouring usefulspatial processes that willbenefit formal procedures and selected objectives of urban policies aimed at needs of different groups or users,while simultaneously adhering to the much aspossible to multiple aims,expectations, acceptance levels and In the caseof people’s professed opinions or passive activism, what The article presents in which way and, especially, why public Public opinion surveys asaconsultative mechanism canconstitute population of Ljubljana and the Ljubljana region. instruments and mechanisms would beworth using among the but also provide guidelines for solving these issues and suggest which the implementation of the principles of sustainable transport systems, attempt to reveal not only possible barriers and potential conflicts in opinions inpublic opinion surveys about mobility and transport issues butnot least,Last the findings deriving from the analysis of professed factors for favouring the most frequent means of transport –cars. will show which elements and mobility features constitute the key the usage of various transport modes. Inthe context of Slovenia, we surveys we willdraw on individual cost and benefit analyse regarding about agiven theme. respondents willvoice only partof their actual opinions or orientations (distrust, wishing anonymity, self-satisfaction, local conditions, etc.) really wants changes inhisor her environment; for avariety of reasons expectations. It isoften difficult to figure outhow strongly someone concepts that are not always in harmony with the respondents’ actual opinion surveys when they reveal specific value orientations, ideas, in the degree of social engagement iswell illustrated by public in the processes of changing one’s local environment. Thisdifference different from ‘wanting’to change itand becoming actively engaged the principle which points to putthat ‘wishing’ change something is context we candelimit passive activism from activism on the basisof professed wish to change the conditions inthe environment. Inthis activism ‘not much is expected’, because it is based merely on the implementation of changes inthe environment are low. From passive are absent inthiscase,and people’s expectations about the successful c 2. explicitly. ideas, and tacit information, which they do not reveal publicly or that their actual decisions are influenced by hidden factors, veiled into practice substantial modifications and changes occur, indicating practical level. the During attempts to translate expressed attitudes development themes that are inconflict withtheir responses at the opinions about anissue or attribute major importance to sustainable ity

P r In amore detailed explanation of professed opinions inselected In public opinion surveys respondents sometimes express o f e ss ed supp o r t f o r

sus tainable mobilitymea sur e s inthe 67 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 68 Rethinking everyday mobility physical implementation (see more inKos, 2002). spatial decisions: they are given only professed support, not the required legitimacy for etc.). Inthese cases,the “civil sphere” prevents the implementation of formal, systemic community (e.g. locating waste dumps, rehabilitation centres for drugaddicts, mosques, economic or culturalactivities inagiven area triggers strong opposition from the local into space are most evident inthe NIMBY syndrome, where locating certain social, 1 opinion leaders, interest groups) in specific urban areas. covert opposition from important stakeholders (local stakeholders, implemented due to the low level of legitimacy, feeble support, or overt/ level of professed opinions about interventions into space, cannot be interventions into space suggest that many decisions, taken at the solutions. be no conflicts inspatial planning nor stagnation inimplementing such suffice to implement more sustainable transport solutions, there would for their implementation in the field. If professed arguments would measures, itsoon becomes clear that thisisnot asufficient condition transport development facilitates the implementation of practical analyses. Although itappears that highprofessed support for sustainable which are often confused or even erroneously linked in public opinion between the categories of ‘professed’ and ‘legitimating’ statements, To understand the issue, itisessential to correctly define the differences professed support for these measures at the general, conceptual level? would lead to amore sustainable transport system inspite of their are people not willing to accept (legitimate) practical measures that which would lead to changes inmobility and transport systems. Why professed support and the actual, legitimating power of decisions, consequences for the local community. an illegitimate measure or potential danger that will cause unpredictable towards developing more sustainable forms of transport isperceived as by car. In this constellation of social conditions, every little change traditional, routine patterns of living, based on preferring transport a specific, informal socio-cultural system that isnot willingto change and a higher quality of life in the area, but their realisation is blocked by and that their implementation would contribute to better development sustainable mobility and transport solutions inLjubljana may becorrect this angle, itispossible that individual professed decisions on more adoption or implementation of certain professed decisions. Seen from reduce the project’s (Kos, legality” 2002:22–25),butonly prevents the events “itisquite clear that the lack of legitimacy does not abolish nor

The reactions and opposition of different socialgroups to These casesreveal the differences between expressing apparent, Th e differences between professed acceptance of and legitimating interventions 1 In these alleviate the present condition. problems inLjubljana and are thus infavour of certain changes to fr and t 2.1. indicate to improve Ljubljana’s transport system. Inthiscontext, the data as part of the CIVITAS ELAN project (Table 2) and which they consider sustainable mobility and transport solutions, which would beexecuted use of cars.They positively judge and support most of the measures of sustainable patterns of mobility (Table 1),which would reduce the 2009, 2011)are seemingly strongly infavour of more ecological and transport, carried outaspartof the CIVITAS ELANproject (2008, Ljubljana or the Ljubljana region. 2

ha 1. priority over othermeans oftransport 2. centre would reduce thetraffic burden inthecity 3. use thefundsfor newparking lots transport istoo costly,itwould bebetter to 4. financial incentives. employees to usepublictransport with 5. om the Table 1:Please state to what extent you agree/disagree withthe following statements. I

T E B A ve priorityover environment protection n transport solutionsefficiency must T he constructionofnewlinespublic mployers shouldencourage their transition from carsto publictransport icycles andpublictransport musthave he The respondents inthe surveys on the subject of mobility and r an pr 2 Th sp pu that the respondents are aware of the mobility and transport oblem e survey was carried outon asample of 1069persons (N=1069)living in o bli r t c s o s y o p s f tem in inion im p lementing mea sur Lju bl vey j ana andthe s intheC 463. 921. 5.3 13.0 19.2 37.9 24.6 . . 394. 38.0 40.1 13.9 6.6 1.4 . . . 7441.4 47.4 8.2 2.2 0.9 153. 841. 4.3 13.4 28.4 32.4 21.5 . 6.9 2.3 I totally sur IVITA

disagree e s Lju

f S o bl ELAN r

I disagree a j ana sus Source: Civitas Ljubljana, 2009.

pr r 14.8 tainable mobility o egion –e j

I neither agree e c

nor disagree t 2133.9 42.1 x

I agree am p le s I totally agree

69 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 70 Rethinking everyday mobility respondents maybe wish a different transport system, but at the same time for measures related to sustainable transport mobility suggests that the proposed by the CIVITAS ELANproject. Unselective or general support were rather unselective and generally supported most of the measures 9. 7. 13. 4. 11. 1. Constructionofadditional P&R(Park &Ride) 12. 8. 10. 6. A 5. I I I I ntroduction oftraffic obstacles (road bumps) ntroduction ofvignettes for entering thecity E dditional reduction oftraffic speedincertain ntroduction ofnon-stop publictransport (24 E ntroduction ofasystem ofone-way roads in time ofarrival ofbusesatthebusstops I nvironment-friendly buses(hybrid vehicles, I lectronic information displays showing the In favouring changes to Ljubljana’s transport system the respondents I ntroduction ofuniversal tickets for trains ntroduction ofpayable accessto thecity ntroduction ofaspecial“yellow lane”for centre by car(Congestion Charging) 2. 3. I I zones (e.g.to 30km/hr) ntroduction ofCarSharing ntroduction ofCarpooling electric vehicles) public transport the citycentre and buses hrs/day). facilities centre Table 2:Which measures would you support/oppose inLjubljana? 283. 891. 9.9 17.2 18.9 31.2 22.8 162. 831. 11.3 19.4 18.3 29.4 21.6 . . 304. 42.3 40.9 13.0 2.9 0.8 . . 003. 35.3 38.8 20.0 5.0 0.9 . . . 1160.1 31.1 7.0 1.3 0.5 . 882. 2313.5 32.3 29.9 18.8 5.6 . 593. 0814.2 30.8 34.9 15.9 4.2 . . 484. 36.2 41.0 14.8 5.6 2.4 172. 592. 10.3 29.5 25.9 22.6 11.7 . 732. 3316.5 33.3 25.6 17.3 7.3 . . 174. 40.8 41.6 11.7 4.9 1.0 . 773. 9211.9 29.2 36.4 17.7 4.7 . . 484. 38.9 41.4 14.8 3.8 1.1 I totally oppose

Source: Civitas Ljubljana, 2009. Idon’t support

I neither support nor oppose

I support

I strongly support negative impacts from the increased useof cars(Table 3). 4 and 5intable 2),and are even willingto tolerate ahigher degree of users are not willingto incur additional financial burdens (e.g. questions solutions into practice. The control questions reveal that the majority of questions’, which refer to the transfer of proposed mobility and transport the mobility and transport system isrevealed by the so-called ‘control substantial isthe legitimating support for measures related to change in accept transport measures that interfere with their daily routines. How the even bigger question is at what cost are they actually willing to respondents wish changes in the transport arrangement. Nevertheless, sustainable mobility and transport solutions inLjubljana indicates that the the effects, role, temporal feasibility and suitability of the introduction of would form the basisfor the respondents to better differentiate between tickets, road tolls) for accessing the citycentre by car. which means the introduction of various forms of payment (vignettes, concrete or ‘hard’, restrictive measures, like a“congestion charging fee”, car-pooling systems. Much less support or even opposition isdrawn for of P&R (Park and Ride) facilities and the introduction of car-sharing and measures, including improvements of public transport, the construction to sustainable transport system ismost pronounced withthe more ‘gentle’ mention here that unselective or professed support for measures related prevails over the wishes to implement the changes in practice. We must their answers reflect that the level of conformity offered by cartransport Table 3:Please state to what extent you agree or disagree withthe following statements. 4. 2. Crowds andnoiseare inherent to life incity 3. 1. T make meconsiderto move out of thecity he existing transport conditionsin I T ’d rather pay for accessto thecitycentre The absence of clear opinions, ideas or orientation points, which should bewidenedinto six-laneroads he city’sexisting four-lane accessroads than st op drivingthere centres L jubljana 793, 89843,9 8,4 18,9 30,9 37,9 392, 073, 7,6 31,4 20,7 26,6 13,9 313, 141, 2,9 11,6 21,4 30,9 33,1 161, 832, 15,5 24,9 28,3 19,7 11,6 I totally disagree

Source: Civitas Ljubljana, 2009. I disagree

I neither agree not disagree

I agree

I totally agree 71 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 72 Rethinking everyday mobility features like the value of goods, survival and individuality) continue to dominate. quality of living, and socialaffiliation), but“materialist” value orientations (based on (typically, these values putahigher emphasis on features like self-expressiveness, the in some East-European countries ashift is noticeable towards “post-materialist” values 3 region, butinSlovenia asawhole. value orientation value is particularly indicative for the respondents withastrong materialist 2004). Such inclination toward rejecting any additional transport cost present element alsoinother public opinion surveys (e.g. Hocevar, involving increased economic costs for transport usersisastrongly In thissense,we may add that the categorical rejection of measures the wider culturalsystem and process of socialisation (Urry, 1999). inherently connected to specific value orientations and rooted into cultural relations. Strong beliefs inthe benefits of the useof carsare daily routine of everyday life and would disruptthe existent socio- the anticipated reluctance toward any attempts that tryto change the more efficient and sustainable transport system may beexplained by Secondly, the resistance of citizens againstthe implementation of a the comfort, travel time and economic benefits provided by cars. accompanying services) that should offer reciprocal solutions to to relatively uncertain ‘carrots’ (e.g. excellent public transport and of driving lanes, congestion charging fee) prevails incomparison words –the useof very concrete ‘sticks’ (e.g. reducing the number could beexplained asalack of convincing alternatives. Inother practical implementation of more sustainable transport solutions divided into two groups. First, the reluctance of citizens toward the the reasons why respondents chose such pattern of answers may be burden to them. At this point, itshould betaken into account that categorically rejected allmeasures that would mean ahigher financial the city(e.g. reduction of the speed limitto 30km/h), the respondents principle supportive of other measures to reduce cartraffic flows in the quality of life (less airpollution, less noise, etc.). Although in this might inthe long-term bring about certain positive effects for increased payment for cartraffic inthe citycentre, even though flows. The respondents particularly rejected measures involving as possible economic costs and consequently even increase cartraffic dependence, amajority favoured changes that would cause aslittle respondents about concrete measures that would reduce car

When answering control questions, which queried the In hisanal yses of values inEuropean countries, Inglehart (1997)mentions that 3 , not only inthe area of Ljubljana and the Ljubljana ˇ be limited. respondents would stop travelling inthe cityifthe useof carswere to spatial-temporal rhythms or daily routines to usingacar, while 15%of noticing isthat over 40%of respondents adapt their daily activities and roads, and the lack of parking lots) (Table 4).Another element worth problems related to providing smooth traffic flow (congestion, crowded most about the traffic inLjubljana?” where most respondents mention solutions in Ljubljana. Take for instance the question “What annoys you accept the introduction of more sustainable mobility and transport phenomenon of passive activism and the low level of willingness to on carsasthe principal means of transport isacrucial reason for the use of cars.Besides fearing ‘money sanctions’, the severe dependence certain roads and motorways. enables the emergence of new socialspaces, which builds upthe flows of people on automobility. Automobility changes our perception of spatial-temporal dimensions and indeed closely linked withthe origin of socialpatterns of behaviours that are based on because of their dependence on cars;the increasing degree of automobilization is 4 culture”

The respondents’ answers draw attention to adeep-rooted “car Rang 10 12 11 8 6 9 3 2 5 4 7 1 4 U and a value system and lifestyles that strongly depend on the rry (1999: 1) refers to the Western civil societies as “societies of automobility” Poorly adapted publictransport for thedisabled D angerous drivingby othertransport users Poorly connected citybuslines E xcessive publictransport fees Congestions, crowded roads I Poorly laid-outcycle lanes nefficient publictransport I E nfrequent busschedule xcessive parking rates L T ack ofparking lots raffic annoyances A ir pollution N oise 28.0 63.6 22.3 20.4 45.9 26.1 21.3 16.4 17.5 9.8 9.6 8.7 % 73 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 74 Rethinking everyday mobility centre, buteven among the groups that do not usecar, the level of somewhat more opposed to paying any charge for access to the city use or do not use acarfor travelling to work (school). Caruserswere are no major differences between the groups of respondents which of vignettes or charges for access to the city centre shows that there including bothcarusersand public transport users(Table 5). the citycentre withthe answers of different groups of respondents, about the introduction of vignettes and other money fees for entering among others indicated by cross-examining the answers to the questions Table 5:Support for the introduction of charges for access to the citycentre by car-by 5. I equallyusetwo or more means oftransport The analysis of the answers to the question about the introduction How strongly the use of carsisrooted among the respondents is 16 13 15 14 G roup ofcarusers O ther groups: 1. 4. 3. 2. B I icycle T walk B rain us Table 4:What annoys you most about the traffic inLjubljana? Poor traffic conditionsfor pedestrians T he way irregular parking isfined T T oo highf oo lo w fines for motorists ines for motorists 08 87 77 19 10.9% 11.9% 27.7% 28.7% 20.8% 56 46 59 70 6.9% 17.0% 15.9% 34.6% 25.6% 42 05 92 37 12.3% 13.7% 19.2% 20.5% 34.2% 61 11 60 60 10.9% 16.0% 16.0% 31.1% 26.1% .%4.%1.%1.%17.6% 11.8% 17.6% 47.1% 5.9% 77 02 98 88 13.5% 18.8% 19.8% 30.2% 17.7% I totally oppose

Source: Civitas Ljubljana, 2009. I oppose Source: Civitas Ljubljana, 2009.

groups of respondents. I neither support not oppose

I support 5.6 4.9 7.8 3.1 I strongly support (psychological) emotional reasons, or money spent. costs, measured interms of time used, inputof physical effort, specific infrastructure (service) taperoff inline with increasing that may bring them either benefits or loss. The benefits of usinga Users thoroughly evaluate allpossible features of the infrastructure provision) that isavailable for daily travels to work, school, shops etc. in ourcase,selecting the most adequate traffic infrastructure (service costs. acceptance of the novelties would cause them too highor unnecessary to their mobility patterns when and ifthey consider that unconditional analysis and decide to circumvent, sabotage, or openly oppose changes process of decision-making. They draw on their own cost and benefit individuals make uptheir own scale of priorities and adhere to itinthe be the most appropriate means of transport inaspecific local context, information from hisenvironment. When considering which would individual’s own experiences or previous knowledge for processing the groups, other important information sources are undoubtedly the information they receive from the media, experts, and other reference they gather from different information networks. Inaddition to the influence their living environment largely depends on the information c 2.2. reject money sanctions for thisuse. respondents occasionally useacaror useitfor specific activities and Though they do not useacarfor travelling to work (school), many living environment, or by the occasional useof acarby these groups. lack of information about the long-term effects of cartransport on the other groups canbeexplained either by alow level of information, the of money costs connected withusingacarinthe citycentre among rejection of such measures was quite high.The highshares of rejection intrinsic socio-cultural characteristics (e.g. tradition, socialpressure, culturalpatterns). it isimpossible to define their exact influence on individuals, because they are related to majority of people as costs. Some aspects of a cost-benefit analysis cannot be measured or of daily commuting to and from work’, ‘daily waiting for transport’ are perceived by a be abenefit for other individuals. At the general level, some activities, e.g.the ‘duration personality. Inother words, what may for some individuals represent ahuge cost, may is formulated according to individuals’ internal perception of the costs, i.e. his/her 5

o s

P t andbene r A cost and benefit analysis or, isbased on elimination (taperingoff) Wha o f e Th ss t attitude people adopt towards traffic changes likely to e scheme of cost calculation isnot defined on astrictly rational basisbut ed attit f it analy u de s s e a s s by the c a r r e

su us lt o e rs f individ u al 5 The higher the 75 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 76 Rethinking everyday mobility (Table 6). the option which he thinkswillbring himmost individual benefits certain needs, buthe always chooses or isgently coerced to choose acts withinanenvironment that offers himdifferent options to satisfy if they choose to further ignore their own cost scheme. The individual of coercion inwhich individuals are not explicitly (by law) sanctioned transport for hisdaily activities. Structural constraint isamild form openly oppose changes or, asinourcase,to opt for other means of a different way of acting or decides to either circumvent, sabotage, or area of so-called “structural constraint” (Giddens, 1984)and chooses prevail over the profit or benefits, the individual finds himself inan analysis. After going beyond the point of balance, when the costs be pointless inview of the individual’s subjective cost and benefit of transport. Any further investment of time, effort, or money would alternative and financially more favourable options of using means i.e. the moment when the individual becomes aware that there are the balance point istherefore the ultimate moment for ‘sobering up’, balance between benefits and loss, hiscosts continue to increase, and his daily activities. Where the individual goes beyond the point of individual will choose another, more favourable infrastructure for costs, the lower the benefit and thisincreases the possibility that the may beirrational behaviour, butfrom the viewpoint of the average traffic congestion, etc.), as well asinthe long-term perspective, this parking lots, the construction of additional roads inthe citycentre, development (e.g. airpollution, the problems of usingup space for transport. From the viewpoint of sustainable mobility and transport region, where carsare the daily, i.e.most frequently used means of behaviour. For example, inthe context of Ljubljana and the Ljubljana important mechanism that explains apparently impractical or irrational character ofthematerial world and from thephysicalqualities Constraint derivingfrom the Table 6:Three typesof constraint which potentially limitanindividual’s behaviour. The concept of anindividual’s cost and benefit analysis isan M tra osrit( aterial constraint of thebody punitive responses onthepart of someagents toward others Constraint derivingfrom N gtv)cntan Structural constraint egative) constraint Source: Giddens, Anthony, 1984. structural properties vis-à-vis from the‘given’ character of Constraint derivingfrom the contextuality ofaction, i.e., situated actors of the power relationships between the authorities or formalized the objectives of transport planning. Arnstein’s classification (1969) users or the public in the planning procedures without endangering structures must consider to what degree itismeaningful to include the solutions abasic dilemma often emerges, where the institutional of strategies for including usersinplanning mobility and transport planning process of mobility and transport solutions. Inthe formation options different groups of stakeholders have to beincluded inthe conform to cultural patterns, people’s trust in institutions, and the characteristics inthiscontext are socialpressure, the demand to also various characteristics of the socialenvironment. Other important and benefit analysis may include, beside spatial or physical features, community and individuals. gradual or long-term deterioration of the qualityof life for the wider scenario that leads to the exhaustion of common resources and surplus isabandoned, opening the way for the autodestructive time, effort, and money. The result isthat the scenario of altruistic individual, who opts for altruistic behaviour, incurs higher costs in immediate benefits to the wider community; butat the sametime the opts for alternative options (bicycle, bus,train), does not yield any a single individual’s behaviour, i.e.when he stops usinghiscarand decrease the emission of greenhouse gases.Inthiscasethe change in good example are attempts to reduce the useof carsand consequently which Hardin (1968)describes asanautodestructive scenario. A wider community. Thismay lead to aso-called “people’s tragedy”, of people’s altruistic surplus are not immediately recognized by the term objectives of transport policies, where the immediate effects wider community. For instance, inthe caseof attempts to meet long- motivations direct people towards behaviour that isdetrimental to the community. Onthe other hand, there are situations where individual (Faulkner and Tideswell, 1997)he sacrifices for the well-being of the will benefit from his behaviour and recognize the “altruistic surplus” him loss inthe senseof costs, butthat the wider community asawhole the individual may establish that acertain kind of behaviour causes it brings either positive or negative consequences. Onthe one hand, benefit analysis works intwo directions and to the wider community it his most favourable means of transport. An individual’s cost and time, money, and effort) thanusingother means of transport, making rational and justified, because usinghiscarmeans lower costs (in user’s individual short-term cost and benefit analysis, it is quite It must bementioned here that the concept of anindividual’s cost 77 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 78 Rethinking everyday mobility between the actors inthe process of spatial planning (Illustration 1). systems and the usersshows the variety of forms of (non-)cooperation options to change transport or mobility habits. in the transport planning process, and this consequently reduces the own cost and benefit analyses include the costs of reduced inclusion lead to the autodestructive scenario, where individuals aspartof their the stakeholders and the formal system of spatial planning, this may users-consumers. If no suitable connections are established between as possible tension between the producers, planners, authorities and planning processes of traffic solutions to make sure that there isaslittle spatial planning. The essential question then ishow to coordinate the actors, allowing also‘bottom up’influences inthe different phases of full participation and ensures two-way communication between the the users.The third category isthe only one that grants the users using various techniques of informing, advising, negotiating with a one-way strategy of informing the usersina‘top down’ approach, The second category, that of symbolic power (tokenism), isbased on making always remain firmly withthe political and economic actors. of power inthe planning processes, because the levers of decision- category of non-participation provides the usersonly withanillusion participation and includes the two lowest rungs on the ladder. The wider categories. The firstcategory is that of low citizen power or non- into eight degrees (rungsof the ladder) that canbedivided into three Citizencontrol 8 Partnership 6 2 3 Placation 5 Consultation 4 7 1 The ladder of userparticipation inspatial planning isdivided D elegated power M I anipulation nforming T herapy Illustration 1:Arnstein’s ladder of userparticipation inspatial planning. D egrees ofcitizenpower D egrees oftokenism Source: Arnstein, Sherry, 1969. N on participation 3. period of time after their introduction (Graph 1). that the unpopularity of these measures dropped withinarelative short would reduce the cartraffic burden inthe citycentre, the data show and open opposition to the introduction of practical measures, which start of the implementation process. In spite of the high unpopularity implement such measures inspite of the negative public opinion at the transport measures exists, itis possible to introduce, i.e.practically environments, where professed support for sustainable mobility and of the introduction of acongestion charge show that incertain connected with sustainable transport solutions. Foreign examples overcome passive activism and facilitate the introduction of measures region. This opens up the question in what ways it may be possible to more sustainable transport solutions in Ljubljana and the Ljubljana of passive activism, which then blocks faster implementation of project show that deep-rooted automobility leads to the emergence more sustainable mobility and traffic solutions. from immediately accepting measures related to the development of from envisaged changes to their daily living routines prevents carusers People’s personal analysis of the short-term costs and benefits deriving enable the physical implementation of changes inthe real environment. substance’ or have not sufficient legitimating potential, which would passive activism, and that their professed opinions have no ‘real in everyday life. This stage often reveals that they merely engage in reveals their lack of actual willingness to change their mobility pattern participants, usersof traffic solutions that are beingimplemented – cost and benefit analysis, which they face at the practical level –as harmony withtheir view of life and self-image. Buttheir individual which they perhaps hold at the principle level and consider beingin explains why respondents sometimes strongly voice professed opinions,

O ve The results from the public opinion surveys of the CIVITAS ELAN Taking into consideration people’s cost and benefit analyses rc oming p a ss ive a c tivi s m 79 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 80 Rethinking everyday mobility introduced its congestion fee with the aim of acquiring funds for the followed by areferendum on the justification of the measure. Trondheim a congestion fee after an initialtrialperiod that was immediately initial opposition of most respondents. Similarly, Stockholm introduced mayor aspartof hiswinningelection programme and inspite of the measures connected withmore sustainable transport system. to recognize the long-term positive aspects and benefits of the new cost and benefit analyses –was over acertain period indeed capable to them –because of the increased money burden intheir individual confirm that asegment of the population that was initially opposed of measures related to congestion charging inselected cities, we can conceived plan of interventions into space. Inthe case of implementation only emerges when “unexpected” events occur, upsetting the initially social behaviour, are relegated to the background; their importance the forefront, while the non-physical categories, related to time and AND time”. The physical nature of space isalltoo often pushed into above definition of spatial planning they should be“experts on space largely as “spatial experts”, even though in accordance with the Graph 1:Comparison of public opinion support before and after the introduction of a In London, the congestion charging scheme was introduced by the Kos (2002: 30) explains that spatial planners present themselves Sources: Trondheim Toll Scheme, 2011and Transport for London, Congestion congestion charging fee (CCT) inLondon and Trondheim. Charging, 2011. urban region not affect justlocal communities, butthe qualityof life inanentire comprehensive approach to mobility and transport problems, which do effects of changes transport systems. Thisinformation must include a them withsufficient information about the positive and negative responsible institutions, economic/political representatives) provide importance whether the implementers (spatial/transport planners, the positive effects of initially unpopular measures, itisof extreme various European cities show that for the inhabitants to recognize with the introduction of measures like acongestion charging fee in a certain period. Furthermore, the findings based on experiences to establish where problems and obstacles are likely to arise after and “identify the externalities” (Tietenberg, 1994:36),i.e.attempt spatial planning should include acomponent of long-term planning of more sustainable transport solutions. Moreover, the process of group would lead to conflicts and open opposition to the introduction incorrect distribution of the costs among the members of asingle economic, political) groups are roughly equally represented, since solutions we must make sure that the interests of different (social, in the public opinion’s inclination. mobility programs, indicating their sensitive nature and possible shifts faced similardilemmas when tryingto implement specific sustainable spite of their different contextual characteristics the selected cities London and Stockholm have excellent public transport networks. In fell below 50%.It has to benoted that incomparison to Ljubljana both on the city, and the share of respondents who opposed the introduction as people recognized the advantages of the reduced cartraffic burden one year after its introduction the measure had gained major support passing through the citycentre. Inspite of the initialstrong opposition, construction of urgently required bypass roads for the transittraffic – which issimultaneously environmentally damaging–isanexcessive most illustrative example of the negative impact of cartraffic on cities term contribute to ahigher qualityof life for allpopulation groups. The the burden in the individual’s cost and benefit analysis, but in the long follow for initially unpopular measures, which may at firstincrease are identified by the majority of the population, greater support will system willbring about at different levels of everyday life. illustrative presentation of the effects and consequences of the changes the new traffic inhabitants and traffic users in planning new sustainable transport solutions, as well as an 6

During theDuring process of spatial planning for mobility and transport This in 6 . Only when the negative effects of ‘cardependence’ volves bothahigher level of inclusivity and participation of the 81 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 82 Rethinking everyday mobility a 4. adequate sustainable transport measures. the way of threatening people’s health trigger the implementation of physical presentation of the negative or coercive effects, which by system, aswas the caseinTrondheim, canbeequally efficient asthe the positive effects of introducing measures for asustainable transport What should bementioned here isthat apreventive presentation of stop to allmotorised transport for several days (inthe winter of 2005). for a longer period and a state of emergency was declared, including a introduced when the level of pollution exceeded critical pollution levels instance, the ECOPASS system (restricted access of carsto the city)was level of pollution, which canaffect allpopulation groups. InMilan,for project that strives to enhance the qualityof life inLjubljana and the in the real environment, isinthissense of primary importance for any groups, which would enable the physical implementation of changes Gaining sufficient legitimating potential from the most antagonistic various stakeholders, rangingfrom supportive to antagonistic groups. term process butalsoinclude various phases of socialdialogue with planning for mobility and transport solutions should not only be a long- development isover alonger period. The selected examples show that planning, and how important the choice of a correct strategy of transport Trondheim, show how important the element of time isinspatial Two examples of the introduction of acongestion fee, London and measures connected withsustainable mobility and transport solutions. possible to overcome passive activism and facilitate the introduction of routines of carusersor cause them anadditional ‘financial burden’. concrete measures which would inpractice interfere with the daily which isbestillustrated by the data showing strong opposition to any to the emergence of strongly professed attitudes, i.e.passive activism, strong dependence on mobility patterns based on caruse.This leads Even groups which do not useacaron adaily basisoccasionally express is deeply-rooted withinvarious groups of stakeholders inLjubljana. transport inLjubljana. The results show that the element of automobility individual’s cost and benefit analysis isinthe context of mobility and CIVITAS ELANproject show how complex the mechanism of an c

Con tive The analysis of data opens upthe question inwhat ways itmay be The analysis of data from the public opinion surveys from the c p l a us r ti ion c i p s a –thet tion in r s an olving mobilityandt s ition fr om pr o f e ss r ed attit an sp o r u t de pr s oblem to s processes. Conventional participation strategies include, for instance, direct inclusion of the users(bottom-up approach) inspatial planning largely involve disseminating information to the public, and not on in recent years, asitcontinues to focus on conventional methods, which institutions. The range of participation strategies hasseen little change while the levers of power remain firmly inthe hands of formal into space, the usersinSlovenia are granted mainly symbolic power, Arnsteins’ ladder of the power relationships regarding interventions solutions inLjubljana, the Ljubljana region and Slovenia. Considering undoubtedly the weak spotof the present system of planning transport the implementation of sustainable mobility and transport solutions. the citizens of Ljubljana and the Ljubljana region inmatters related to for animmediate increase, i.e.intensification of strategies to include attitudes shown inthe analysis of public opinion surveys (2009)calls citizen participation inspatial planning. The effect of strongly professed spatial planning, which tryto ensure the highest possible level of active methods and for increased consideration of postmodern concepts of countries typically callfor abreak away from modernist planning it isroughly true that the economically highly developed European the different approaches to the interaction between society and space, and consequently encounter different kinds of problems. Regardless of individuals and local communities regarding interventions into space space. Indoing sothey, they may give more or less consideration to include or determine the level of interaction between society and which through their formal, institutionalised systems invarious ways is indeed clear that there are several political and economic systems, of dialectic interaction between society and space” (Soja, 1995).It Spatial as well as transport planning is thus perceived as the “product individual acts of people, marking aspecific location at agiven time. spaces are asymbolic reflection of values, socialbehaviour, and the Postmodern approaches are based on the assumption that all urban a highlevel of mobility, aswell asahighqualityof life inthe cities. to include asmany different views aspossible inorder to ensure would lead to smoother traffic flows, postmodern approaches attempt considered to bebased on self-evident support for measures that should beintroduced. be modified and new forms of spatial planning for transport solutions that the existing approaches to mobility and transport issues should Ljubljana region. Inthiscontext, the evidence from the data suggest The aspect of ensuringahigher level of citizen/user participation is While modern approaches to mobility and transport issues were 83 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 84 Rethinking everyday mobility they plan inthe transport system. if they wish to avoid the potentially excessive costs for each change of their insistence on the ‘higher’ objectives of formal transport policies adapt their communication strategies to various stakeholders regardless needs emerge. Assuch, mobility and transport planners willhave to in the communication between planners and users,ifand when such concern the improvement of amechanism that would reduce the gap yet unknown needs of individuals in planning transport solutions, but problem do not stem from the direct inclusion of the unexpected or as individual adaptations to the current conditions. The solutions to this users and the potential conflict withthem inSlovenia result from system to (post)modern trends. Inthiscontext, the sensitivity of car considered asanimportant force for changing and adapting transport conflict inplanning for sustainable mobility isinevitable and hasto be response to amodified transport system. Actually, acertain level of the undesirable socialinfluences which appear from time to time in and transport problems do not suffice and that they cannot eliminate and do not seek connections withthe wider environment and society. physical and temporary solutions for individual transport situations orientation of formal interventions into space, asthey consider only pseudo-planning of mobility and transport in Slovenia is the narrow change the habits of carusers.The biggest problem deriving from the indicated in the frequent (micro) conflicts accompanying attempts to therefore allthe more sensitive to changes insocialbehaviour, asis planning transport systems inSlovenia are relatively ‘immature’ and The respondents’ ‘schizophrenic’ answers show that the mechanism for the institutions that deal withplanning mobility and transport solutions. of information or poor communication between the transport usersand system inLjubljana, indicates people’s distrust,butabove alltheir lack rejection of the implementation of measures for asustainable transport stage and failto have animpact. level of userinvolvement inspatial planning are asyet inthe initial and public investigations. Approaches that would allow for ahigher analyses inthe media and, incertain cases,consultative referendums exhibitions, public debates, various publications of statistical data At this point it is clear that direct, physical solutions to mobility Unselective professed support, combined withsimultaneous Fakulteta zadružbene vede. (3. t Re Princeton University Press. monitoring community impacts of tourism. commons. Journal performance inintelligent agent-based simulation of the tragedy of the cultural, economic, and political change in43 Center zaprostorsko sociologijo. Theory 1243–1248. newsdesk/2011/02/does-egypt-need-Twitter.html, 12.10.2011. Y fact_gladwell, 12.3.2011. Theory T not betweeted. The he ourism 5(1):3–28. orker f

American r f azno Arnst Kos, Drago. 1993. Racionalnost Faulkner, Billand Carmne Tideswell. 1997.Aframework for Deadmann, Peter. 1999. Modelling individual behaviour and group Inglehart, Ronald. 1997.Modernization and postmodernization: Healey, Patsy. 2003.Collaborative PlanninginPerspective. Planing Hardin, Garrett. 1968.The tragedy of the commons. Science 162: Gladwell, Malcolm. 2011. Does Egypt need Twitter? http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2010/10/04/101004fa_ Hocevar, Marjanand Drago Kos. 2004.Vrednote Gladwell, Malcolm. 2010.SmallChange –Why the revolution will Giddens, Anthony. 1984.The en . Available at: http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/ 2:101–123. c of � e

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85 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders 86 Rethinking everyday mobility So transporation planning paradigm. Transportation 1:1–31. Center zaprostorsko sociologijo. t Lju Hocevar and Anže Zorman. 2009.Koncno 10. 11.2003. Available at: http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/sociology/soc008ju.html, izbo Trcek and Anže Zorman. 2011.Javnomnenjska za družbene vede. javnomnenjs York: HarperCollins. and Catherine Gibson, 125–137.Oxford: Blackwell. Restructurings of Los Angeles. InPostmodern London: Brown and Benchmark. Hocevar. 2010. Potovalne pr por Center zaprostorsko sociologijo. akse. Ljubljana: Univerza vLjubljani, Fakulteta zadružbene vede, ostora. Ljubljana: Fakulteta zadružbene vede. urc � bljani � ocilo ljšanja Wilson, Richard. 2006.Assessing comunicative rationality asa Uršic, Matjaž, Simona Zavratnik, Franc Trcek, Drago Kos, Marjan CIVIT Uršic, Matjaž, Simona Zavratnik, Drago Kos, MarjanHocevar, Franc Urry, John. 1999.Automobility, Tietenberg, Tom. 1994.Environmental Kos, Drago. 2002.Prakticna Soja, Edward. 1995.Postmodern Urbanization: The Six Kos, Drago, Simona Zavratnik, Matjaž Uršic, Franc Trcek inMarjan Russel, Ruth. 1996. Pastimes: e s

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Sc heme. 2011.Available at: http://www.trondheim. on. 2011.Congestion Charging.Available at: 87 Public perception of changes in ljubljana’s transport and mobility system – identifying key themes, barriers and relevant stakeholders LJUBLJANA I Experts have tested pure plant oil for vehicle propulsion in laboratory conditions and in practice.

LJUBLJANA I Ljubljana is striving to improve freight delivery conditions. To this purpose, a freight delivery portal with a simulation planning tool has been established. LJUBLJANA I 20 new, modern CNG and 5 hybrid buses are driving on the streets of Ljubljana, contributing to a cleaner and less noisy environment.

1. CIVITAS ELANproject 2009–2012) illustrates that thisexcuse holds for Bhat, 2004). Asurvey among residents of Ghent (conducted withinthe travelling or commuting by bicycle (Dickinson etal.,2003;Stinson and cyclists often mention having to travel long distances asanexcuse for not choices (Moritz, 1998;Zacharias, 2005;Pucher and Buehler, 2006).Non- distance likely results incycling having amuch higher share inmode houses inaneighbourhood reduces travel distances. Adecrease intravel of land usesor functions such asgrocery stores, offices, schools and et al.,2005;Pucher and Buehler, 2006;Litman,2007).Having amixture bicycling (e.g. Cervero and Duncan,2003;Pechora etal.,2003;Moudon zones such asstatistical wards or traffic analysis zones, likely encourages many studies point out that increasing land use mixing, aggregated in environmental data to characterize the builtenvironment. For example, locations. the location of these activities and the design characteristics of these seems commonsensical that travel patterns might bealtered by changing recreating, which are inmost casesspatially separated. Consequently, it travel inorder to access activities such asliving, working, shopping and 2003; Krizek etal.,2009;Heinen etal.,2010).After all,people mainly review specifically on cycling see e.g.Handy etal.,2002;Saelens etal., Bartholomew and Ewing,2009)such asmode choice and cycling (for a see e.g.Ewing and Cervero, 2001;2010;Van Acker and Witlox, 2005; the builtenvironment and aspects of travel behaviour (for areview

I nt The greater partof these studies usesaggregated or macro- Many studies tryto model and measure the relationship between r od uc tion I W ANT Begga VanBegga Cauwenberge, Frank Witlox BIKEABLE Veronique Van Acker, EliasDeVos,

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HO W ? 91 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? 92 Rethinking everyday mobility 2. the Department of Geography at Ghent University incollaboration Finally, the results are summarized and discussed inSection 4. with excellent respectively poor bicycling infrastructure and facilities). analysis identifying “green spots”and “red spots”(or neighbourhoods with astatistical analysis of the results before discussingageographical methodology are illustrated inthe third section. Thisthird section starts of calculating aninfrastructure-based bikeability index. The results of this systematic, infrastructure-based bikeability index. strip, etc.). Thispapertherefore illustrates the construction of such a simple marked path or additionally raised path, width of the separation thorough evaluation of the condition of thisbicycle path (e.g. width, et al.,2010)account for the presence of abicycle path, but without a indices (e.g. the Bikeability and Walkability Evaluation Table of Hoedl account the condition of the bicycle infrastructure itself. Some bikeability only the distance to facilities, bikeability indices should alsotake into of bicycle path, bicycle sheds, etc.) ismissing.Instead of focussing on neighbourhood if a safe bicycle infrastructure (width and safety aspects example, there isno guarantee that people willopt to cycle inamixed it isto cycle and do not evaluate the bicycle infrastructure itself. For distance. However, such indices do not measure how safe or how easy a specific neighbourhood is for cycling to facilities within bikeable at www.walkscore.com). Such indices mainly focus on how attractive developed by McNeil, 2010 –or similarly for walking the Walkscore facility typewithinaspecific distance threshold from the origin location offices and schools (e.g. arating method usingcounts of destinations by the neighbourhood to important destinations such asgrocery stores, surprise that most bikeability indices are based on the distance from Considering the importance of travel distances incycling, itisno and try to rate various neighbourhoods according to their bikeability. what makes aneighbourhood bikeable (e.g. Winters and Coopers, 2008) environment and cycling, policy makers and academics tryto find out (Heinen etal.,2010). commuters. Travel distances canthus be adaunting factor for bicyclists 30.3% of non-cycling commuters, compared to 16.5%of regularly cycling

M ethodology –anin This section describes the approach developed by researchers of The paperisorganized asfollows. Section 2presents the methodology Because of this–at firstsight logical –relationship between the built fr a s t ruc t ur e-ba s ed bikeabilityinde x 2.1. overview of the infrastructure-based characteristics of bicycle paths. with the mobility department of the cityof Ghent to obtain aquick cycling (Winter etal.,2011). with motor vehicles. Such items are likely to influence the likelihood of refer to safety aspects of bicycle paths, route conditions and interaction summarizes allitems mentioned on the scoresheet. These items mainly handbook (Ministerie van de VlaamseGemeenschap, 2006). Table 1 Government related to bicycle facilities and described in a cycling scoresheet are predominantly based on guidelines from the Flemish segment on ascoresheet. The infrastructure-based items listed on this a specific infrastructure-based item for every street and bicycle path observers cycled down astreet and recorded the existence or value of area isimportant for cyclists (mainly commuters and students). The especially inthe area of the mainstation, Gent Sint-Pieters, asthis Ghent administers allroad works. Data were collected for bicycle paths road characteristics inwhich the mobility department of the cityof Information System (“Wegen Informatie Systeem”), aGIS withbasic and bicycle path segments. These segments are derived from the Road and evaluated the infrastructure-based characteristics of 298 street Cycling direction

B Ste icycle facility In Oct Width p I tem 1: T e rr ober and November 2009,five observers cycled 49,760km ain analy width ofthebicycle facility including rsneo n yeo iyl ah1=present over theentire lengthof presence ofanytypebicycle path cycling direction alongthebicycle s signposting andcurb i s D escription facility B icycle path 3 =nobicycle facility present 2 =partly present measured incm 3 =notpresent 2 =bothways the segment 1 =one-way Scores 93 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? 94 Rethinking everyday mobility Width ofseparation Raised bicycle path Parking hindrance Screening type A B ccentuation Screening Condition icycle shed M Parking T strip arking ype presence ofanytypesignposting maintenance (e.g.,nofallen leaves, car parking inrelation to bicyclists how muchcm’sthebicycle path is presence ofanytypescreening (e.g., noloosetiles,holes)and raised compared to theroadway general conditionofthebicycle width ofthespace between the presence ofaspecific typeof bicycle path andtheroadway path related to passableness specif presence ofbicycle parking a akn loe rnt 1=allowed (parking lane,parking car parking allowed ornot specific typeofscreening ctp fbccept 1=bicycle path marked by adifferent ic typeofbicycle path moss, weeds) accentuation B icycle parking Car parking 4 =badly passable, badly maintained separate bicycle path (“vrijliggende 3 =badly passable, well maintained 2 =well passable, badly maintained 1 =well passable, well maintained 5 =bicycle street (“fietsstraat”) colour (“fietssuggestiestrook”) (“aanliggende fietsstrook”) 3= 2 =other(othermaterial than 4 =bicycle road (“fietsweg”) 2 =adjacentbicycle path 3 =closedpartition 2 =nohindrance 2 =fixed objects measured incm measured incm 4 =parking lane 2 =notallowed 2 =notpresent 1 =notpresent 1 =notpresent 1 =red coating 1 =hindrance fietsstrook”) 1 =unpaved 2 =present 2 =present 1 =present places ...) roadway) segments withabicycle path versus 63segments without abicycle path). outside aZone 30).Ofallsegments inaZone 30,the majority still hasabicycle path (218 these segments issituated inaZone 30(281segments inaZone 30versus 17segments 1 2.2. and other items. recoding rules related to their condition, carparking, bicycle parking without a bicycle path but within a Zone 30 is thus only based on the path related items would bemissing. The bikeability index for streets 30, would have low scores on the bikeability index since allbicycle be neglected, streets without abicycle path, butsituated withinaZone and non-motorized users.Ifthislinkwithspeed limitregimes were to the maximum speed limitof 30km/hallows mixed traffic of motorized (“Zone 30”).Inprinciple, there are no bicycle paths inaZone 30since only hold for bicycle paths instreets withspeed limitsover 30km/h recoding rules in Table 2). We have to note that some recoding rules scores must berecoded into values between 0and 1(according to the

B B O V icycles athouse O

icycles outside Ste arrangement ccupancy rate G isible defects ther remarks Before abikeability index canbecalculated, the initialobserved reen space Parking façade Table 1:Summaryof allinfrastructure-based items mentioned on the scoresheet. p shed 2: 298 str D a ta pr eet and bicycle path segments were evaluated. The greater partof o 1 ratio between thenumberofbicycles

bicycles parked outsidethebicycle c bicycles parked athousefaçades bicycles are arranged intheshed any visibledef in thebicycle shedandthetotal number ofparking placesinthe e presence ofanygreen space ss ing other remarks bicycle shed shed shed ects ofthebicycle O ther 1 =yes 1 =yes 1 =yes 1 =yes 1 =yes 2 =no 2 =no 2 =no 2 =no 2 =no % 95 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? 96 Rethinking everyday mobility Width ofseparation strip B Raised bicycle path icycles outsideshed A Parking hindrance B Cycling direction rranged parking? O B V icycles athouse A B ccupancy rate isible defects icycle facility ccentuation Screening Condition icycle shed M façades Width T arking ype bicycle path not present maintained marked by passable, similar to < 150cm roadway < 25cm another ≥ 100% colour badly badly yes yes yes yes no no no no no .505 .51 0.75 0.50 0.25 0 B maintained icycle parking B Car parking passable, icycle path badly well both ways [150 -175[ [25-50[ maintained passable, badly well maintained passable, ≥ 175cm different ≥ 50cm roadway one-way all other present < 100% types from well well yes yes yes yes yes no no no no and sosafety is1/3asimportant asthe general condition. means that the general condition isthree times asimportant assafety most important level inthe hierarchy, itreceives apriority of 1/3.This the other level) isused. Since we consider safety aspects asthe second levels are equally important) to 9(one level istotally dominated by assigned to each level relative to the other levels. Ascale from 1(both safety to bethe second most important level. Priorities must then be and marking) refer to safety aspects of abicycle path. We consider width of separation stripscreening, raised bicycle path, accentuation bicycle path items (bicycle facility, cycling direction, width, type, relative to thismost important item (see Table 3).For example, all most important item. The importance of the other items isexpressed approach, the general condition of the bicycle path isconsidered the in the hierarchy consists of only one (most important) item. Inour determining a hierarchy of all infrastructure-based items. The top level comparison of each item (Saaty, 1977).The Saaty method startsby weights were assigned based on the Saaty method which isapairwise important and weights must beassigned to each typeof item. These Furthermore, not all infrastructure-based items are equally 1. G 2. Safety aspects G reen space eneral condition H ierarchy For streets segmentswithabicycle path no I Width ofseparation strip fatutr-ae tmPriority(relative to condition) nfrastructure-based item Table 2:Recoded scores per infrastructure-based item. Cycling direction B icycle facility Screening Width O State T ype ther 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1 yes 97 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? 98 Rethinking everyday mobility pairwise comparisons). However, calculating an index needs relative priority of aspecific infrastructure-based item (i.e.,the sumof all as anexample). The sumof allpriorities by column isthe total absolute comparison (see Table 4,only for street segments withabicycle path 2. 3. Comparison matrices are then formulated for each pairwise E E 1. 5. Pleasant cycling 4. Pleasant cycling xtra bicycle amenities xtra bicycle amenities G eneral condition 3. 4. H H indrance indrance For street segmentswithoutabicycle path B B icycles athousefaçades icycles athousefaçades Table 3:Initialweights according to the Saaty method. B B Raised bicycle path icycles outsideshed icycles outsideshed A A Parking hindrance Parking hindrance O O rranged parking? rranged parking? V V ccupancy rates ccupancy rates A B B G G isible defects isible defects ccentuation icycle shed icycle shed condition reen space reen space M Parking arking 1/9 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/3 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/5 1/7 1/7 1 • based on these total relative priorities: with allother items. The calculation of the bikeability index is thus are thus assigned to each item by apairwisecomparison of that item segments withabicycle path asanexample). Total relative priorities translated into total relative priorities (see Table 5,only for street weights for each item and thus the total absolute priorities must be • 2 extr par str arr

eet anged king a

Bikeability index (for street segments withabicycle path) green space. + bicycles at house façades) +0.01parking hindrance +0.01 + accordingly parked +occupancy rate +bicycles outside shed accentuation +marking) +0.03(bicycle shed +visible defects width of separation strip+screening +raised bicycle path + = 0.18condition +0.08(cycling direction +width +type Bikeability index (for street segments withabicycle path) amenities +0.01hindrance +0.01pleasant cycling = 0.18condition +0.08safety aspects +0.03extra bicycle

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99 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? 100 Rethinking everyday mobility B Width ofseparation strip icycles athousefaçades B Parking (hindrance) Raised bicycle path A icycles outsideshed Cycling direction ccordingly parked O V A B ccupancy rate G isible defects ccentuation Screening Condition icycle shed reen space M Width SU T arking ype

M 1 33 33 33 33 33 33 13.32 13.32 13.32 13.32 13.32 13.32 13.32 .030 .030 .030 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 .002 .002 .002 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 .303 .303 .303 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 .303 .303 .303 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 .303 .303 .303 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 .303 .303 .303 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 .303 .303 .303 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 .303 .303 .303 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 .010 .010 .010 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .010 .010 .010 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .010 .010 .010 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .010 .010 .010 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .010 .010 .010 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .010 .010 .010 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .010 .010 .010 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .010 .010 .010 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 .401 .401 .401 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 Cycling direction

Width

Type

Width of separation strip

Screening

Raised bicycle path

Accentuation Table 4:Comparison matrix inwhich each infrastructure-based item iscompared to all 33 .96.33.33.33.33.33.33.399.00 35.53 35.53 35.53 35.53 35.53 35.53 66.33 5.09 13.32 .010 .050 .050 .050 .09.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 7.00 1.00 3.00 .001 .003 .303 .303 .33.00 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.33 1.00 0.14 0.20 .302 .010 .010 .010 .05.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 0.20 0.33 .302 .010 .010 .010 .05.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 0.20 0.33 .302 .010 .010 .010 .05.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 0.20 0.33 .302 .010 .010 .010 .05.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 0.20 0.33 .302 .010 .010 .010 .05.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 0.20 0.33 .302 .010 .010 .010 .05.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 3.00 0.20 0.33 .003 .030 .030 .030 .07.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 5.00 0.33 1.00 .003 .030 .030 .030 .07.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 5.00 0.33 1.00 .003 .030 .030 .030 .07.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 5.00 0.33 1.00 .003 .030 .030 .030 .07.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 5.00 0.33 1.00 .003 .030 .030 .030 .07.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 5.00 0.33 1.00 .003 .030 .030 .030 .07.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 5.00 0.33 1.00 .003 .030 .030 .030 .07.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 5.00 0.33 1.00 .003 .030 .030 .030 .07.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 3.00 5.00 0.33 1.00 .401 .302 .002 .002 .01.00 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.33 0.11 0.14 Marking

State

Parking (hindrance)

Bicycle shed other items (for street segments withabicycle path). Visible defects

Accordingly parked

Occupancy rate

Bicycles outside shed

Bicycles at house facades

Green space 101 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? 102 Rethinking everyday mobility B Width ofseparation strip icycles athousefaçades B Parking (hindrance) Raised bicycle path A icycles outsideshed Cycling direction ccordingly parked O V A B ccupancy rate G isible defects ccentuation Screening Condition icycle shed reen space M Width T arking ype

.800 .800 .800 .80.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 .800 .800 .800 .80.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 .800 .800 .800 .80.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 .800 .800 .800 .80.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 .800 .800 .800 .80.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 .800 .800 .800 .80.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 .800 .800 .800 .80.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 .800 .800 .800 .80.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 .200 .200 .200 .20.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 .200 .200 .200 .20.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 .200 .200 .200 .20.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 .200 .200 .200 .20.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 .200 .200 .200 .20.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 .200 .200 .200 .20.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 .200 .200 .200 .20.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 .302 .302 .302 .30.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 .100 .100 .100 .10.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 Cycling direction

Width

Type

Width of separation strip

Screening

Raised bicycle path

Accentuation

Marking .600 .800 .800 .800 .713 0.08 1.32 0.08 0.07 1.32 0.08 0.08 0.07 1.32 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 1.32 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 1.32 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.08 1.32 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.08 1.32 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.08 1.32 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.08 0.06 0.08 0.06 .300 .100 .100 .100 .302 0.01 0.25 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 .200 .100 .100 .100 .101 0.01 0.15 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.00 0.02 .001 .401 .401 .401 .930 0.18 3.04 0.09 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.11 0.20 .400 .300 .300 .300 .505 0.03 0.50 0.03 0.05 0.50 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.50 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.50 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.50 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.50 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.04 Table 5:Total relative priority for each infrastructure-based item (for street segments Condition

Parking (hindrance)

Bicycle shed

Visible defects

Accordingly parked

Occupancy rate

Bicycles outside shed

Bicycles at house facades

Green space with abicycle path). 70 1.00 17.00 SUM 2

TOTAL RELATIVE PRIORITY (weight) 103 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? 104 Rethinking everyday mobility the general bikeability index. pleasantness; see Table 6),explaining positive and negative scores on (technical condition. safety. extra bicycle amenities, hindrance and infrastructure. Moreover, five specific cluster indices were alsocreated GIS the bikeability index visualized which streets had agood bicycling 3. 2.3. describes the major results. general bikeability index and itsfive cluster indices, thissection

3. Note: *These cluster indices are available only for streets withabicycle path, not for 2.3Ste 1. Th After having specified the construction and calculation of the E su T xtra bicycle amenities echnical condition* 5. Pleasantness e data was then processed and analyzed inArcGIS 9.2.Within 4. lt 2. Safety* H p Cluster s indrance 3: D a ta analy s i s - bicycles athousefaçades I - widthofseparation strip nfrastructure-based item - bicycles outsideshed - raised bicycle path - arranged parking - cycling direction - occupancy rate - bicycle facility - visibledefects - accentuation - bicycle shed - green space - screening - marking - parking - width - st - type ate Table 6:Cluster indices. streets without one. Weight 1/6 1/6 1/4 1 1 without bicycle paths. bicyclists. Thisholds instreets withbicycle paths aswell as streets aspects of bicycle paths canbefurther improved. the lower scores on the safety cluster index indicate that various safety minimum width of 175cmand aone-way cycling direction. However, any other typethanabicycle path marked by another colour –witha condition refers to well passable and well maintained bicycle paths - evaluation of the technical condition (see Figure 3). A good technical scored abikeability index of at least 0.61.Thisismainly due to apositive scores for the pleasantness aspect (see Figure 2). mainly due the lack of sufficient bicycle amenities and the fairly low 1). The fairly low bikeability index for streets without abicycle path is considerably higher than in streets without a bicycle path (see Figure and 0.60.However, the bikeability instreets withabicycle path is bicycle path segments obtained abikeability index between 0.41 3.1.

St Interesting to note isthat parked carsgenerally do not hinder Almost one third (31.9%)of allstreet segments withabicycle path A ati verage score on the bikeability index: 49.3%of allstreet and s ti c al analy s i s Figure 1:Distribution of scores on the bikeability index. 105 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? 106 Rethinking everyday mobility

Figure 2:Distribution of scores on the cluster indices Figure 3:Distribution of scores on the cluster indices for streets without abicycle path. for streets withabicycle path. 3.2. amenities inmany streets and moderate scores for the safety aspect. the bikeability index inthisarea are due to the lack of sufficient bicycle the Gent Sint-Pieters railway station asa“red spot”. The low scores on the good technical condition of the bicycle paths along these streets. such asKortrijk and Oudenaarde. These highscores are mainly due to railway station, butalsotowards the citycentre of Ghent and other cities a roundabout which distributes traffic towards the Gent Sint-Pieters higher on the bikeability index. Figure 4illustrates thisfor DeSterre, infrastructure and facilities). facilities) and “green spots”(neighbourhoods withexcellent bicycling “red spots”(neighbourhoods withpoor bicycling infrastructure and Figure 4:Example of highbikeability scores along streets withhightraffic intensities.

G A g Figure 5on the other hand identifies the neighbourhood around It is noteworthy that streets withhigh traffic intensities scored eog r eographical analysis inArcGIS 9.2allowed usto identify a p hi c al analy s i s 107 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? 108 Rethinking everyday mobility 4. bikeability index to evaluate the bicycle infrastructure inGhent.

Con This paperreports on the construction and calculation of a c l us ion s Figure 5:Example of low bikeability scores around the Gent Sint-Pieters railway station. J A Re that influence bicycling inanurbanenvironment. perceptions of cycling would increase ourunderstanding of the factors objective bikeability index with findings from asurvey about subjective and different attributes of the bicyclist’s environment. Combining the cyclists and non-cyclists on their values and attitudes towards cycling complement thisbikeability index withfurther survey research among as the bikeability index would indicate. Therefore, itseems interesting to unclear whether bicyclists perceive their environment inasimilarway the technical quality of the bicyclist’s environment. However, itremains provide uswithamicro-scaled and objectively measured indicator of and projects. flexible tool intransport planning, which canbeapplied inother cities of the bikeability index. Inother words, thisbikeability index offers a evaluated and other weights canalsobeattributed to the various aspects on the interest, other aspects canbeadded to the score sheet to be tool to evaluate the bicycle infrastructure of aspecific city. Depending bicycle to such important destinations. infrastructure itself and thus illustrates how safe and how easy itisto bikeability index described inthispaperhowever evaluates the bicycle important destinations such asgrocery stores, offices, and schools. The specific neighbourhood for bicycles by measuring the distance to Most existing bikeability indices focus on the attractiveness of a UK? Transportation travel plan measures improve the outlook for cycling to work inthe Pearlman Hougie. 2003.Employer travel plans, cycling and gender: will scenarios and future vehicle travel and land consumption. Journal urban landscapes: Evidence from the SanFrancisco Bay Area. American ournal merican f e r Barth This general bikeability index and itsspecific cluster indices infrastructure-basedOur bikeability index isactually aflexible Dickinson, Janet E.,Simon Kingham,Scott Copsey and Deborah J. Cervero, Robert and Michael Duncan.2003.Walking, bicycling and en

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109 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? 110 Rethinking everyday mobility H F Pr Cy M Associ environment: Ameta-analysis. Journal t environment: Asynthesis. Transportation Research Record: Journal Journal and walkability evaluation table: Reliability and application. American bicycle: Anoverview of the literature. Transport activity: Views from urbanplanning. American E. Kwillingswort. 2002. How the builtenvironment affects physical of Transport, Walking and Cycling Branch. Transportation Research Board. Char Administratie Wegen enVerkeer, Afdeling Verkeerskunde. Gemeenschap, Departement Leefmilieu enInfrastructuur, Fi Boar he actors ow etsvoorzieningen. Versie 2006. Brussel: Ministerie van de Vlaamse edicine 23(2):64–73. oceedings cling

Transportation McNeil, Nathan. 2010.Bikeability Krizek, Kevin, AnnForsyth andBaum. Laura 2009.Walking Ewing, Reid and Robert Cervero. 2010. Travel and the built Ewing, Reid and Robert Cervero. 2001. Travel and the built Hoedl, Simon, Sylvia Titze and Pekka Oja.2010.The bikeability Heinen, Eva, Bertvan Wee and Kees Maat. 2010.Commuting by Handy, L., Marlon Susan G. Boarnet, Reid Ewing and Richard Litman, Todd. 2007. Land Moritz, William E.1998.Adult Ministerie van de VlaamseGemeenschap. 2006.Vademecum

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environmental determinants of walking and cycling. Social Rob Donovan. 2003.Developing aframework for assessment of the Shanghai districts. International Vancouver: TransLinkand the University of British Columbia. M hierarchical structures. Journal policies. Transport more thanAmericans: Acomperative analysis of bicycling trends and N R Be transportation, urbandesign, and planning literatures. Annals Environmental correlates of walking and cycling: Findings from the 281. decisions to ride. Transportation 38:153–168. 2011. Motivators and detterents of bicycling: comparing influences on bicycle commuting: Internet-based survey analysis. Transportation Weather. 2005.Cycling and the builtenvironment: aUSperspective. W. Collier, Donna Johnson, Thoman L.Schmid and Robert D. some firstfindings. Solstice 16:1–18. relationships between land usesystem and travel behaviour concepts: esearch eighbourhood edicine 56(8):1693–1703. havioral Pikora, Terri, Billie Giles-Corti, Fiona Bull,Konrad Jamrozik and Zacharis, John. 2005. Non-motorized transportation in four Saaty, Thomas L.1977. Ascalingmethod for priorities in Pucher, John and Ralph Buehler. 2006.Why Canadians cycle Saelens, BrianE.,James F. Sallisand Lawrence D. Frank. 2003. Winters, Meghan and Adam Cooper. 2008.What Winters, Meghan, Gavin Davidson, DianaKao and Kay Teschke. Stinson, Monique A. and Chandra R. Bhat. 2004. Frequency of Vernez Moudon Anne, ChanamLee, Allen D. Cheadl, Cheza Van Acker, Veronique and Frank Witlox. 2005. Exploring the

Record 1878:122–130.

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111 I want to ride my bicycle ... but how bikeable is my neighbourhood? GHENT I Belgium’s first cycling street. Cyclists have priority over cars. GHENT I Following the successful pilot program, Ghent will introduce 27 bike bins - mini bike garages - on public property by the end of 2012.

GHENT I With the online route planner, it’s easy to calculate your personal cycling route.

1. is not captured inany transport study. systematic data collection about cyclists inLjubljana inplace, the trend number of cyclists hasbeen risingagain,butsince there isno regular, transport modes, except private cars.Inthe lastfive or ten years, the The available data for the lastthirtyyears show agradual decline of all in Ljubljana upto the 1970swhen motorization started to increase. health and well-being of citizens of allgenerations. transport for distances of upto 5km(Reiter, 2009),and improves the simplest, most natural means of transport. It is the fastest means of pillars of asustainable transport system. After walking, cycling isthe

I nt Cycling was well developed and one of the main transport modes Creating acycling culture incities isone of the most important r od uc Source: Projekt nizke zgradbe, 2003and Prometnotehniški inštitut,2005. tion P OTENTIAL MEMBE Figure 1:Changes inmodal split inLjubljana in1977,1994and 2003. R S

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115 Cycling in the capital of a new member state: exploiting the untapped potential of biking to work in Ljubljana 116 Rethinking everyday mobility purposes, carusehasthe highest share for nearly allpurposes. was only 10.5%.Considering transport modes for individual travel trips inLjubljana were done by car. The share of trips done by bicycle network’s capacity. centres inthe morning, home-bound inthe afternoon), exceeding the to 5.00inthe opposite direction) and directions (to the employment 7.00 and 9.00a.m.for trips from home to work, and between 3.00 increase inthe number of travels inlimited periods of time (between usually result intraffic jams.The congestion results from apredictable the mainreason for the two daily peaksinthe transport demand, which Commuting to work has the most important share of alltrips. It isalso related trips, animportant and stable share of alltrips made inthe city. decrease or stagnation for allother transport modes. trends showed continuous growth of caruseeven for short trips and a that the collected data are not comparable. Nevertheless, the established transport system. However, the methodologies used were sodifferent then, only partialstudies tried to follow upthe development of the conducted almost a decade ago, in 2003 (Projekt nizke gradnje). Since citizens and visitors of Ljubljana and the Ljubljana Urban Region was individual transport modes, for instance the increase of cycling. alone the potentials for future changes to the shares of trips made by it was impossible to determine even the relevant baseline situation, let setting goals and targets for the transport system’s future development, policy, Ljubljana hasbecome aware of the lack of such data. When Data from 2003show that more than two thirds of all work-related The paperdescribes the current share and potential for work- The lastavailable systematic data collection of the travel habits of With the increasing importance of cycling inthe city’stransport Figure 2:Modal split by travel purpose inLjubljana. from doing so. expectations. And secondly, what are the barriers that prevent them cycling inthe citywould improve sufficiently to meet to the citizens’ and which we might expect do to so,ifor when the conditions for questions: what isthe share of the population that could cycle to work to work, a10kmdistance was used asthe maximum for most cyclists. to commute for upto 7km.Aswe are dealing specifically withcycling all of itisof good quality, and we cantherefore expect regular cyclists reach speeds of 25-30km/hour.” As aresult, distances of upto 15kmare achievable, withcyclists able to All over the country, there is interest in cycle routes for longer distances. framework of the ‘Fileproof’ project, five such routes were constructed. few obstacles and sometimes even real bicycle motorways. Inthe more and more inter-local commuter routes are beingdesigned with maximum cycling distance of 7.5kmwas considered realistic. However, infrastructure, the distance canfurther increase: “Until recently, a 7.5 kminthistime”. Butwhere acitydevelops ahighqualitycycling time to and from work isacceptable. Cyclists cancertainly cover some infrastructure isinplace “most people believe halfanhour’s travelling Ministry of Transport (2009),which states that given that the standard miles isnot uncommon”. Asimilardistance isproposed by the Dutch at about 7km:“For commuter journeys, atripdistance of over five longer thanother cycle trips” (Road Directorate, 2000). trip depends on the purpose of the trip,e.g.the tripto work often being km, and 9outof 10cycle trips are under 5.5km.The length of the cycle trips as itdepends on many aspects. “Half the cycle trips are under 2 The closer to the town centre people live, the more they tend to cycle.” varies according to the distance between home and the town centre. (Road Directorate, 2000)that “the share of bicycle useinlarger towns commuters have to cover. The Danish Road Directorate observed number of trips withinacity. It isclosely related to the distances the available data, the actual potential of these two modes isself-evident. 2005). Comparing thisto the 18.0%share of walking and cycling inthe be done on foot or by bike (Direkcija Republike Slovenije zaceste, 75% of alltrips presently done by motor vehicles inthe cities could Therefore, the purpose of thispaperisto answer the following In the caseof Ljubljana some infrastructure isavailable, butnot The UKDepartment of Transport (2008)setsthisdistance There is,however, no setmaximum acceptable distance for these The share of commuting trips of course differs from the total Onthe other hand, the Slovene Road Directorate claims that 117 Cycling in the capital of a new member state: exploiting the untapped potential of biking to work in Ljubljana 118 Rethinking everyday mobility 2. important aspect indeciding isthe distance from home to work. cycling to work. For alarge partof the population, however, the most groups of employees withhealth or socialissues preventing them from physical option to cycle to work. We determined early on that there are two parts. Firstly, how large is the actual share of employees that has the 2.1. analysis of the current state inthe central partof the city. were too small.The combined data are nevertheless relevant for the are smalland their data are not usefulon their own because the samples accessibility and typeof institution. Two of the analyzed institutions the sample, asthe four institutions share similarproperties regarding was partof the CIVITAS ELAN project. Other locations were added to surveys conducted between January 2009and May 2010.One of them since regularly repeated surveys allow usto trace changes. modes. The method isalsovery usefulfor evaluating measures taken for instance modal split or attitudes towards specific topics or transport surveys help us with the numerical determination of selected elements, interviews with key stakeholders and travel habit surveys. Travel habit can beconducted usinganumber of methods: accessibility analysis, accessibility and the activities that are already inplace. Astatus analysis One of the firststeps isastatus analysis, outliningalocation’s level of European guidebooks on the topic and they include aseries of work steps. infrastructure, but on a small scale and only as asupplementary measure. the existing infrastructure. It caninclude the construction of additional education, and the organization of services within the framework of plan is based on soft measures like information, awareness raising, dedicated to accessibility by public transport, bicycle, or on foot. The institution’s accessibility withalltransport modes. Special attention is It contains anumber of measures aimed at improving the company’s/ location and thus influence the travel habits of itsemployees and visitors. that helps acompany or institution to manage the accessibility of its were prepared for larger traffic generators. Atravel plan isadocument

M Re ethodology Secondly, we wanted to identify the main barriers preventing those The question we posed during ourwork on the travel plans had The paperincludes the combined results of four travel habit Methods for developing atravel plan are described inmany As partof the CIVITAS ELANproject inLjubljana, two travel plans s ea rc h Q u e s tion 2.2. municipality’s. or jurisdiction iswas to tryand remove them -the employers’ or the to identify the most common typesof barrier and whose competence who have the physical option to cycle to work from doing so.We wanted at work, aprinted version of the questionnaire was prepared for them employees. Where large groups of employees did not useacomputer ‘SurveyMonkey’, aweb based tool. The linkto the survey was sent to all computer-based jobs, we decided to conduct an online survey using background. Since most of the staffinthe analyzed institutions has the director or a department manager, withashort explanation of the sized, we wanted to include as many employees aspossible. couriers. Since the institutions we worked withwere smallor medium and part-time office workers, aswell asmaintenance personnel and all individual groups of employees, such asmanagement, full-time travel habits inacompany or institution. It isimportant to include 2.3. the available information. information many new questions arose, which we tried to answer with extended analysis of collected data.the During review of the general when the useof different travel modes isbalanced. similar or the sameseason of the year, for instance spring or autumn, behaviour canbetraced. Thisrequires the survey to berepeated ina survey is then repeated at regular intervals so that the changes in travel presented to the project group and employees for consideration. The development, or caruse. they face at their location, attitudes towards ecology, sustainable usually wanted to add a set of specific questions regarding the problems and, finally, demographical information. The participating institutions motivations and barriers for different travel modes, short business trips categories: questions about current habits regarding travel to work, previous similaranalyses. It consisted of 20questions fallinginto several

Sam Re All employees were invited to participate in the survey by a superior, The aimof the survey was to describe the current state of For the purpose of thispaperthe methodology used was an Part of the travel plan methodology isthat the survey’s findings are The research method used was a standardized survey, tested in s ea p ling anddata rc h method c olle c tion 119 Cycling in the capital of a new member state: exploiting the untapped potential of biking to work in Ljubljana 120 Rethinking everyday mobility represents the centre’s edge. within walking distance from the inner cityringroad that symbolically share many similarities. They alllie on the edge of the core citycentre, the collected travel information. design the survey soasto prevent connecting individual respondents to residence, butrather intheir actual commuting trips, we decided to places of residence. Aswe were not interested intheir formal place of employees used different address for their permanent and actual but inthe end decided againstitbecause of survey anonymity. Some draw for the participants. We discussed thisoption on many occasions, 50 %. samples for 1-200employees at 100%,and for 201-1000employees at UK Department for Transport guidance (2002)which setsappropriate achieve aresponse rate of over 50%inallcases.Thisisline with for afew days during thisperiod. With thismethod we managed to all the employees enough time to participate, even ifsome were absent to participate. The individual surveys were open for two weeks, giving employees that the survey was stillopen and that there was stilltime other results. and the filled outforms were later transferred to the database withthe The surveys were conducted infour institutions. The four locations Another method to improve the response rate isto add aprize A few days after the initialinvitation, areminder was sent to the Site 2 Site 3 Site 4 Site 1 September 2009 T January 2009 ime ofsurvey A M pril 2009 ay 2010 Table 1:Analyzed locations and basic data on surveys. N me fepoesResponserate umber ofemployees 373 194 30 10 100% 56% 54% 97% 3. 16.7 %,itexceeds the generally stated modal split for trips inLjubljana high share of cartrips. The share of cyclists isquite highaswell. With city. higher share of cyclists inthisinstitutions thaninthe outer partsof the bicycle parking lots, and even abike sharing scheme, we expected a home to work. Since the citycentre generally has good bicycle lanes, share of employees who commute by carregardless of the distance from city. The available number of parking places however maintains a stable All locations thus have limited caraccess compared to the rest of the all have aparking lot available for asmallpercentage of their employees. walking. Parking isregulated inthe vicinity of the institutions and they

Finding The current modal split measured by the surveys shows anexpected All locations are well accessible by public transport, cycling, or Figure 3:Mapof the centre of Ljubljana, inner ringroad, analyzed locations. s 121 Cycling in the capital of a new member state: exploiting the untapped potential of biking to work in Ljubljana 122 Rethinking everyday mobility the outer ringroad, the share ismuch lower. the analyzed locations. Inareas withless cycling infrastructure closer to partly aresult of the good infrastructure inplace inthe wider area of by more than5%.Beside the central, well accessible location, thisis from work increased drastically inSlovenia inthe lasttwenty years. limit cycling. At thispoint itisworth mentioning that the distance encouragement to cycle more often. and who have the physical means and knowledge, butneed additional was 7.7%.Thisgroup includes employees who are occasional cyclists use when you are not usingthe mainmode. Here, the share of cycling another question: What isthe alternative mode of transport that you As mentioned above, distance isbutone of the mainbarriers that Regarding the transport modes used for trips to work we asked Figure 5:Stated alternative transport modes used for trips to work. Figure 4:Modal split, usualtransport mode for trips to work. to cycle in30minutes. distance ahealthy adult who engages inregular physical activity isable breaking asweat. An additional 17.9%lived 5to 10kmfrom work, a distance of 2to 5km,adistance ahealthy adult isable to cycle without for walking and cycling for all demographic groups. 23.3%lived at a less than2kmfrom their place of work. Thisdistance isappropriate indirectly encouraged to live asfarfrom their place of work aspossible. the distance from the commuter’s place of residence, employees are work isreimbursed by law and the amount iscalculated according to Besides general trends of suburbanization the cost of commuting to usually of low quality and limited capacity. This aspect is then related facilities. Most institutions have some kind of bicycle parking area, but with 27%.The latter includes boththe cycling network and parking cycling, and the lack of appropriate infrastructure was inthird place planned, they were not installed. buildings. Analyzing the premises, we discovered that even ifthey were Changing rooms and showers are not common facilities inoffice Sweating on the way to work isaproblem withdistances over 2km. when thinkingabout cycling, almost 40%mentioned hygiene issues. that could theoretically bereached. the current spatial dispersion of the population this is the maximum to work. There are, of course, other barriers to beconsidered, butgiven 51.5%. Thisisthe total pool of the people who have the option to cycle According to the survey results 10.3%of the institutions’ stafflived Distance was stated asthe second most important barrier to Regarding the barriers the employees stated that they considered The share of allemployees living withinadistance of 10kmwas Figure 6:Distance from place of residence to work. 123 Cycling in the capital of a new member state: exploiting the untapped potential of biking to work in Ljubljana 124 Rethinking everyday mobility much higher inthispopulation. 14% chooses to walk. Aswe see, the shares of sustainable modes are to almost 64% of the total population. 29% regularly cycles to work and Here, the modal split is more balanced, with 41% using a car, compared exclusively on thisgroup, which stands for 51.5%of the total population. to 10 km from work, an additional analysis was performed, focusing commonly stated barriers. limited resources, itwould make senseto invest ineliminating the most be considered infuture to increase the share of cyclists. Given the adequately. distance could physically cycle to work ifother barriers were addressed 4%, indicating that alarge partof the population within anappropriate information about routes and distances. Health issues ranked lastwith of freight on the bike on the way to or from work, and the lack of in the survey each stood for around 5%.They included the transport and the lack of company bikes by 16%.The lastthree options provided emerges asanimportant topic inthe development of future measures. commuting requires areliable, usually more expensive bike, thisaspect not really animportant problem at the citylevel. Butifwe consider that to the mentioned highfear (25%),of bicycle theft, even though thisis To understand the habits and needs of the population living up The stated barriers quite clearly point to the topics that should Concerns about personal safety were stated by 18%of employees Figure 7:Stated mainbarriers to cycling to work. 4. the level of boththe cityand individual locations. order to maximize it,new measures and improvements are required at cycle to work, 16%,isfarfrom the estimated potential of over 35%.In wider areas, show acompletely different picture. access to the motorway system, which attract more employees from business areas and shopping centres near the outer ring road, withfast in other, less urbanareas withlarge employment centres. Especially the actual city-wide potential, more similarresearch should bedone is apotential for such development inLjubljana aswell. To determine collected data from the four institutions inLjubljana show that there cycling culture (Direkcija Republike Slovenije zaceste, 2005).The walks or cycles to work in European cities with awell developed than double the share of cyclists we have today. we transfer thisto the whole population, itstands for 37.1%or more consider in the future. The total share of these employees was 72%. If respondents who chose cycling asamode they would bewillingto stating that they used their bicycle as an alternative mode, and respondents stating they already cycled regularly to work, respondents

Con Many of the stated barriers canonly be overcome withsupport But even inthe wider citycentre the current share of those who The Slovene Road Directorate claims that nearly half the population To determine thisgroup’s potential we combined the shares of c l Figure 8:Modal split for employees living less than10kmfrom place of work. us ion 125 Cycling in the capital of a new member state: exploiting the untapped potential of biking to work in Ljubljana 126 Rethinking everyday mobility pleasant mode of transport that proves to be very efficient as well, of cycling inEuropean cities. People are rediscovering thishealthy and as well. trips, some of them find iteasier to useabike for commuting to work accepted by employees. After usingcompany bikes for short business as ‘doctor bike’ or ‘company bikes’ are often implemented and well support for those to decide to actively travel to work. Measures such of cycling, providing information or incentives and showing general But other measures canbeimplemented, focusing on the promotion without having to fear theft, including overnight parking. parking lots must beprovided for the employees to leave their bike should provide safe bike stands near the entrance. Safer and covered provide adequate parking facilities. Institutions receiving visitors on asmallscale. hours spent daily at work, some employers decided to test this measure with the increasing flexibility of working hours and therefore long changing and showering inthe working process to avoid abuses. But the management isnot certain how to include the time spent for of their lack of experience with such facilities inan office environment, participating institutions isoften not infavour of such facilities. Because may have astrict dress code. Inourexperience, the management of the and showers are needed, especially inoffice-type institutions, which can improve the conditions only at their locations. Changingrooms demand. bike parking facilities or withcapacities that meet only afraction of the evident since some important public areas remain without appropriate in useevery year. Butthe lack of asystematic approach isincreasingly working on thistopic for several years. Many new bike stands are put numbers, qualityand dispersion of bicycle stands. The cityhas been twice the number of cyclists usingthe network thantoday. to consider improving the infrastructure inorder to meet the needs of limits during the morning and afternoon peaks,the cityshould start to work. And withsome cycle lanes already reaching their capacity preconditions for convincing agreater share of the population to cycle routes, dedicated bicycle lanes, and areas withslow motor traffic, are on citylevel. Agood cycling network consisting of fastbicycle Finally, inthe lastfew years we have been witnessing arenaissance Regarding the infrastructure, this isusually allanemployer cando. Another important measure anemployer canimplement isto Employers, on the other hand, have narrower competences and Other important aspects of the cycling infrastructure are adequate k Welsh Assembly Government. Norwitch: The Stationery Office. Tr emp Slovenije zaceste. European Commission. the framework of the EU-Project Trendy Travel, supported by the po Directorate-General for Passenger Transport, Fletsberaad. Ministry of Transport, Public Works and Water Management, Road Directorate. Prometnotehniški inštitut. – Re its share ifappropriate conditions were developed. even greater. Aswe showed inthispaper, cycling to work could double Ljubljana aswell. Butthe potential for further development of cycling is number of cyclists is therefore growing, and this has been observed in especially for the majority of distances that have to becovered. The Ljubljana: MOL. za urbanizem. Izvajalci Projekt nizke zgradbe, Ninamedia, Urbi. olesarskega

f ansport tovalnih e pr r loyers. London: Department for Transport. Direkcija Republike Slovenije zaceste. 2005.Zasnova Ministrie van Verkeer enWaterstaat 2009.Cycling Department for Transport. 2008.Cycle Projekt nizke zgradbe. 2003.Anketa Reiter, Karl. 2009.20 Road Directorate. 2000.Collection Departm Prometnotehniški inštitut.2005. Uvajanje edlog en c e s

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127 Cycling in the capital of a new member state: exploiting the untapped potential of biking to work in Ljubljana LJUBLJANA I The city administration is “greening” its public fleet with among others 6 hybrid cars and 50 company bicycles.

LJUBLJANA I The city is introducing a sustainable electromobility plan with a set of measures intended to stimulate and promote the use of electric vehicles in urban transport. LJUBLJANA I The city envisages banning motorised traffic, except PT, from this main arterial road through the city centre. More space will then be dedicated to pedestrians and cyclists.

1. international evidence, Cairnsetal.(2004)developed a“low intensity” much more effective thaninitially assumed. Based on areview of UK and developed into aninternational association (in2006). (EPOMM) was established. It started asaEuropean platform, butsoon years later, in1999,the European Platform on Mobility Management felt to have aplatform providing some continuity. Consequently, two Management was organized in1997,butafterwards the need was years. For example, the firstannual European Conference on Mobility associated environmental problems hasundoubtedly increased inrecent exist for “soft” measures. measures. However, no such standardized evaluation techniques yet such ascost-benefit analysis exist for the evaluation of these “hard” or new bike lanes (EPOMM, 2011).Some commonly used techniques and strengthen “hard” measures like the construction of new tramlines and behaviour. Such “soft” measures are frequently used to support tailor-made mobility services are used to change travellers’ attitudes measures like information and communication campaignsand offering sustainable transport and manage the demand for caruse.“Soft” also known as“soft policy measures”, refers to aconcept to promote holds for mobility management projects. Mobility Management (MM), unless you measure what is getting better or worse. This principle also adage isstillaccurate today. You cannot manage for improvement

I nt If MMprojects were given greater policy priority, they could be Interest inMMprojects asasolution for mobility problems and “You can’t manage what you don’t measure”. This old management r M od axSU uc tion MO : A O

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EVAL PR U O A J E TION C T S

131 MaxSUMO: a new approach to the evaluation of mobility management projects 132 Rethinking everyday mobility by the cityof Ghent, Belgium. of MaxSUMO to evaluate MM projects which were recently undertaken to evaluate MMprojects. Thispapertherefore illustrates the usefulness evaluation techniques. MaxSUMO is considered as a suitable technique et al.,2010).There isclearly aneed for the development of robust of these methods (Möser and Bamberg, 2009;Carreno 2008;Bonsall, methodology…) and, thus, serious questions remain about the reliability reported data, anumber of external factors not included inresearch self-reported behaviour, the lack of corroborative data to confirm self- (e.g. small sample sizes, unrepresentative samples, over reliance on methods used to evaluate MMprojects generally lack empirical vigour call for the development of arigorous evaluation method. Typical travel planning). They found amuch lower potential of 7%. MM projects (workplace travel plans, school travel plans, personalised critically re-evaluated 141studies on the effectiveness of three typesof analysis of MMprojects. For these reasons, Möser and Bamberg (2008) cultural, economic, social,or other reasons complicate across cultural for scenario development. Moreover, different mobility habits due to used inthe studies that are reviewed and, subsequently, used asinput might betoo optimistic. Thisismainly due to the poor quality of the data 2003) warn that results of review studies such asCairnsetal. (2004) policies. MM projects merit serious consideration inlocal and national transport projected changes intraffic levels are thus quite large and indicate that areas and from 2to 6% insmaller urbanareas and ruralareas. These 15%, and personalised travel planning initiatives from 7to 15%inurban reduce carusebetween 10and 30%,school travel plans between 8and effect of various individual MMprojects: workplace travel plans can reduction inalltraffic of about 11%.They alsoestimated the potential urban traffic during peakhours by 14%(off-peak 7%),and anationwide urban traffic during peakhours by about 21%(off-peak 13%),non- the high-intensity scenario, MMprojects have the potential to reduce more interest inMMprojects and many more funding and resources. In all traffic by about 3%.Inthe highintensity scenario, they assume much in peakperiod urbantraffic of about 5%and anationwide reduction in projects at the current level. The scenario results indicate areduction intensity scenario, they maintain the interest in and attention on MM of MMprojects inlocal and national transport policies. Inthe low and a“highintensity” impact scenario for the future implementation These inconsistencies between the findings of various studies However, other transport researchers (e.g. Stopher and Bullock, 2. peoples’ behaviour isnot aone-step process. Changingtravel behaviour term changes such asatargeted reduction incarusebutchanging potential isinfluenced by amismatch between these two. these subjective factors correspond to reality, and how the switching from carto public transport. The question however remains whether no reason to change their caruse,they are less susceptible to switch justified or not), have little or no confidence in public transport or see if people have negative attitudes towards public transport (whether as well as their willingness to actually alter travel choices. For example, their current travel choices, but alsotowards alternative travel choices, as peoples’ perceptions, attitudes, value, level of confidence towards switching potential might alsobeinfluenced by subjective factors such offered and the qualityof public transport ispoor. On the other hand, will not switch to public transport if no adequate bus services are switch modes canbeobjectively determined. For example, people in objective and subjective factors. For some people the barriers to varying degrees of mode switching potential partly relate to differences susceptibility of carusersto switch modes was rather limited. These potential “mode switchers”. Sixdistinct groups were extracted, but Anable (2005)segmented apopulation of day triptravellers into they travel short commuting distances (5miles or less). More recently, This group ismore likely to bemale, intheir 30sand, most importantly, found that only aminority of carcommuters issusceptible to change. travel behaviour than others. For example, Curtisand Headicar (1997) is needed aswell. Carreno etal.(2010)mention two key facts. how MMprojects work and how they affect individuals’ modal choices what we are evaluating. Orinother words, abetter understanding of techniques, butinorder to accomplish thiswe must firstunderstand in section 4. undertaken by the city. Finally, results are summarized and discussed city inBelgium, before discussingthe results of various MMprojects third section firstdescribes the study area of Ghent, amedium-sized approach, and the usefulness of itisillustrated inthe third section. This

H o Second, politicians might ultimately beinterested only inshort- First, some people are more susceptible, or ready, to change their There isclearly aneed for the development of robust evaluation The paperisstructured asfollows. Section 2presents the MaxSUMO w toeval u a te MM

pr o j e c t s ? 133 MaxSUMO: a new approach to the evaluation of mobility management projects 134 Rethinking everyday mobility possible to measure effects at anearly stage ina project. each level canbemonitored and evaluated separately. Thismakes it indicators, and results can be specified at each of these levels, so that divides thisgapinto smaller steps, or assessment levels. Targets, the MM project and the expected effects is often large. MaxSUMO measuring effects at different levels (see Figure 1).The “gap”between 2.1. the step-wise behavioural change process (see section 2.2). new theoretical behaviour change model MaxSEM which acknowledges monitor, and evaluate MMprojects (see section 2.1).It is based on a that provides step-by-step guidance for users to effectively plan, framework programme. MaxSUMO isageneral evaluation framework (2006–2009), the largest research project on MMwithinthe EU’s sixth takes thisstep-wise process into account. techniques. MaxSUMO issuch anew standardized evaluation tool that step-wise behaviour change process thus requires specific evaluation factors (Weinstein, 1993;MAXSUCCESS, 2008).Evaluating the uses different terminology to indicate very similar(or even identical) factors of behaviour change instead of the process as a whole, and often is the most appropriate. Each theoretical model conceptualizes other SUCCESS, 2008). However, no consensus exists on which framework Social Cognitive Theory (for amore comprehensive review see e.g.MAX the Theory of Planned Behaviour, the Norm-Activation Model and the a variety of pre-existing theoretical frameworks such as,among others, perceptions underlying the behaviour change process. Researchers use change assuch, butalsoon the more subtle changes inattitudes and evaluation methodology must therefore not only focus on behaviour (ii) their stage position withinthe behavioural change process. Any ways based on (i) people’s susceptibility to change behaviour, and not necessarily connected strictly to mobility starts withaltering non-behavioural aspects such asattitudes that are it takes time to change anindividual’s modal choices and itusually individuals progress (Prochaska and DiClemente, 1984).For example, must instead beseen asaseries of transitional stages through which

M MaxSUMO hasbeen developed aspartof the wider MAXproject Consequently, any MMproject islikely to affect people indifferent Th a x SU e evaluation strategy of MaxSUMO isbased on the idea of MO Services • Intervention • categories: information meetings, distributing brochures and posters). project in order to achieve changes in travel behaviour (e.g. success of the MMproject. contextual characteristics might thus constrain or facilitate the wider context inwhich the MMproject isorganized. These words, the intervention framework conditions refer to the project was offered (e.g., home-work travel distance). Inother behaviour change and their travel behaviour before the MM as well as “subjective” factors such as the individual’s stage of “objective” factors such asthe distance to the nearest busstop situation of different users.These person-related factors are Person-related factors include information about the personal similar for allusers(e.g., qualityof public transport services). where the MMproject isoffered. These external factors are External factors include background information of the location Figure 1)refer to external factors and person-related factors. The different MaxSUMO levels are divided into four main

pr ovided refer to the different activities of the MM

fr Figure 1:Assessment levels inMaxSUMO (MAXSUCCESS, 2009a). amework

c onditions (although not symbolized in 135 MaxSUMO: a new approach to the evaluation of mobility management projects 136 Rethinking everyday mobility • Mobility • stage movement (i.e.progression towards actual behaviour change). It stage positions (i.e.their susceptibility to change behaviour), but also (Max Self-regulation Model). MaxSEM not only measures individuals’ of behaviour change. These stages can bedetermined using MaxSEM refers to person-related factors and describes the individual’s stage the intervention framework conditions. One of these conditions 2.2. MM projects are effectively planned, monitored, and evaluated. expected effect. MaxSUMO thus provides step-by-step guidance sothat bridging the gapbetween implementation of the MM project and its indicators and results canbespecified at different assessment levels policy evaluations. However, MaxSUMO is unique in how targets, are not significantly different from other guidelines for transport and

M to these new attitudes and behaviour (e.g. CO decrease in caruse),and (ii) more general system impacts due MM project interms of (i)new attitudes and behaviour (e.g. Overall long-term changes inattitudes and behaviour. with the new travel behaviour remains apre-condition for satisfied with this mobility option. After all, being satisfied Afterwards, the latter might alsobeasked whether they are travel behaviour and take upthe mobility option offered. option offered, and (ii) people who eventually test the new change travel behaviour and are willingto accept the mobility One should alsodistinguish between (i)people who intend to transport for some or allof their trips (=mobility option). service provided) frequent cardrivers might switch to public example, by offering free season tickets for public transport (= the new travel behaviour the MMproject aimsto encourage. For how satisfied the usersare withthe services provided. project by people who are aware of the MMproject, and (iii) aware of the MMproject, (ii)the usage or interest inthe MM should alsopay attention to (i)the degree to which people are After describing the project activities and output,researchers by thisdecrease incaruse). As m The design of MaxSUMO is thus simple and the methods included a x S EM entioned above, the useof MaxSUMO startswithdescribing

eff op ects, finally, refers to the main outcomes of the tions offered through the services provided refer to 2 emissions saved need tailor-made travel information. confidence to change their travel behaviour. Persons inthis stage thus to reduce it.However, they are unsure of how to do soor lack the cars, but are not content with their current car use and would like design the most appropriate and effective MMprojects for them. helps to analyze and segment the target group and thus to choose and four key “stages” of behaviour change (MAXSUCCESS, 2009a). This with the temporal dimension of the process of change by incorporating behaviour change, such asnorms and goal feasibility, and linksthem utilizes the most important factors of “static” psychological models of travelling by public transport instead of by car). new behaviour (e.g. withatool visualizingthe money saved while tickets for public transport), and to assistthem inmaintaining this group actually try outnew behaviour (e.g. by offering free season this new travel mode for some trips. The aimhere isto have the alternative, have the confidence to do so,and may have already tried (e.g. public transport). Moreover, they alsointend to switch to this their cars, but already know how to switch to another travel mode than their car. necessary to persuade thisgroup to consider travel alternatives other subjective reasons. Inthisstage, travel awareness campaignsare or feel that itwould beimpossible to change due to objective and car drivers who have no intention to reduce their current car use Figure 2:Overview of MaxSEM stages and critical thresholds (MAXSUCCESS, 2009a). Stage Stage Stage

2: 1: 3:

Cont Pr Pr e-contemplative eparation/action emplative

st age. Persons inthisstage mainly usetheir

age. Persons inthisstage are habitual st age. Persons inthisstage stilluse 137 MaxSUMO: a new approach to the evaluation of mobility management projects 138 Rethinking everyday mobility the new behaviour again. cars). If they do not resist, they have to t trips and at other times aswell). Therefore, they must usetheir skills travel alternative (e.g. by travelling by busfor other work and leisure before anew habit isformed, people need to repeat the newly tested by busat 10 a.m.next Saturday). Finally, inthe maintenance stage, an implementation intention (e.g. going to the citycentre for shopping out the travel alternative, their behavioural intention is translated into instead of anoutdated timetable). Ifpeople make definite plans to try imp interpreting the timetable of the local bus)and are able to cope with their and how to usethe new travel alternative. It isimportant that they use to plan more specifically inthe preparation/action stage: when, where, instead of their carfor some trips inthe weekend). Now, people need a more precise behavioural intention (e.g. the intention to useabus Once thisisachieved, the previously formulated goal istranslated into can usethisalternative themselves (Perceived be a positive attitude towards this alternative (Attitude people seek for the bestalternative travel mode. People must firsthave positively (Perceived personal caruseinorder to save CO eventually result inthe formation of apersonal goal (e.g. reducing car use as “problematic” (Perceived to contemplative stages individuals must firstrecognize their current boxes inFigure 2). For example, for progression from pre-contemplative must besatisfied before any stage-progression canoccur (see orange stage and prevent relapses to a“lower” stage. Critical threshold criteria the old behaviour occurs. projects inthisstage should reward the new habit sothat no relapse to changed their travel behaviour and have formed anew habit. MM o

havioural r esist lementation The aimof MMprojects isto move the persons to the next “higher” Stage cognitive

t emptation (e.g. fallback into their old behaviour and usetheir

hange M

aintenance p

pr lanning oblems (e.g. usingaregularly updated web service

str

goa ategies) and/or need to feel confident that they

a l

bilities to retrieve relevant information (e.g., f st easibility). Once in the contemplation stage, age.

P ersons inthisstage have successfully

negativ recover 2 ) which must beperceived e

c onsequences). This might

fr om

r havioural elapse and take up

t owards

c diff ontrol). erent

workplaces, schools, etc.). attempting to change (e.g. random trips or more specific trips such asjourneys to/from 1 move to the next stage and move closer to behaviour change. MaxSEM directly result in changing the actual behaviour or rather that people With the help of these questions, it becomes clear whether MMprojects validation studies withinthe MAXproject (MAXSUCCESS, 2009a). readiness to change. This setof questions results from aseries of (see Figure 3) which objectively measure peoples’ stage position and The exact wording of thisquestion willdepend on the typeof trips the MMproject is already tryto usenon-carmodesasmuchpossible. workplace thinking aboutchangingsomeorallofthesetripsto non-carmodes, A A my current level ofcaruse,butatthemoment Please choosewhichstatement fits your current situationbestand but atthemoment reduce mycurrent level ofcaruse. A about your current level ofcarusefor dailytrips(incityX/to your replace andwhichalternative transport mode or even reduce myalready low level ofcar useinthenext months. s t themoment A current level ofcaruseandseenoreason why t themoment Which ofthefollowing statements bestdescribeshow you feel I t themoment A donotown /have accessto acar, reducing mylevel ofcaruseis A s t themoment MaxSEM provides sixsocalled “stage-diagnostic questions” I amaware ofthemanyproblems associated with caruse, 1 ) andwhetheryou have anyplansto tryto reduce someor have notactuallyputthisinto practice. I useacarfor mostofmytrips. I useacarfor mostofmytrips. I useacarfor mostofmytrips,butitisaimto F I not currently anissuefor me. useacarfor mostofmytrips. I igure 3:MaxSEM stage-diagnostic questions (MAXSUCCESS, 2009a). amunsure how impossible for meto doso. all ofthesecartrips? when tick onlyonebox. Question: I shoulddoso. I already know whichtrips I canreplace thesecartrips,or I I I would like to reduce feel thatitwould be I willuse,butasyet I amhappy withmy shouldreduce it. I amcurrently I willmaintain I will I

□ □ □ □ □ □ Preparation / Pre-contemplation Stage allocation Contemplation M aintenance A ction 139 MaxSUMO: a new approach to the evaluation of mobility management projects 140 Rethinking everyday mobility at raisingcitizens’ awareness about options for sustainable mobility, or walking routes intheir neighbourhood. Doing so,thismeasure aims tailor-made information to citizens about public transport and bicycle mobility behaviour consists of sixmeasures. One measure provides 3.2. using MaxSUMO. 3. readiness to change behaviour (MAXSUCCESS, 2009b). it then illustrates whether people progressed to advanced stages of campaign aswell, the effect of thiscampaigncanbeevaluated and current caruse.Byasking the samequestions after the travel awareness might persuade pre-contemplators to consider alternatives for their are currently in.For example, anappropriate travel awareness campaign according to which stage the individuals withinthe target population different stages. This facilitates the design of appropriate MM projects determining the different stages of behaviour change (see Figure 3). behaviour change (see Figure 2),and on the other hand apractical tool is thus on the one hand atheoretical model explaining the process of specific campaign,“I (e.g. school travel plans for secondary schools). Inthispaperone of new communication strategies (e.g. a3D-model) and new concepts their non-sustainable urbanmobility behaviour. The measures consist sustainable transport modes and (ii)citizens’ commitment to change will beimplemented to improve (i)citizens’ awareness of different This integrated package contains alltypesof “soft” measures that specifically focuses on MMasa tool for changing mobility behaviour. grouped into five integrated packages. One of these packages The cityof Ghent hasimplemented 24sustainable mobility measures, 3.1. of anMMproject recently undertaken by the cityof Ghent, Belgium.

T St he a The integrated package focusing on MMasatool for changing By asking the stage-diagnostic questions, people are grouped into Since 2008,the cityof Ghent hasbeen takingpartinCIVITAS. In thispaper, we illustrate the useof MaxSUMO based on the results u x dy a c SU am MO r p ea a ign’ in pr s

c a o c urs ti

k c eep e e

mo ving,

ev en

wit hout

m y

c ar”, isevaluated entitled “Our citizens inthe firstplace by atailor-made brochure (mobility campaign transport modes isachievable. illustrating that amodal shift from carusetowards more sustainable and invitations, no follow-up was organized and citizens were not of car-usersthemselves. After the distribution of the brochures specific characteristics, butneglected the specific characteristics respond to the general brochure, which did include neighbourhood- however, not interested inbeingpart of a“mobiteam”. They did not to the invitation. The target group of car-dependent people was, Mainly people who already usesustainable transport modes responded ideas, information and experiences related to sustainable mobility. join “mobiteams”, groups of citizens perneighbourhood who exchange are therefore included ineach brochure (see Figure 4). very specific transport features. Neighbourhood-specific characteristics city of Ghent isdivided into 20residential neighbourhoods, each with Figure 4:The brochure “Our district ismoving” for the Mariakerke district (left) and Information on sustainable transport modes was distributed among Citizens who received thisbrochure were afterwards invited to

distri ct

mo ving” or “Onze

wijk Muide-Meulestede district (right).

bew eegt” inDutch). The 141 MaxSUMO: a new approach to the evaluation of mobility management projects 142 Rethinking everyday mobility bew 3.3. a third campaign,entitled “I campaigns aimingat changing attitudes and behaviour. From thisnotion, interview. Thus, avery personal approach seems necessary, especially in However, many residents became interested inthe campaignafter the read the invitation letter, butdid not reply, mainly due to lack of time. received the invitation to participate. Two thirds of them had actually two months after the startof the campaign.Only one third recalled having total lack of interest, residents of play streets were personally interviewed only ahandful of households wanted to participate. To gaininsight inthis health and monetary benefits of sustainable transport. Despite allefforts, calories burned, and money saved. This illustrated the environmental, frequently usetheir carsbutare willingto switch to public transport, guidance and advice on sustainable travel options. changing travel behaviour of frequent car users by providing personal developed website, which alsocalculated the amount of CO register their sustainable trips and travel distances inaspecifically a bike or walk for trips which are normally travelled by car. They could modes (the mobility campaignentitled “Our the street withthe highest modal shift toward more sustainable transport were invited to participate in a competition between play streets to find is greater inthese streets. Consequently, residents of these play streets that the willingness to participate inaproject about sustainable mobility they are organized by the cityon request of citizens. One might expect or days inthe holidays sothat children canplay freely inthe streets, and streets”. Play streets are closed for motorized traffic during specific hours travel options. had to be undertaken to inform car-dependent people about sustainable mobility; therefore, more specifically and carefully designed initiatives people do not spontaneously seek outinformation on sustainable or other reasons. However, the results do suggest that car-dependent dependent people was the result of aninadequately designed brochure campaign. Consequently, we are not sure whether the disinterest of car- questioned about why they did or did not wish to participate inthe str aat

T eeg he The campaign “I The city planned interviews withat least 300citizens who One possibility was to contact people through the system of “play

bew c

ook am eegt” inDutch). Residents were asked to usepublic transport, p

zonder aign “ I kee

auto”), was developed. p moving,even

k eep

mo k eep ving,

w mo itho

ving, ev u en t my

ev wit c

en str a hout r

wit eet ”

hout

is m

mo y

m c ving” or “Onze ar” aimed at y

c ar” (or “Ik 2 saved, saved,

levels according to the MaxSUMO approach (see Figure 5). trip whenever possible. The citythus settargets at different assessment behaviour during one month and usesustainable alternatives for each This means that these 10citizens should bevery aware of their travel at least 10citizens should bewillingto participate inthe campaign. cycling or walking for some of their trips. From thisgroup of 300citizens cars and saw no reason for changing this(9.0% inthe pre-contemplation earlier (see Figure 6). questions were asked, similar to the MaxSEM questions mentioned the campaign. To determine their stage position, five stage-diagnostic 410 citizens allowned acarand might beinterested inparticipating in target group of thisMMproject (i.e.frequent carusers).The other stage of the behaviour change process and, thus, did not belong to the frequently. These respondents were already inthe finalmaintenance 44 citizens did not own a car, used public transport or walked/biked public places such asthe shopping mall,library, and sports centres. 3.4.

T he Almost one inten car owners stated that they frequently used their In Ap r e su ril 2011,two pollsters interviewed 454citizens at various lt s Figure 5:Definingtargets and indicators at different assessment levels. 143 MaxSUMO: a new approach to the evaluation of mobility management projects 144 Rethinking everyday mobility • • • transport modes buthave not done thissofarfor various reasons: frequent carusers,who might bewillingto switch to sustainable Consequently, more thanhalfof allcarowners canbedescribed as two groups clearly did not belong to the target group of thisMM project. sustainable transport modes (33.4%inthe maintenance stage). These stage). At the other end of the spectrum, one third frequently used quarter (25.0%) did not have astrong opinion about the campaign, majority (71.2%) considered the campaignto beagreat initiative. One my explaining the content of the campaign “I further about their susceptibility to change travel behaviour. After travel options. Consequently, these respondents were questioned interested in personal guidance and advice on the useof sustainable Figure 6:Distribution of stage position according to the campaign“I

ca stage). use these sustainable travel modes more frequently (action 34.9% already used public transport and bike, butwanted to or bike, buthad not putthisinto practice (preparation stage), 15.6% already knew how to switch from carto public transport travel modes (contemplation stage), but were unsure how to replace their cartrips with sustainable 7.1% wanted to usepublic transport and bike more frequently, These three groups of respondents (236respondents) might be r ”, they were asked what they thought about the campaign.The

k eep

mo ving,

keep

wit ev en

hout moving,

wit

my hout

car”. even

spent on travel. website, which alsocalculated the amount of CO and to register their sustainable trips on aspecifically developed help or information was needed. were contacted several times in order to inquire whether additional also offered to the participants. this test During month, the participants a specific destination). Ifneeded, free bicycles and season tickets were necessary transport information (e.g. which busor bike route to take to mobility). The consultancy bureau information (e.g. city maps, brochures, and websites on sustainable they used to make. They were given personal assistance and detailed asked to consider sustainable transport alternatives for each cartrip citizens actually participated. InJune 2011, these 6participants were were willingto participate inthiscampaign,butultimately only 6 their willingness to participate. Only adozen respondents (7.0%) gap between the respondents’ positive interest inthe campaignand Consequently, no further insights canbegained on the significant did not include any questions on the reasons for (non-) participation. willingness to participate was significantly lower. The questionnaire while only aminority (3.8%)thought itacompletely useless initiative. with their cars.Thisequals almost 340kgless CO travelled more than 2,000 kmwithsustainable travel modes instead of Table 1illustrates that, during justone month, these 6participants The 6participants were asked to forgo asmany cartrips aspossible Despite the generally positive opinion about the campaign, people’s Carole Femke TOT D D G A aria oris ert nn AL Table 1:Results of the campaign“I ssanbe mC “sustainable” km 1,060.5 2,163.5 302 296 405 33 67 Traject was standby 24/7 to give O 2 saved (gr) 337,506 165,438 63,180 10,452 46,176 47,112 5,148

keep

moving, 2 2 and 600Euros less and money saved.

even

E without 283.00 € 602.65 € uros saved 92.00 € 19.43 € 81.87 € 117.51 € 8.84 €

car”. 145 MaxSUMO: a new approach to the evaluation of mobility management projects 146 Rethinking everyday mobility trips and less CO willing to participate inthe campaign,resulting in more sustainable citizens should bemade aware of the campaign,withat least 10citizens biking or walking asmuch aspossible. The citytargeted that at least 300 switch from cartrips to more sustainable trips by public transport, and tailor-made advice on sustainable travel options sothat they could changed their caruseyet. The participants received personal guidance users, who were willing to change butdid not know how to, or had not recently organized by the cityof Ghent, Belgium. between the respondents’ interest inthe campaign, their willingness respondents participated inthe campaign.Alarge gapseems to exist to participate was thus higher than targeted, buteventually only 6 were effectively willingto participate inthe campaign.The willingness the campaign. However, 7% of the target group, or 16 respondents, mobility services provided, the interviews revealed great interest in initial target was setfor the respondents’ interest inor usage of the respondents considered the campaignagreat initiative. Although no of the campaignwas not fully achieved. Furthermore, 71.2%of the Consequently, the initialtarget of 300citizens to bemade aware behaviour. The campaignwas presented to these respondents only. to the target group of frequent car userswillingto change their travel were interviewed on the street, butonly 236respondents belonged 4. the evaluation of the campaign“I projects. Thisapproach isillustrated by Figure 7which summarizes as itisneither possible nor necessary to monitor alllevels insome MM targets and indicators must bedefined, butsome levels canbeskipped in MaxSUMO as different assessment levels. For each assessment, level steps, facilitating monitoring and evaluation. These steps are presented breaks down the complex process of behavioural change into smaller methodology to effectively plan, monitor, and evaluate MMprojects. It of the behaviour change process. new travel habits and really progressed to the finalmaintenance stage after the campaign.Thiswillclarify whether the 6participants formed be surveyed over the telephone, assessingtheir mobility behaviour

Con This campaignaimed at changing travel behaviour of frequent car This paperreports on the usefulness of MaxSUMO asanew A follow-up isplanned inNovember 2011. The 6participants will c l us ion s 2 and money spend on travel. Eventually, 454citizens

k eep

mo ving,

ev en

wit hout

m y

c ”, ar”, 300 kgCO persons travelled more than2,000sustainable kmand saved more than trips, the results are quite positive. only During one month, these 6 personal advice on how to switch their car trips to more sustainable designed more successfully. campaign might provide usefulinformation sothat campaignscanbe insight into the reasons why someone decides to (not) participate ina account for this issue. This offers avenues for future research. Gaining behind thissignificant gapare unclear since the questionnaire did not to participate, and their actual participation. However, the reasons design asuccessful campaign.The campaignsprior to the “I ev facilitating the further steps withinthe MMproject. interviewed on the street to aspecific target group of 236respondents, behaviour. Thisnarrowed down the initialsample of 454citizens to the target group of frequent caruserswillingto change their travel more sustainable travel options, and halfof all respondents belonged car use,one inthree respondents had already changed their caruse to clarified that almost one inten respondents would not change their of the interviews on the street. These stage-diagnostic questions easily by usingthe stage-diagnostic questions of MaxSEM at the beginning is not always aneasy undertaking. However, thisstep was facilitated en

Although only 6persons participated inthe campaignand received This paperalsoreports on the many efforts that were needed to wit Figure 7:Summary–Results at different assessment levels according to MaxSUM. hout 2 and 600Euros.

m y

c ar” campaignillustrate that contacting atarget group

k eep

mo ving,

147 MaxSUMO: a new approach to the evaluation of mobility management projects 148 Rethinking everyday mobility in terms of more sustainable kmsand the amount of CO and negative aspects of aMMproject. For example, the finalresults wise approach of MaxSUMO offers better insight into both the positive studies of MMprojects (Möser and Bamberg, 2008),usingthe step- Kirkbridge and PhilGoodwin. 2004.Smarter Re car dealers, and others withastake inthe carindustry. directly supported by fossil fuel energy producers, carmanufacturers, car usewillface (informal, veiled) pro-automobility campaigns,(in) “automobility” cultures. Therefore, every campaign against individual account the broader context of modern societies, which are mainly mobility campaignpromoting sustainable travel options must take into cannot be included in every model. Furthermore, the evaluation of a there are numerous reasons for supporting behavioural change, which behavioural change isareduction of real processes. It isobvious that was successful (or not). project asitclearly illustrates at which specific steps the MMproject wise approach thus offers valuable insights for anyone organizing aMM limited actual participation inthe campaign,issignificant. This step- in the campaign to limited willingness to participate, and even more saved are clearly described. However, the drop from great interest W really works? Transport attitude theory. Transport Environmentalists’? Identifying travel behaviour segments using Rye. 2010.How psy Tr f ay ansport e chological r

Although atendency exists to report only good practice case Cairns, Sally, Lynn Sloman, Carey Newson, Jillian Anable, Alistair Some reservations should, however, beraised since any model of Bonsall, Peter.Bonsall, 2009.Dowe know whether personal travel planning Ana Carreno, Michael, Sebastian Bamberg, Janina Welsch and Tom en we c

Travel. London: Department for Transport. e ble, Jillian. 2005.‘Complacent CarAddicts’ or ‘Aspiring s

Research. Lisbon: Portugal.

t heory

best

lp? t

o Policy 16(6):306–314.

Pr ev Policy 12:65–78. aluate oceedings

bility of

t he

mana 12t

Choi h

gement W ces orld

–

Conf pr Changing 2 and money money and ojects: erence

Can

t on he

modifi Homewood IL:Dow Jones/Irwin. Tr of empirical evidence. Journal soft transport policy measures: Acritical assessment and meta-analysis success.eu/downloads.phtml, 6.7.2012. Monitor and Evaluate Mobility Projects. Available at: http://www.max- Tr protective behaviour. Health http://www.max-success.eu/downloads.phtml, 6.7.2012. other transport for the journey to work? Transport campaigns: which individuals are more likely to switch from carto success.eu/downloads.phtml, 6.7.2012. Annex B1.1Behaviour Change Models. Available at: http://www.max- at: http://www.epomm.eu/index.phtml?Main_ID=820, 6.7.2012. Measures asapproved by the MAX-consortium and EPOMM. Available of Mobility Management and the Categorisation of Mobility Management anstheoretical ansportation Stopher, Peter P. and Philip Bullock. 2003.Travel Möser, Guido and Sebastian Bamberg. 2008.The effectiveness of Prochaska, James O. and Carlo C.DiClemente. 1984.The Weinstein, Neil D. 1993.Testing four competing theories of health- MAX Curtis, Carey and Peter Headicar. 1997.Targeting travel awareness MAX MAX EPOMM. 2011.Mobility Management: aDefinition. The Definition cation:

SU SU SU

CCESS. 2009a.Work Package B.Final Report. Available at: A CCESS. 2008.Comprehensive State of the ArtReport CCESS. 2009b.MaxSumo. Guidance on How to Plan,

Research

criti A pproach: cal

appr Forum, Wellington: New Zealand.

Cr aisal.

Psychology 12:324–333. ossing

Environmental

oceedings Tr aditional

Psychology 28:10–26. Bound

t he

Policy 4(1):57–65.

26t aries h

ustralasian be

Ther haviour apy.

149 MaxSUMO: a new approach to the evaluation of mobility management projects GHENT I Cycling paths have been restored and new cycle lanes have been installed. GHENT I The “measuring” tram led to technical adaptations. De Lijn saves up to 200,000 euro per year.

GHENT I Cycle monitor counts every cyclist on a daily base.

1. which extent specific implications affect thecompany, PT cityauthority, through their economic impact, where we cansee inwhich way and to 1.1. Zagreb (see The Civitas Initiative) and traveller information) was to introduce such asystem inthe Cityof one of the objectives (withinmeasure 8.2-ZAG Public transport priority on the research undertaken withinthe CIVITAS ELAN project where the city’s traffic signals on the tram or bus corridors. This paper isbased system that ensures the progression of public transport vehicles through intersections. Inthiscase,thesystem PT issupported by atraffic control of improve performance PT isto give priority to vehicles PT at signalised flexibility and, ultimately, through itsperformance. Anefficient way to the development through of PT itsaccessibility, availability, usability, marketing, environment, and the qualityof life. These relations define demand, economy, politics, land useplanning, and, more recently, with complex relations between transport infrastructure, transport project objectives. The system PT itself canbedescribed asasystem improving the qualityof life and sustainability are among the specific of many CIVITAS cities, butespecially inthe ELANcities inwhich and contributes to overall qualityof life and sustainability. Thisistrue great importance. It is a service that meets the needs of mobile citizens

I nt Q u Th Public isgenerally transport (PT) perceived asapublic service of r a ntitative and Q od e benefits of introducing priority PT systems are often expressed uc tion DE u DI a P litative F T FF INING PR E R I IO ENT ndi QU R c ato ITY

DATA Marko Matulin, Štefica Mrvelj, ANTIT rs S Y Hrvoje Gold, Niko Jelušic C S ATIVE TEM OLLE

AND

C IM TION P C A OM C

METHOD T S P O A F R THE ING S ´

153 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods 154 Rethinking everyday mobility and Schofield (2007).They attribute higher importance to the user different views performance of PT was putforward by Thompson inter-modality, marketing and information. A further distinction between the operational level deals withthe accessibility of different modes, PT performance analyses the organisational and financial framework; and strategic level refers to political interest and regulations; the tactical level focuses on population attributes, population density and distribution; the external, strategic, tactical and operational. The first level performance would bring (the most important benefit: the ability to compare results). recognized the benefits which unified standardization across the EU a few companies PT inthe EU. Evidently, few companies PT have sofar and to date the standard and certification hasbeen implemented inonly environment. companies PT are not obliged to comply withthisstandard comfort (space, driving), security (criminal attacks, accidents), and regularity), customer service (staffavailability, competence, assistance), information (travel information), time (travel time, punctuality, (network, operation time, reliability), access (interfaces, ticketing), quantitative performance indicators into eight categories: availability system performance (EN13816)which categorises qualitative and In 2002,the EUdeployed astandard for certification of public transport accessing the bus stop, waiting time, trip, vehicle, driver, and information. (2000) grouped busperformance attributes into sixqualitydimensions: staff attitude, and satisfaction. Intheir research, Prioni and Hensher attributes as“non-journey time attributes” such asinformation provision, such which are more quantifiable (e.g. access time), and “soft” quality defined. Harrison et al.(1998)defined “hard” qualityattributes as argued for improved definition and clarification of these attributes. of the attributes (i.e.indicators) which comprise performance, PT and concluded that there was adistinct lack of standardisation inthe definition extensive review of the literature on measuring performance, PT Pullen of standardisation was previously indicated by Pullen (1991).After an expressed withamixof quantitative and qualitative indicators. Thislack measurements. lines. Thismeans defining performance indicators and conducting field include comprehensive evaluation performance of PT on different PT Detection and evaluation of transport impacts priority of PT system (2009), among others, report on the results of these economic analyses. users, society, etc. Currie etal.(2005and 2007)and Vedagiri etal. Egmond etal.(2003)defined four levels performance: of PT After two decades, the merits performance of PT are stillambiguously By reviewing the literature we found thatperformance PT isoften • • of indicators canbedefined when evaluating system: aPT investigated inthiskind of system. Ingeneral, two equally important sets because the definitions of indicators and their relations are much better system, ananalogy isdrawn withtelecommunications systems. Thisis quantitative indicators for describing the qualityof service of any PT qualitative and quantitative manner. implies that asetof indicators isneeded to describe performance PT ina indicators, which are important for defining PT’s priority effects. This inconsistency inthe approach to evaluation and indefining performance showing how different interpretations performance of PT canlead toward can only beevaluated withcustomer satisfaction surveys. is agood indicator for the service provider, butthat “true” performance perspective performance of PT and state that “hardcore” performance qualitative indicators would alsorequire investigating usersatisfaction (i.e.investigating the (2011). Acomplete evaluation of the impacts of thepriority PT system was presented by Matulin etal.(2010)and then updated by Matulin et al. Zagreb. Thisapproach, which was developed during the ELAN project, the conditions before the implementation of thepriority PT system in our own evaluation indicators, which were then used for evaluating The vagueness performance of PT definitions encouraged usto define focused exclusively on the operational performance of the tramway lines. speed) are not influenced by useropinions (qualitative indicators) inany way. 1 which passesthrough the ELANdemonstration corridor. present the results of the performance analysis of one tramway line

( aspects of theservice PT and describing itinaqualitative indicators isused for surveying useropinions about specific quality of service indicators (or “soft” indicators) –thissetof number of accidents, punctuality, etc.), manner indicators describes the performance inaquantitative of PT performance indicators (or “hard” indicators) – this set of price, comfort, company image, etc.). In order to solve the problem of connecting qualitative and This brief overview of the literature serves for the purpose of For the purpose of evaluating different impacts priority of PT we e.g. satisfaction about punctuality, travel time, safety, ticket N ote that the measurement results (e.g. vehicle PT travel time or operating (e.g. operating speed, dwell time, service intervals, 1 ), butthisisoutside the scope of thispaper. We

manner

155 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods 156 Rethinking everyday mobility tion 2.1. 2. conditions, number users,number of PT vehicles of PT inoperation, impacts, which willbedescribed indetail inthis chapter: mixed traffic line, but sometimes thisisnot the casedue to the various background travel time between adjacent stops PT and terminals on the same PT delay (see Figure 1).Thisreduction should result inadecrease of the operational performance of tramsisthe reduction of intersection intersections inbetween. The main impact of thepriority PT system on destination terminal B)and afinite number stops of PT and signalised and insection 5the conclusions. pros and cons. Insection 4we present the results of the measurements methods which were applied are described in section 3,aswell astheir impacts with performance indicators. The different data collection defines the impacts of thepriority PT system and connects specific location of thestation PT andvehicle PT occupancy. situations on thevehicle’s PT itinerary which are closely related to the this typeof measurement. Use-case scenarios describe different traffic were defined inorder to elicit apreferable combination of methods for a comparative analysis of these methods, several use-casescenarios tracking, PDA computer system, and manual video data processing. After methods were used and analysed: manual time recording, GPS vehicle and individual transport modes). traffic conditions (i.e. the traffic infrastructure isoften shared by PT str a 3.2kmlong two-way street (Savska order to maximize the project’s impact). The ELAN corridor area is (the majority of ELANmeasures was implemented inthiscorridor in within the ELANdemonstration corridor, and to evaluate itsimpacts was to implement thepriority PT system at signalised intersections was the introduction priority of aPT system inZagreb. The objective 1.2.

E eet to the north and I T val m he Zag A single journey of atramhastwo terminals (origin terminal Aand The remainder of this paperisstructured asfollows: section 2 In order to collect the data for thispurpose, four data collection As mentioned before, measure 8.2of the CIVITAS ELANproject p a u c t a s r o eb Ca f theP Appr s e T P r oa io r c ity Sy h Selska s tem

c esta street to the south) with mixed

c esta, located inbetween Ilica

• two cases: if the system itself isonly partially implemented. Thiscanhappen in travel times willincrease aswell. more time at thestops, PT and their round triptimes and passenger board and alight at the stops. PT This means that tramways will spend argue that withmore usersitwillalsotake PT longer for passengers to negatively affecting boarding and alighting times. Moreover, one could and several vehicles PT may arrive at thestop samePT at the sametime, This means that the time-gap between two tramsmay become too short, seven tramway lines are inoperation insome partsof ELANcorridor. demand. More tramsmay increase the possibility of congestion because may require more vehicles PT inorder to satisfythe increased transport contribute to amore sustainable urbantransport system. More users main objective of these measures isto increase the number of usersand energy efficient vehicles, PT electronic a PT ticketing system, etc.). The of itsquality(e.g. safety and security improvements, introduction of Zagreb are devoted to the promotion services of PT and improvement the intersections. intersections are easily cancelled outbecause the tramscannot reach positive impacts of giving priority to thevehicles PT at signalised traffic vehicles in such mixed traffic environments. In this case, the described the complex interactions between vehicles PT and general in further performance deterioration. Sunetal.(2008)detected and The tram tracks are occasionally blocked by traffic accidents, resulting peak periods of the day, when transport demand isat itshighest level. intersections, often blocking the tramtracks, during the peak and off to thismixed traffic conditions, queues of carsbuild upat signalised new infrastructure (e.g. underground systems), and other factors. Due structure of the city, the limited available space, the costs of building transport modes (mostly individual transport). Thisisdue to the shows that on most tramway lines the infrastructure isshared by other priority system. time-gap between vehicles PT and partialimplementation of the PT at the next one), vehicles may pass through one intersection to cause blockage intersections of the selected line/corridor (inthiscase PT if thepriority PT system is not implemented at allsignalized Furthermore, the effects of thepriority PT system may bereduced Several measures of the CIVITAS ELANproject inthe cityof An analysis of the tramway infrastructure inthe cityof Zagreb 157 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods 158 Rethinking everyday mobility adjacent stations. PT also berelated to userperception about his/her travel time between operating speed (see Table 1).Note that the runningtime indicator can indicators, which can bederived, are described: speed persegment and events isincluded at the top of Figure 1. specification of specific operation time segments inrelation to these the vehicle’s PT itinerary isincluded at the bottom of Figure 1,and a decomposition asdepicted inFigure 1.Alistof expected events on corridor, aswell asbackground impacts, we introduced operation time 2.2. segment of the line. undetected if the operational performance isnot evaluated for each specific intersections or between two adjacent stops) PT may remain the tramway line, improvements achieved at the micro level (e.g. at when priority aPT system isimplemented only for acertain partof prioritya PT system, such impacts must not beignored. Inourcase, operational performance. Inthe analysis of the possible benefits of •

D traffic flow of equipped vehicles). PT is not equipped withthe priority equipment may disturbthe travelling on the sameline/corridor (inthiscaseavehicle that if the priority equipment isnot installed vehicles inallPT e Apart from the indicators presented inFigure 1,two more All the above described background impacts affect the tramway’s T

f o detect all impacts of the priority PT system in the demonstration inition o f

E val u a tion I ndi c ato rs Figure 1:Operation time decomposition. two terminals. For aknown length line of aPT (s on running between stops PT by thevehicle PT on a journey between at different stops PT of theline: same PT calculated 2008), the total vehicle operation time (T in Table 1are presented below. According to the definition (Štefancic, stops isequal to: on theline, PT (Štefancic, 2008).The total running time between PT Speed persegment I ntersection delay O O Running time perating speed D peration time D

t Th The mathematical equations for the group of indicators defined t

riving time I T dw rt ndicator well time j,j+1 dw i

e total time spent atstops PT is the sumof dwell times elapsed is the dwell time for stop PT i isthe total time spent atstops PT and T

is the runningtime between two adjacent stops PT and n T op , the operating speed of thevehicle PT (v

destination terminal, includinganydelay ariseninthecourseofjourney. T T V T he timethatelapsesfrom thearrival ofaP he timeavehicle spendsataP T he timethatelapsesfrom thedeparture ofaP ehicle speedf he timethatelapsesfrom thedeparture ofaP needed for opening andclosingthedoorsisalsopart ofthedwell time. T he average journeyspeedofP T

part oftheP rt =∑ T op or predefined segmentsoftheline(asegmentrepresents a dw v =T n-1 to itsarrival atthe line’sotherterminal. op =∑ T = j=1 he timeavehicle spendsinmotion. dw

t i=1 +T s rt T it leaves theintersection. P/Tline j,j+1 linebetween two adjacentP arrival atthe next stop. t T dw rt op (1)

(4) i

an T D (3) stop dueto passenger exchange. escription d op T n ) isdefined by: vehicles between anoriginanda isthe number stops of PT Table 1:Indicator description. T rt vehicle atanintersection until Source: Matulin etal.,2011. P/Tline

(2) is the total time spent T T vehicle from oneterminal vehicle from astop to its op ) and after having ) canbederived: T stops). T he time 159 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods 160 Rethinking everyday mobility rapidly, especially during certain periods of the day. detect critical spotsinthe network where performance deteriorates intersection-by-intersection basis.Moreover, the data analysis helped to performance because we were able to analyse the performance on an equations allowed usto detect even minor changes inoperational adjacent stops. PT stopping, and secondly, when there are no intersections between two firstly, when the vehicle PT passesthrough the intersection without adjacent stops PT (s into: stopping). Note that expression∑ • segments, four data collection methods were used: 3.1. ta Colle 3. where caused by mixed traffic conditions) isincluded in two adjacent stops PT (j,j+1).Any additional loss of time (e.g. delay delay which iscaused at the finite number of intersections m now decompose runningtime between two adjacent stops PT ( origin terminal Aand n is the number stops, of PT (Štefancic, 2008). The stop first PT is the adjacent stops PT (i.e.driving time) and

D M a manually recorded the time at tramway stops and signalised watches travelled intramsthe time period of one week and Manual time recording. Sixstudents equipped withstop This group of evaluation indicators and their mathematical Speed persegment ( v In order to collect the data about the operation time and its v t ethod dt

j,j+1 N

isthe number of events which caused unplanned vehicle is the time which vehicle aPT spends inmotion between two s U s ed c tion t rt j,j+1 j,j+1 D

= e

) divided by t scr t dt -th PT stop-th PT isthe destination terminal B.We j,j+1 j,j+1 i j,j+1

+ = tion

∑ ) isthe distance travelled between two

s t m rt j,j+1 i=1

j,j+1 m t i=1 id i

rt t + (6) id j,j+1

∑ i

k can beequal to 0intwo cases; : t ∑ loss m k i=1

(5) t id i isthe total intersection ∑ k t loss k

(

between k=0,...,N t rt j,j+1 )

3.2. serves asagood basisfor acomparative method analysis. some advantages and disadvantages were detected. Thisexperience • • • • collection methods, asetof criteria was developed:

Com to the section’s database inthe computer for data processing. from the section’s database on the PDA device were exported and calculated the values of the performance indicators. Data as the duration of every dwell time. The application recorded arrival/ departure times atstops PT and at intersections, aswell the application installed on aPDA device one student recorded Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) computer system. By using spreadsheets. entered the data for performance indicators directly into Excel While observing the recorded video, two students manually the vehicle surveillance system (for one working day). Manual video data processing. Avideo was extracted from into anExcel table. second. GPS data was extracted from the devices and imported device recorded the vehicle position and actual speed for each in aperiod of one week, each day from 6AMto 10PM. Every four tramstravelling on the sameline. Recording took place GPS vehicle tracking. Four GPS receivers were installed in indicators were derived. Excel table. data During processing, the above-mentioned intersections. The data was then manually imported into an While applying the GPS vehicle tracking method the source computer system reduced that error to about 1 to 2seconds. range of 5 to 10 seconds for the ELAN corridor. The PDA individual student and their perception, errors were in the time and intersection delay occurred. Depending on each a manual time recording method, errors inthe running collected data and results. For instance, while applying measurement hasbeen assessed based on the analysis of A While experimenting withdifferent data collection approaches F ccuracy of the measurement. The accuracy of the or the purpose of conducting acomparative analysis of data p a r ative A naly s i s o f

M ethod s 161 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods 162 Rethinking everyday mobility • • • • evaluate the simplicity of the method. of the used equipment. Alastsub-criterion isintroduced to sub-criterion. Equipment cost refers to the approximate cost phase to the production of results isgraded by the duration criterion. Likewise, the time interval from the preparation data processing isevaluated withthe human resources sub- number of people needed to execute the measurement and recording requires only the installation of the device. The designing the layout of the data entry forms, while GPS vehicle manual time recording includes organising the students and have to be undertaken before measurement. For instance, preparation sub-criterion isassociated withactivities that execution criterion isto point outdifferent aspects. The equipment cost and simplicity). The intention of the method Method execution (preparation, human resources, duration, This aspect was evaluated withadata processing criterion. partially processed data isexported into acomputer database. tracking) whilst for the PDA computer system method (e.g. manual time recording method and GPS vehicle applied methods data processing isthe maindisadvantage Data processing. Aneasy conclusion isthat for some of the specific segment of the tramway line were simply inaccurate. processed, we established that afew derived speeds per measurement took place. Furthermore, after the data were sometimes did not record the exact date and time when the applying the manual time recording method, the students representativeness of the data and results. For example, while Method reliability. The method reliability criterion refers to of at control points only). data was thus collected for the entire ELANcorridor instead vehicle position and speed were recorded every second and GPS vehicle tracking method had the bestresolution because measurement means the frequency of data input(e.g. the Resolution of the measurement. The resolution of the when vehicle speed is0km/h. special significance if itoccurs atstops PT and intersections actual position recorded by the GPS receiver. Thiserror has the stations PT or signalised intersections and the vehicle’s of errors isamismatch between the geographical locations of The results of the comparative analysis of data collection methods perf of the recorded tracks. be improved, i.e.mapmatching hasto beused to improve the accuracy to the GPS vehicle tracking method, butthe data processing firsthasto application (developed specifically for thisuse).The samegrade applies system method performs very well, thanksto the user-friendly to use.The initialevaluation of methods shows that the PDA computer it stillhasalarge number of disadvantages, which makes itunattractive slightly better method isthe manual video data processing method, but the manual recording method performed the worst (average grade). A are presented inTable 2inascale from 1to 5(1meaning worst intersection were synthesised. on those traffic situations three use-casescenarios for one signalised additional differences between those two methods emerged. Based the measurement some specific traffic situations occurred inwhich the GPS vehicle tracking method produced the best results. During methods, itisevident that the PDA computer system method and 3.3. H D E A uman resources quipment cost ata processing

Preparation v U Resolution Simplicity Reliability ormance and 5meaningexcellent erage grade A D s Base ccuracy uration e- c a d on the results of the initialevaluation of data collection s e S c ena M r r io anual time ecording 2,44 s 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 2 5 P DA system computer 3,67 3 3 3 2 5 5 4 4 4

perf ormance). AsTable 2indicates, Table 2:Initialmethod evaluation. G PS vehicle tracking 3,67 3 2 3 5 5 5 5 4 1 data processing M anual video 2,78 2 3 2 3 2 4 4 4 1

163 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods 164 Rethinking everyday mobility

car) was occupying thestop PT at the time. and started to board passengers or another vehicle or even (PT personal during the data processing whether vehicle Bhasreached thestop PT the GPS signal reflection problems inmind, itishard to determine position of vehicle B,when the speed is0km/h,do not overlap. Having specific situation, the geographical location of the stop PT and the why tramway Bstopped withthe GPS vehicle tracking method. Inthis depicted inFigure 3.a,itisnot possible to determine the exact reason time segments. in time, which isimportant for the calculation of different operation impossible to determine the vehicle’s actual position at aspecific point away from itsactual position. Without mapmatching (Figure 2.b) itis GPS tracks canindicate the tram’s position asaround 30–40meters when the speed isaround 0km/hand due to the GPS signalreflection, results for the vehicle operation time and average operating speed. But stopped (v=0km/h). of asingle tram(v≠0km/h) and rectangles mean that the tram was intersection. The white triangles on the map indicate the movement If two trams arrive at the same station at the same time, as is In general, the GPS vehicle tracking method gives very accurate Figure 2shows the recorded GPS track (white line) for that specific Sour Figure 2:a) recorded GPS track; b) actualvehicle PT position. ce of orthophoto: Croatian State Geodetic Administration. 4.1. 4. these variations, we present the results of the measurement of dwell on the stop’s location and canvary during the day. Asanexample of were produced based on the data collected withthe GPS method. detailed analysis. Hence, the following results of the measurements method because data isrecorded every second, enabling amore it isstillvery appealing in comparison with the PDA computer system Although the GPS vehicle tracking method hasseveral disadvantages, time measurement only when thevehicle PT reaches thestop. PT vehicle during the measurement and he/she caninitialise the dwell from intersection delay. Furthermore, the measurer travels inthe PT mentioned problems, because the measurer candistinguish dwell time intersection delay cannot bedetermined. was 0 km/h, butin this case the difference between dwell time and from the GPS device itiseasy to establish when the vehicle speed time and speed per segment. While processing the data extracted tracking method. This results inaninaccurate calculation of driving dwell time measurements are incomplete when usingthe GPS vehicle and the “red” period is activated (Figure 3.b), intersection delay and

Re Dw The amount of time a tramway spends at a specific stop PT depends Applying aPDA computer system method avoids the above- When thestop PT islocated directly before asignalised intersection su ell lt T ime s Figure 3:Two use-cases:a) arrival of two tramsat thestop; samePT b) specific geographical location stop. of PT 165 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods 166 Rethinking everyday mobility stops, meaning that only few passengers board or alight there. results show that the tramspends less than15seconds at some PT time intervals were analysed on atypical working day. The presented becomes different from 0km/h(departure time). Inthisexample, two starts. The end of the dwell time isidentified when the tram’s speed speed equals 0km/hand thisisthe point intime when the dwell time When atramreaches aspecific stop PT (ageographical position), its between atram’s speed and position and the location stops. of PT 3). In order to obtain dwell time results we had to conduct a comparison times (t contributed to the operational performance on that segment of the line. system –then thismeans that the priority system hassignificantly conditions before and after the implementation of thepriority PT time between two stops remains the same–i.e. when comparing the (this isone of the detected background impacts), while the running increase of passengers, and consequently anincrease of the dwell time the runningtime between specific stops. PT For example, ifthere isan N ame oftheP čtaaeia600:71:25 :02 16:51:59 0:00:20 14:52:51 0:00:17 Učit_akademija_6 sequence number T rnoasa100:31:03 :02 16:40:50 0:00:29 14:40:38 0:00:33 Frankopanska_1 arbak_ :01 45:900:316:50:23 0:00:13 14:51:29 0:00:19 Zagrebčanka_5 rg_marš_ tdcna_ :01 44:800:616:47:27 0:00:26 14:47:58 0:00:15 Stud_centar_4 Knowing the values of dwell times canbeimportant when analysing V V rsvj_ :01 45:300:416:54:59 0:00:14 14:55:43 0:00:10 Prisavlje_8 odnik V sak_ :00 45:500:216:55:50 0:00:12 14:56:25 0:00:08 eslačka_9 enk700:21:43 :01 16:53:44 0:00:12 14:54:38 0:00:12 jesnik_7 □□□ dw i v_ :03 44:300:516:44:03 0:00:25 14:45:13 0:00:35 ova_3 ) for several stops PT during one vehicle PT journey (Table = T T station_ t_ :05 44:800:716:42:43 0:00:27 14:43:38 0:00:58 ita_2 0:03:27 □□□□ First int erval D eparture time Table 3:Result of measurements. 0:02:58 □□□□ Second interval D eparture time intersections, their routes. Where vehicles PT do not have priority at signalised times may besignificantly affected by the intersection delays on 4.2. t classes for signalised intersections (A,B,C,D, Eand Fwithdefined 2000 (Transport Research Board, 2000),which comprises sixLoS of Service (LoS)framework, defined inthe Highway Capacity Manual priority system’s control logic. intersection delay measurements inthe development and evaluation of Furthermore, Satiennam (2005)elaborated the importance of by partial implementation of priority equipment in the vehicles. PT be caused by mixed traffic conditions and infrastructure sharing or vehicles are having difficulties reaching that intersection. Thismay and there is no change inintersection delay, thisindicates that the PT instance, if thepriority PT system isinstalled at specific intersections, be defined more easily and background impacts canbedetected. For findings, astrategy for the implementation of priority measures can however, the situation isalmost exactly the opposite. Based on these northbound direction (Figure 4.b and Figure 4.d). In other periods, p.m. for southbound traffic, compared PT to the performance inthe demand cause lower performance inthe period from 10a.m.to 6 reveals that the signalplans on that intersection and the transport class D. the upper limitof that class, i.e.itsperformance deteriorates toward under class Cinthe period from 6p.m.to 8p.m.,butitisvery close to approach to the “Vjesnik_10” intersection (Figure 4.a.)the t time period. Thisallows usto see, for instance, that on the northbound to the upper and lower limitsof the assigned LoSclass for the specific the horizontal axes. The vertical grey lines in the diagrams correspond 4). For each inaspecific time period we assigned aLoSclass beneath average intersection delay (ID) for three selected intersections (Figure [55, 80)and [80,+∞],respectively), we present the daily variations of id i

intervals expressed in seconds [0, 10), [10, 20), [20, 35), [35, 55),

I nte PT vehiclesPT travel inurbanenvironments and their operational Comparing thiswithanother intersection (“Zagrebcanka_8”) rs e c tion ∑ D m elay i=1 t id i , canbeamajor partof T op . Based on the Level � id 10

falls 167 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods 168 Rethinking everyday mobility 4.3. the intersection isincluded int one minute (see Table 4).The time spent waiting to move forward to shows a long delay at the second intersection (“Zagrebcanka_8”) – over lane,PT i.e.mixed traffic conditions. Inaddition, thisspeed trajectory monitored vehicle PT inthe 2–3p.m.period, isthe result of ablocked an almost constant-speed trajectory inthe beginning,recorded for the the main reasons for deceleration and stopping. The slow progress with periods. stops (“Stud_centar_4” and “Zagrebcanka_5”) during different time comparison of measured vehicle PT speeds between two adjacent PT

S Zagrebcanka_8-Northbound; c)HT_7-Southbound; d)Zagrebcanka_8-Southbound. p The speed trajectories depicted inFigure 5are usefulfor examining As anexample of speed persegment analysis, Figure 5shows the eed Figure 4:Daily variations of intersection delay at: a) Vjesnik_10-Northbound; b) p � e r

s egment and ru nning time id i

because the length of the intersection’s ˇ � ˇ included in□□□. approach lane isdefined by the GPS measurement. a signalcontrol scheme for priority. PT identified withmore precision and this may behelpful when developing different time periods, fluctuations intransport demand canbe of the ELANcorridor. Bycomparing the sameline segments, butin important for evaluating operational performance on specific segments 12 2 P running T AM M ime of The time spent waiting to move forward to the intersection is These two indicators (speed persegment and running time) are -3P -1P Figure 5:Comparison of measured vehicle PT speeds between two adjacent stops. M M :13 :02 :02 :04 :00 :22 13.09 0:02:24 0:00:00 0:00:48 0:00:27 0:00:21 0:01:36 :14 :01 :10 :12 :00 :31 10.83 0:03:11 0:00:00 0:01:22 0:01:08 0:00:14 0:01:49 t dt j,j+1

t id 1

t id 2 Table 4:Decomposition of runningtime ∑ 2 i=1 t id i ∑ k t loss k ˇ t rt j,j+1 [km/h] v j,j+1 t rt j,j+1

169 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods 170 Rethinking everyday mobility both directions of travel, the tram’s operation times (T the moment of itsexit from the corridor. that elapses between the moment when atramenters the corridor and demonstration corridor, we considered operation time to bethe time 4.4. exclude line PT number 4, we may conclude that trams travel faster that the operating speed significantly differs on every line. PT If we direction of travel. Depending on the direction of travel, itisevident speed inthe demonstration corridor of different lines PT and each heading north and generally travel faster during weekends. Table 5 reveals that, in this period, the trams travel faster when they are were recorded on Tuesday and Wednesday, respectively). The data in text (for the northbound and southbound directions the maximums (recorded on Sunday) and the maximum values are indicated asbold time period. The shaded cells in the table indicate the minimum values and nine journeys vehicles, of PT respectively, inthe above-mentioned Table 5.For the northbound and southbound directions we recorded four

Op Journey number For example, for the time period between 4p.m.and 5p.m.and for Since we conducted the measurements inthe predefined Figure 6 depicts the arithmetic mean (AM) of the derived operating e r ation 2 3 4 1 T N ime and orthbound Op e 0:13:08 r 0:13:28 0:14:43 0:15:37 ating S

p eed Journey number Table 5:Operation time comparison. 8 6 9 3 2 5 4 7 1 Southbound op ) are shown in 0:19:40 0:12:22 0:13:07 0:17:53 0:19:16 0:19:19 0:19:12 0:15:31 0:13:11

is close to 50%). when they are travelling northbound (for some lines PT the difference 5. background impacts described throughout thispaper. To determine the of runningtime between stops) PT canbe cancelled outby the small efforts from thecompanies. PT that this data collection method canbeimplemented with relatively newly produced vehicles PT are equipped with GPS receivers, meaning detailed analysis. It must benoted that inthe past5to 10years all system method, itisstillvery appealing because itenables amore Despite some disadvantages incomparison to the PDA computer data because itrecords vehicle position and speed every second. vehicle tracking method provides avery wide resolution of collected keeping track of these two indicators. the overall improvement of operation performance on that line by intersection along a specific line, PT it should be possible to determine

Con The positive impacts of thepriority PT system (reduction The analysis of the data collection methods reveals that the GPS If thepriority PT system would beinstalled at every signalised c l us ion Figure 6:Comparison of operating speeds for two directions of travel. s 171 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods 172 Rethinking everyday mobility N A demand for limited road space. Transport 34(4):413–428. to evaluating on-road public transport priority projects: balancing the Eur allocation for public transport priority. Proceedings Re (i.e. background impacts canbeidentified). analysis of every specific evaluation indicator canprovide clarification performance after the introduction of the priority system, adetailed specific segment line. of a PT Ifthere isno improvement innetwork time indicators, operational performance canbedetermined for a are possible even on the smallest scale. the results show that ourevaluation approach isvalid, and that analyses with the GPS vehicle tracking method inreal-life traffic conditions and where necessary, inlater analyses. The measurements were conducted of priority systems canbequantified and expressed infinancial terms, on anintersection-by-intersection basis.Hence, allthe positive impacts decomposition, enabling usto evaluate public transport performance actual impact of thepriority PT system we introduced operational time impact. Proceedings the public transport priority system – Identifying background data evaluation of public transport system performances. Promet syst perception of ‘permanence’ of busservices? Proceedings buscorridorsQuality and green routes: canthey achieve apublic ational

f c e opean ems r omparative Egmond, Patrick van, Peter Nijkamp and Gabriella Vindigni. 2003. Currie, Graham,Majid Sarviand BillYoung. 2007.Anew approach Curri By recording and monitoring intersection delay and running Matulin, Marko, Štefica Mrvelj and Hrvoje Gold. 2010.Evaluating Matulin, Marko, Štefica Mrvelj and Niko Jelušic. 2011.Two-level Harrison, S.,G. Henderson, E.Humphreys and A.Smyth. 1998. en c

in e

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e, Graham,Majid Sarviand BillYoung. 2005.Road space Europe. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

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Conference of

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23 l in scheduled busservices. Journal Transportation: T satisfaction. Journal the relationship between public transport performance and destination menu=6&proj_id=10, 6.7.2012. Available at: http://www.civitas-initiative.org/index.php?id=70&sel_ Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences. Soci priority system. Journal Estimating modal shift of cartravelers to buson introduction of bus US: National Research Council. Journal for flow assignment and mode split intwo-modes traffic network. lane arterials withnearside busstops. Proceedings Jansuwan. 2005.Anenhanced public transport priority system for two- Newcastle: University of Newcastle upon Tyne. ocal echnology 9(6):120–129. (5): 329–339. ety

Prioni, Paola and David Hensher. 2000.Measuring service quality Pullen, William Thomas. 1991.The Thompson, Karen and Peter Schofield. 2007. An investigation of The Transport Research Board. 2000. Vedagiri, Perumal and Venkatachalam 2009. ThamizhArasan. Štefancic, Gordana. 2008.Tehnologija Sun, Huijun, Bingfeng Si and Jianjun Wu. 2008. Combined model Satiennam, Thaned, Atsushi Fukuda, Toshiaki Muroi and Sarawut bus

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173 Defining quantitative impacts of the pt priority system and comparing different data collection methods Zagreb I Real-time travel information has been made available via 147 displays installed at PT stops.

Zagreb I 70 new trams provide more comfort and a higher level of security to all passengers. Security improvements were achieved by introducing CCTV cameras in the vehicles. ZAGREB I A series of workshops on safer use of PT has been held with senior citizens. The main focus of the workshops was on PT, the most important transport mode for seniors apart from walking.

1. improve the urbantraffic system and to manage mobility. These efforts underground-overhead light railsystem inthe City of Zagreb” etc.) to of the Cityof Zagreb, 2007 research project: “The realization of the invested instudies and projects inthe lastdecade (1999Traffic Study and vehicles from the city environs), the City of Zagreb has intensively to 380,464in2000and 226,676in1995;exclusive of transitvehicles walking. daily migrations, regardless of the purpose of their movements, including CIVITAS Initiative) aimed at improving the mobility of citizens and their Europe, many international projects have been started (among them the its traffic throughput capacity and enhance the mobility of citizens. In and inaccordance withthe city’scurrent financial options, to improve are made to usepartialprojects and solutions, based on annual plans the proposals from the 1999Traffic Study of the Cityof Zagreb. Attempts various mobility management solutions (MVA, 1999). to the existing traffic system, attempts have been made to implement of traffic accidents, illegal parking, and longer journey times. Inresponse negative effects such asincreased pollution and noise, agrowing number the citycentre isthus faced withtraffic network congestion, generating 59 percent in2003,according to The Croatian Bureau of Statistics) and been constantly shifting infavour of passenger cars(44percent in1990, with asudden increase inthe level of motorization. The modal split has

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177 Identification of risks regarding the introduction of measures aimed at improving citizen mobility in the city of Zagreb 178 Rethinking everyday mobility 2. citizens astraffic participants. students, while the other two measures (3.2and 7.4)are oriented towards The firstmeasure (4.4)isoriented towards citizens asemployees and on Pricing”, 7.4“Freight Delivery Restrictions” (Civitas inicijativa, 2012). for large institutions”, 3.2“Study on Congestion Chargingand Dialogue solutions referring to the following measures: 4.4“Mobility management solutions. mobility solutions, and evaluation of risks regarding the introduction of for suitable mobility solutions, evaluation of proposed (customized) emphasised. Citizens participate indifferent processes, such as:searching goal, citizens’ participation inthe decision-making process hasbeen of solutions. relate to several potential risks regarding the successful implementation issues are further addressed inthe project’s procedural structure and on issues of crucial importance for the project’s success. The mentioned for the implemented solutions. Appropriate decisions had to be reached decisions, reduce dissatisfaction, and introduce shared responsibility interested representatives of the public willhelp to reach appropriate react only after decisions have been implemented. The inclusion of the main decisions are taken by professionals and the public most often can other ways since the 1960s. However, inrelation to mobility issues, the regarding urbandevelopment through public hearings and in various inexperienced stakeholders. but, on the other hand, thisdialogue proved to beagreat challenge to projects’ activities a constructive dialogue started among stakeholders, no constructive dialogue related to traffic issues. Within the CIVITAS Croatia to the European Union and the accessibility of itsstructural funds. have intensified due to the forthcoming accession of the Republic of project is managed and financed, while inother casesthe bestsolution itself. Some of these canbeminimised through the way inwhich the financial markets, political situation) and the execution of the project relation to the broader environment inwhich the project operates (e.g.

Ri The paperinvestigates citizens’ participation inintroducing Considering the improvement of citizen mobility asthe major In Croatia, citizens have been included in decision-making processes Before startingthe CIVITAS ELANproject, there had been almost All projects involve certain potential risks and uncertainties, bothin s k Ass e ss ment Rega r ding the A na ly z ed M ea sur e s • • • • • • • using the following risk typesfor categorisation: described potential risks and contingencies in their measure descriptions • • warning systems for project risks. and accentuates risk management, including contingency plans and early institutional issues. CIVITAS ELANadopts aprocess-oriented approach rather tend to bebehavioural, changing implementation conditions, or solutions are not always of atechnical nature. The mainobstacles as appropriate. likely causes, and to then prepare countervailing or contingency plans, to identify potential sources of uncertainty and risks, aswell astheir with minimum delay. Risk management procedures should beapplied is to prepare contingency plans, sothat any problem canbeaddressed measures and urban structures (infrastructures, operation area). spatial Risks –e.g.related to the physical interference between gaps or uncertainties, legal Risks –e.g.due to conflicts of interest between actors, legal competencies, changing composition of boards or committees, of organisations, project tasks beyond usualpractices or institutional risk –e.g.related to the restructuring or privatisation existing resistance or lobbying againstmeasures, opposition political parties, politicization of measure topics, political risk – e.g. cooperating agencies are governed by of management skills and capacity, coordination between project and other measures, availability interdependence of implementation steps and stages, organisational risk – e.g. dependency on a single supplier, parallel investments and budget modifications, (cash flow), substantial cost increases for major components, financial risk –e.g.related to delayed payments from third parties technologies, incompatibilities between systems, safety hazards of particular (immature) technologies, technical systems or methodologies, technical risk –e.g.due to failure or low performance of project management-related risks. risks to measure implementation and success, For the firstlevel, alllocal project partners had identified and In general, two levels of risks were differentiated: Challenges to the implementation of innovative urbantransport 179 Identification of risks regarding the introduction of measures aimed at improving citizen mobility in the city of Zagreb 180 Rethinking everyday mobility Zagreb are summarised inTable 1. plans regarding the introduction of a carpooling system in the City of improve the city’straffic capacity. The risk management and contingency require acomprehensive analysis inorder to implement the solution and institutional risk have ahighpotential impact on the introduction of a O T iaca Priceofnecessary web applica- Financial Political A cnclP echnical I Spatial rganisa- Table 1:Risk management and contingency plans for the introduction of acarpooling nstitutional tional ossible questionsconcerning L cceptance User

glP egal Risk type Each of the mentioned risks hasnumerous characteristics that A risk analysis we conducted showed that useracceptance and I D L nsufficient cooperation between D N ack ofsupportby possibleuser efining area for useofcarpool- etermining triporigincarpool- ossible problems intheopera- ot understanding theproblem I ing locationsinurban areas sfiin ubro sr Communicationcampaign, nsufficient numberofusers insurance ofpassengers in Risk Description tion ofweb applications carpooling schemes L tion for carpooling involved partners ack ofmotivation ing scheme groups Communication campaign provide linksto carpooling website from various sites IT E I poelglpsiiiis eimmedium medium xplore legal possibilities optimal area for useof n terms ofsupportand professionals tasked to Study willdetermine maintain the system Contingency Plan carpooling system Regular meetings idn pnosmdu medium medium Finding sponsors decision making system inthe cityof Zagreb. eimmedium medium o low low o low low low low o low low Probability (high/ medium/low)

high high Potential Impact (high/medium/low) potential impact (high/medium/low/very low). Principled typesof risks are presented according to their probability and congestion charging and the views on pricing are summarised inTable 2. level isimportant. achieve better effects, support at the institutional (local and national) an economically profitable (self) service of sufficient dimensions. To modes, such asacarpooling system, cannot by themselves generate been noted, rangingfrom atotal of 27.4to 28.8%(1.4%).Alternative the observed years, minor deviations from the average values have has shown low values: 1.44(1999),1.37(2009),and 1.40(2010).For management and the occupancy of private carsinthe Cityof Zagreb carpooling system in Zagreb. Carpooling is a basic indicator of mobility O T ceptance Financial User Political echnical I Spatial rganisa- nstitu- tional tional L Table 2:Risk assessment and contingency plans for the study of congestion charging

egal Risk type Risk management and contingency plans regarding the study of A c- D L where congestion charging is Potential userscouldoppose ifficulties inconductingpublic obbying ofconsumerassocia- L tions by politicalopposition D between involved partners ack oflegal tools for imple- Risk Description I elay indefinition ofzones nsufficient cooperation procurement process N N o risksidentified o risksidentified mentation charging made M Communication campaign - Close cooperation withthe omncto apinmdu high medium Communication campaign Communication withcity easure timetable willallow for delays upto 6month E respective authorities xplanation ofpriorities Contingency Plan Regular meetings authorities - - and dialogue on pricing. eylwvery low very low very low very low eimmedium medium eimmedium medium eimmedium medium medium

low Probability (high/ medium/low/very low) high low Potential Impact (high/ medium/low/very low) 181 Identification of risks regarding the introduction of measures aimed at improving citizen mobility in the city of Zagreb 182 Rethinking everyday mobility Grada Zagreba 8/2007; 10/1998), which were not properly observed, (see Table 3). various risks involved during the analysis and implementation phases important stakeholders’ participation is.One hasto beaware of the and reducing the traffic congestion level –itbecomes obvious how restrictions –raising the acceptance of adelivery restriction policy solution would berejected canbereduced by ahighlevel of acceptability. risk (see Table 2).The possibility that the proposed congestion charge impact on the implementation process: useracceptance and institutional I nstitutional O T ceptance Financial User Political cnclSpecif echnical pta idn u rao mlmnainStudy willdefine area Findingoutarea ofimplementation Spatial rganisa- tional L Risk type egal Similar to the former freight delivery regulations (Službeni glasnik Analysing the mainobjectives of measure 7.4Freight delivery The risk analysis detected two major issues withahighpotential A c- Table 3:Risk assessment and contingency plans for new urbanfreight delivery D L Users may consider jointdeliveries N obbying for rejection ofanymotor- I elay indefining acceptable means nsufficient cooperation between noeigo xsigrglto Strictimplementation on-obeying ofexisting regulation Risk Description ized traffic by somegroups ic demandsfor freight deliveries by various users N involved partners o risksidentified complicated of transport allows for delays upto by municipal guards Pooling amongpos- M eua etns eimhigh medium Regular meetings Communication Communication

easure timetable Contingency Plan sible users campaign campaign 6 months eylwvery low very low - eimmedium medium eimmedium medium ihhigh high o low low low low Probability (high/

regulations. medium/low/very low) medium high Potential Impact (high/ medium/low/very low) businesses, operators, traffic flows, goods flows, etc.) canbeanalysed. parameters (characteristics of infrastructural objects, road network, by first usingasuitable demo zone inwhich the delivery-system positive effects of the delivery solution. Thisspatial risk isavoided implementing the proposed scheme and, at the sametime, willyield communication campaignsaimed at allstakeholders. The contingency plan seeks to avoid thisuseracceptance risk by too complicated or too difficult to achieve inthe present circumstances. risk. Users may, for example, consider the proposed delivery solution traffic management policies inZagreb. However, thisalsorepresents a types of risks. meetings between measure partners, where necessary, to avoid these contingency plan includes the planning and scheduling of regular 10) isthe insufficient cooperation between measure partners. The targeting different citizen groups. this political risk canbeavoided through communication campaigns of motorized traffic inthe citycentre. to Due the contingency plan, small step, may lobby for more “radical” solutions, like ageneral ban of the importance of environmental issues, expecting more thana in the long runto the finalgoal. Citizens withahigher awareness level vehicle movements (askey asource of nuisance), isonly asmallstep up to six-month delay inthe measure’s schedule. of the freight delivery solution, would beprevented by anticipating an of adelay indefining suitable transport means asanimportant element schedule (of asmallstep or anentire phase). Inthiscase,the possibility this technical risk withahighpotential impact. action of pooling businesses from different branches should prevent cause difficulties indefining common delivery schemes. The planned goods, quantities of goods, different working hours, locations, etc.) may various businesses have different supply demands (various kinds of ensuring strict implementation of the new regulations. The fact that to reduce thislegal risk withahighpotential impact (see Table 4)by traffic participants. Municipal guards and traffic police should be able daytime congestion and further discourage pedestrians and cyclists as the proposed new regulations may (ifnot observed) cause increased Another risk may be how to define an area that is suitable for One of the project objectives isto increase the acceptance of new An institutional risk withahighpotential impact (see Graph Achieving the measure’s objective, i.e.decrease the number of A typical organisational risk isadelay inthe measure’s time 183 Identification of risks regarding the introduction of measures aimed at improving citizen mobility in the city of Zagreb 184 Rethinking everyday mobility M 3. are alldrivers and most of them are vehicle owners. When considering The group of persons who do not want to share aprivate carinany way members, whereas 3%of respondents did not want to share aprivate car. exclusively referred to travelling together withfellow workers or family car withone or more persons asacceptable. About 37%of respondents citizens questioned considered the possibility of sharing apassenger carsharing withother people on their way to work. About 57%of the system, very positive responses were obtained regarding passenger analysing atarget group of employees and potential usersof the carpooling and to analyse the possible risks of introducing carpooling measures. By of citizens’ traffic mobility on the target corridor inthe Cityof Zagreb, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences to determine the current state costs when sharing rides, etc. urban transport, the low average occupancy of private cars,reduction of the cities, citizens prefer private carsbecause of the poor-quality public and reduced capacity of urbanroads, citizens expect greater mobility in Croatia and other European countries. This refers mainly to: the overload and they canbeconsidered from several angles that are typical bothof There are multiple reasons for developing the concept of shared rides the majority of countries inwhich the system isfunctioning successfully. for successful implementation were not met, while these were achieved in was that the necessary (institutional, useracceptance, etc.) conditions One of the reasons why carpooling was not practiced earlier inZagreb an efficient and high-qualitysolution that willimprove citizen mobility. transport costs. The basic aimof introducing carpooling isto implement at the level of personal acquaintances and usually without sharing the Zagreb. Carpooling, for instance had been mainly applied sporadically management strategies such ascarpooling, carsharing, etc. inthe Cityof ELAN project, there had been no systemic implementation of mobility bicycles (The Civitas Initiative, 2012).Before the startof the CIVITAS as well asthe development of the preconditions for greater usage of for the employees of certain companies and the student population, carpooling system (measure 4.4),the development of transport plans modes. Alternative mobility inthiscaserefers to the introduction of a a concept of active mobility management through alternative transport up the pastconcept of adjusting traffic to private carsto replace itwith obility Sol

I denti In April 2010,data was gathered by means of asurvey conducted by The majority of countries withadeveloped traffic system are giving f i c ation o u tion s f Ri

s k s Rega r ding the I m p lementation o f Citi z en city of Zagreb); they are presented inGraph 1. risks of greater usage of the system of sharing vehicles and rides (for the on employee mobility play anactive role inthisdistinction. only drivers of company vehicles, the percentage is0.2.Company policies purchased vehicle isintended for carpooling, by subsidizing the costs transport mode, either through taxreliefs (e.g. through excises when a regulations. Also,the legislator needs to find models of subsidizing this of carpooling and the system must bedefined indetail withlegal transport) or through the academic community. regarding their support to the mentioned system (co-financing of established through the cooperation of business subjects (companies) vehicles and rides. Coordination among userscanbemore easily and communication between usersand to facilitate reservations of motivated by the CIVITAS ELANproject. a ridesharing system. The introduction of a pilot project is expected, first elaborate aplan for the introduction and operationalization of been developed inthe Cityof Zagreb. It istherefore necessary to The survey method hasidentified the limitingfactors or enhanced Legislation needs to beharmonized by introducing the concept Various internet portals are beingdeveloped for better coordination The infrastructure required to expand ridesharing hasnot yet Graph 1:Limitingfactors to greater usage of the systems of sharing carsand rides. 185 Identification of risks regarding the introduction of measures aimed at improving citizen mobility in the city of Zagreb 186 Rethinking everyday mobility freezing (t precipitation, the number of days of bright, foggy, rainy, frosty, snow, i.e. the values of climate elements such asairtemperature, sunshine, meteorological data for the cityof Zagreb have not been considered, of identified risks. Considering these alternative travelling modes, the shows the three analysed alternative transport modes from the position Organizational; Financial; Technological; Spatial and Other. Graph 2 Problem-related; Involvement (communication); Positional; Planning; the following criteria: Political/strategic; Institutional; Cultural; is initsearly beginningsinthe cityof Zagreb. The analysis considered and public bicycles (measure 4.4).Each of the three transport modes introducing three alternative transport modes: carpooling, carsharing, carpooling system ascheap aspossible for the end user. subsidies from the government (or municipal) budget, makingthe of regular or special vehicle technical inspections), or through direct system (0.352),and withthe carsharing system inthird place (0.504). introduction of public bicycles (0.144), followed by the carpooling modes inthe cityof Zagreb, the most favourable option would bethe of identified risks of introducing the mentioned alternative transport position of identified risks. Evaluating allthe criteria from the position shows the selection of the optimal alternative transport mode from the results of studying the traffic demand, amodel hasbeen developed that values of certain alternatives to the criteria evaluated on the basisof the Graph 2:Presentation of alternative transport modes regarding identified risks for the The research included amulti-criteria analysis of the issue of Using the method of assigningthe actual (current and planned) min ≤-10 o C), cold (t max <0 o C), chilly (t min <0 o C), etc. weather. coty of Zagreb. Other survey results are presented inGraph 4. support the introduction of acongestion charging zone inthe centre. on acceptability (see Graph 3),showed that 68percent of respondents introduction of a measure (Schade and Schlag, 2003). A public survey respondents’ attitudes, including their behavioural reactions after the to strong situational and temporal factors. “Acceptance” involves these measures, making“acceptability” aconstructed attitude, subject the future. Thus the target groups willnot have experienced any of describes the prospective judgement of measures to beintroduced in importance, some terms have to bedefined. The term “acceptability” prices for certain typesof vignettes were agreed upon. the option of userspurchasing annual vignettes was selected and the collaborators to elaborate aproposal for acongestion charge scheme, charging and dialogue on pricing”. After many meetings with the Zagreb was the mainaimof ELANmeasure 3.2“Study of congestion city, companies/institutions). would beachieved through more concrete userincentives (from the participants (2010)in the cityof Zagreb. Greater usage of ridesharing shows that (asyet) informal carpooling isused by 8.73%of the survey to drivers and passengers. The research on the CIVITAS ELANproject a critical massof usershasto beachieved to make itreally attractive Graph 3:Level of support for paying traffic congestion charges inthe cityof Zagreb In order to avoid misunderstandings and because of their The development of aproposal for acongestion charge scheme in One of the main obstacles of non-formal carpooling today is that (2011). 187 Identification of risks regarding the introduction of measures aimed at improving citizen mobility in the city of Zagreb 188 Rethinking everyday mobility best solution, while restricting freight traffic to a few street-corridors and spatial restriction (Bestufs, 2011) (see Graph 6) would be the (see Graph 5).Inthe citizens’ perception acombination of temporal (average grade 7.05)of allsorts of undesirable impacts inthe citycentre in the questionnaire considered passenger cars asthe principal cause 600 citizens inthe area of the citycentre. The citizens participating freight delivery restrictions was conducted witharandom sample of activities and the vehicle’s location). freight delivery processes canvary aswell (depending on the driver’s (depending on their interests –reasons for beingat the location) and confrontation occurs. Furthermore, citizens canhave different roles citizens face freight deliveries and the different locations where this delivery ingeneral, one firsthasto identify allkinds of situations where discouraging the useof personal vehicles. charging system, and for the implementation of further measures The potential funds should beused for the operation of the congestion income for the city, butto reduce congestion and improve air quality. city centre. preliminary solution suggests the introduction of aneco-zone inthe the existing transport system of the Cityof Zagreb, the proposed an analysis of applied urbancharging strategies, and ananalysis of In April 2010,asurvey on the awareness and acceptability of When studying citizen mobility inthe context of urbanfreight The mainobjective of the measure isnot to generate additional Based on well-known technical solutions for road urbancharging, Graph 4:Question about the scope of the zone (2011). solution. through the citycentre (see Graph 7)was ranked asthe second best of the proposed solution –time-limited delivery –is0.114by businesses. consequences (3.1)and itsacceptability (3.0)(see Graph 8),the weight (avg. mark 3.9). Taking into account its effectiveness in alleviating the situation) and the implementation of freight corridors for delivery limited delivery in some specially marked zones, (similar to the present as unacceptable. The most acceptable measure (avg. mark 3.9)was time- businesses inthisarea generally regard most of the suggested solutions restaurants, hotels, etc.) withdelivery demands. Every respondent represented abusiness (shops, coffee shops, bistros, delivery restrictions was conducted on arandom sample of 60businesses. The analysis of the possible acceptance of solutions revealed that In May 2010,asurvey on the awareness and acceptability of freight Graph 6:Citizen survey –effectiveness of temporal and spatial restrictions. Graph 5:Citizen survey –weight of undesirable traffic impacts. 189 Identification of risks regarding the introduction of measures aimed at improving citizen mobility in the city of Zagreb 190 Rethinking everyday mobility 4. three analyzed measures. the risk assessment of the introduction of suitable solutions for the risks have to betaken into account and eliminated. Picture 1represents citizen mobility. However, inorder to achieve that goal, some threats or actually have alot incommon, inparticular their major goal: to increase these two measures. that anticipates the implementation of either one or acombination of stakeholder survey’s results, afreight delivery model had to bedesigned delivery corridors. In order to extract a solution proposal based on the unacceptable” by the vendors asstakeholders: time-limited delivery and could beextracted as “averagely effective”, butalsoasthe “least measures from the standpoint of their businesses, two measures proposed measures and highlighting the low acceptability of the

Con Graph 8:Business survey –effectiveness and acceptability of time-limited delivery.

The measures described above might seem very different, butthey Given the perception of vendors on the low efficiency of the c l us ion s Graph 7:Citizen sirvey –effectieness of limited delivery corridors. implemented by big and small-size companies or state institutions and acceptance). The firstphase of implementation ismost easily requires cooperation and dialogue between allstakeholders (user • • • were: The biggest potential risks assessed for allthree observed measures acceptance) or even allthree observed measures (institutional risk). project hasrevealed risks which appear to behighintwo (user implementing solutions, and inevaluating their results. in various measures. Citizens are vitalparticipants indeveloping and because the sametypesof risk might manifest themselves differently their cooperation isextremely important to the risk assessment, legal (1x)and technical (1x). user acceptance (2x), institutional (3x), To establish an efficient carpooling system in the City of Zagreb The implementation of measures included inthe CIVITAS ELAN Since citizens are involved inallthe measures invarying roles, Picture 1:Risk assessment for measures on citizen mobility inthe cityof Zagreb. 191 Identification of risks regarding the introduction of measures aimed at improving citizen mobility in the city of Zagreb 192 Rethinking everyday mobility among others result inreducing congestion and CO delivery vehicles inthe traffic flow during morning peakhours should scheme, itsfeasibility needs to becontinuously verified and improved. the proposed solution. After the introduction of acongestion charging municipal institutions willneed to get organized inorder to implement Zagreb CityCouncil on the introduction of congestion charging, the proposed congestion charging scheme. Inline withthe decision of the lot canbeachieved inorder to make the majority of citizens accept the institutions. With a proper approach and high-quality dissemination a important risk is the quality level of its implementation by the municipal measure iscitizen (non-) acceptance of the proposed solution. Another decisions. should not beneglected, since they act asacorrective of traffic-oriented plan for additional usermotivation isrequired. Dialogue withcitizens reduction of the load on traffic places, and other advantages), an action occupation of public urbanareas, reduction of traffic congestion, for individuals, reduction of airand noise pollution levels and the spite of the mentioned significant savings (reduction of travel costs travelling methods, i.e.carpooling, need to beclearly emphasised. In yielded by alternative transport modes. The advantages of alternative the student population, which are particularly interested inthe savings citizen mobility. implementation of other measures and activities aimed at improving research from the citizens’ perspective, especially regarding the delivery regulations had to beemphasized. potential impacts of legal, technical and institutional risks on freight the implemented solution. At this point, the importance of high-level in evaluating the solution assuch and, lastbutnot least, inevaluating and maybe even more depends on the citizens’ willingness to cooperate depends on the acceptance level of the shippers and vendors, butitalso stakeholders, inparticular the citizens. The success of thismeasure new freight delivery regulation should be beneficial to all involved Implementing the proposed solution to decrease the share of The most important risk for the success of the congestion charging It would beinteresting to observe risk assessments infuture 2 emissions. A menu=20&measure_id=693, 1.10. 2011. Available at: http://www.civitas-initiative.org/index.php?id=79&sel_ practice/English_bestufs_guide.pdf, 1.12.2011. Available at: http://www.bestufs.net/download/bestufs_II/good_ Re civitaselan/civitasFpz.php, 1.10.2011. 2011. http://www1.zagreb.hr/slglasnik.nsf/, 10.7.2012. Tr transport pricing strategies. Transportation f affic e r MVA. 1999.Traffic B The Civitas Initiative. Cleaner Civitas The Croatian Bureau of Statistics (CBS). 2011.Statistical Službeni Službeni Schade, Jens and Bernhard Schlag. 2003.Acceptability of urban en Available at: http://www.dzs.hr/default_e.htm, 10.7.2012. ESTUFS. 2011.Good

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193 Identification of risks regarding the introduction of measures aimed at improving citizen mobility in the city of Zagreb ZAGREB I The info point, a refurbished heritage tram, serves as an information hub. “Tram Wednesdays” and round table discussions were an excellent opportunity for citizens and journalists to obtain information on Zagreb’s sustainable mobility issues. ZAGREB I The new low-floor trams provide better access to elderly citizens, as well as to all other passengers.

ZAGREB I A brochure with tips on how to use PT safely has been published and a short film, “Alojz and Vlatka”,produced.

1. with a demographic analysis and city development data (such as new are gathered from representatives of Brno’s citydistricts. Together strengths and reveals what needs to beimproved. Additional inputs data are processed withaSWOT analysis that highlights the service’s evaluation of public transport services by their users.The gathered sociological surveys known asTransport Barometers, focusing on the mobility dialogues called Transport Plans.These are based on annual issues, which needed to bechanged or improved, through aseries of 100% city-funded enterprise), decided to identify the most important a public service, provided by the Brno Public Transport Company (a public transport services inBrno to people’s needs. work. The best way to maintain this high share is to adapt the range of almost 65%of Brno’s commuters usepublic transport for travelling to high inBrno. According to the results of the 2010Modal Split Survey, of people isto foster the useof public transport and improve itsquality. people’s mobility. One of the bestsolutions for the sustainable mobility effects of transport, but without negative effects on the economy and 2020 growth strategy) to find solutions to mitigate the undesirable Hence, it isessential (also in line with the objectives of the EU’s Europe time transport isastill growing source of greenhouse gasemissions. competitive and resource efficient transport system). Butat the same Paper –Roadmap to aSingle European Transport Area –Towards a

I nt The Cityof Brno, which commissions public transport services as The share of public transport indaily commuting isremarkably Transport isfundamental to oureconomy and society (White r od T R uc AN tion SP S ATI O R SF T P A LANING C TION Iva Machalová, Daniel Seidenglanz Jana Válková, Kvetoslav Havlík,

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US B R NO E R 197 Transport planing: public transport user satisfaction os a top priority in Brno 198 Rethinking everyday mobility 2. introduced the concept of “automobility” that covers allconceivable Urry (2004),Volti (1996), Adey (2010)and others. The authors said while foreign authors worth mentioning are Sheller and Urry (2000), and the suburbanization inCzech settingson the example of Prague, Urbánková and Ourednícek (2006)analyzed the linksbetween transport as residential and commercial suburbanization. Marada (2006)and to the general availability of cars,which isreflected inphenomena such ever-growing size of cities/urban regions and their greater adaptation increasing number of carsand their increasing use,aswell asby the western cities definitely isthe car. Thisfact canbeillustrated by the within itsspace. school, services, medical care, culturaland other facilities, leisure etc. by allowing the existence of phenomena such ascommuting to work, links isreflected even on the scale of acity/urban region, for example mentioned ability of transport to promote the formation of functional and alsotheir spatial structuring and organization. The above- and Berechman, 2001; Knowles, 2009; Matthiessen Coe etal.,2007), straightforward –for details see e.g.MacKinnon etal.,2008;Banister the impact of transport on the economy isneither unequivocal nor economic structure of the world or its individual regions (although 1981), contributing thus to the formation of settlements and the complementarity, for details see McBride 1996;Wheeler and Muller between differently disposed places of the Earth’s surface (enhanced spatial barriers, transport cancreate interactions (functional links) either physical or social barriers. Asaresult of the ability to overcome barriers, which can be understood in different ways, i.e. highlighting for the powerful impact of transport is its ability to overcome spatial According to Rodrigue etal.(2006)or Seidenglanz (2008),the reason the current spatial and functional relations, including at the global scale. could even say that transport inparticular isasupporting structure to number of public transport passengers. the Transport Planscloser to the public, withthe hope of increasing the the most efficient mode of operation for the public transport. residential areas), the Transport Plansrepresent the basisfor finding

T heo These days, the hegemon of short-distance transport mobility in Transport isof great importance inthe contemporary world; one Reflecting the public opinion inanannual update procedure brings r eti c al ba ˇ ˇ c kg r o u nd transport planning inthe cityof Brno. a survey carried outannually and aimed at including public opinion in surveys. Thischapter presents the results of the Transport Barometer, of the services provided, itisimportant to carryoutusersatisfaction to bereasonable and responsive to the needs of the users(passengers) appropriate for the public sector to support/finance it.For such support the above issues inthe areas of cities/urban regions. Therefore, itis which in our opinion might at least alleviate the urgency of some of etc. (Cebollada, 2009). works are mobility gap,forced specialization, new prisoners of the city, these phenomena; the most important concepts emerging from their other opportunities. A number of authors have carried out research on more mobile persons they are face withlimited availability of jobs and risk of socialexclusion (Kenyon etal.,2002),because compared to others). Incontemporary cities, such persons are exposed to ahigher discussed indetail by Vickerman, 1998;Hall,Crawack, 1993;and groups of people lacking access to apersonal car (individual aspects are and petroleum products, space), as well as emerging issues for certain the number of accidents, the extensive consumption of resources (oil we may emphasize the strong environmental impact of road traffic, has negative impacts aswell. Inthiscontext and randomly picking, contemporary western cities on cars,associated withhighmobility, time reproducing and strengthening itself. temporalities and de-synchronization of individuals), while at the same people’s perception of time and space (enabling personalized, subjective spreading around the world, affecting, reconfiguring and restructuring parts and many other new objects, technologies and features; asystem cars, drivers, roads, gasstations, roadside rest areas, spare parts,tuning societies. Automobility intheir view isdefined asasystem including social implications of universal access to carsincontemporary perception of citizens themselves aspassengers and their satisfaction large cities clean and sustainable. Thisresearch wants to investigate the 3.1. 3.

M Re ethodology A partialsolution to the above outlined situation ispublic transport, However, the increasing dependence of contemporary society and Promoting the useof public transport becomes anecessity to keep s ea rc h Q u e s tion 199 Transport planing: public transport user satisfaction os a top priority in Brno 200 Rethinking everyday mobility respondents The second reason is the ease of filling out the questionnaire for the was conducted inGermany (EMNID) and infive Czech cities in2001. of the data with other existing research. A survey using these scales reasons were behind thisdecision. First, compliance and comparability some of them using a five-point scale to express satisfaction levels. Several • • • • transport: Barometer, contains questions covering various issues related to public specifically for thispurpose. The questionnaire, alsocalled the Transport possible, was conducted usingacompletely new questionnaire, developed and itsvisitors. The survey, which was to collect asmuch information as among alarge group of people, representative of the city’spopulation city wanted to assessthe level of satisfaction withpublic transport 3.2. • • This research question may bedivided into two sub-questions: the public transport services inBrno and the SouthMoravian Region?” Transport System (ITS)passengers of the useand their satisfaction with following research question: “What isthe perception of Integrated with public transport services. Therefore, our aim was to answer the 3 (neither satisfied nor dissatisfied) may stillbeconsidered satisfactory. how they really evaluate the service inquestion. In this case, even mark whether the respondents were more infavour of one side or the other, but schooling system and every mark had a clear meaning to them. 1

Re specific questions related to current problems. satisfaction withthe ITSservices, ITS to others, repeated choice), perception of ITS(reasons for usingthe ITS,recommending the use of the ITS(frequency, intensity, modes of transport), its services? How satisfied are Integrated Transport System (ITS)userswith System (ITS)inBrno and the SouthMoravian Region? What isthe perception of useof the Integrated Transport The Transport Barometer contains different typesof questions, A quantitative approach was chosen asthe most adequate, asthe s ea R rc espondents were able to assignvalues inthe way that istypical of the Czech h method 1 . Thirdly, the point of thisassessment was not to find out 3.3. costs, a sample of approximately 500to 700respondents was selected. method. define the sample for thissurvey we used astrata and quota sampling are allthe passengers usingthe ITSinthe SouthMoravian Region. To be defined. The total population that would ideally bepartof the survey 3.4. • • • • • • • • • survey collected information on the following aspects of the ITSsystem: • • • this question: Moravian region?” The following information was collected to answer following questions. components were examined and the indicators used to answer our their satisfaction withthe ITSservices. Below we describe which people’s perception of the ITSinthe SouthMoravian region and

Sam Op value-for-money ratio between fares and qualityof services. staff –behaviour and appearance. security –during daytime and at night, comfort and cleanliness of vehicles and stops, information –amount, availability, timetables at stops, machines, ticketing –range, availability, user-friendliness of ticket maintaining timetables, travel times, time –frequency, punctuality, reliability of services, and interconnection of services, services – network, interchange hubs, distances, interchange general satisfaction, recommending the ITSto others. choice, repeated reasons for usingthe ITS, In order to obtain sufficiently accurate results while minimising To achieve the research objective, arepresentative sample had to “How satisfied are the usersof the ITSwithitsservices?” The “What isthe perception of the use of the ITSin Brno and the South The mainresearch question was divided into two parts,exploring e r p ationali ling anddata s ation c olle c tion u nit 201 Transport planing: public transport user satisfaction os a top priority in Brno 202 Rethinking everyday mobility 3.5. discover the education structure of the passengers. These data were not available and, moreover, itwas interesting to e.g. by education or other characteristics, was deemed inadequate. then setbased on the mentioned screening criteria. Settingother quotas, use public transport less frequently thanallother groups. a little lower, aswas expected. Men and middle-aged passengers indeed share of women was alittle higher and that of middle-aged passengers structure of the inhabitants of Brno according to public records. The obtained passenger structure inpublic transport correlated withthe 1,000 passengers intotal. Afurther comparison established that the approximate age (distributed into age categories) – approximately the passengers in approximately 100 vehicles, noting their gender and passenger structure by these two indicators. Thiswas done by counting This required screening public transport vehicles to establish the for thiswas the unknown age and gender structure of the passengers. passengers, the number of respondents was then selected. of them in Brno. Based on the known approximate movement of the where the interviews took place, were selected –approximately 20 to achieve this,the locations (interchange hubs) or routes (radials) objective was to evenly cover the entire area of the cityof Brno. Inorder socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents. divided into two groups –quotas perinterview location and quotas per quotas isanother key factor influencing accuracy. The quotas may be the outputs. Beside the sample size of the target group, the selection of approximately 3%.Thisdispersion canbe considered acceptable given work withthe data. The statistical deviation at the level of 20%is A sample of thissize offers sufficient data for evaluation and further total number of filled outquestionnaires in2011 was 599. passengers had on their travel to work proved effective aswell. The operate. Apartfrom interviewing at the stops, usingthe spare time the interviewer had anassigned location or locations where he/she could and the weather was asaverage aspossible (no rainor frost). Every of approximately 3weeks, whenever there were no school holidays

D a The quotas of the numbers of respondents by gender and age were Setting the other group of quotas was more complicated. The reason The firstgroup of the quotas was based on the fact that the research The survey was conducted at the designated locations over aperiod ta Colle c tion 3.7. demographic data. Adequate screening caneliminate these obstacles. of public transportation users that would contain relevant socio- demographic quotas for the interviews. There are no exact records cities. Another potential problem arisesfrom the settingof the socio- were easily identified, thismight bemore complicated inother, bigger important interchange hubs and the number of passengers usingthem, for interviewing. While inarelatively compact cityasBrno is-the shaped answers. significantly decreases the risk of distortion due to their conventionally respondents intheir rating of the service. The correlation method stereotypes which often lead to misleading statements by the each specific element (27elements). assessment of the transport service (1 figure) and the assessment of of the transport service. We used acorrelation between the overall respondents’ subjective assessment inrating the respective elements the survey. Unlike in other, similar surveys, we did not rely on the be considered an important part of the methodology used to evaluate 3.6. another available data source allowing for atriangulation of results. Satisfaction organised by the Brno Public Transport Company is with public transport inBrno. The Biannual Survey on Passengers’ ELAN Project. Thislarge survey assessed some aspects of satisfaction Modal Split Survey, organised in2010the framework of the CIVITAS of the results canalsobedouble-checked againstthe results of the 2004 and by now allows atimeline comparison of the data. The validity 4. perception inthe of usingPT coming year, and their overall perception questions asking about people’s motives to use public transport, their the South Moravian Region by itspassengers. The survey contained

Finding

L Tr imitation The research’s limitations show inthe selection of proper locations In the field of transport, itistypical to encounter deeply rooted Th The Transport Barometer hasbeen conducted every year since First of all,let uslook at the perception of the ITSinBrno and iang e creation of aSWOT analysis of the transport service might u lation s s 203 Transport planing: public transport user satisfaction os a top priority in Brno 204 Rethinking everyday mobility reasons were the most important ones for 10%of allITSpassengers. the third was the price of transport and time spent on travelling. These The second most significant reason was the unavailability of acar, while perception of the ITSystem inthe Region (Modal Split Survey, 2010). residents. The Modal Split Survey from 2010alsoconfirmed the good services provided, embedded inthe lifestyle of Brno and SouthMoravian stated reason indicates agood overall perception and satisfaction withthe any motivation or pressure to change their habits. Thismost frequently graph 1)was that the passengers were used to do soand did not feel for travelling by public transport inthe SouthMoravian Region (see of the ITSpassengers to travel by public transport. The mainreason visitors and tourists inBrno and the SouthMoravian Region. asreflectedof PT intheir willingness to recommend public transport to towards public transport. and better addressed inorder not to affect their favourable attitude future. These are passengers whose needs should befurther assessed of respondents expected to usepublic transport less frequently inthe same or higher frequency thaninthe current year. Only around 10% and the SouthMoravian Region inthe following year, withat least the that almost 90% of passengers intended to use public transport in Brno their intended frequency of travels inthe coming year. Table 1shows the passengers felt aspublic transport users.We therefore focused on One important aspect considered in the survey were the motives The perception of the ITSmay alsobeassessed by asking how Source: Transport Barometer, 2011and own contribution. Graph 1:Reasons to usepublic transport. growing since itslastdownturn in 2006.In2010and 2011,the share of passengers who would recommend public transportation has been comfortable way of travelling. Graph 2shows that the share of ITS public transport provided by ITS is perceived as a good quality and around Brno and the region by public transport. Thisshows that the the cityand the region. transport or another means of transport to tourists for travelling around addressed by asking them ifthey would recommend either public transport isto ask them ifthey would recommend it.The issue is eiieypbi rnpr 4 014, 40,4 40,1 40,1 240 definitely publictransport rbbypbi rnpr 3 993, 80,3 39,9 39,9 239 probably publictransport eiieyohrotos3 definitely otheroptions rbbyohrotos1 , , 99,5 2,2 2,2 13 probably otheroptions 80% of the respondents would recommend to tourists to travel Another interesting way to assessuserperception of public same frequency more often hard to say less often missing M T T issing ot ot al al Table 1:Perception of the frequency inpublic transport use. Source: Transport Barometer, 2011and own contribution. Source: Transport Barometer, 2011and own contribution. rqec Percent Frequency rqec Percent Frequency 9 0, 100,0 100,0 599 5 657, 89,3 76,5 76,5 458 41, 07100,0 10,7 10,7 64 31, 2212,9 12,2 12,2 73 9 0, 100,0 100,0 599 0 701, 97,3 17,0 17,0 102 4 2 Table 2:Recommendations to usepublic transport. ,7 ,3 ,5 V V alid P alid P ,7 ,3 5100,0 ,5 retCumulative ercent retCumulative ercent Percent Percent ,3 ,7

205 Transport planing: public transport user satisfaction os a top priority in Brno 206 Rethinking everyday mobility PT remainedPT the same. people who would definitely recommend or prefer to recommend local of the total number of respondents in2011. fully satisfied hasbeen growing steadily and they represented one fifth system. Compared to the previous year, the number of people that are services. Only usersare 7%of PT rather or fully dissatisfied withthe IT provided services –93%of Brno commuters by are PT happy withthe ITS inBrno and the SouthMoravian Region are quite satisfied withthe the notion of general satisfaction and itscomponents. Passengers of the different elements or aspects of satisfaction. Thispaperlooks bothat Public transport user satisfaction is a concept composed of Graph 2:ITSpassengers who would recommend public transportation. Source: Barometr spokojenosti cestujících, 2011. the bestgrade ever since the launch of the Transport Barometer in2004. the bestand mark 5the worst grade) reached 2.38in2011,which was ITS (on ascale from 1to 5,similarasinCzech schools, mark 1meaning the ITS, we can see an improvement –the medium grade assigned to the Graph 4:Satisfaction withthe ITSinBrno and the SouthMoravian Region -weighted Graph 3:General satisfaction withthe ITSinBrno and the SouthMoravian Region. Looking indetail at the average grade of general satisfaction with Source: Barometr spokojenosti cestujících, 2011. Source: Barometr spokojenosti cestujících, 2011. average. 207 Transport planing: public transport user satisfaction os a top priority in Brno 208 Rethinking everyday mobility aspects of satisfaction changed over the lastyear. the fares and the qualityof service provided. Graph 5shows how these Respondents were also asked to rate the value-for-money ratio between of travelling, ticketing, provision of information, comfort and safety. others interchange hubs, interconnection of services, time dimension of satisfaction. These aspects were defined indetail to cover among The level of satisfaction was alsoassessed through various aspects Graph 5:Components of satisfaction -comparison between years 2010and 2011. Source: Barometr spokojenosti cestujících, 2011. characteristics on the general satisfaction. axis represents the correlation coefficients of the impacts of given satisfaction withvarious characteristics of the ITS,and the horizontal measured aspects of satisfaction. The vertical axisdisplays the in which the general level of satisfaction iscorrelated withdifferent to becontinuously developed and improved. satisfactory or very satisfactory with only some aspects of it needing the ITSinBrno and the SouthMoravian Region isseen asfully that expresses the relation between price and quality. Nevertheless, This fact may effectively bereflected inthe value-for-money ratio tickets was extended, butthis was followed by anincrease infares. of individual ticket types.Generally speaking,the time validity of may have been caused by changes to the fares and the time validity of tickets was seen asless satisfactory in2011than2010.This range of tickets available and the value-for-money ratio. The range passengers.PT already proved that thismeasure had led to higher satisfaction among measure started inJuly 2010.The Transport Barometer from 2011 area and on allticket vending machines. The operational phase of the ofthe newsystem and up-scalingof the measureto thewhole city system was organised intwo phases –pilot functioning and testing Company. The introduction of the ticket vending machine diagnostic of these defects to the control room of the Brno Public Transport and to their quicker fixingthanksto immediate online signalling diagnostics of problems and defects inthe ticket vending machines part of the CIVITAS ELANProject (8.7BRN) and hasled to better ticket vending machines in Brno. This measure was implemented as be explained by the implementation of anew diagnostic system for machines’ functioning improved from 2010to 2011.Thisfinding may - the value-for-money ratio. The average rating of the ticket vending stops, safety at night, and prices inrelation to the quality of service rated features of the ITS included the comfort and cleanliness of bus transport and the network of services. Onthe other hand, the worst distances at interchanges, provision of information on public appearance and neatness, distance from to the nearest stop, walking The Transport Barometer allows usto make aSWOT analysis However, there are also challenges to beaddressed, namely the Among the aspects perceived asmost satisfactory were staff 209 Transport planing: public transport user satisfaction os a top priority in Brno 210 Rethinking everyday mobility 5. by KORDIS JMK,acompany managingthe Integrated Transport System conduct arepresentative survey. Thischallenging task was addressed the ITS canbe incorporated into the process of transport planning is to with the citizens’ needs. One way to learn how the public opinion about answered to plan transport in the city and region effectively and in line the services provides. These are the mainquestions that need to be the South Moravian Region by its users and their satisfaction with efforts to enhance the services provided. further planning to develop the interchange hubs and strengthen the to better planning service interconnections and interchange options, satisfaction. Together withKORDIS JMK,the Cityof Brno iscommitted comparatively lower rating in 2011 and their overall importance to These are ITS features that should be better addressed because of their but isperceived asdissatisfactory inthe group entitled “Action needed!” groups. The firstgroup hasastrong impact on the overall satisfaction,

Con This chapter investigates the perception of the ITSinBrno and The measured aspects of the ITSoperation may bedivided into four c l us ion Graph 6:SWOT analysis of the ITSinthe SouthMoravian Region. Source: Barometr spokojenosti cestujících, 2011. z St 9: 209–218. Re cleaner environment inBrno. number of public transport passengers inorder to create abetter and The Cityof Brno reflects the needs of citizens, hoping to increase the the Cityof Brno to improve the qualityof public transport services. measure 2.8Participatory Intermodal Infrastructure Planning. helped the City of Brno to take the firsts steps by means of the common and should definitely become a priority of the city. CIVITAS ELAN new and improved equipment, are very important to ITSpassengers the interchange hubs interms of interconnection of services, butalso into the different dimensions of the ITS.It revealed that developing additional action to betaken. The SWOT analysis provides aclear insight aspects of the ITSthat need to bepaid attention to and that require very highand stilldeveloping positively. There are, however, certain in the cityand the region hasgrown. people that would recommend travelling by public transport to a tourist comparing 2011to the previous years. For instance, the number of perception of the ITSwas generally very good and had even improved problems to betackled. comparison of the results and for adefinition of strengths aswell as other specific issues. Regular data collection allows for a year-to-year use of the ITS,perception of the ITS,satisfaction withthe ITS,and the region every year since 2004, covering various aspects such asthe Transport Barometer. The survey hasbeen carried outinthe cityand in the SouthMoravian Region, and resulted inthe development of the and the promotion of economic growth.

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213 Transport planing: public transport user satisfaction os a top priority in Brno Up: BRNO I You don’t need to call a repairman when a problem arises. Every ticket vending machine automatically sends a message to the control centre.

Down: BRNO I Low-floor minibuses help the disabled to travel by public transport. Their interior is specially designed to carry up to six wheelchairs. BRNO I If you need information about travelling by public transport or bike in Brno or the South Moravian Region, go to the Integrated Mobility Centre or check its website.

BRNO I Minibuses can be used in the parts of the city where the demand for PT is low. PT services can thus be provided during the weekends and in the evening as well.

1. different modelling phases. of data, specific knowledge of the model, and time to perform the consumes alarge amount of resources because itrequires awide range degree of error and uncertainty remains. Furthermore, traffic modelling and because of the way data iscollected and encoded there acertain reality the models must be practical (Ortúzar and Willumsen, 1990), and deviations. However, due to the unavoidable simplification of the availability withtemporal and spatial sequences interms of average the evaluation of inputsand their relationship, aswell asinformation make their usesoimportant. Other potentials of simulation models are new data collection are the great advantages of simulation models that new solutions without having to disturbthe real system and undertake in acomputer programme. The ability to draw conclusions and to test be carried outby replacing physical experiments withrepresentations conditions of anetwork and through which analyzes and forecasts can other means. Model simulation isatechnique that simulates the real wide variety of dynamic problems that are difficult to analyze by traffic circulation solutions. simulation model that would support the tests and analyzes of different the actual implementation of the measure, itwas decided to useatraffic see Civitas Initiative). For the research and development phase, before of “Integrated Accessibility Planning in Asprela” (Measure 3.5-OPO, measures. One of them refers to the development and implementation

I nt The traffic simulation model isapowerful tool for analyzing a Within the CIVITAS ELANproject the cityof Porto implemented six r A od PP uc LI tion C ATION EV

AL O Cristina Vilarinho, Jose Pedro Tavares F S U TION IM U LATION

IN UR BAN

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217 Application of simulation models for impact evalution in urban road networks 218 Rethinking everyday mobility 2. codified and evaluated through the analyses of different performance different scenarios for the circulation scheme, which againhad to be network, (5)calibration and, finally, (6)validation of the model. and demand data (including their collection), (4)codification of the used, (2) definition of the study area, (3)description of the supply into sixmainsteps: (1)selection of the traffic simulation model to be applied for the traffic model development of the area was divided of the results and the conclusions are presented insection 6. analyses of tested scenarios insection 4.Section 5includes adiscussion in section 2, the introduction to the new policies insection 3,the follows: the methodology used inthe model development isdescribed road networks, using the AIMSUN software. This paper is organized as microscopic traffic simulation models for impact evaluation in urban and afternoon (A)peakhours. public transport. The temporal scope of the analyses was morning (M) cycling lanes and improving the infrastructures for pedestrians and roads and at the same time free upspace inthe network for introducing circulation scheme for the area to reduce traffic congestion levels on the the good provision of public transport (buses,metro light rail). with illegal carparking and traffic congestion, which happen inspite of These facts cause severe mobility and accessibility problems associated major entrance point for public and private transport to the citycentre. resulting inmore than 100,000trips perworking day. Thisarea isalsoa Overall more than 50,000 people daily enter the area for work or study, in thisarea, aswell as several faculties and other large institutions. major hospital inthe north of Porto, Hospital de São João, isalsolocated transferred to the area (28,500students of higher education). The mainly because of the increasing number of educational institutions Asprela one of the fastest growing areas inthe cityover the lastdecade, and evaluated. Inthe cityof Porto the CIVITAS ELANcorridor iscalled work on asa“living laboratory”, where the measures were implemented each CIVITAS ELANpartner cityselected acorridor withinthe cityto

M ethodology Once the base model was setup,it was possible to define the Once the aimof the model had been defined, the methodology The present paperaimsto contribute to the application of The objective of the work undertaken was to find the best traffic Concerning the demonstration area on which thismodel focuses, (bus, metro, tram) canbedefined. stops, stationary time, departure time and typeof public transport timetables that determine the frequency. For each line the route, its speed ineach section, butthe environment influences their behaviour. and Bovy, 2001).For example, drivers tend to drive at their desired “car-following”, “lane-changing” and “gap acceptance” (Hoogendoorn network, vehicles are updated according to vehicle behaviour models: based on O-Dmatrices and routes or paths.their During journey inthe on the inputof traffic flows and turningpercentages, and the other is ways, depending on the available traffic demand data. One isbased environmental impact of airpollution emissions and fuel consumption. (Transport Simulation Systems, 2005).The model canalsoestimate the technologies or the implementation of Intelligent Transport Systems control systems and the management of policies based on traditional behaviour. AIMSUN hasproven to bevery usefulintesting new traffic time, established inaccordance withthe various theories of vehicle individual performance of each vehicle’s network during the simulation applicable and suitable for urbanand highway networks. Project SMARTEST (Barceló etal.,1999)classified thismodel ashighly Barcelona, Spain(Barceló, 2001).It should benoted that the European Catalunya (UPC)and by Transportation Simulation Systems (TSS) of Urban Networks) model, developed by the Universidad Politecnica (Advanced Interactive Microscopic Simulator for Urban and Non- ideal approach for thiscasestudy. More specifically, the AIMSUN of roads, signalized intersection characteristics, etc.). transport and (3)transport system characteristics (lane configurations (O three typeshave to becollected: (1)origin-destination flow patterns citizens’ mobility. To build atraffic simulation model detailed data of can beused for testing different circulation schemes inorder to improve reflecting the existing traffic conditions. Inthisway the traffic model 2.1. for the pedestrians at traffic lights were implemented. indicators. Also,a“base”model was codified inwhich the new policies

D Sele Unlike other vehicles, public transport operates on setroutes and The demand codification inAIMSUN canbedone intwo different As amicroscopic traffic simulation model, AIMSUN canshow the A microscopic traffic simulation model was selected asthe One of the objectives of thisstudy was to build abasemodel Matrix) for private vehicles, (2) routes and frequency of public c tion o f Sim u lation M odel 219 Application of simulation models for impact evalution in urban road networks 220 Rethinking everyday mobility of local roads. city’s ringroad to the south.The rest of the road infrastructure consists that connects Porto to the north of the country and isbordered by the houses (12,000inhabitants). The area isintersected by the highway buildings (education, health, R&D) (42,500workers/students) and of Porto’s cityarea (Figure 1).Thisarea islargely occupied by functional 2.2. Asprela, located inthe northern partof the city. Its 3km a large avenue (Avenida Fernão Magalhães) to the east. high-capacity roads (Figure 2):to the highway (N14)to the west, and to Administration, 2004),the modelled area was extended to the closest might influence the behaviour inthe study area (Federal Highway order to understand the traffic condition inthe boundary areas, which

St The CIVITAS ELANdemonstration area inthe cityof Porto iscalled As the modelling area should bebigger thanthe study area in u dy Ar ea Figure 2:Area limits. Figure 1:Study area. 2 represent 7% 2.3. congestion problems are concentrated. 2) where due to the highconcentration of large institutions the major guideline, the study area was limited to the centre of Asprela (cf. Figure the CIVITAS demonstration area. However, due to amunicipal policy numerous and require too many resources. Butiftoo large, some trips had to bedone very carefully: iftoo small,they would have been too the Asprela area insmaller sub-areas. The definition of the sub-areas data was collected for the selected peakhours. frequencies and bus/metro stop locations of each line. Inthisway, all AIMSUN based on the encoded information, consisting of the route, 7,129 vehicles during afternoon peakhours. encompassed 7,014private vehicles during morning peakhours and week of September and the first two weeks of October 2009.The survey etc.), the surveys were conducted from Tuesday to Thursday inthe last were no other unusual activities (road works, festivals, traffic incidents, conditions and traffic signalswere operating normally and that there include the traffic congestion periods. To ensure that the network (07:45–09:45) and afternoon (17:00–19:00)peakhours inorder to directional traffic counts and O-Dsurveys inthe area, during morning 2.4. outdated files. Control Department and updated on site, when there was arisk of intersections (traffic lights, vertical signs). visits, recording the missingdata about roads, surface metro line, and additional information had to beobtained on site through several were not always available from these information sources. Therefore, Unfortunately, details such as lane lines and other pavement markings overlay the length and curvature of sections (roads) and intersections. the Municipality and imported inthe AIMSUN software inorder to digital cartography and aerial photographs of the area provided by

N Tr et One of the project objectives was to describe traffic conditions in The first step for the development of the O-Dmatrix was splitting The public transport demand (bus,light metro) was generated by Measuring traffic demand of private transport was performed trough Traffic control data was obtained from the files of the city’sTraffic The network supply data were obtained by consulting the a w ff o i c r

D k S emand upp ly 221 Application of simulation models for impact evalution in urban road networks 222 Rethinking everyday mobility 2.5. • • • 3, the trips are analysed by typeof movement: morning peak hours and 76,452 trips in the evening peak hours. In Figure Matrix” for each peakperiod. possible to expand the O-Dmatrix, usingthe ME2to obtain the “Final and Hall,2004).Once the area had been modelled inSATURN, itwas CIVITAS demonstration area had to bemodelled inSATURN (Van Vliet and consequently alarge number of trips was not surveyed. was not possible to conduct some O-Dsurveys, mainly on the highways, Hall, 2004) was applied to obtain the O-D matrix. For safety reasons it traffic counts) the ME2-Method of Maximum Entropy (Van Vliet and responses and extrapolation of the number of responses according to the defined, 15withinthe area and 19external ones. (Her Majesty’sStationery Office, 1997).Altogether, 34sub-areas were would be lost because trips inside the sub-areas were not accounted for the network (O-D matrices for private cars, routes and frequencies for public transport routes and busstop locations, travel demand data into control data (lanes assignment, green waves, stop signs,yield signs,etc.), AIMSUN software, started by coding linksand nodes, including traffic

B are trips between the demonstration area and external areas. 19% inthe morning peakhours and 19%inafternoon peakhours are trips that have their origin and destination withinthe area, 6% inthe morning peakhours and 3%inafternoon peakhours hours are trips crossing the demonstration area, 75% inthe morning peakhours and 77%inafternoon peak a The finalO-Dmatrices represent atotal of 73,456trips inthe As the AIMSUN model does not have ME2functionality, the After data collection and processing (codification of the survey The development of the micro-simulation traffic model, using s Figure 3:Typeof movement, for morning peak(left) and afternoon peak(right). e M odel D evelo p ment 2.6. specific time of the day. changed during the day and traffic control was able to respond to the isolate congestion problems when (private and public) transport demand demand level, i.e.the two peakperiods (morning and afternoon), to errors. The test was performed at alow demand level and at the real unexpected braking or routes) isaquick indicator of possible coding to observe vehicle behaviour: anomalous vehicle behaviour (such as the simulation model and analysing the animation output in close detail into errors and warnings. Another verification test consisted of running (Transporting Simulations System, 2005)and divides the check results reviews the coded traffic demand, turningconflicts and control plan is animportant task. To thispurpose, AIMSUN hasaspecific tool that fixed signals. (UTC GERTRUDE), nine semi-actuated, four fully actuated and four traffic lights: two traffic lights withsignalpre-emption, one centralized one hundred thirtyone intersections, of which twenty are regulated by (links) withatotal of 73kminsection length and 135kminlane length; ensure that the model was builtcorrectly. run. After thisstage, tests were carried outto identify possible errors to performance, aswell asselecting the control parameters for the model public transport), data associated to traveller behaviour and vehicle the observed values withthe simulated ones. defined which variables would besubject to calibration and compared of the network elements. To evaluate the network performance we improve the ability to reproduce driver behaviour and the characteristics model’s credibility. real traffic data. These two steps are essential and crucial to ensure the with the real system, usingthe parameters and two different samples of calibration of the model’s variables and comparing their performance referred to asvalidation, which isaniterative method involving the determines when amodel issufficiently close to the real system isusually the exact reality, not justanother “similar”situation. The process that for testing. However, there was no guarantee that the results reflected

Ca In order to develop aproper working model network, checking The modelling area includes five hundred and fiftyseven sections Parameters require associated criteria, which serve as acceptable calibration,During the variables inthe model were adjusted to After checking for possible errors, the simulation model was ready lib r ation and V a lidation P r o c ed ur e 223 Application of simulation models for impact evalution in urban road networks 224 Rethinking everyday mobility analyses. 2004):definedCasas, parameters, graphical representation, or statistical simulation model (Hourdakis etal.,2003;Tavares, 2003;Barceló and and 2004). Casas, article, which are frequently mentioned inthe research literature (Barceló and maximum deceleration. in the network: maximum desired speed, maximum acceleration, normal variables influence allvehicles of aspecific typewhen driving anywhere the network: speed limits, turningspeed, and visibility distance. Vehicle vehicles regardless of their typewhen driving on aparticular section of up speed and queue leaving speed. Localsection variables influence all anywhere inthe network: reaction time, reaction time at stop, queue variables influence allvehicles, independent from their type,while driving section, and particular vehicle type(Barceló and Prado, 2006). General according to their influence on the network elements: general, local expect any model to besuitable for allpossible traffic conditions. calibration of simulation models isanecessary process, since one cannot carried outinorder to verify ifthey are suited to local conditions. The values are beingsuggested, butduring calibration some tests must be In the literature (Barceló and2004;Hourdakis Casas, etal.,2003) default and modified by the userto enable model calibration for local conditions. model to reflect the actual reality. condition/behaviour; the aim is for the performance estimated by the variable values that are responsible for representing the network’s calibrated. Therefore, model calibration isperformed to adjust the limits. When parameter values are withinthe criteria, the model is V ehicle (priv Various methods canbeused for the outputevaluation of the micro- Table 4presents examples of the calibrated variables used inthis To assistthe procedure, variables canbeclassified into three groups A micro-simulation model hasasetof variables that canbedefined G nrlReaction eneral ate car) V ariables Reaction Critical H eadway T m tSo 1.35 ime atStop G T ime ap D efault Table 4:Example of calibrated values. 10.00 0.75 0 V leCalibr alue 0.90 0.55 ated 7.00 1.00 V alue 2003). 2003). negative relative mean error (EMRN) (Van Vliet and Hall,2004; Tavares, flows withaminor GEH value, positive relative mean error (EMRP)and statistic for the sumof alllinkflows, GEH statistic for the sumof 85%link presented inTable 5were: GEH statistic <5for individual linkflow, GEH second one (50movements) to validate the calibrated model. set (85movements) was used to calibrate the model’s variables and the movements. Then the setof traffic counts was divided intwo, the first Office, 1997).Inthis case,the data used was the traffic flow of several might beflawed and not reflect the reality (Her Majesty’sStationery the samesetof values isused for calibration and validation, the results of the variables that characterize it. variability of traffic behaviour, and thisconsequently affects the values networks, thisissue assumes even greater importance given the temporal that the values are compared with a certain level of accuracy. In urban to ensure that sufficient data was collected to specify each variable, and with the values of the variables obtained by the model, it is important collection activities described above. When comparing the actual values supply and demand should becollected at the sametime asthe data model values. After selecting the parameters, the inputdata on traffic made by comparing the values observed inthe system withsimulation

EMRN EMRP Parameter The selected parameters for model calibration and validation Calibration and validation should have two separate setsof data; if Usually, performance evaluation of traffic simulation models is = = GEH ∑ ∑ ∑ ∑ k k k k q q ∆ ∆ o o q q k k = with with           = Observed volume insection k, - Model estimated volume in section k. q + q − =∆ =∆ VE VE 0 0 )( k k 2 2)( −=∆ −=∆ qqq qqq om k k if if if if m m mom m k k k k qq qq qq qq o o k o k o k k Where: E=model estimated volume, V=field count, <− ≥− <− ≥− 0´ 0 0 0 Table 5:Parameters of calibration and validation. GEH GEHM EM EM GEH R P00 .801 .9- 0.19 0.14 0.08 0.06 RP 57%6%6%4%85% 47% 68% 61% 71% <5 N 00 00 01 01 - -0.13 -0.13 -0.04 -0.05 M 5 3 3 3 6 5 5 4 Calibration A

M Validation A ≤ ≤ 2 4 Criteria 225 Application of simulation models for impact evalution in urban road networks 226 Rethinking everyday mobility seventeen scenarios that were studied. supply. Figure 6presents the basecirculation scheme and two of the network, and anew parking regime that willreduce on-street parking space due to the introduction of acycling network, abetter pedestrian Scenario development took into account the reorganization of the road movements and new buscorridors for the samedemand conditions. directions, traffic control management at intersections, allowed turning long street. The studied scenarios considered changes in:road infrastructure network, withthe exception of aproposed new 100m would simply move out of the intervention area. this area, while deteriorating in the surrounding area, because traffic intervention area, the network’s performance might have improved in on the surrounding area. Ifthe focus had been only on analysing the changes withinthe circulation scheme of the intervention area had part of the network (see Figure 2),inorder to identify the impact better network performance. study goal was to find asolution for the traffic circulation scheme with for developing and calibrating/validating the present network. The 2.7. calibration and validation. were compared to the simulated data to support the process of model five times for each route during each peakperiod. The observed data routes in the CIVITAS demonstration area. Data was collected repeatedly the model was considered validated and calibrated for application.

S c

The scenario tests took into account only the existing road The tests carried outconsidered only changes inthe central The journey times of private cars were collected for five defined Although the recommended criteria were not always fully achieved, Th ena e tests of alternative conditions of traffic flow were the reason r io T e s t s Figure 6:Base circulation and examples of studied scenarios. presented intable 7. for each tested scenario in the morning and afternoon peak hours is capacity of each tested scenario. The simulated value of each indicator the network during simulation time), which differs according to the since they depend on the network’s load (the number of vehicles in • • • • • • whole traffic modelling area. divided into two sets:average indicators and general indicators for the purpose and the simulation model’s outputs.The used MOE were Administration, 2004).They were selected according to the project’s a particular scenario met the project’s objectives (Federal Highway effectiveness (MOE), i.e. indicators quantifying the degree to which vehicles that have crossed the network, inkilometres. total travel distance, the sumof the kilometres travelled by all vehicles that have crossed the network, inhours, total travel time, the sumof travel time experienced by all whole network. density, average number of vehicles perkilometre for the the network, average number of vehicles per hour that have passed through average travel distance, total travel distance divided by the conditions, delay time pervehicle perkilometre, and the time it would take to traverse the system under ideal average delay time, average difference between travel time network, converted into time perkilometre, time and entrance time for every vehicle that hascrossed the average travel time, mean of the difference between exit The analysis of the indicators should beundertaken withcaution The general indicators included: The average indicators included: The evaluation of the scenarios was based on measures of 227 Application of simulation models for impact evalution in urban road networks 228 Rethinking everyday mobility

11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Base Scenario T M ravel erage A

74,54 74,32 75,39 77,78 89,23 75,81 75,52 76,79 81,21 78,67 77,56 75,78 v (s) T ime 80,58 85,57 77,72 79,26 85,61 79,98 103,37 83,98 91,44 83,98 87,79 84,97 A D M A elay

40,03 45,03 37,02 38,57 44,76 39,26 62,32 42,78 50,52 42,78 46,61 43,67 v erage (s) T ime 33,42 33,20 34,45 37,71 48,36 34,99 34,42 35,86 40,13 37,78 36,45 34,65 A M D A T istance 3,39 3,32 3,32 3,30 3,34 3,31 3,32 3,34 3,32 v 3,32 3,32 3,37 (km) ravel erage

3,32 3,33 3,33 3,35 3,29 3,34 3,27 3,29 3,31 3,29 3,31 3,30 A M (veh/km) 17,30 17,04 19,09 21,11 20,21 17,40 17,46 18,12 18,37 18,03 18,13 17,57 D ensity

20,46 21,51 20,61 19,34 21,66 18,66 27,28 21,09 21,53 21,09 22,01 20,98 A T M ot D istance

113 580 115 938 118 550 117 441 116 907 116 416 117 748 117 461 117 675 al 118 330 119 788 115 610 (km) T ravel

119 603 119 746 118 151 121 148 114 415 121 788 108 520 115 676 118 031 115 676 117 193 117 441 A T M ot T ime (h)

2 203 2 216 2 176 2 125 2 411 2 161 2 161 2 178 2 249 2 232 2 220 2 173 al T ravel

2 319 2 430 2 228 2 340 2 349 2 338 2 847 2 351 2 527 2 351 2 525 2 420 A 3. at intersections, which avoids conflicts between pedestrians and cars, based on the technical report opted for scenario 17inthe end. political one. The decision-maker was the CityHallof Porto, which as the basic support for preparing the “Asprela Mobility Plan” was a the morning and afternoon peaksrespectively. decreased by -4%and -7%,and density decreased by indicators, the travel distance increased by 2%and 4%,travel time a decrease of thisvalue inthe afternoon (-0.3%). With the general in average distance travelled inthe morning (+0.3%),and even with afternoon peakperiods respectively, and without asignificant increase -12% intravel time, emphasis on the lastscenario (17),asitincludes major impacts. due to the positive and more “relevant” impacts they include, withan

N 17 16 15 14 13 12 e Since 2010the Municipality hasanew policy for the traffic lights The decision which scenario should bestudied indetail and serve Scenario 17hasadecrease inthe average indicators: about -6%and The analysis of table 7shows that scenarios 13,16and 17stand out w Poli 71,04 70,58 75,08 74,48 71,53 75,99 c

y S 74,51 78,05 82,52 80,67 77,13 76,20 c ena 33,40 36,94 41,83 39,94 36,18 35,82 14% an r io

s 29,91 29,42 33,98 33,35 30,39 34,93 d -24%indelay time, inthe morning and 3,33 3,34 3,33 3,31 3,34 3,32

3,29 3,30 3,33 3,32 3,30 3,32

16,31 16,13 17,32 17,23 16,44 17,44

17,59 17,53 21,41 20,60 17,61 21,16 Table 7:Indicators results. 119 705 118 997 118 503 118 857 118 934 118 588 7% an 122 714 121 751 116 276 115 951 120 895 116 459 d -16%,in 2 096 2 071 2 188 2 168 2 106 2 197

2 258 2 250 2 408 2 207 2 225 2 161 229 Application of simulation models for impact evalution in urban road networks 230 Rethinking everyday mobility 4. changes have quite animpact on traffic conditions. be simulated, takinginto consideration this new policy, because the to compare the baseline withthe scenarios, the baseline too had to 31% on average the time given exclusively to pedestrians. Inorder in traffic light policy. The cycle time of the traffic lights increased by that would collide withcrossing pedestrians. pedestrian green cannot beactivated at the sametime of carmovement allow crossing at aminimum speed of 0.4meters persecond, and the the policy are: the minimum time of pedestrian green iscalculated to and improves the safety and mobility of pedestrians. The changes in hours (see table 8). modelling and the intervention area, for morning and afternoon peak scenario was analysed, using average indicators, at the level of traffic achieve better performance results. The baseline versus the proposed N12). channelled to the ringroad formed by highways (VCI, A3,N13and A highnumber of trips usethe area intransit.Thistraffic should be function, while the streets inside the area have anaccessibility function. bordering the intervention area have a traffic collector and distributor these usually are right turns(scenario 17,Figure 6).The streets direction, reducing the conflicts between turningmovement because operation of each block asanindependent system inaclockwise Speed (km/h)

I Re (veh/km) ndicators A D v ensity The selected scenario was simulated again,including these changes The intersections controlled by traffic lights were optimized to The circulation scheme of the chosen scenario consists of the erage su lt s B 286, 176, 802, 0725,9 20,7 23,5 18,0 64,4 61,7 66,1 62,8 761, 101, 172, 7417,9 37,4 29,4 31,7 16,8 21,0 15,8 17,6 s Proposed ase M T raffic M odelling B s Proposed ase A B s Proposed ase M I ntervention B s Proposed ase A rea A 5. demand because amodal shift was not taken into account. morning and afternoon peakhours, withno changes inthe same to the impact evaluation, improves traffic congestion levels during different scenarios and consequently to find asolution that, according urban networks. The application of simulation models allowed testing become more consistent in the application of microscopic models in area contributed considerably to gainingfurther knowledge and to hours. -13% inthe morning peakhours and by -31%inthe afternoon peak -15% in the afternoon peak hours. Average travel time decreases by of total delay by about -30%inthe morning peakhours and by about included inthe simulation, the proposed solution results inadecrease by about Average travel time decreases by -20%inthe morning peakhours and morning peakhours and by about proposed scenario decreases the total delay by about -20%inthe peak hours respectively. According to the simulation’s results, the section and total delay at each intersection, for morning and afternoon performance indicators were defined: average travel time on each sections and intersections withinthe intervention area the following the proposed scenario was studied at the microscopic level. For the

T D Con A ravel D A erage A elay v. istance v v (km) The AIMSUN modelling conducted for the CIVITAS demonstration When the new policy for traffic lights inthe intervention area is In order to analyse the robustness of the solution, the impact of erage (s) (s) T ravel T T c ime ime l 40% inth us ion ,233 ,032 ,009 ,11,00 0,91 0,96 1,00 3,29 3,30 3,31 3,32 53 43 1 6 1 109 212 161 210 33 44 31 35 67 57 6 1 6 164 265 215 266 74 85 72 76 s e afternoon peakhours. 30% inth Table 8:Baseline versus proposed scenario. e afternoon peakhours. 231 Application of simulation models for impact evalution in urban road networks 232 Rethinking everyday mobility Ronghui Liu.1999.Simulation Carlo diTaranto, Jaime Ferrer, Ken Fox, Jean-François Gabard and Re policy introduced inthe study area cannot bederived from the model. modelling street parking, meaning that the impact of the new parking Another limitation of the simulation model isthe impossibility of about the benefits of the introduced changes cannot beconducted. model due to time and data constraints hence aquantitative analysis road and 1.9kmare withinanurbanpark. with double lanes, of which 5.8kmare lanes on the right side of the 1.1 km(=150%).The proposed cycling network hasalength of 7.7km levels. The exclusive public transport corridor hasbeen extended by walking and cycling) and due to areduction of the traffic congestion available due to more sustainable means of transport (public transport, capacity thanthe baseline scenario. The additional capacity becomes pedestrians, both for the actual and for the proposed traffic conditions. policy on traffic intersections concerning the safety and mobility of M t Committee, HalfYear Meeting, Lake Tahoe. d no Paper #4975. Transportation Research Board Annual Meeting Washington D.C.: Ca Mo ool eliverable odelling f te libration e dels

f Bar Pedestrians and cyclists were not considered in the simulation The model hasshown that the actual solution hasmore network The simulation model proved to bevery usefulfor testing the new Barceló, Jaume and Jordi 2004.Methodological Casas. Barceló, Jaume. 2001.AIMSUN Barceló, Jaume and MariaTeresa Perez Prado. 2006.Methodological Federal Highway Administration. 2004. Traffic en on or . AIMSUN TrainingCourse,23rd and 24thNovember 2006. c

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ansport. West Sussex: John Wiley &Sons, Lda. M The Transporting Simulation Systems. 2010.Microsimulator Ortuzar, Juan de Dios and LuisG. Willumsen. 1990.Modelling Van Vliet, Dirck and Mike Hall.2004.SATURN Tavares, José Pedro MaiaPimentel. 2003.Aplicabilidade Her Majesty’sStationery Office. 1997.Traffic Appraisal Manual: Hourdakis, John, Panos G. Michalopoulos and Jiji Kottomannil. Hoogendoorn, Serge P. and Piet H. L. Bovy. 2001. State-of-the- on lation are: odelos

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233 Application of simulation models for impact evalution in urban road networks PORTO I The Demand Responsive Transport service was available every Thursday, Friday and Saturday night, between 00:30 a.m. and 05:30 a.m., mainly targeting students.

PORTO I The ELAN activities have given mobility and transport issues a big push. Decision makers and citizens are now much more aware and the willingness of people to change their travel habits has increased. PORTO I The infrastructure for non-motorised modes has been adapted to contemporary needs.

1. carbon monoxide (CO), benzene (C ambient airconcentration of pollutants such asnitrogen dioxide (NO are governed by different mechanism, of acting on adifferent spatial correctly models the phenomenon (Aranoff, 1995). Also,the pollutants points used inthe calculation and on how well the mathematical function results depends on the accuracy, number, and distribution of the known to deterministic or statistical criteria. The qualityof the interpolation data to calculate the estimates. The weights could beassigned according (2005), classifies interpolation methods into linear and non-linear. when the ground truthdata does not cover the whole area. Demers on the known values (Aranoff, 1995). Thus this method is necessary not necessarily the true value; they are a mathematical “best guess” based may beregularly or irregularly spaced. The values derived inthisway are unknown values usingthe known values at neighbouring locations which points (Cressie, 1993).The interpolation isthe procedure of predicting incorporate information on the geographic position of the sample data techniques, differ from classical modelling approaches inthat they interpolating and extrapolating methods have to beused. (Horálek etal.,2005).To generate maps of concentrations means that environmental protection agencies around the world in the last decades monitoring and forecast hasbecome animportant issue for many Keuken etal.,2004).Inorder to monitor thisproblem urbanair quality

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237 Spatial prediction of air quality in an urban sensitive area: a seasonal overview 238 Rethinking everyday mobility and validated. Aconclusion ispresented inSection 5. is described indetail and inSection 3and 4model results are discussed 2009 and once insummer 2010. area. Thiswork summarised below was performed twice, once inwinter 2. such asbenzene (C interpolation methods to predict the field concentration of airpollutants, study was to describe and analyse the relative performance of these aspects of the airpollution phenomenon. The mainobjective of this Ordinary Kriging – which can incorporate both the regional and local performance of krigingwas generally better (Wong etal.,2004). require thisstep. Many studies have compared IDW and kriging,and the modelling step of avariance-distance relationship, IDW does not for each measurement. However, while krigingrequires the preliminary the measurements at surrounding locations withcertain assigned weights 2009). Bothmethods estimate values at unsampled locations based on air quality(Wong etal.,2004;Horálek, 2005;Mesquita, 2010;Sánchez, Weight (IDW) are the most commonly used methods when measuring modifications are the most often applied. Krigingand Inverse Distance interpolation methods, inverse distance weighting method and its cokriging have been used for spatial analysis. Inthe deterministic including simple and ordinary kriging,universal krigingand simple national network. mobility problems, yet it does not have any air quality station within the with several universities and two hospitals, withhightraffic density and the study area, the latter effects are significant. Thisisasensitive area temporal variability. Inthe dense urbanized region of Asprela inPorto, can have adistinct local character due to local emission sources and their are mainly driven by meteorological phenomena; however, airpollution scale: regional and local effects. Fluctuations inthe concentration pattern of these pollutants was conducted inthe scope of the CIVITAS ELAN regarded asthe most important emission source inthe area. Measurement be good indicators for pollution caused by traffic. Hence, they canbe and NO2 inPorto’s Asprela area. These two pollutants are considered to

M ate The outline of thispaperisasfollows. InSection 2the methodology In thispaper, two interpolation models have been used –IDW and Among statistical methods, geostatistical kriging-based techniques, The present study focuses on the atmospheric concentration of C6H6 r ial s and M 6 ethod H 6 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO s 2 ), inPorto’s Asprela and summer 2010). The simulation was performed for both measuring periods (winter 2009 the output grid was processed to a sub-grid with cells of 300 m x 300m. order to get a refinement of the concentration field over the study area, defined inthe Directive 2008/50/CE(5µg.m compared withthe annual limitvalue for the protection of human health standard deviation (SD). Inthissecond step the results were also using conventional statistics such as mean, maximum, minimum and analysis was performed and then the distribution of data was described Commission between September 2008and September 2012. project (TREN/FP7TR/218954-ELAN),co-funded by the European for CO concentrations, and another inreactive mode for NO two typesof airqualitysimulations were done, one innon-reactive mode was used to simulate, asatracer of C UNECE emission inventory does not include C UNECE emissions (Boavida etal., 2008)for the finer grid. Because the NO for (R reactive mode simulation avalue of reactivity pattern of VOC emissions (Fontes, 2010).The simulation of airqualitywas made usingCO and NO approximation to the usualclimatic conditions within the study region based on the ECMWF data for 2006,ayear that canbeconsidered agood grid, cells of 3kmx(Figure 1).The synoptic forcing was done x 30km,the intermediate grid, cells of 10kmxand the finer levels, between 10and 8,000metres. The larger grid usescells of 30km on the cityof Porto (41°9’34,94’’N, 8º37’19,32’’W)and 25vertical grid applied usingathree level nesting technique with25xpoints, centred was performed usingthe TAPM model (Hurley, 2008).The model was series, aswell asitsspeed of data processing, the airqualitymodelling and photochemical production, the possibility to work with long data screen runof anumerical dispersion model was used. field inthe area was defined. To do this,astatistic approach based on a needed for acorrect spatial representation of atmospheric concentrations air qualityinAsprela (study area) on human health. this approach represents agood indicator for the potential impact of the results are based on a relatively short measuring period (three weeks), smog Statistical analyses were done in two stages. First, a geostatistical Due toDue its ability to reproduce mesoscale atmospheric circulations Regarding the first step, firstly the number of observation points ) of 0.0067(Hurley et al., 2005)was considered. Additionally, in 2 ). Although these limits are linked to annual averages and the 6 H 6 , the CO concentrations. Thus, -3 6 for C for H 6 emissions the TAPM 6 H 6 and 40µg.m 2 . Inthe -3 2

239 Spatial prediction of air quality in an urban sensitive area: a seasonal overview 240 Rethinking everyday mobility of the study area. points for CO and two for NO concentration of 18.43±0.51µg.m 2), a CO average concentration of 241.86 ± 13.80 µg.m (LC) hasasignificance level of 5%of the mean value (Eq.1). for each pollutant was estimated, considering that the confidence level confidence intervals (S),the minimum number of observation points

This ap Using the estimate concentrations over the Asprela area (Figure Figure 1:Meteorological areas considered inthe airqualitysimulation usingTAPM

proach resulted inanestimate of about sixobservation

LC= √n

s t 0.975 <=>n=( 2 required for a representative description LC s

t model inMetropolitan Area of Porto (MAO). 0.975 -3 was predicted. Based on these ) 2

E. 1) (Eq.

-3 and a NO i) 2

of C of used to control eventual deviations. to Due vandalism point number 4 building, JNbuilding and CMPbuilding. At these locations replicas were of four buildings of the city(height: 40–50m): Antas tower, Burgos background concentration, measurements were also done at the top within the area (Figure 3).Additionally, and inorder to monitor the samplers were placed on poles at aheight of 3mand evenly distributed lost due to vandalism, 12observation points were used. The diffusive (PASSAM, 2010).In order to control deviations and diffusive samplers in summer) using a diffusive sampler technique to monitor pollutants November –16December 2009inwinter and 28June –20July 2010

6 Figure 3:Location of the diffusive measurement points inthe Asprela area (Porto). Based on these results two measuring periods were chosen (19 H 6 was lost during the measuring period. F igure 2:Airconcentrations (µg.m -3 ) estimated by TAPM model inthe Asprela area: i)CO; ii)and NO

ii)

2 . 241 Spatial prediction of air quality in an urban sensitive area: a seasonal overview 242 Rethinking everyday mobility applied to estimate the concentrations at thisremoved point. Therefore, To usethistechnique, apoint was excluded and then the model was comparing the deviation of estimates usingthe cross-validation method. assumes the model: around the local forecast (Johnston etal.,2001).Ordinary Kriging estimate, and the spatial relationships between the measured values on the model fitted to the measurement points of the local distance in anunmeasured location. Inordinary krigingthe weights depends measured values in the neighbourhood to predict the concentrations power (0.5 and 3)and usingdifferent radiuses and neighbours. the local variation, which canbecaptured through the neighbourhood. the presence of outliers. IDW assumes that the surface isbeingdriven by occur at sample points. The outputsurface issensitive to clustering and the maximum and minimum values inthe interpolated surface canonly the neighbourhood search strategy. IDW isanexact interpolator, where The surface calculated depends on the selection of a power value and than those farther away, hence the name inverse distance weighted. location. Closest values have more influence on the predicted value this method usesthe measured values surrounding the prediction and Walch, 2005).To predict avalue for any unmeasured location, given itssimplicity (Brigsetal.,2005;Keuken etal.,2005;Lindley the ArcGIS 9.3software. method, the ordinary kriging.These methods were implemented using method, the Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW), (ii)and ageostatistical winter period, two interpolation methods were used: (i)adeterministic Where z The performance of each evaluation technique was assessed The krigingmethod issimilarto the IDW for considering the The IDW predictions were performed varying the number of To estimate the spatial distribution of C The IDW isamethod often used to interpolate data from airquality,

observed point i;w(d i isanobserved value i,d

i )=1/(d Z(s)=µ+ ƒ(x,y)= i ) i p isthe distance between the estimated point and the isthe ponderation of the observation i;and pisthe [ ε(s)

∑ ∑ n n

i=1 i=1 (Eq. 3) w(d w(d ] i i ) )z Where µisanunknown constant. i 6 H

(Eq. 2) 6 and NO power function. 2 during the 75% to NO 7), and the coefficient of determination (R (Eq. 6)and de Normalized Root Mean Squared Error (NRMSE)(Eq. Absolute Error (MAE)(Eq.5),the Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) techniques was achieved using the average error (ME )(Eq. 4), the Mean the comparison of the performance between the different interpolation 3. C kriging, shows that ordinary krigingisthe bestmethod to simulate the between the two methods of spatial distribution, IDW and ordinary method. The specifications are presented in Table 2. The comparison validation to the bestinterpolation map,by pollutant and interpolation R both pollutants, defined by Directive 2008/50/EC, 100% to C Directive 2008/50/EC: point of view, the value of uncertainty was alsocalculated according to 2 6

where the optimal value is1. H Re Where: E 6 Table 1presents the results of the statistical analysis usingcross- All of these parameters have to beequal or close to zero, except the

Th Uncertanty= To verify ifthe selected mapcanbeconsidered from the legal

butthe differences to the IDW method are small.Inthe caseof ME=1/n RMSE= su

e results were compared withthe uncertainty of estimation, for lt

s 2 anddi .

= Estimated value; O

scuss Observed

NRMSE= R ME=1/n ion 2 =1- Limit

value

= Observed value; n=Number of cases;O=Mean of

∑ ∑

value

n n

√ - i=1 i=1

∑

Modelled ∑ RMSE 1/n (O (O n n i=1 i=1 O

i i E

-O -E i ∑ i i -O -O n i i ) i=1

(Eq.8) (Eq.9)

) value (Eq. 7) 2 i 2 i

(Eq.4) (E 2 (Eq. 5) ) (Eq.8)(Mesquita, 2010): i -O i ) 2

(Eq. 6) o bserved values. 6 H 6 and 243 Spatial prediction of air quality in an urban sensitive area: a seasonal overview 244 Rethinking everyday mobility the NO to the lack of one of the C study pollutants (different emission and reactivity pattern) and/ or due case because of the different patterns of field concentrations for the vandalism). R

Specifications Specifications 2 E xcluding thebestand the 2 concentrations the IDW gives better results. Thismight bethe Uncertanty O kriging rdinary N ID R MAE R worse case ME M W aisnme fpit 21 12 16 12 6 Radius numberofpoints A M ll values S S E E Search radius M ata tl 5-15 - 15 - Partial still Table 1:Results of statistical analysis usingcross-validation. jrrne-10 1000 - 1000 - ajor range L M N O Power gsz 0 500 - 500 - ag size ugget to peia - Spherical - ethod tu -5- 5 - 5 utput Table 2:Selected specifications by pollutant and method. 43%40%02%6.85% 0.22% 4.00% ≈ 4.36% 004 000 .146.8370 0.0164 -0.0001 -0.0247 ≈ 6 .002 .13.69 0.11 0.29 0.30 H .202 .92.74 0.09 0.20 0.22 .503 .90.78 0.99 0.32 0.55 .402 .0 0.078 0.002 0.23 0.24 ID 00 .909 0.17 0.99 0.09 0.00 W 6 control points (which was lost due to C O V 6 rdinary kriging ral - ariable H ID 6 - 1 - 3 0-30 - 30 - W C 6 H 6 O kriging rdinary ID W V ral - ariable ID W NO O rdinary kriging NO 2 2 G O kriging aussian rdinary low concentrations, the NO the sameresults for the summer measuring period. ordinary krigingfor the winter measuring period. Figure 6and 7show method may bethe best interpolated method for the Asprela area. can bedecisive to show, infuture measuring campaigns,that the IDW concentrations confirm that thisisanarea withless pollution. Thisfact C toDue the one measuring point that was destroyed by vandalism the vegetation and asports park withlow direct emission of pollutants. this critical point (sample 4)was located inanarea surrounded by the whole area ischaracterized by the presence of roads and carparks, these fluctuations better thanthe ordinary krigingmethod. Although concern of the area. to Due thissituation the IDW method canpick up (Figure 7) where the concentration values are highand are the main season (Figure 5)and sample 2and 6during the summer season points (hotspots). Thisisthe caseof sample 5and 6during the winter simulations for C 6 H 6 Although for allmeasuring periods the C Figure 4and 5show the two bestmaps resulting from different concentrations for this point were lost, but the records of NO 16/12/2009 usingdifferent interpolation methods: i)IDW, ii)Ordinary kriging. Figure 4:Average C 6 H 6 and NO 6 H 6 concentrations (µg.m- 2 mapshows some areas withsome critical 2 respectively usingthe IDW method and 3) inthe Asprela area from 19/11- 6 H 6 maps record always 2

245 Spatial prediction of air quality in an urban sensitive area: a seasonal overview 246 Rethinking everyday mobility Figure 6:Average C 21/04/2010 usingdifferent interpolation methods: i)IDW, ii)Ordinary kriging. 16/12/2009 usingdifferent interpolation methods: i)IDW, ii)Ordinary kriging. Figure 5:Average NO

6 H 6 of airconcentrations (µg.m 2 concentrations (µg.m -3 -3 ) inthe Asprela area from 28/06- ) inthe Asprela area from 19/11- the buildings) are 1.07 ± 0.10 µg.m the background average concentrations (observations in the top of values recorded at 3mrespectively. Otherwise, inthe summer period ta analy 4. 1.08 ±0.06µg.m and 34.86 ±1.45µg.m 1.25 ±0.23µg.m the next chapter. selected, the spatial analysis of the results took place assummarised in (observations inthe top of the buildings) are 1.02 ±0.11µg.m increase. Inthe winter period the background average concentrations of traffic increases and traffic speed decreases causing anemissions recorded inthe southclose to the A3/A4motorway where the volume close to the “Estrada daCircunvalação” and the maximum values were period. For the two pollutants the minimum values were recorded

Figure 7:Average NO D a At a height of 3 m, the observed average concentrations of C Once the bestmapfor each pollutant had been validated and 21/07/2010 usingdifferent interpolation methods: i)IDW, ii)Ordinary kriging. s i -3 s -3 and 47.22±4.18µg.m of C of 2 of airconcentrations (µg.m -3 6 H of NO of 6 and 44.98±3.66µg.m 2 , 18.4%and 26.2%lower thanthe average -3 of C of -3 of NO of 6 -3 H ) inthe Asprela area from 28/06- 6 2 and 41.70 ± 2.02 µg.m inthe winter period and -3 of NO of 2 inthe summer -3 of C of 6 H 6 6 are H 6 -

247 Spatial prediction of air quality in an urban sensitive area: a seasonal overview 248 Rethinking everyday mobility 75% for NO measurement methods, the C during the winter period. Even considering the uncertainties of the the legal point of view. The comparison of C study area and are agood indicative tool to evaluate the results from NO during the summer when compared withthe winter values), while the below the limitsdefined inDirective 2008/50/EC, 100%for C measuring period insummer. situation during the winter measuring period when compared withthe m respectively, which may show a stronger atmospheric stratification Nevertheless, the NO above the annual average limit value for human health protection. 5. 3 Directive 2008/50/EC (40 µg.m average annual limitvalue for human health protection defined by the NO2 concentrations are inthe whole study area higher than the limit value for human health protection. Onthe other hand, the average 2010) the measured concentrations never exceed the average annual health protection value of 5µg.m uncertainty of measurement method (PASSAM, 2010)for NO human health protection, the C with the Directive 2008/50/EC average annual limitvalues for the tested inorder to minimize errors. using auxiliary variables to adjust the spatial interpolation, could be other methods such asordinary cokriging or multiple linear regression, tests have to bedone for other periods and pollutants. Furthermore, method to be used for the study area. In order to confirm this, other analysis indicates that, ingeneral, the IDW method should bethe best winter and summer measuring period inthe Asprela area. However, the possible the definition of an optimal interpolation method for the the 23.0%of uncertainty of the C these control points may not exceed the mentioned limitvalue. C EC shows that, during the study periods, at allmonitoring points, the of NO of 6

H Con 2 6 concentrations present some values above that limit,inparticular The uncertainty of the estimates for bothpollutants inwinter is The results for bothmeasuring periods show that, when compared The methods of spatial analysis used inthisstudy do not render concentrations are lower thanthislimitvalue. Even considering c 2 l , 0.6%and 7.3%lower thanthe average values recorded at 3 us ion 2 (Table 1).Thus, these maps are representative for the s 2 recorded concentrations are above the annual 6 H 6 H -3 6 ). However, considering the 18.7% of 6 -3 recorded concentrations are never 6 H concentrations are very low (lower defined by the Directive 2008/50/ 6 measurement method (PASSAM, 6 H 6 results with the human 2 , 25%of 6 H 6 and hea air syst York: John Wiley &Sons, Inc. espa Pereira, Vitor Góis, Tiago Seabra and Hugo Maciel. 2008. Alocação Secti Empiri a comparative study of major European Capitals. Theoretical Re points of the analysed area during bothmeasuring periods. average limitvalue for human health protection at most of the control per Michael Petrakis and Gavin Shaddick. 2005.Air support ECT/ACC Techical Paper2005/8. assimi c de Leeuw, Marek Brabec and Jaroslav Fiala. 2005. Interpolation obtain aPhDon Environmental Sciences. maping aso f

e spective. Ottawa, Canada: WDL Publications. quality lth ems. EUA: John Wiley &Sons. Inc. r

cial DeMers, Michael M.2005.Fundamentals Boa Alpo Fontes, Tânia. 2010.Impacto Cressie, Noel. 1993.Statistics Aranoff, Stan.1995.Geographic European Commission. Directive Briggs, DavidBriggs, J., HansMartin Seip, Chris Dore, Gerard Hoek, Horálek, Jan, Pavel Kurfurst, Bruce Denby, Peter de Smet, Frank on d en a

lation and cal c

6. London: ImperialCollege.

ci t P vida, Filomena, AnaTeresa Perez, Pedro Torres, Teresa Costa d e o s art

dade e pi, Christinaand Sofia Elena Colesca. 2010.Urban airquality,

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249 Spatial prediction of air quality in an urban sensitive area: a seasonal overview 250 Rethinking everyday mobility H geogr Exp. of spatial interpolation methods for the estimation of airqualitydata. J. period 2000–2005inthe Urban Area of Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico. J. temporal distribution of the atmospheric polluting agents during the Pompa Toledano and Odilade laTorre Villasenor. 2009.The spatial– Bejaran, Mario E.García Guadalupe, Antonio Vallo Vázquez, AnaC. Systems. Universidade Nova de Lisboa.Master thesis inGeographical Information espa Greater Manchester. Atm. interpolated background nitrogen dioxide concentrations across 2010. at: http://www.bvsde.paho.org/bvsacd/cd63/e86650/cap2.pdf, 16.4. c R Jürgen Schneider. 2004.Health Neil Lucas. 2001.Using pollution modelling. Env. TAPM –Apractical approach to prognostic meteorological and air ontribution esearch azardous cial

Wong, David W., Lester Yuan andE.Perlin. Susan 2004.Comparison Sánchez, Hermes U. Ramirez, MariaD. Andrare García, Rubén PASSAM. 2010.Available at: http://www.passam.ch/, 16.4.2010. Mesquita, Sandra MariaPereira. 2010.Modelação Lindley, Sarahand Tanya Walsh. 2005.Inter-comparation of Hurley, Peter J.. 2008.TAPM Keuken, Menno, Eric Sanderson, Roel van Aalst,Jens Borken and Johnston, Kevin, Jay M.Ver Hoef, Konstantin Krivoruchko and Hurley, Peter J., William L.Physick and Ashok K.Luhar. 2005. Analysis áfica. Instituto Superior de Estatística eGestão de Informação da

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T ecnologia (FCT) for grant support to 251 Spatial prediction of air quality in an urban sensitive area: a seasonal overview PORTO I The Porto Lightweight Bus Shuttle has been put in operation. PORTO I The partner OPT has developed the mobile application MOVE-ME for Androids and iPhones. With an average of 1,000 requests per day, OPT has improved the application based on users’ feedback.

PORTO I The Porto Lightweight Bus Shuttle has been put in operation.

PORTO I The Mobility Shop counted an average of over 100 visitors per day. The information provided is related to all the means of transport available in the city, advice services for better mobility management, and many others issues.

1.1. considered on acontinental scale basis. the lastyears. Inthe wake of enlargement, mobility hasnow to be environment. of mobility that issustainable, energy-efficient and respectful to the unprecedented challenges and anincentive to work towards aform particular withrespect to greenhouse gasemissions (GHG). make transport more environmentally friendly must beenhanced, in using a broad range of policy tools, and the potential for technology to impacts on economic growth, social development and environment. with efficient, effective transportation systems, once having significant today’s communication, remain valid: to help providing Europeans the transport White Paperof 1992viathe White Paperof 2001 to to Europe’s prosperity. The objectives of EUtransport policy, from environmental needs. Effective transportation systems are essential policy isthat itstransport systems meet society’s economic, socialand 1. same time, oil prices, CO a key factor inthe competitiveness of individual regions. At the

I nt Eur The context of mobility inEurope haschanged considerably over Mobility must bedisconnected from itsnegative side effects The objective of aEuropean Union (EU)sustainable transport The fast globalization has made efficient and reliable transportation r o od C p ean OM uc Tr Francisco Xavier Carvalho, José Ferreira Duarte, tion P an O sp S o ITE r Carlos Aguiar, Fernando Gomes Almeida, Nuno A.Couto, António Torres Marques, t Poli

MATE c 2 emissions and global warming constitute y O b R j e IAL c tive - BA s

S Bernardo Almada-Lobo ED

LIGHT W EIGHT

B US 255 Composite material-based light weight bus 256 Rethinking everyday mobility characteristics generate aconcentrated demand, around the peaktime presence of consolidated residential areas and new ventures. These Hospital and the Portuguese Institute of Oncology). There isalsothe (universities and polytechnics) and health-care facilities (S. João an area withhighconcentration of institutions of higher education area of intervention would bethe area of Asprela –Paranhos. It is impacts of measures sponsored and, therefore, itwas decided that the for monitoring (environmental, energy, operational, etc.) the main 1.3. congestion alsonegatively impacts on inter-urban travel. freight and passenger transport startsor ends inurbanareas, urban of large costs interms of delays and higher fuel consumption. Asmost is prevalent inagglomerations and intheir access routes isthe source from road transport (European Commission, 2007).Congestion that 40% of CO Affairs/Population Division, 2008).Urban transport accounts for 84% in2050(United Nations, Department of Economic and Social population residing inurbanareas increasing from 72%in2007to and isexpected to continue, withthe proportion of the European efforts to improve security of itsenergy supply. the fight againstclimate change inthissector goes hand inhand with emissions inno other sector hasbeen ashighintransport. the EU-27in2006. Compared to 1990levels, the growth rate of GHG and slightly more thanaquarter (27.9%)of total CO transport accounted for close to aquarter (23.8%)of total GHG emissions will beroughly stabilized inthe long term. Modelling (European Commission, 2001) confirms that the modal split the order of 1.5%on average annually (European Commission, 2005). rates whereas passenger transport growth is expected to be lower in rate at 2.1%.Freight transport isexpected to grow at roughly similar 2000 and 2020,forecasts establish the average annual GDP growth freight and around 85%of passenger transport. For the period between 1.2.

Po Tr The scope of the project CIVITAS ELANhighlights the need Moreover, urbanization hasbeen aclear trend inthe pastdecades As the transport sector relies on fossil fuels for 97% of its needs, According to data from the European Environment Agency, Road transport ispredominant inEurope, accounting for 44%of an r to sp I o nte 2 r emissions and 70%of emissions of other pollutants arising t r Gr vention o w th in Ar Eur ea (C o p IVITA e S ELAN

pr o j e c t) 2 emissions in weight of the busbody. the busbodywork itisexpected to achieve asignificant reduction of the bodies. With the introduction of composite materials inthe design of weight of vehicles without a decrease in the structural quality of their a lightweight bus took place within the CIVITAS ELAN project in Porto. the consumption inurbanpublic transport, the intention of developing better and cleaner transports. Aligned to the growing need to reduce Transport, 1987). issues (Institute of Highways and Transportation and Department of reducing congestion, butalsointerms of energy and environmental of land use, since it can carry more people requiring less space, thus individual motorised transport, particularly withregard to efficiency periods. at morning and afternoon, aswell asvariation over the school year 2. of composite sandwich components. infusion and the filament winding, were considered for the production • • • • • account the following requirements: and compliance withnational laws. stages with advances and setbacks, essentially due to available budget solution results from along process characterized by several evolution frame and designing new and fullcomposite materials bodywork. This

D e definition of methodologies that reduce time manufacturing. bodywork, development of aconcept for the production and assembly of reduction of the structural weight, minimization of production costs and maintenance costs, superior specific strength and specific stiffness characteristics, Using new technology and new materials isexpected to reduce the Those reasons are strong enough to justifyallthe efforts to develop In general, there are advantages of public transport over Two possible manufacturing processes, namely the vacuum The design concept, during the development process, took into It was decided to transform aToyota Coaster minibus, reusing its s ign c on c e p t s 257 Composite material-based light weight bus 258 Rethinking everyday mobility filament winding. bonding of the sandwich core and lamination of the outer skin by over aremovable (dismountable) mandrel, followed by placement and tube beingproduced by lamination of the inner skin by filament winding of large partsincomposite materials. several meetings with a few companies specialized in the manufacture could bedesigned to attend the objectives of the project, through 2.1. would becompletely assembled. The inner skins would beproduced aluminium, and boththe reinforced sandwich cores and the pillar cores big waste of material and would seriously weaken itsstructural strength. also abandoned since the cutof the panels would bring to thisprocess a must be cutoff and only contribute to increase cost. Thisconcept was the envisaged fibre orientations and laminate thickness. The extra areas machine to correctly position the fibres. Thisextra length depends on laminate outside the length of the body would benecessary to enable the winding, resulting incontinuous shell, longer thanthe section. The extra main winding spindle. The outer skin would belaminated by filament pre-form structure, sufficiently strong and stiffthat would work asthe costs too much. a large mandrel to produce only one prototype that would increase the

Con The firstone (Figure 1)isastructure of sandwich skin rectangular Thr The third concept considered anintegrated mandrel, made by welded In order to avoid the mandrel, the second concept considered a This concept was abandoned because itwould benecessary to build c e ee previous concepts were analysed so that the ideal structure p t s

B a s ed onP Figure 1:Previous constructive solution considering reinforced core. r evio us St u die s 2.2. to budget and time constraints. meetings, itwas agreed by allstakeholders to waive thislastconcept due and Estaleiros Navais de Peniche (ENP)shipyard, and after afew Meanwhile, withthe partnership withDesignStudioFEUP department exterior skin. The remaining steps would beequal to the second concept. sandwich structure would behalfproduced before filament winding the by vacuum infusion prior to mounting the structure inthe spindle. The ones, reinforcing the structure under the necessary openings (weakened an unitary “shell” and no longer from a braced bone of filiform elements. structure inwhich the overall strength ismainly due to the behaviour of possible the progress on the concepts based on atruly monocoque dimensions through the vacuum infusion of resin technology made (that must include large open areas for security reasons). into account the national laws, without weakening the mainstructure it clear that itwould bealmost impossible to homologate the bustaking (Figure 2), the Institute for Mobility Transports of (I.M.T.T.) Land made bonding several parts/modules made insandwich. bonding panels into amainreticulated structure and the second considers this business) butnow withanintegral composite structure. structure covered with metal panels- the usual manufacturing process in type (strongly reflecting the traditional approach of a reticulated Monobloc bodywork withpanels attached based on sandwich structure typologies of buses of different sizes. Second, aconcept forming a and concluded withflat glasseson rear and front allowing for different structures. First, amodular structure constituted instructural rings

Con From thisphase onwards, the panels were considered asstructural The expertise of ENP shipyard in building parts with considerable Oth Despite the filament winding technology beingapromising approach The difference between these two concepts isthat the firstconsiders c e er concepts were discussed justconsidering integral composite p t s

B a s ed on I nteg r al St ruc t ur e o Figure 2:Reticulated structure concept. f Com p o s ite M ate r ial s 259 Composite material-based light weight bus 260 Rethinking everyday mobility bonding) (Figure 3). designed asasecond partand welded to the bodywork (structural imposed by existing regulations for thistypeof product. The floor was sections), especially for the placement of “windows” withthe dimensions areas. and fast access to inside/outside of the bus,and large internal and free platforms would have to bemounted at the busstops to allow for aneasy base to new bodywork, assuming ahigh-floor bus.To that end, elevated structure, butreturning to the Toyota Coaster frame asthe mechanical would belegal, which hasdiscouraged any progress withthisconcept. frame manufacturer would benecessary sothe cuttingof the frame future homologation became clear. Atechnical authorization from the transportation authorities, the huge difficulty imposed by itsnecessary like astructure of a“box”. corners of windows increased to reduce stress concentrations looking windows, the width of the pillars and the radii of curvature of the used by ENP shipyard, the new bodywork concept foresaw smaller seats only at the rear (above the axle). and freestanding structure) withlarge and emptyinternal space, placing drive system and dashboard) and build anew bodywork (Monocoque front axle (where the mechanical components are attached, asthe wheel an adaptation of anindependent suspension on the rear axle, reuse the chassis-cab vehicle into aminibus, cuttingthe frame and allowing for agreed by allpartners that another solution would beto transform a improve mobility (low floor without steps, front wheel drive), itwas the most recent technological approaches used inurbanbusesto unsustainable. Finally, the team decided to keep the monocoque and freestanding When discussingthe viability of thisconcept with national To reduce mould costs and to comply with the assembly technology Taking inaccount the requests of CIVITAS project and considering However, the budget needed to spend for moulds would be Figure 3:Monocoque concept. 3. US 4. bodywork mainstructure, and anticipate future executing difficulties. established, afew revisions were done to promote the bestqualityof lay-up (Bac2, 2001:1). and the vacuum provides the driving force for infusingthe resin into the resin isintroduced. The pressure differential between the atmosphere The vacuum removes allof the airfrom the lay-up before and while on the typeof fibre, the fibre architecture and the typeof resin used. typically about 60–75%fibre by weight (50–65%by volume), depending parts made withthe SCRIMP™ process have highfibre volume contour, 2010). series of channels, saturating the part(Seemann Composites INC –SCI, inlet port and distributed through the laminate viaaflow medium and placed under vacuum and the resin isintroduced into the part viaaresin bag that isplaced over the lay-up and sealed to the tool. The partisthen and various insertsare laid upinatool while dry, followed by avacuum organic compounds (VOCs) emissions. very highquality, reliable composite partswithalmost zero volatile uses vacuum to pullliquid resin into adrylay-up and isused to make Infusion Moulding Process) isaresin transfer moulding process that 3.1. constructive technology SCRIMPwas selected. this measure, butgiven the low feasibility of usingfilament winding, the based on the project constraints (essentially budget and timeframe). (its proportions and dimensions) which would constitute the sandwich, to select the manufacturing process, to define the firstsetof materials

B T SCR e Even with the manufacture process selected and the design concept The vacuum pressure compacts the dryfibres. For thisreason, In the basic SCRIMP process, fibre reinforcements, core materials SCRIMP (anacronym which stands for Seemann Composites Resin A pure composite material bodywork was decided to emerge from Once the design concept was approved, several meetings were held c hnologi IM man P T e uf c hnology hnology a c c al a t ur ppr ing de oa f c inition inition h h 261 Composite material-based light weight bus 262 Rethinking everyday mobility 4). and after that the mainstructure isclamped on top of the frame (Figure it to supports of the frame. The partsare bonded by structural adhesive already includes the sillsand includes metal insertsthat allow screwing between the partsand make easier the bonding process. The floor part against the initialintentions to build itinone single part. and to build the bodywork intwo parts,floor and bodywork properly, structures are faced inservice. body of abus,without forgetting the different requests (loads) that the of the construction of acabin of apassenger ship (catamaran) to a project (see details in Mould chapter). performance, without compromising budgetary sustainability of the required product of the physical properties necessary for their good suitable typeof mould to the intended technology, providing the experience inmanufacturing of composite partsto choose the most construction of moulds. Great contribution was given by the ENP 4.1.

D e Specific geometries were predicted to improve the placement This analysis led to the readjustment of the bodywork concept, A constructive parallelism was established, makinganextrapolation In order to produce the body partsby SCRIMP, itisrequired the s ign Revi Figure 4:Inserts(floor), bonding areas, fitgeometries and assembly sequence. s ion ion

it allows the access to allof the partpoints, aswell asthe detection and of mould alsoenables abetter control of the infusion process because deformation). (such asinmetals that drainingand absorb these stresses aspermanent avoided, asthe composite nature does not allow for stress outflow concentration) abrupt changes inthickness and partsgeometry were the mould. radius made easier the lamination and the process of release partsfrom materials, heavy or expensive as the metallic to resist to deformations. consolidation canbeused, which useslow pressure, not requiring robust 4.2. structural reasons itwas decided to go for one single part. assembled by vacuum assisted bonding the panels. Once more, for up to 15mx6m2m(ENPSA, 2011).Thereafter the body would be times of 35minutes each. ENPowns equipment to produce panels executed by Vacuum Infusion too, manually stratified, with average process it would not be necessary to build a mould. Panels would be from each other to finally form the “box” (multi-parts). Through this “bodywork” by bonding four different flat panels made independently well asstiffness and manoeuvrability of the model (Figure 5). manual lamination and assured the critical dimensions of the project as to build itinasingle closed one. These moulds are made of plywood for finally decided to build two open moulds, againstthe initialintentions is the most expensive component of the construction budget. It was

M Given the considerable size of the pieces to beextracted, thistype To achieve structural parts with better properties (lower stress The external and internal flat geometries and constant bending This choice was alsobased on the fact that cold process of Th It was alsodiscussed the possibility of manufacturing the part o u ld e SCRIMPprocess requires moulds to produce the parts,which s Figure 5:Moulds open typefor extract floor and body parts. 263 Composite material-based light weight bus 264 Rethinking everyday mobility correct placement for the insertsinto the floor partwere determined. and floor and no mismatches on local provided for the screwing). correct fitto the floor (avoiding geometrical interception between frame a 3Dmodel was created usingSolidWorks software, to help providing the 4.4. done, which led usto make several modifications until the finalsolution. orientation. fibre glassfabrics, mixing0º-90ºplies withrandom plies, on fibre 5. conception. conception. Thisdynamic process led to astable and optimized structural conceptions were performed inparallel withthe design 4.3. (Composite One LLC, 2011). materials that involve less constructive rigorousness (easy to execute) closed box (would need to bemould closed type)since itrequires cheaper of mould for extraction of the body inone piece, to form acontinuous elimination of vacuum leaks, along withsupervision of the flow of resin. 80Kg/m costs increase turned outthissolution not to befeasible. fibre fabrics itwould potentially reduce more weight), the significant this shape. Even sacrificing the weight reduction (asthe useof carbon vs. costs would beworse thanwithintegral fibre glassconstruction, for computational analysis itwas possible to predict that the ratio properties reinforced. established such asthe points/places where the bodywork should be

Cha Com The bestclamping solutions for each attachment place and the Simultaneously, the geometry of the Toyota frame was identified and After the firstapproach, several tests to optimize the structure were In order to guarantee the viability of the project, afew approximate This choice has enabled lower cost in comparison with the execution The material basefor the core of the sandwich isPVC foam, with Although the useof carbon fibre had been discussed, through The initialsetfrom structural dimensions of the sandwich was ruc r p a o 3 c of density (H80),and was involved by resin reinforced with t s te ur ition o r i al z ation o c f theCom on c f theU e p tion andanaly p o s s ed F ite Sand r ame ame w i c h h s i s

observe that modifications could beintroduced to enhance the structure. floor (real base of the actual) (Figure 6). guarantee that the passengers are not injured. the residual space, according ECE R66,cannot beinvaded inorder to values and these structures had to bemodified/strengthened. Note that first models, the level of deformation was bigger thanthe acceptable according to one of the predicted methods inside ECE R66. In these absorption energy. After that, rollover tests simulations were run, understand itsbehaviour and help incalculation of its reference In thissection, only afew examples willbereported. improve the designs and the mechanical properties of the bodywork. Oversized Vehicles for Passenger Transportation” (ECE R66). European Regulations named “Resistance of the Superstructure of bodywork (United Nations, 2006),predicted inaccordance to the it isnot necessary to perform the rollover test inorder to legalize the evolution. For urbanbuses,which canonly circulate upto 50Km/h, conducted for afew structures designed during the design concept 5.1. laboratorial experiments.

I nitial St Even with ahighpercentage of satisfactory results, itwas possible to The sameprocess was executed withlastmodel (chassis-cab), low- On the firstmodels a bending strength tests was conducted to AB Se Samples at 1:1scale were builtto betested. The validity of the numerical models had to beguaranteed by veral numerical simulations and tests for the busbody were AQUS software was used to do the simulations, inorder to ruc t ur al Con Figure 6:Bending strength test (left) and rollover test (right). c e p t s and M odel s

T e s t s

265 Composite material-based light weight bus 266 Rethinking everyday mobility • • on the frame. column). These panels included metallic insertsto assemble the floor 1000mm) by hand lay-up and consolidation withvacuum bag(asthe was applied. However, alocal crash damage was developed inthe area were the load the pillar practically recovered the un-deformed initial configuration. elastic conditions, for aload of 25000N. After the test, when unloaded, its stiffness. Amaximum displacement of 40mmwas obtained, under load initmiddle point, until rupture (rangingfrom 800mm), to know the dimensions shown infigure 7. was developed by hand lay-up and consolidation withvacuum bag,with and two of the floor were developed. 5.2. deformation (safe values for thisconstruction). The stress value achieved 41.95MPa,with3.875mmof maximum considering the bodywork fixed on the predicted places on the frame. load, (passengers) 500Kg/m2,applied inallpartsof flat floor and simulate the airconditioner unit(100Kg),and anuniformly distributed tests were performed considering arigid body, placed on roof to

V reinforcements: PVC Core -50mm;Skinstrengthening - Lower skin (thickness 2.4 mm), panels: upper skin (thickness 2.4mm); PVC Core -25mm; alid The floor plates have the following composition: For the tests two panels were alsobuilt,of 1:1scale (1400mmx The column was tested by bending, simply supported, applying a A profile with one meter of length reproducing apillar of the bus To validate the model, one sample of the column of the windows The roof openings were reviewed and shortened and new static ation o f the M odel Figure 7:Window column geometry. build the samples). manufacturing process and solutions used instructural requirements to with the lay-up specified in figure 8 below (reproduction of the same placed on top of the plate, applying the load evenly. to their longitudinal and transverse directions. For that, a beam was and theoretical simulations. and perpendicular to the floor rail. were performed on each of the two mainpanel directions i.e.parallel loading hasbeen applied inthe normal direction to the panel. Two tests loaded prevented from carrying out horizontal displacements. The and floor. Arigid plane simulated the support baseand nodes were for the laminates and reinforcements inthe structure of the bodywork considered inthissimulation were estimated by the ESACOMP software. method, using the ABAQUS software. The properties for the materials 3.38 mm). 3Combi (thickness 4.68mm); Outer skin -2Combi (thickness At the sametime, a numerical model of a panel was developed The samples were tested under bending until rupture according Table 1liststhe values of stiffness obtained inthe experimental Volume elements were used for the foam core and shell elements The structural test was computer simulated by the finite element Figure 8:Lay up(modeled withthe samecharacteristics of real floor plates. 267 Composite material-based light weight bus 268 Rethinking everyday mobility • • handrails used by passengers. floor was similarto the samples tested. prevent any large deformations can beensured. The constitution of the to the chassis in front sides is insufficient, the necessary stiffness to the floor and unsupported at the front sides. So,even ifthe connection • • the simulation of the floor panels). of volume to the foam core and shell elements for the laminated (asin a structural simulation of the same.The mesh was builtwithelements was used to create a finite element model of the bodywork and perform Com 5.3. not considered. variables such asvoid content and fibre volume fraction variation are acceptable. Thiserror results from the simplifications assumed, because the simulation purposes, the error obtained (17%)was considered L aboratory testing

Op p concentrated loads at points of support handrails according to dead weight, 3Combi (thickness 4.68mm). reinforcements: PVC Core -25mm;Skinstrengthening - Lower skin (thickness 1.7mm), panels: upper skin (thickness 1.7mm); PVC Core -25mm; The following loads were considered inthe simulation: The applied loads on the roof were concentrated at points of the The bodywork model was supported justinthe joining areas with The bodywork hasthe following composition: Considering the results of previous simulations, ABAQUS software Bearing inmind the uncertainties, and takinginto account Simulation lementa timi E rror

z ation o r y Re f qu theSt K i 1 -Stifnessindirection (k r ement ruc Table 1:Comparison of results obtained for the stiffness. t V ur e 2,892 2,984 3,18% r e and i f i c ation N /mm) K 2 -Stifnessindirection 2(k 17,13% 6,078 5,189 N /mm) • • • 6. improvements on the structures were done. With the discussions dimensions of the buswere established, itsconstruction and reduction around 30%comparing withthe original bodywork. Coaster, weighs 2,370kg.The proposed solution presents aweight mass), approximately 1,700kg. The bodywork of the minibus, Toyota main structure of the bodywork (including itstwo partsand the glasses of the roof, withamaximum value of 77MPa. in the floor and the higher stresses occur inthe central reinforcements 41mm inthe centre of the roof. The maximum displacement was 31mm

M load distributed uniformly on the floor (7kN/m²). doors weight (2x1,5kN), kN), weight of AirConditioning equipment placed on the roof (0.5 kN), the direction of 1,2and 3(F1=10kN, F2=3.35kN;F3 an The finalresults canbeseen infigure 9. The process beganwith mould building. Once the external Again by ABAQUS software, itwas estimated the weight of the The maximum displacement value obtained (module value) was uf a Figure 9:Displacements (mm) and equivalent stresses of von mises(MPa). c t ur e o f theb us

pr ototy p e 269 Composite material-based light weight bus 270 Rethinking everyday mobility 6.1. internal lamps, several covers, etc.), and itsclamping solutions. bus; e.g.:handrails, wheelchair seat bracket, supplementary step, which the market does not have acceptable solutions for thisspecific development of components essential to abusperformance (those for involved were applied and afew subprojects were conducted for the complexities. the concept and introduce the relevant modifications to avoid future regarding the manufacturing strategy, it has been possible to refine and itsbonding area to “bodywork” partwas prepared. structure consolidation it was removed from the mould (Figure 10), in casesomething went wrong. After curingtime and verified the to beensured before the startof the process, asitcould not bestopped down to anacceptable value for that kind of infusion, below 100mbar. Then, the vacuum bag was placed and the vacuum pressure controlled, fit and place the material inside the correspondent mould asplanned. feed stocked. are 6220mmlength x2200mmwidth x2300mmheight) (Figure 11). followed.

P a With the validation of the model the several constructive solutions The infusion was successfully done, butcertain requirements had The firstinfusion was the floor. First of all,itwas necessary to After conclusion of the shape design the moulds were finished and That infusion was successful too and took 1h45m(partdimensions To produce the part“bodywork”, the sameprocedures were r t s

I n fus ion bySCR IM Figure 10:Floor partmanufactured (infusion by SCRIMP). P 6.3. the floor) like threaded nuts. of the Toyota frame with M14 screws, using the metallic inserts (on to allow attaching them properly. The bodywork was fastened on top A few adjustments were done on the mainstructure and on the frame transported from ENPshipyard to MOBIpeople (bodywork builder). on partsbonding and after the partsbonded, the mainstructure was fit them and promote acorrect bond. Structural adhesive was used SS 6.2. to define the handrail shape design was conducted. in order to fitthe bodywork curvature. of specific supports. The door panels were also specifically designed foam on the bodywork sandwich core, allowing the fastening of aset for the vehicle. Metallic insetswere foreseen, substituting the PVC covers). bus (e.g.: dashboard, doors mechanism and windshield wiper house them were projected before, to improve aperfect integration into the covers were builtafter the busarrived at MOBIpeople, even ifsome of provide any existent solution to solve the needs. The majority of the few components, after asearch on buscomponents market did not

A Com After producing both partsseveral adjustments were done to According to the European regulation, a3Dmodelling test device Another challenge was the development of alegal sliding door This bushasspecial features, which forced usto develop a embly p onent s de s igned Figure 11:Bodywork partmanufactured (infusion by SCRIMP). 271 Composite material-based light weight bus 272 Rethinking everyday mobility 8. 7. reduced and consequently the production time. However, the composite quality withlow roughness. It isacleaner process, withno VOC´s release. interior easingthe finishing work. minimizing the useof ribs. for aesthetical reasons butalsofor structural greater stiffness, relieving or if made on metal, are easily shaped insuch composite materials, not just with curved surfaces, including complex forms that would beexpensive technology hasinthe manufacture of highqualitystructural parts.Parts Asprela area inPorto (Figure 12). gone through the homologation process and itisnow beingtested at the components were attached on itsservicing places. It hassuccessfully

Con Com Using thistechnology the number of body partsissignificantly The SCRIMP manufacturing process has enabled partsof highsurface The structure obtained istransparent, allows for avisualization of its This project aimsto demonstrate the potential that the used composite The buswas then painted, from inside and outside, and some of its c p l letion and us ion s

T e s ting Figure 12:Buscompletion and testing. com/process.php#openmold, 1.10.2011. com2007_0551en01.pdf, 1.10.2011. Available at: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2007/ mo assess_en.htm, 1.10.2011. at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/white_paper/mid_term_revision/ of en.pdf, 1.10.2011. transport/strategies/doc/2001_white_paper/lb_com_2001_0370_ TEN po O Re on the fuel consumption and gaseous emissions. partners. Conclusion of the busassembly willenable performance tests and sharing of knowledge and technological development between simulations are inaccordance. some accuracy from numerical simulation, since the results in tests and around 30%.The structural behaviour of the buscanbepredicted with bounds and allows for aneffective bodywork weight reduction of components and glasses,1139kg.Thisresult fitsthe anticipated type of loads solicitation. used, taking into account the shapes, the nature of its material and the structure requires special care inpredicting the typeof insertsto be nl/userfiles/scrimp%20_overview%20.pdf, 1.10.2011. verview

f licy t e bility, he r Estaleiros Composite European Commission. 2007.Towards European Commission. 2005.Assessment Ba The teamwork withinthe consortium haspromoted the transfer The mainstructure “bodywork” weighed after bonding, without European Commission. 2001.White

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273 Composite material-based light weight bus 274 Rethinking everyday mobility Population Division. 2008.World r066r1e.pdf, 1.10.2011. www.unece.org/fileadmin/DAM/trans/main/wp29/wp29regs/ books. r TRANS/505, seemanncomposites.com/, 1.10.2011. Transport. 1987. Roads 8f14e45fceea167a5a36dedd4bea2543, 1.10. 2011. enp.pt/?lop=conteudo&op=c16a5320fa475530d9583c34fd356ef5&id= evision. United Nations and Department of Economic and Social Affairs/ Seemann United Nations .2006.ECE Institute of Highways and Transportation and Department of

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ZAGREB I 100 new PT buses on biodiesel and 60 on CNG, which emit less CO2, have been introduced.

ZAGREB I A new ticketing system has been introduced in Zagreb’s PT vehicles. PORTO I The PT network is becoming faster in Porto, with an excellent metro system as its backbone.

1. used for pure plant oil production. There are more than4,000plant soybean, etc. Inother partsof the world palmtrees, jatropha, etc. are the production of oilseed rape,and the southern ones for sunflowers, all over Europe. The northern partsof Europe are more suitable for associated environmental issues. Pure plant oil isavailable practically more interesting due to continuously growing fossil fuel prices and origin). Pure plant oil asanenergy source isbecoming more and alternative for the current use of fossil fuels (diesel fuel of mineral units for the production of electric and thermal energy, etc.) isan machines, tractors, trucks, municipal vehicles, cogeneration gaining inimportance. refined form) can be used in modified engines, and as such has been (commonly used indiesel engines), pure plant oil initsrefined (or non- biomethanol, pure plant oil, and biodiesel. Recently, beside biodiesel the following fuels are currently the most important: bioethanol, and various other uses.Among liquid fuels obtained from biomass can beused asareplacement or anaddition to fossil fuels intransport biomass products, biomass isasource for liquid fuels or biofuels. They into the soil inthe form of organic waste. Beside solid and liquid for clothes, other products, and fuels; one partof it,returns directly humans and animals,aswell asfor processing different raw materials Biomass produced inagriculture isused asasource of nutrition for not contribute to air pollution resulting ingreenhouse gasemissions.

I nt Using pure plant oil inengines (diesel engines of working Carbon dioxide produced from the combustion of biomass does r od ON uc tion

THE

ATT OIL Viktor Jejcic, Tone Godeša, Tomaž Poje, R

A A C S FU TIVENE EL F Marko Gerbec, Davor Kontic ˇˇ O SS R O VEHI F US C ING LE PR PUR O PU E P L S LANT ION ´

279 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 280 Rethinking everyday mobility p 1.1. rapeseed. role inalternative energy sources, especially inbiofuels made from these strategic goals, biofuel field crop production plays animportant the agricultural land for biofuel crop production. Inthe framework of sufficient energy supply; thiswas accomplished by dedicating partof as aconsequence of the obligation to achieve acertain degree of self- produced. species inthe world (Riva etal.,1999)from which plant oil canbe of modern diesel engines was logically directed towards these kinds of the contemporary diesel engines and the fuel. The development nozzles, damaged pistons and piston rings,etc. plaque inthe combustion chamber and on the high-pressure injection problems were observed: plugging of fuel filters, build-up of carbon down after approximately 500 hours of operation. The following showed that even the simplest, robustly constructed engines broke use of such engines major problems became evident. Investigation problems were noticed in the initial phases of use. However, after longer chambers) and high-pressure, inline piston fuel pumps, no special with indirect fuel injection (engines withIDI chambers –turbulence 1990s. Inolder construction typesof diesel engines, especially those oil directly indiesel engines, without modifying them, inthe early for different activities. consequences of global heating due to the increasing useof fossil fuels latter problem, scientists beganto warn the public about the negative again in the early 1970s, following the first oil crisis. In addition to the derivatives. After World War IIthe interest declined, only to increase oil asfuel increased againduring World War IIdue to lack of mineral oil fell to itsminimum (Mittelbach etal.2005).The interest inpure plant oil derivatives were cheap, the interest inplant oil asanenergy source World Fair inParis.In the period between the two World Wars, when an engine which used peanut oil for propulsion asearly asthe 1900 fuel in1893.Asacuriosity, itshould bementioned that he presented 1858 –1913)who patented anengine withcompression ignition of lant oiland

D evelo Recently, Slovenia has witnessed increased interest inbiofuels But what caused the problems? The answer lay inthe construction Some enthusiastic usersand researchers tried to usepure plant The diesel engine was named after itsinventor (Rudolf Diesel, p ment o pr oblem f die s s

el engine w ith pur s e

ru p lant oil nning on pur e prevents damagingthe high-pressure pumpduring atomisation (highly lower the viscosity becomes. Heating plant oil reduces its viscosity and strongly dependent on temperature: the higher the temperature is,the to match that of mineral diesel oil. The viscosity of pure plant oil is diesel oil. To achieve this,the viscosity of the oil must firstbeadjusted diesel engine, the plant oil must be atomised just as finely as mineral engines. Inorder to ensure ascomplete combustion aspossible ina engines isnot recommended because itcancause damage to the to bethe most appropriate. Using pure plant oil inunmodified diesel first two methods are quite demanding, butthe lastone hasproved with mineral diesel fuel, and heating the oil to reduce itsviscosity. The etherification of oil (commercial name: biodiesel), mixingplant oil were developed to reduce the viscosity of pure plant oil: trans- without addressing the viscosity issues. The following three methods of anti-wear additives inthe engine oil, ifitcomes into contact withit. and willtherefore change the viscosity aswell asother characteristics On the other hand, biodiesel or pure plant oil willnot evaporate easily engine oil, the heat inthe crankcase willevaporate mineral diesel fuel. lubricating engine oil. When mineral diesel fuel mixes withlubrication cylinder wall to the crankcase, where itwillbediluted or mixed withthe this situation, some of the fuel willpassbetween the piston ringsand the engine oil. Diluted engine oil canaffect the engine’s wear rate. In more time, and asmallpartof the unburned fuel willbediluted into high viscosity. Bigger droplets willnot burncompletely or willneed atomised into very smalldroplets like mineral diesel fuel because of its burning rate thanmineral diesel fuel, because pure plant oil cannot be oil. Thisresults from the qualityof pure plant oil, which hasalower problems). Apartof the pure plant oil willbediluted into the engine (corrections to the fuel injection time are the bestsolution for these operation, causing later combustion and expansion stroke of the engine of combustion aswell asslower combustion, especially during low-load Further research showed that plant oil caused adelay inthe beginning combustion of larger fuel drops, and causing carbon plaque to build up. (dispersion of fuel drops) of the plant oil, thus preventing complete revealed that the highviscosity results inincomplete atomisation fuel pipes, filters and high-pressure injection nozzles. Investigation elements inthe fuel supply system. Highviscosity causes plugging of viscosity istoo highfor modern high-pressure fuel pumps and other The combustion of plant oils is similar to that of diesel fuel but their of fuels due to the widespread availability of mineral diesel fuel. All this means that plant oils cannot be used in diesel engines 281 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 282 Rethinking everyday mobility 1.2. resulting from incomplete combustion of highly viscous fuel. the damages to the high-pressure injection nozzles and piston rings, consequently reduced efficiency). Heating pure plant oil alsoreduces viscous oil causes greater friction between pump’s moving partsand consumption for transport. the European Union. This additionally means a decrease of energy and reduces dependence on imports of highprotein food from outside pure plant oil therefore alsoincreases the feed supply for farmanimals used as animalfeed inthe form of oil-cake or pellets. The production of approximately 40%pure plant oil, while more than60%isaby-product production/ application canbeomitted from the equation. even more favourable since the stage of oilseed rapeand fertiliser and seed drying.If(edible) cooking oil isused, the energy ratio is energy from pure plant oil, mainly inthe useof agricultural machinery chemical methods, etc. For some of these phases itisalsopossible to use rape, rapeseed drying,oil extraction from the seed by mechanical or with organic fertilisers), useof agricultural machinery to grow oilseed process: the production of mineral fertilisers (which canbereplaced plant oil requires fossil energy inputinsome phases of the production high positive energy balance of pure plant oil. The production of pure with straw excluded (straw calculated asfuel). These data show the Rapeseed oil hasan energy ratio of 1:5.5withstraw included and 1:3.2 pure plant oil (the final product) to the energy required to produce it. on their energy balance ratios, acomparison of the energy stored in require anew generation of completely new engines to bedeveloped. pure plant oil ahuge advantage over other energy sources, which often are used invarious activities requiring fuel based propulsion. Thisgives used inconverted diesel engines of vehicles and other machines that that pure plant oil from rapeseed, sunflowers, soybeans, etc. canbe are lower compared to other biofuels. It isvery important to point out technologies for biofuel production. Inaddition, the processing costs oil from rapeseed isthe simplest of allavailable production chains/ produced from biomass is pure plant oil. The production of pure plant technology, the price of biofuels, etc.), the most suitable fuel to be liquid biofuel (climate, agricultural technology, biofuel production

A dvantage The mechanical extraction of rapeseed oil (withoil presses) yields The evaluation of biomass energy and biofuels isusually based Considering the European and Slovenian conditions for producing s o f

pur e p lant oila s anene r gy s o urc e 1.4. 17 %oil compared to less than1%oil inindustrial cake). is used asanimalfeed and hasa highnutritive value (itcontains 12to a by-product produced withmechanical extraction isoil-seed cake that costs, providing higher value added to the agriculture of the area, (vii) distances (up to 30kmfrom the production site) resulting inlower increases the machinery’s utilization rate), (vi)shorter transport pressing other typesof oil seed, for example for consumer use,which are no waste waters, (v)highly flexible production (quick transfer to intermediaries), (iii)investment costs in equipment are low, (iv) there directly or indirectly connected withagricultural production itself (no it isperformed near the locations of agricultural production, (ii)itis This typeof oil production hasother important advantages such as:(i) production uses six times less energy than industrial oil production. kWh per ton of processed oil seeds). On average, decentralised oil work process are very simple and require low energy use(upto 80 and environmentally friendly since their technological equipment and tons of oil seeds perday). Such production units can work economically seeds per day (in some countries the production limit is a capacity of 25 units. Decentralised oil production means pressing from 0.1 to 5 tons of of oil production by means of mechanical pressing insmallproduction has recently spread around the world and inEUcountries, asaresult in modified diesel engines or for further processing inbiodiesel fuel, operate continuously and do not require any special labour force. (the useof chemicals isenvironmentally controversial). Oilpresses can process are low energy consumption and zero chemicals for extraction using solvents. The outstanding features of the mechanical pressing require sophisticated machinery compared to the industrial process of industrially (chemically), usingsolvents. The pressing process does not produced/ extracted withamechanical process, usingoil presses, or 1.3. possible content of phosphorus (below 10mg/kg) and solid particles the future. plant Quality oil for diesel engines hasto have the lowest serve asthe basisfor anEUstandard for pure plant oil qualityin 2010 (Pure plant oil qualitystandard DIN 51605). Thiscanalso

P T he r Decentralised production of pure plant oil, intended for direct use The pure plant oil used for vehicle propulsion purposes may be Plant oil was standardised asfuel inGermany inSeptember od qu uc ality o tion o f

f pur

pur e e p p lant oil lant oil 283 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 284 Rethinking everyday mobility and pure plant oil. highest difference inviscosity at 20ºCisbetween mineral diesel fuel the sametemperature, there are alsodifferences between the fuels. The mineral diesel fuel and biodiesel. And ifwe compare their viscosity at value of the rapeseed oil used for ourtests was higher thanthat of biodiesel. Ifthe calorific value iscalculated inMJ/l, then the calorific has the highest calorific value (MJ/kg) compared to pure plant oil and used intesting vehicles and alaboratory engine. Mineral diesel fuel and aslightly higher temperature of the seed to bepressed. lowest possible number of rotations of the pressing partsaspossible content during the pressing process may be influenced by using the be reduced by expensive refinement. The reduction of the phosphorus industrial process, where the highphosphorus content inthe oil hasto This isthe great advantage of cold pressing incomparison withthe the majority of the phosphorus inthe seed passesinto the oil meal. advantage favouring decentralised oil production). Incold pressing, obtained withcold pressing ranges below 10mg/kgoil (anadditional conducted inGermany indicated that the quantity of phosphorus inoil builds upinthe combustion chamber). The results of anexperiment oil negatively affects the combustion process inthe engine (plaque A too highcontent of phosphorus inplant oil and biodiesel from plant and water binding and, consequently, higher water content inthe oil. A higher quantity of phosphorus augments the risk of oil oxidation (impurities). Phosphorus is present in the form of phosphorus lipids. pc est t2° kg/dm Spec. densityat20°C Table 1:Maincharacteristics of mineral diesel fuel, oil from oilseed rapeand methyl V Table 1shows the physical characteristics of three different fuels soiya 0Cmm iscosity at20°C L combustion Flame point ower heat of Parameter M M Unit /ie 44 61 35.84 36.14 34.44 J/liter °C /g4.63. 40.5 39.4 42.96 J/kg 2 s2-3 /s 3 M nrldee Pure rapeseed ineral diesel .309 0.88 0.91 0.83 74 ester of oilseed rape(100 %biodiesel). 20>100 >220 23.5-5 32 oil 100% biodiesel long distances). years). It was used indifferent test cycles (driving short, medium, and and materials throughout the entire test period of approximately two oil) was tested in different transport activities (transport of persons (the influence of different fuels on engine wear and life). laboratory engine was the same for the purpose of tribology research second on pure plant oil, and the third on biodiesel). The load on the of fuel at the sametime (the firstcylinder on mineral diesel fuel, the every cylinder of the three-cylinder diesel engine ranon one type units. the useof pure plant oil from rapeseed, produced indecentralized vehicles for use in real-life conditions were modified and adjusted for a stationary engine for useinthe laboratory and three engines in vehicles inreal-life conditions. Therefore, withinthe ELAN project in-depth laboratory analyses were necessary inaddition to testing the plant oil hasbeen conducted in Slovenia in the past. For this reason qualities of alternative fuel (pure plant oil). conventional fuel (diesel –“business asusual”)and that of various (e.g. distances driven, working hours) comparing the useof well asmaintenance costs –allrelated to actual “real life” exploitation internal deposits, exhaust gascomposition (pollution), reliability as provide practical insight into fuel consumption, engine wear and addition to conventional fuel), and was carried outinSeptember 2009. one stationary laboratory diesel engine inorder to usepure oil (in of three vehicle engines (two tractors and one off-road vehicle) and biodiesel (B100) fuels. The work involved the successful conversion to use pure (100%) plant oil instead of mineral oil (diesel D2) or demonstration and field testing of converted diesel engines inorder 2.1. 2.

D G e ene Car Laboratory No series of research activities on vehicle propulsion withpure Field testing, subject to agricultural work seasons/ peaks,should The work undertaken inthe testing procedures involved a scr r

al t i esting: The car(withitsengine converted to usepure plant p tion o

t esting: The laboratory engine was converted sothat f themethod 285 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 286 Rethinking everyday mobility M o 2.2. high-pressure pumpheats the pure plant oil to atemperature of 85– the high-pressure fuel pump. The electric heater installed before the With the help of alow-pressure fuel pumpthe pure plant oil issent to oil) to startfuel supply from the maintankcontaining pure plant oil. for directional control of the fuels (mineral diesel fuel or pure plant temperature, the thermostat switched on the electromagnetic valve diesel fuel. When the water inthe engine radiator isheated to working fuel filter were builtin.The engine was started usingthe mineral Furthermore, anadditional electric fuel heater and electrically heated of mineral diesel oil, isadded to the engine’s fuel supply system. as analternative). Anadditional fuel tank,containing asmallquantity before stopping it,mineral diesel oil isused (biodiesel may beused Functioning ofthetwo-tank system used onthetest engines concerned about the proper useof the engine. (controlled by anelectronic control unit)sothat the userhasnot to be the engine. The pure plant oil supply inthe engine isfully automated of the fuel droplets during injection and prevents possible damage to oil. Heating fuel reduces its viscosity and allows better atomization fuel supply from the auxiliary to the maintankcontaining pure plant engine was heated to regular working temperature, a valve switched the mineral diesel oil from a small auxiliary fuel tank was used. When the approach usingatwo-tank fuel system. To (cold) start the engine, were therefore modified for the useof 100%pure plant oil withan resulting from incomplete combustion when highly viscous fuel isused. high-pressure pump,high-pressure injection nozzles, and piston rings Heating plant oil reduces itsviscosity and prevents damages to the viscosity of the plant oil must first be adjusted to match that of diesel. atomised justasfinely asthe mineral diesel oil. To achieve this,the combustion aspossible inthe diesel engine, the plant oil must be oil istoo highcompared to diesel fuel). Inorder to ensure ascomplete because itcancause damage to the engine (the viscosity of pure plant f odification ofthetested dieselenginesfor usingpure plantoil

P r el ina With atwo-tank fuel system for startingthe engine and just The diesel engines inthe test vehicles and the laboratory engine Using plant oil inanunmodified diesel engine isnot recommended e s entation o r eg u la r f thea

c a r , o ppr ff - r oa oad vehi c h tote c s le, andt ting di ff r e a r c ent ty to r p e s

converted vehicles are presented inFigures 3to 5. was used inthe test car).Detailsof the engine modifications inthe example of the conversion in a tractor; the same system modification and LPG, are used (Bi-Fuel System) –Figure 1. vehicle on liquefied petroleum gas(LPG)inwhich two fuels, gasoline shortage of pure plant oil. The system issimilarto that of driving a temperatures and that mineral diesel oil canbeused incaseof a that there are no problems withstartingthe engine at low winter fuel when itisrestarted. The advantages of the two-tank system are to mineral diesel oil, so that the engine is ready to use mineral diesel special procedures, but before stopping it,itmust beswitched manually matches that of mineral diesel fuel). 95°C (at thistemperature the viscosity of pure plant oil approximately electromagnetic valve, 6-(low-pressure) fuel pump,7-heating device withelectronic Figure 1:Conversion of the engine to atwo-tank system inthe laboratory Lombardini The two-tank system used inthe vehicles (Figure 2shows an As mentioned above, startingthe engine does not require any

control unit(12 Velectrical system), 8-injection nozzles withhigh-pressure fuel diesel engine withapower of 25.7kW; (1-fuel tankfor mineral diesel fuel D 2, pump, 9-diesel engine, 10-brake dynamometer or electric generator (both for 2 -fuel tankfor pure plant oil 100%,3-fuel filter, 4-fuel filter, 5-(three-way) different load simulation), 11-maincontrol unit). 287 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 288 Rethinking everyday mobility Figure 3:Modification of the engine (left of the diesel engine isan electromagnetic valve which switches the fuel supply between the mineral diesel tankand pure plant oil tank; system), 8-injection nozzles withhigh-pressure fuel pump,9-brake dynamometer or to the right isanelectric heater which heats the plant oil to amaximum value, adjusted Land RoverLand Defender and two tractors, anAGT 835and aFendt Favorit); (1-fuel tank for mineral diesel fuel D2,2-fuel tankfor pure plant oil 100%,3-pure plant oil fuel Figure 2:Conversion of the engine to atwo-tank system used invehicles (anoff-road pressure) fuel pump,7-heating device withelectronic control unit(12Velectrical

filter, 4-mineral diesel fuel filter, 5-(three-way) electromagnetic valve, 6-(low- electrical generator (bothfor different load simulation), 10-maincontrol unit. by the electronic thermostat on the tractor’s instrument board). Figure 4:Adetail of the electric fuel heater (the pure plant oil isheated to 80–95°Cin of the engine isanelectromagnetic valve which switches the fuel supply between the Figure 5:Adetail of the converted diesel engine inthe off-road Rover Land 110(left

order to reduce the oil viscosity to approximately that of mineral diesel oil). mineral diesel tankand the pure plant oil tank). 289 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 290 Rethinking everyday mobility general indicators: that consists of the following categories, sub-categories, impacts, and environmental impacts were assessed usinganevaluation approach the fuels used. Finally, the economic benefits for the end user and the exploitation of the vehicles (e.g. distances driven, working hours) –of as well asmaintenance costs –which are allrelated to the actual and internal deposits, exhaust gas composition (pollution), reliability, plant oil provided practical insight into fuel consumption, engine wear for each indicator. and, indetail, the data collection/ measurement methodologies used 2.3. collected for alltested vehicles and all tested fuels and obtained either ENVI

D E cat ENE valuation e The evaluation of the effectiveness and suitability of usingpure This se The overall data collection plan consisted of 19specific indicators, R scr ONMENT egory * includes the following indicators: combustion heat, phosphorus content, iodine R GY i p tion o ction describes the approach to the selection of indicators sub-category consumption M f E aintenance

P valuation s E ollution costs ele nergy Table 2:Overview of the evaluation and data collection approach. c ted mea number, water content, density, and kinematic viscosity. ulcnupinFuel consumptionrate Fuel consumption sur Cost benefit Fuel quality E analysis missions I mpact ement indi c ato Preventive maintenance costs. Corrective maintenance costs. rs D Particulate (P eposits from fuelburning I Set ofindicators * ndicator -general. E ngine oilquality C NO TH C O O C levels 2 levels x levels levels M 10) levels emissions, engine oil quality, etc.). travelled, etc.) or during measurement campaigns(e.g. fuel quality, during operational service (e.g. fuel consumption, work done, distance • 3.1. of CO,CO of 3. • • evaluation categories. table 3. engine for three fuels and low and high engine speeds are presented in measured. Typical results asobtained for the Lombardini laboratory (1300 min

Re E (2600 (RP speed Re min Table 3:Summaryof the measured pollution emission concentrations inthe exhaust H ngine L test period 2 – 15 20 to 26 32 to 39 test period 1–15 start of the research –15 In t The test periods refer to the following: The results of the measurements are presented according to the ow igh su su gases for three fuels and two engine speeds for the Lombardini laboratory engine. M -1 ) ) lt lt -1 erms of environmental pollution the emission concentrations ) s s : anddi E 100% 100% 2 Pure Plant Pure Plant nvi , NOx, THC and particulates (soot)were periodically D D iesel iesel r ulC Fuel B B onment, oisl00813 20.02 42 8 1.32 0.008 iodiesel oisl00412 00.01 60 6 1.26 0.004 iodiesel D D scuss .0 .295 0.02 50 9 1.62 0.007 2 .0 .41 00.00 70 11 1.14 0.006 2 O O l00814 25 0.00 52 12 1.46 0.008 il l00512 25 0.00 52 12 1.20 0.015 il th th June 2010to 15 June 2011 to 15 p oll ion [v ol.%] u O tion, emi th September 2008–month 1 [vol.%] C ss O 2 ion th th November 2010–month December 2011 – month s [ppm] TH C [ppm] NO x Particulates A bs. Coeff. [min -1 ] 291 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 292 Rethinking everyday mobility Table 4and Figure 6. terms of energy consumption, fuel consumption rates are presented in and life). tribological research (the influence of different fuels on engine wear pure plant oil, and the third on biodiesel). a different fuel (the firstcylinder on mineral diesel fuel, the second on cylinder of its three-cylinder diesel engine worked at the same time on was calculated daily. The laboratory engine was converted sothat every measurement period. The fuel consumption of the laboratory engine and total time or total number of kilometers covered over the entire consumption was calculated from the total volume of consumed fuel engine, and for adistance unitfor the off-road vehicle. Average the fuel volume consumed inatime unitby the tractor and laboratory consumption of allincluded diesel engines was established by measuring consumption of the test vehicles and laboratory engine. The fuel 3.2. comparable to conventional D2and B100fuels. is that the combustion of PPO inamodified engine isof aquality NOx and particulate concentrations are lower. The overall conclusion concentrations for PPO are slightly higher compared to D2or B100,the are generally comparable for allthree fuels. While CO and THC A

v Table 4:Summaryof fuel consumption results for three fuels used inthe Lombardini Re rg osmto aeprwr oe[/W]14 .51.53 1.35 1.44 erage consumptionrate perwork done[l/kWh] Presented are the results for the Lombardini laboratory engine. In The load on the laboratory engine was the samefor the purpose of Energy consumption was determined by measuring the fuel The results show that the pollutant emission concentrations su lt A Relative difference to Relative difference to v s erage consumptionrate [l/h] : E ne r Parameter gy c on su m D D p 2 [%] 2 [%] tion .8131.47 1.3 1.38 D 2 Fuel used 50 6.05 -5.04 B 56 6.65 -5.67 0 PP 100 laboratory engine. O costs are presented inthe following tables. preventive maintenance work was carried outand the related monetary periods. Regarding pure plant oil (PPO) and B100fuels, additional and work done) for allvehicles/ engines were considered inthe test 3.3. fuel D2.Thisisdue to the lower energy stored inpure plant oil (PPO). higher by around 6 % in comparison to the conventional mineral diesel Costs ofpure plantoilwithadded dutytax Costs ofpure plantoilincl.20% ulcnupin(0–2 ot)(/)-3083 1.39l/kWh 8.33 3.0 - Fuel consumption(20–26month)(l/h)

Re Figure 6:Graphical presentation of the fuel consumption rate perwork done for the In The results obtained show that pure plant oil consumption was su terms of maintenance costs, the overall costs (referring to parts lt s : three different fuels used inthe Lombardini laboratory/ stationary engine. E ne Parameter 0.43 €/l r gy, maintenan VAT (/)10 10 .91.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 (€/l) c e c o s L t and Rover s , .215 .21.52 1.52 1.52 1.52 c o s t bene A GT f it analy 85Fendt 612 835 s i s L S A L Stationary ombardini engine 293 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 294 Rethinking everyday mobility Table 5:Summaryof overall fuel costs (100%pure plant oil) and maintenance costs for O O O O O O ot ffe 2 6mnh (/0 m 00 - - - 20.03 Costs offuel(20–26month)(€/100km) ot ffe 3 9mnh (/0 m 85 - - - 18.51 Costs offuel(32–39month)(€/100km) Campaign involving 5298km[numberof Fuel consumption(20–26month)(l/100 involving 390hrs[numberofexchanges] involving 963hrs[numberofexchanges] Fuel consumption(32–39 month)(l/100 Campaign involving 5504km[numberof involving 324hrs[numberofexchanges] involving 627hrs[numberofexchanges] involving 153hrs[numberofexchanges] verall maintenance costs(€/h)Campaign involving 419hrs[numberofexchanges] verall maintenance costs(€/h)Campaign verall maintenance costs(€/h)Campaign verall maintenance costs(€/h)Campaign verall maintenance costs(€/h)Campaign verall maintenance costs(€/h)Campaign ot ffe 2 6mnh (/0 )-4616 211 1266 456 - Costs offuel(20–26month)(€/100h) ot ffe 3 9mnh (/0 )-1319 158 1199 193 - Costs offuel(32–39month)(€/100h) ulcnupin(2–3 ot)(/)-12 .91.04l/kWh 7.89 1.27 - Fuel consumption(32–39month)(l/h) ot ffe 2 6mnh (/)-45 26 2.11 12.66 4.56 - Costs offuel(20–26month)(€/h) ot ffe 3 9mnh (/)-19 19 1.58 11.99 1.93 - Costs offuel(32–39month)(€/h) O O verall maintenance costs(€/km) verall maintenance costs(€/km) exchanges] exchanges] km) km) all vehicles and the laboratory engine inthe test periods. .30[]--- - - 0.0320 [2] .32[]--- - - 0.0332 [2] 21 - - - 12.18 31 - - - 13.18 .4 2 - 1.343[2] - - .1 2 - 1.116[2] - - .8 1]-- - 1.382[18] - .1 8 - - 1.412[8] - 1.534[12] - - - 1.047[2] - - - Table 5:Summaryof overall fuel costs (pure plant oil 100%)and maintenance costs for 1 includes consumables (oil, filters) and work, considering the number of oil exchanges apinfo ot 0t ot 61.83083 1.39 8.33 3.0 13.18 Campaign from month20to month26 apinfo ot 0t ot 62.34616 211 1266 2.11 456 12.66 20.03 4.56 Campaign from month20to month26 - Campaign from month20to month26 apinfo ot 2t ot 91.11319158 119 193 18.51 Campaign from month32to month39 apinfo ot 2t ot 9-19 19 1.58 11.99 1.93 1.04 - 7.89 1.27 Campaign from month32to month39 12.18 Campaign from month32to month39 Pure plantoilpriceincl. Pure plantoilpriceincl.20% apinivlig59 m[]003 - - - 0.0332 Campaign involving 5298km[2] apinivlig50 m[]002 - - - 0.0320 Campaign involving 5504km[2] apinivlig93hs[8 .8 - - 1.382 - Campaign involving 963hrs[18] apinivlig67hs[2 1.534 - - - Campaign involving 627hrs[12] apinivlig30hs[]--116- 1.116 - - Campaign involving 390hrs[2] apinivlig34hs[]--133- 1.343 - - Campaign involving 324hrs[2] apinivlig49hs[]-142-- - 1.412 - Campaign involving 419hrs[8] apinivlig13hs[]---1.047 - - - Campaign involving 153hrs[2] Parameter 0.43 €/l O O verall maintenance costs verall maintenance costs VAT &dutytax VAT Fuel consumptionrate (l/100km) all vehicles and the laboratory engine inthe test periods. (/)10 10 .91.09 1.09 1.09 1.09 (€/l) Fuel costs(€/100km) Fuel costs(€/h) L 1 and Rover (€/km)[numberofexchanges] 1 (€/h)[numberofexchanges] .215 .21.52 1.52 1.52 1.52 A GT 85Fendt 612 835 indicated for each campaign. L S A L St ombardini engine ationary 295 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 296 Rethinking everyday mobility low. filters had to bechanged as well. However, overall costs were relatively engines. Furthermore, when the engine oil was changed, oil and air intervals for engine oil, when mineral diesel fuel was used inthe tested engine oil had to behalved for alltested engines compared to normal good lubrication inthe engine’s internals. The changing intervals for frequent preventive exchanges of the engine oil and filters to assure additional preventive maintenance costs. Thisismainly due to more with abrake dynamometer or DCgenerator. engine were estimated inlaboratory conditions, loading the engine everyday useof the vehicles (table 5). 100 % 100 % P Pure Plant ure Plant The results show that the useof PPO and B100fuels causes some The values for the pure plant oil consumption of the laboratory The values for pure plant oil consumption were estimated inthe I I I I ndex ndex F ndex PP ndex PP uel / D D B B iesel - iesel - iodiesel - iodiesel - B B V 100/ 100/ ehicle O O O O D D il -PP il -PP / / 79 6.7217.62 217.4 665.57 295.81 87.94 87.51 2 2 D D D D .020 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.01 2 2 B B .120 2.00 2.00 2.01 2 .120 2.00 2.00 2.01 2 0 7.913.4452 962.58 435.24 435.13 1331.14 591.62 175.89 176.12 100 100 O O L and Rover 7.913.4452 962.58 435.24 1331.14 175.89 7.2516 435.13 591.62 176.12 Table 6:Overall maintenance costs for three fuels. A GT O verall maintenance costsin€ 85Fendt 612 835 L S A St ationary engine L ombardini 160.35 160.35 481.29 2.00 2.00 2.00 2.00 80.1 3.4. emissions of CO Biomass Research Centre, 2010).Inourproduction conditions, the greenhouse gasbalance of biodiesel produced from rapeseed, German M added). The emission of CO energy consumed for the esterification of pure plant oil into biodiesel is processing rapeseed into fuel –pure plant oil (inthe caseof biodiesel the Tables 1to 4)isthe additional energy consumed for transporting and properties of fuels (Petrol d.d.,Zalog laboratory). pure plant oil inalaboratory that researches the physical and chemical CO of rapeseed, itstransport and processing into fuel (the value of 36g fuel density kg/m one and the same fuel) in a given period. The calorific value (MJ/kg) and and mineral diesel, with each of the three cylinder engine operating on engine (the engine operated simultaneously on pure plant oil, biodiesel, of fuel consumption (pure plant oil) of the three vehicles and laboratory Institute of Slovenia). For example, in Germany the emissions of CO MJ (data from the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural from the production of rapeseed oil are 25gCO rapeseed and the final pure plant oil emission of 36gCO Findings from renewable resources, 2009/28/EC from 23April 2009. accordance withthe EUDirective on the promotion of renewable energy determined on the basisof calculating the CO ethodology

2 C /MJ for pure plant oil is taken from: Approaches for optimising the O CO For biodiesel and pure plant oil the emissions of CO The difference between the emission of 24.2 gCO 2 emi 2 emissions were determined on the basisof the measurement ss Calorific value volume ( E missions C ion Calorific value ( Parameter/indicator s D o 2 ensity (kg/m /MJ from the production of rapeseed oil are 24.2gCO 3 f were determined for mineral diesel fuel, biodiesel, and thevehi O 2 (g)/ M M J/kg) 3 J offuel c ) le M 2 /MJ of mineral diesel fuel isdetermined in s J/l) andlabo r ato M r 2 y engine nrldee ulPure plantoil ineral dieselfuel generated inthe production 833.2 35.65 42.96 2 83.8 /MJ. 2 /MJ from growing 2 /MJ (data in 2 /MJ were 39.69 36.5 921 36 2 /MJ /MJ 2 / 297 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 298 Rethinking everyday mobility km inthe test period 2, month 32to 39. period 1from month 20to 26,were 17.3kg/100kmand 16.0kg/100 in period 2they amounted to 20.3kgCO from the useof pure plant oil were 22.0kgCO emissions when pure plant oil was used. Inthe test period 1,the savings of mineral diesel fuel, the difference represents the reduction inCO2 tons of CO vehicle averaging amileage of 10,000kmperyear could save upto 2.2 E E measurement/ test period 1,month 20to 26,amounted to 39.37kg/100kmand 36.38 Fuel consumption(l/100km), F Calorific value volume ( E missions C uel consumption(l/100km), missions C E missions C consumption, l/h(20–26 missions C Calorific value ( After subtracting the CO The emissions of CO Parameter/indicator ulcnupin(/0 m,2 6mnh 13.18* Fuel consumption(l/100km),20–26month ulcnupin(/0 m,3 9mnh 12.18* Fuel consumption(l/100km),32–39month D 20 –26month 32 –39month ensity (kg/m * Ifwe assume that the consumption of mineral diesel isabout the sameasthe consumption of pure plant oil, then the CO month) O O O 2 2 2 O yearly compared to one usingmineral diesel fuel. 2 (g)for fuelconsumption,l/100km(20– (g)for fuelconsumption,l/100km(32– (g)/ 2 (g)for fuel M M Table 7:Emissions of CO J/kg) 3 J offuel ) 26 month) 39 month) M J/l) 2 for pure plant oil in the measurement test M 2 ineral dieselfuel emissions of pure plant oil from those 8,962.4* 833.2 35.65 42.96 83.8 1.27* 3* 2 for the off-road Rover Land Defender 110. kg/100 kminperiod 2,month 32to 39. 2 /100 kilometers travelled. A 2 emissions of mineral diesel inthe 6373*16,004.5 36,387.38* 9348*17,318.5 39,374.85* 2 /100 kilometers and Pure plantoil 3,942.0 39.69 36.5 1.27 921 36 3 12.18 13.18 running on mineral diesel oil. of mineral diesel fuel, the difference represents the reduction inCO amounted to 2.1kgCO period 2(month 32to 39). period 1(month 20to 26)were 3.9kg/hand 1.6kg/hduring test from the useof pure plant oil were 5kgCO emissions when pure plant oil was used. Intest period 1the savings working hours/ year, could save upto 2,500kgof CO consumption of pure plant oil, then the CO2 emissions of mineral diesel intest period 1 measurement/ test period 1(month 20to 26)were 8.9kg/hand 3.7 kg/hintest period consumption, l/hkm(32–39 E E E missions C missions C missions C After subtracting the CO The CO The (month 20to 26)were 24.8kg/hand 23.6kg/hintest period 2(month 32to 39). * Ifwe assume that the consumption of mineral diesel isabout the sameasthe * Ifwe assume that the consumption of mineral diesel isabout the sameasthe consumption of pure plant oil, then the CO F Fuel consumption(l/100km),32–39month uel consumption(l/100km),20–26month month) O O O 2 (g)for fuel 2 2 2 ()frfe osmto,lh(0–2 ot)2,8. 10,945.6 24,885.6 (g)for fuelconsumption,l/h(20–26month) ()frfe osmto,lh(2–3 ot)2,0. 10,380.6 23,601.0 (g)for fuelconsumption,l/h(32–39month) emissions for pure plant oil inthe measurement/test Calorific value volume ( E missions C Calorific value ( Parameter/indicator D ensity (kg/m O 2 2 /h. Atractor running on pure plant oil for 500 (g)/ Table 9:Emissions of CO M M J/kg) 3 J offuel ) 2 M emissions of pure plant oil from those J/l) 3,794.0* Table 8:Emissions of CO 2 2 /h and during period 2they emissions of mineral diesel inthe 2 for tractor Fendt Favorit 612. M ineral diesel 3. 921 833.2 56 36.5 35.65 29 39.69 42.96 .3 8.33 8.33* 3836 83.8 .*7.9 7.9* fuel 2 2 compared to one for tractor AGT 835. 2 (month 32to 39). 1,668.7 Pure plantoil 2

299 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 300 Rethinking everyday mobility plant oil). 2 (month 32to 39)(one cylinder of the engine was fuelled withpure 1 (month 20to 26)were 1.8kg/kWh and 1.3kg/kWh intest period period 1(month 20to 26)were 3.9kg/kWh and 2.9kg/kWh inthe were 13.9kgCO period 1 (month 20 to 26), the savings from the use of pure plant oil emissions when pure plant oil was used. Inthe measurement/ test could save upto 6,950kgof CO A similartractor, runningon pure plant oil for 500working hours/year, of mineral diesel fuel, the difference represents the reduction inCO diesel oil. (month 32to 39)(one cylinder of the engine was fuelled withbiodiesel). (month 20to 26)were 2.3kg/kWh and 2.0kg/kWh in test period 2 the period of month 32to 39. period 1(month 20to 26)were 10.9kg/100kmand 10.3kg/100kmin E E missions C missions C F Fuel consumption(l/100km), 32–39 uel consumption(l/100km),20–26 The CO The The emissions of CO CO The CO The After subtracting the CO Calorific value volume ( E missions C 2 Calorific value ( emissions for mineral diesel inthe measurement/ testing Parameter/indicator O O (20 –26month) (32 –39month) D 2 2 (g)for fuelconsumption,l/h (g)for fuelconsumption,l/h ensity (kg/m 2 2 emissions for pure plant oil inmeasurement/test period emissions for biodiesel inmeasurement/ test period 1 month month O 2 2 (g)/ /h and intest period 2 (month 32to 39)13.3kgCO M M J/kg) 3 J offuel ) M J/l) 2 for pure plant oil inthe measurement/ test Table 10:Emissions of CO 2 emissions of pure plant oil from those 2 compared to one running on mineral M ineral dieselfuel ,1. ,0. 1,826.4 2,309.5 3,913.5 3. 8. 921 883.1 833.2 56 52 36.5 35.25 35.65 29 00 39.69 40.06 42.96 ,8 ,1. 1,366.5 2,016.3 2,987 83.8 1.00 1.31 2 B for the laboratory engine. oislPure plantoil iodiesel .61.39 1.26 236 52 . 1.04 1.1 2 /h. 2

lesser impact on the atmosphere withgreenhouse gases. were 1.6kgCO biodiesel (one cylinder of the engine was fuelled withpure plant oil) engine was fuelled with pure plant oil) compared to mineral diesel fuel. mineral diesel). testing period 2(month 32to 39)(one cylinder of engine fuelled with of mineral diesel fuel, the difference represents the reduction inCO CO 4. cylinder of the engine was fuelled withpure plant oil) were 2.1kgCO 1 (month 20to 26),the savings from the useof pure plant oil (one emissions when pure plant oil was used. Inmeasurement/test period year, savings of upto 2.5tons of CO emissions. Inthe caseof tractor AGT 835with500working hours/ when pure plant oil was used. emissions usingbiodiesel inthe laboratory engine was lower thanthat kWh and intest period 2(month 32to 39)1.6kgCO at 500kWh, could save upto 1,050kgof CO respectively. The laboratory engine, using pure plant oil and operating the useof pure plant oil cansave upto 6.9tons of CO fuel are possible. For Tractor Fendt 612with500working hours/ year together can annually save up to 11.6 tons of CO beside pure plant oils, waste edible/ cooking oil may also be used. This to fossil fuels/ mineral diesel oil. For driving modified diesel engines, electric and thermal energy, ships, railways, etc.) isareal alternative road and off-road vehicles, cogeneration units for the production of kWh, the savings inCO operating at 500 kWh, could save up to 800 kg of CO kg and 90kgrespectively. The laboratory engine, usingbiodiesel and to 2.2tons of CO a mileage of 10,000 km/ year, the use of pure plant oil cansave up using mineral diesel fuel. For the off-road Rover Land Defender with the engine was fuelled withbiodiesel) compared to mineral diesel fuel.

Con 2 /kWh. At100 kWh, the savings inCO In test period 1(month 20to 26),the savings from the useof After subtracting the CO Using pure plant oil cangenerate substantial savings in CO The energy useof plant oil inengines (diesel engines indifferent From the results obtained, itisevident that the reduction of CO c l us ion s 2 /kWh and intest period 2(month 32to 39)0.9kg 2 compared to usingmineral diesel fuel. Allvehicles 2 emissions amounted to 210kgand 160kg 2 emissions of pure plant oil from those 2 compared to usingmineral diesel 2 emissions amounted to 160 2 (one cylinder of the 2 , which also means 2 (one cylinder of 2 /kWh. At 100 2 compared to 2 / 2 2 2

301 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion 302 Rethinking everyday mobility a modified engine yielded asignificant reduction of CO up the engine and to useitbefore engine stop. The results of usingsuch (instead of mineral diesel oil biodiesel may beused) to startand heat a two-tank system. The two-tank system requires mineral diesel fuel the engine isrequired. Anefficient way to accomplish thisis to use plant oil cannot beused directly indiesel engines –amodification of large fuel drops and causing carbon plaque to build up.Asaresult, pure oil during the fuel injection, preventing complete combustion due to nozzles because of the incomplete atomization of the fuel drops of plant plant oil causes plugging of fuel pipes, filters and high-pressure injection supply systems inmodern diesel engines. The highviscosity of pure only significant limitingfactor, interms of beingtoo highfor the fuel very similarto those of mineral diesel fuel, buttheir viscosity isthe is due to the characteristics of the combustion of plant oils, which are Agricultural Engineering, Opatija. Engineering. Proceedings of the 36thInternational Symposium on running tractor and vehicles by plant oil, Actual tasks on Agricultural rapeseed oil. Scientia Agricola 67:510–516. of atractor engine usingmineral and biodiesel fuels blended with Re currently do not regard thisasanissue that needs to beaddressed. plant oil asfuel inSlovenia, and itappears asifthe national authorities is one of the serious obstacles to wider production and useof pure fuel sources. It isunderstood that the current national duty taxpolicy is deemed extremely unfairwithrespect to the promotion of renewable i.e. partof the duty tax(for either bought or self-produced fuel). This but they are entitled to anend-of-year reimbursement of paid taxes – VAT. Thisalsoapplies for the self-produced pure plant oil of farmers, same duty taxapplies asfor mineral diesel fuel –0.43€/lplus 20% and cogeneration of electrical and thermal energy. Inthese casesthe In Slovenia, the useof pure plant oil ispermitted for vehicle propulsion maintenance costs. but alsoshowed slightly higher energy/ fuel consumption and higher f e r Jejcic, Viktor, Tomaž Poje and Tone Godeša. 2008. Possibilities of Another important issue that should bementioned isthe duty tax. God en c e eša, Tone,eša, Viktor Jejcic and Tomaž Poje. 2010.Characteristics �� s �� 2 emissions, comprehensive handbook, Graz. Biodiesel. Final report. UFOP Project No. 540/080.Köln: DeutzAG. Engines inHeavy Euro Duty IVTruck Applications for Release of of a500hengine test cycle and field testing of DeutzCommon-Rail documents/CIGRHandbookVol5.pdf, 21.8.2012. Society of Agricultural Engineers. Available at: http://www.cigr.org/ Engineering, Volume V - Energy & Biomass Engineering. American Mittelbach, Martinand Claudia Remschmidt. 2004.Biodiesel, The MAN B&W Diesel AG. 2004.Bio fuels for Diesel Engines. Knuth, HansWalter and Markus Winkler. 2009.Implementation Kitani, Osamu(ed.). 1999.CIGR Handbook of Agricultural

303 On the attractiveness of using pure plant oil as fuel for vehicle propulsion LJUBLJANA I The public bike-sharing system Bicike(LJ) has made cycling increasingly popular. ZAGREB I ELAN activities have promoted tolerance and understanding among all groups of traffic users.

LJUBLJANA I Public transport users are able to plan their trips more efficiently with the help of 58 real-time information displays at bus stops and the Google Transit portal with a route planner for the entire PT system.

1. important aspect of the integrated approach envisaged by the CIVITAS together the impacts of allimplemented measures, which isan • • • • • • the modal split canbeused for various purposes, e.g.: efficiency of the implemented strategies. Inthisway the evolution of transport term “modal split”, which isanimportant indicator of the split towards sustainable transport. sustainable urban mobility, achieving a significant shift in the modal to introduce ambitious transport measures and policies towards

I nt conflicts that may arise,etc. to identify important themes, vulnerable groups, potential within cities and surrounding suburban areas, to plan transport infrastructure and related investments to adequately present and interpret the socio-spatial trends, concerning their useof transport modes and travel habits, to analyse differences between urbanand suburban population modes, to test the quality of service satisfaction on public transport at the urban and suburban levels, to determine actual useof transport modes and travel habits Especially for CIVITAS ELAN, the modal split indicator brings In thiscontext itiscrucial to have agood understanding of the The mainobjective of the CIVITAS initiative isto support cities r od uc SP tion A

LIT DI José Pedro Tavares, Van Begga Cauwenberge, SCUSS Dirk Engels, Marko Matulin, Stefica Mrvelj,

METHODOLOGIE Ljupko Simunovic, CristinaVilarinho, Veronique Van Acker, Davor Kontic, ION

ABO Jana Válková, Eliene Van Aken U S US T

THE � ED

IN FF E C R IVITA ENT

MODEL S ELAN ´

307 A discussion about the different model split methodologies used in civitas elan 308 Rethinking everyday mobility modal split analyses. approach issynthesised, contributing to future optimisation of the Finally, the importance of the different choices inthe modal split key differences and their related impact on the modal split figures. for the evaluation of the CIVITAS ELANmeasures. describe in acritical way the mainmodal split surveys that were used a comprehensive overview of allsurveys inthe ELAN cities, butto behaviour is done inacomplementary way, we do not aimto give to contribute to these objectives. Since other research on transport further harmonisation in the modal split approach. Thisarticle aims are fully aware of the importance of hightransparency and the need for surveys and optimised for specific target groups. ELAN cities were usually organised inaway consistent withexisting surveys before. For thisreason the modal split surveys conducted in for ELAN-specific purposes, butothers have carried outmodal split to historical data series. Some cities carryoutthe modal split survey higher resources thanavailable and would make itimpossible to refer possible for obvious reasons. Such surveys would require much identical surveys inthe different cities. Inpractice thiswas not idea to define one unique approach on modal split and to organise have alarger or smaller impact on the modal split figures. modal split isoften only measured inthis“corridor”. Allthese aspects implemented only inaspecific area, instead of inthe entire city, the group, and the way the data iscollected. Asmost of the measures are and definitions of trips and modes taken into account, the analysis • • • “modal spilt”. The maininterpretations are the following: documents, we notice that we have a wide range of definitions of initiative. kilometres travelled by citizens. modal split asthe share of each mode inthe number of done by people going to work, modal split asthe share of each mode inthe number of trips done by citizens, modal split asthe share of each mode inthe number of trips Further acomparative interpretation ismade by indicating some However, inthiscontext the CIVITAS ELANevaluation managers For thisreason the ELANevaluation managers initially had the Additionally, we see alot of minor differences inthe types Having alook at the wide range of evaluation studies and policy Citie 2. for the sample was 95%,the error rate 3%). of 0.65,the sample was increased to 1,350(the confidence interval (1.5% of the corridor population). to Due anexpected response rate set to 1,000,which isconsidered to beastatistically representative size the corridor isestimated at approximately 60,000.The sample size was city (regional level), to establish the travel habits outside Ljubljana. the corridor, the survey sample was extended to the outskirts of the took place. In order to gather information about daily commuters using divided into several sample areas. For each, aspecific share of surveys interview and who was over 18years old. The area of the corridor was household who lastcelebrated his/her birthday at the time of the and even distribution of social groups by selecting the person inthe random sample was selected, ensuringahighlevel of representation corridor and commuters along the corridor. For the inhabitants, a public transport use,and the average travel times to work/school. usually used for various activities, useof carpooling, frequency of questions addressed the type/kind of transport mode respondents transport modes by the respondents were surveyed. Specifically, the the section “Transport and functionality”, inwhich the useof various questions). The questions regarding the modal split were included in and the Ljubljana region” consisted of 12thematic sections (over 47 2013. planned in2012,and there isa possibility that itwillberepeated in implementation of the CIVITAS ELANmeasures. Asecond one is Ljubljana region. Bothsurveys were carried outin2009,before the arrangement, and one on the travel habits of the inhabitants of the out, one within the context of changes inthe public transport system 2.1. between the cities are summarised inacomparative table (table 1). are conducted inthe five cities of CIVITAS ELAN. The differences

Lju i In the first phase of the survey, the questionnaire was delivered The population of the corridor and the number of commuters in The survey aimsat two target groups: inhabitants of the CIVITAS The survey “Changes inthe public transport system inLjubljana In Ljubljana, two different surveys on modal split were carried This chapter contains information on how the modal split surveys ff s bl e r j ana ent M ethodologie s o f

M odal S p lit S ur vey s inthe ELAN

309 A discussion about the different model split methodologies used in civitas elan 310 Rethinking everyday mobility by individuals. The illustrations and data analysis were based on a variables revealing specific features of the use of public transport and local affiliation of the respondents. The analysis further included thus included the occupation or employment status, typeof settlement, characteristics. In addition to gender, age, and education, the analysis expressed by the respondents and their status or socio-demographic variables of gender, education and age. method used. The sample weights were created on the basisof the reduce bias and errors inthe results deriving from the sampling error rate 3%. questionnaire. The confidence interval for the sample was 95%,the telephone numbers for atelephone interview using a standardised Ljubljana Urban Region, 1,111adults were selected through random characteristics were addressed. to distance/travel time, service satisfaction and of PT demographic as the frequency of public transport use,transport mode inrelation transport mode usually used for various activities, alsoquestions such and demographic characteristics. Therefore, besides questions on the relation withthe services satisfaction with public transport modes and travel habits at the urbanand suburban (regional) levels, and the Urban Region” aimed at determining the actual useof transportation were obtained from the regional level (daily commuters). 901 responses were obtained from the corridor, while 168responses 1,069 questionnaires were included inthe further processing of data. of data into questionnaire, etc.). Inthe finalphase, atotal number of were excluded due to various reasons (missingdata, incorrect input to atotal number of 1,081questionnaires, of which 12questionnaires from the respondents. telephone number and e-mailaddress to respond to any questions member of the survey team was periodically available at aspecial the delivery of the questionnaire and the interviews, at least one by the University of Ljubljana. the During two weeks period between their address. Afterwards, the face-to-face interviews were conducted purposes of the survey and the details concerning the interview at of Ljubljana and the Ljubljana region), withaletter describing the to 1,350statistically selected potential respondents (inhabitants The results revealed the connections between the views Data analyses were based on asystem of sample weights which Based on asample of landline telephone subscribers inthe The survey “Travel habits of the respondents inthe Ljubljana In the “before” survey, the response rate was over 80%,relating 2.2. was applied. additional demographic of other methodologically relevant pondering and various purposes of the journeys. the During data analysis, no about multimodality, the modal split for various groups of respondents The answers were cross-examined to obtain additional information then cleaned, decoded, and prepared for further statistical analysis. Sciences) computer database before statistical analysis. The data was needed to betransferred to the SPSS(Statistical Package for Social deriving from the sampling method used. system of sample weights, which reduced bias and errors inthe results • • corridor level: questions were included inthe questionnaire distributed at the citizens who did not yet filloutthe questionnaire). Dillman method was used (reminder letters were sent to allselected questionnaire was sent to 1.018 inhabitants of the corridor. Also,the corridor. Therefore, takinginto account aresponse rate of 30%,the 380 filled outquestionnaires had to bereceived from the CIVITAS as representativeness of age and gender had to bereached, at least corridor (29.525)and that aconfidence interval of 95%,aswell corridor. Taking into account the number of inhabitants inthe sent to allcitizens between 10and 79years of age, residing inthe organised inspring 2009aswell. This additional “before” survey withinthe CIVITAS corridor was were used for the modal split analysis withinthe CIVITAS corridor. the cityand corridor levels, the sameindicators and survey methods during leisure. for the maintransport mode used on journeys to work or school and 2009, willbeused as“before “data. The modal split isonly reported city level on a5-year basisGhent. The latest survey, done inspring collects modal split data for the citizens, residents of Ghent, at the

G average time of tripto work or school, average length of tripto work or school, hent For both surveys, the paper versions of the questionnaires/notes Especially for the CIVITAS project, additional mobility related The survey at the corridor level was based on a postal survey To analyse significant differences inthe modal split between The department “Data analysis and GIS” of the cityof Ghent 311 A discussion about the different model split methodologies used in civitas elan 312 Rethinking everyday mobility the ratios we find inthe population by sector, age, and gender are tabulations. From the analysis of the survey done at the corridor level, be coherent. For thisreason, data cleaning isdone using e.g. cross standard procedures to prevent inputerrors. The answers needed to before statistical analysis was done by the subcontractor, using the SPSS (Statistical Package for SocialSciences) computer database Market Analysis &Synthesis (MAS)consultancy. Data entry into in the future. modal split survey, asthisstudy willberepeated on a2to 3year basis the Flemish Government. Extra attention is given to the qualityof this trip diaryisbased on the trip-based modal split surveys organised by modal split figures, atripdiarywillbeadded to the questionnaire. This survey methods are similarto the “before” survey. To get trip-based survey at the citylevel isplanned inearly May 2012. Here too the “before” survey, 46%,1512questionnaires were sent. The Mobility to received. Therefore, takinginto account the response rate of the had to bereached, atotal of at least 700filled outquestionnaires had confidence interval of 95%,withrepresentativeness of age and gender number of inhabitants inthe area of the maintrainstation, and that a of the number of inhabitants inthe corridor, and at the level of the the corridor. Taking into account the representativeness at the level survey sent to allcitizens between 10and 79years of age, residents in The “after “survey at the corridor level was alsobased on apostal results of the “after survey” were representative at thislower level. distributed inthe area of the maintrainstation to make sure that the “Stimulating Cycling and Walking”. Additional questionnaires were needed for the evaluation of the impact of arange of measures on questionnaire of thissurvey was extended withadditional questions increase the efficiency of the work of Ghent’s evaluation team, the survey methods were used asinthe “before” corridor surveys. To level could beconducted inproper way, the sameindicators and March 2012.To make sure that animpact analysis at the corridor • • • • route planner, cycle website, rental bikes, etc. knowledge about several mobility services such asbicycle footpaths, traffic guidance system, etc., quality of different typesof infrastructure such ascycle lanes, satisfaction withcommunication and participation strategies, several questions related to bicycle thefts inGhent, All modal split surveys were carried outby asubcontractor, The “after” survey within the CIVITAS corridor was started in 2.3. of the survey were delivered to the cityof Ghent by the subcontractor. Finally statistical analyses were done. The results and technical report satellite results by weighting the functions of sector, age and gender. restricted, itwas decided to increase the representativeness of the figures. Although deviations between the sample and population were also well respected inthe realised sample compared to the statistical data. personal interviews and telephone surveys were used to collect the described methods were not satisfactory. For afew questionnaires, rest of the questionnaires, incasethe data collected by the previously period. Furthermore, 10students of ZFOT were trained to collect the who visited the CIVITAS ELANInfo Point during adetermined time well. Apartfrom that, some questionnaires were filled outby citizens (if they lived inZagreb) and for their neighbours and relatives as were asked to filloutthe questionnaire for themselves and their family employees, students of the Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences for themselves and their family, neighbours and relatives. Beside ELAN inZagreb. They were asked to filloutthe questionnaire subclass was based on the statistical data for Zagreb. calculation of the required number of citizens of aparticular class or from agiven percentage of citizens from different age groups. The travel behaviour inZagreb. For each district, the sample was selected 500 citizens of Zagreb to result inacorrectly differentiated view of districts). Thistechnique allowed the predetermined sample size of data for the population, divided into four age groups inZagreb and its dividing every defined class into four subclasses (there are statistical are seventeen districts inZagreb). Asecond stratification was based on dividing the population into seventeen non-overlapping classes (there whose answers truly reflect the population. The sample was derived by to meet the requirements of the possible useof aparticular sample, measures. It isunsure ifitwillberepeated after the project aswell. ELAN. The survey willberepeated after the implementation of the Sciences (ZFOT) of the University of Zagreb, apartner of CIVITAS survey design was carried out by the Faculty of Transport and Traffic mobility behaviour before the implementation of the measures. The

Za Data was collected by employees of the partners of CIVITAS First, sample size, i.e.sampling fraction, was determined inorder In Zagreb, citizens were interviewed face-to-face on their g r eb 313 A discussion about the different model split methodologies used in civitas elan 314 Rethinking everyday mobility determined for each transport mode which we analyzed. purposes. Moreover, average tripdistances and durations were journeys, and for different groups of respondents and different derived about the modal split for unimodal journeys, multimodal MS Excel. Data analysis was conducted manually aswell; data were out. mode, origin and destination, distance and duration had to befilled Each journey was then divided into trips. For each tripatransport multiple choice questions on the following indicators: .Cr(asne)5. 5. Car(passenger) T asotmd*P ransport mode* 3. .Cr(rvr .Sopn 4. 4.Shopping 4. Car(driver) The answers from allquestionnaires were entered manually into A purpose was assigned to each journey, asdistance and duration. The questionnaire was inthe form of atable containing arange of .Wlig1 colFcly1. 1.School/Faculty 1. Walking 2. Cycling M 8. 7. 6. tryl 3. otorcycle T T B ram rain us B usiness (hospital, urpose ofthe journey** 6. 7. 2. Work bank) L O H eisure hr7.Carownership ( ther m 6. ome * For each tripseveral choices were possible. 8. L B 3. ** Each journey had to have apurpose. vlo dcto 4. evel ofeducation D icycle ownership Respondent information 5. river’s licence 2. O ( ( A Y Y cpto 3.Purpose ccupation A ge group G es/ es/ N des5. ddress ne 2. ender o) N N o) o) Y es/ 6. T D Journey/ information ransport mode eparture time D A 7. 1. rrival time estination L used O ength rigin T rip 2.4. project. June 2012(two years after the firstdata collection). (such ascorrespondence analysis). The next survey isplanned for (descriptive statistics), butalsosophisticated analytical methods as well asthe sample size, allowed the useof simple statistics with IBM SPSSsoftware. The scope and contents of the questionnaire, the easeto park acarinor outside the citycentre. with information on usersatisfaction withthe different facilities and transport, and people’s options to usethem was collected together the accessibility of various modes of transport, apartfrom public friends) were alsoincluded inthe questionnaire. Information on various kinds of activities (services, leisure, shopping, and meeting modes of transport used on weekends, to travel outside Brno, or for school time, and trips respondents made intheir free time. The transport used for regular trips to work/ school, trips during work/ questionnaire. 14 areas of the city. It usually took around. 20minutes to fill outa centre and various citydistricts to meet the setquotas for the defined the streets at various collection points across the city, both in the city 22 June to 9July 2010.Respondents were approached face-to-face in were analysed. 20 questionnaires were included into the total of questionnaires that changes were made to the questionnaire afterwards; therefore these of 95%.20people were interviewed inapilot survey, butno major quotas. districts were divided over 14areas of the cityto achieve the required stratifications were gender and residence inacitydistrict; the 29city only respondents above thisage limitwere interviewed. Other city, ina70/30proportion. The age group was defined as15+ and of two groups, residents of the cityand commuters who enter the implementation of the ELANmeasures. The sample was composed

Br Biannual useof thistool willbepossible after the end of the The collected data was transferred to a computer and processed The key information that was collected concerned the modes of The data collection itself was carried outby 20interviewers from The sample was setat 1,000,which means aconfidence interval In Brno, amodal split survey was carried outbefore and after the no 315 A discussion about the different model split methodologies used in civitas elan 316 Rethinking everyday mobility 2.5. • • • • • hospital). The following indicators were selected: for visitors inseveral Asprela institutions (companies, university, by e-mailto workers and students, and by face-to-face interview area. Data was collected by anonline survey that was disseminated planning the mobility survey for students and workers inthe Asprela generation of coordinates usingMicrosoft Office Excel. Asprela corridor were selected to beinterviewed through arandom interval and 5%error rate. Thisimplied that 376households inthe for apopulation of 12,000inhabitants, witha95%of confidence accuracy required. For thissurvey, the size of the sample was estimated • • • • • • • • • following variables were collected: day. This was done by face-to-face interviews in people’s homes. The to establish the mobility of Asprela’s inhabitants on aregular working Engineering, University of Porto, organised the mobility home survey implementation of the CIVITAS ELANmeasures. Asprela area). Thisdata collection was performed before and after the for the inhabitants of Porto’s CIVITAS demonstration corridor (the carried out,one for modal split of students/ workers and another

Po departure time. transport mode and origin, destination, travel frequency, travel reasons, characterization of the person inquired. place of interchange and mode of transport, travel reason, arrival time, departure time, destination, origin, the number of trips, The company OPT and the CityMunicipality isincharge of A sample’s size depends on the city’ssize and the level of statistical The Transport Infrastructure Division of the Faculty of To measure the modal split inPorto, two separate campaignswere r to for residents and commuters. trips. Data analysis was performed for the total sample and separately finally, the modal split results, takinginto account the number of established (purpose of the journeys, uni/multimodal journeys) and, gender, level of education, occupation) and mobility patterns A general characterization of the data sample was performed (age, analysis was manually performed usingExcel tools and macros. transport ifthe travel time on foot was more than15minutes. used withinthe corridor, and walking was considered asamean of 42,500, witha95%confidence interval and 2.5%error rate. Method of data collection Summary table For bothsurveys the data was exported to Excel files and data The data treatment considered only the means of transport 1,434 valid answers were collected for anestimated population of questionnaire standardised 2: home interviews at 1: Face-to-face int region of the 2: allinhabitants corridor; commuters inthe 1: inhabitants and T erviews with elephone L jubljana L jubljana questionnaire) not filled outthe citizens whohad sent to allselected reminder letter ( Postal survey D illman method: G hent necessary) by studentsif telephone surveys interviews and personal supplementary interviews (and Face-to-face Zagreb street interviews inthe Face-to-face B rno by mail questionnaires 2: home interviews at 1: Face-to-face students 2: workers/ 1: households; O nline Porto 317 A discussion about the different model split methodologies used in civitas elan 318 Rethinking everyday mobility

Types of trips included (trip purpose or travel reason) Analysis area – target group Summary table friends errands, visiting facilitiesofficial a, city’s sports areas, usingthe parks andgreen visits to thecity’s city’s outskirts, shopping onthe shopping, downtown of historical centre visits to the other activities: addresses A work/ schooltrips ad O of 400,000) (total population suburban areas of theurban and 2: of 60,000) (estimated total and commuters of thecorridor 1: inhabitants nother question ne question dresses only I L nhabitants jubljana, L jubljana or school M total) of age (29,525in 10 and79years corridor between I nhabitants ofthe ain tripsto work G hent home; other. shopping; leisure; (hospital, bank); business, services faculty; work; one day: school/ A total of779,000) city (estimated I nhabitants ofthe ll tripsmadein Zagreb friends shopping, activities, services, leisure Work, school, I (143,000) commuters (319,000) and the corridor nhabitants of B rno hospital 2: work/ school/ corridor start/ endinthe 1: of 42,500) (estimated total the institutions in visitors ofseveral students/ 2: Workers/ of 12,000) the corridor(total 1: A I nhabitants of ll tripsthat A sprela area Porto Data collected Summary table use (bus,train), public transport frequency of various activities, usually usedfor transport mode travel time, to distance/ mode inrelation 2: use, etc. public transport frequency of of carpooling, activities, use used for various mode usually erage travel times, transport 1: A T v ransport L jubljana bikes ... website, rental planner, cycle bicycle route services, e.g. several mobility knowledge of guidance system, footpaths, traffic like cycle lanes, of infrastructure of different types strategies, quality & participation communication satisfaction with thefts in related to bicycle questions work orschool, time oftripto school, average of tripto work or A v erage length G hent G hent, inquired of theperson characterization interchange and transport, placeof reason, modeof arrival time,travel departure time, destination, trips, origin, N umber of Zagreb weekends time, inthe modes infree use ofvarious frequency of transport used, Regular modeof B rno inquired of theperson characterization departure time of transport, destination, mode frequency, origin, reason, travel 2: and of interchange transport, place reason, modesof arrival time,travel departure time, destination, trips, origin, 1: N T umber of ravel Porto 319 A discussion about the different model split methodologies used in civitas elan 320 Rethinking everyday mobility

Modes included Sample size Summary table O O motorcycle B Public transport 2: Car Combined modes B B scooter M B T T 1: Car characteristics demographic based on in subsamples stratification subscribers), telephone L sample of (representative 2: 1,111interviews answers received 3%; 1,069valid and error rate of interval of95% for confidence interviews needed 1: 1,000 axi rain UR landline icycle/ y foot icycle us thers n foot otorcycle, L jubljana O B M B T Car passenger Car driver of age andgender. representativeness of 95%with confidence interval needed for a questionnaires of 380filled out A rain t least atotal icycle us/ tram n foot otorcycle G hent than 100m) T T I visitors of students, and employees and of partners’ neighbours (relatives and selection N districts) groups and based onage of thepopulation, by stratification needed (derived 500 interviews O B M B Car passenger Car driver nfo Point) ram rain icycle us on-random n foot (more otorcycle Zagreb ELAN

and passenger) between driver distinction Car (no margin oferror level and1% 99% confidence commuters, and 30% 70% residents = total 1,020; 20 pilot+1,000 I O B M B T T T n-line skates rolleybus ram rain icycle us n foot otorcycle B rno than 15minutes) on foot was more the travel time and passenger) between driver distinction Car (no o error rate interval and2.5% 95% confidence needed for a interviews 2: 1,500 validated). forms and385 questionnaires/ using coordinates generation of through random were selected (households a 5%error rate confidence and 95% level of needed for 1: 376interviews O B M M B T O axi icycle us n foot (onlyif ffice otorcycle etro M Porto E xcel) (406 icrosoft 3. • are: approach between the cities and research institutes. Some examples are used inthe description of the characteristics of the modal split this table resulted inafirst important observation: different terms brought together inthe above summarytable (Table 1).Makingup To allow astructured discussion on the theme, the key aspects were provide aview of the variation of approaches inthe different cities. Table 1:Key characteristics of the modal split approaches inthe CIVITAS ELANcities.

Com Periodicity Combination of modes included? Summary table trip purpose or reason of travel, The above descriptions of the approaches inthe ELANcities A 6 September and 2: between 30 2012 2 weeks in January 2009; 1:2weeks in measures: of implementation aft B 2: no modes the combination order to obtain information in t 1: o treat the pril 2012 efore and I O p t ispossible ELAN er the ctober 2009; a L jubljana r

ative A pril I nte 2012) 3-yearly (2009and station issurveyed to go to thetrain mode thatisused also thetransport For tripsby train, rpr G hent etation of implementation after the before and separately measured journeys multimodal Unimodal and s ELAN Zagreb measures 2012 2010 &June unimodal school; therest travels to work/ multimodal for B iannual: June B rno measures: modes the combination order to obtain information in to treat the of implementation after the before and I M A t ispossible pril-June 2009 & arch/ ELAN Porto A

pril 2011 321 A discussion about the different model split methodologies used in civitas elan 322 Rethinking everyday mobility 3.1. • • 3.2. or area inthe CIVITAS ELANcities should beinterpreted withcare. with ageneral modal split survey of the citizens. can, of course, be of high interest, but its results are not comparable behaviour in the analysis area. Aspecific analysis of thisemodal split modal split for these activities isnot representative of the general travel activities are inmany casesthe maintypeof activities, ananalysis of the the city’scommercial and tourist centres. Although the firsttwo purpose) inthe analysis area, e.g.working, going to school or visiting are excluded. the area’s modal split analysis, since bothcommuters and transit traffic this case, only a small part of the trips in that area will be included in area. Onthe other hand, we have the smallarea of, e.g.,acitycentre. In complete view of the travel patterns of allmovements inthe analysis and from the central cityoccur. Asurvey of the citizens willgive aquite large metropolitan area around acityarea, inwhich most of the trips to area. Two extreme situations are typical. Onthe one hand, there isthe realize that thisapproach covers only apartof the trips inthe analysis travel behaviour of the citizens living inanalysis area. It isimportant to integrated implementation of these measures. Most surveys focus on the are implemented and for which we expect a significant impact of the important aswell: the corridor or area inwhich most of the measures metropolitan area. For the CIVITAS ELANcities amore limited area is surveys, the analysis ismade for the cityarea (the municipality) or the area inwhich we want to gaininsight intravel behaviour. Inmost statistical knowledge. Recently, surveys on travel behaviour of citizens and the selection of the sample are not discussed here asthisiscommon this target group asrepresentative of the whole target group. The size target group. Inmany casesthe necessary choice isto useasample of of the results. The selected method strongly depends on the analysed

A D the mode “on foot” hasdifferent meanings. modes of transport or mainmode of transport, naly a From thisperspective, acitizen-focused survey of alimited corridor Other surveys focus on specific activities (based on the trip A basi The method of data collection isimportant to guarantee the quality ta c s olle i s c aspect of any modal split analysis isthe definition of the a r c ea andty tion p e o f t r i ps 3.4. modes, the perception of the qualityof modes, travel times, etc. include questions on the reasons for usingor not usingcertain transport other characteristics of people’s mobility behaviour. The survey can be normally overestimated inthe modal split figures. that insuch a“minimum” modal-split survey the modes used most will detailed analysis of travel behaviour. We have to beaware of the fact indication on the effectiveness of measures, butitdoes not allow for a can show evolution intravel behaviour and inthisway itwillgive an mainly used ingeneral or for aspecific trippurpose. Such asurvey choice. survey willallow anin-depth and differentiated understanding of mode are collected aswell (e.g. age, gender, caravailability, etc.), such a by buson Tuesdays). Ifthe relevant characteristics of the respondents choices over the week days (e.g. going to work on Mondays by car, but view of aperson’s travel behaviour; italsoincludes the variation in relation to the specific analyzed activity (e.g. work). Thisgives afull all trips and modes used by aperson during one or more days, or in rather thaninmetres. of buildings. Insome cases,the walking distance iscounted inminutes minimum to avoid any discussion on trips inside buildings or complexes of the trip on foot that is included. In many cases 100m is taken as a sustainable mode. Here we see differences inthe minimum distance included (this was done in all CIVITAS ELAN surveys) as an important less important. Onthe contrary, going on foot seems crucial to be have only avery limited share inacityenvironment, they seem less common modes like ship or airplane. Since the latter generally bicycle. Most surveys now alsoinclude going on foot, and occasionally 3.3. citizens communicate inthisway. and less. The representativeness of the latter iseven doubted asfewer and the Internet. Traditional surveys by phone or letter are used less have been able to use a much wider range of techniques such as e-mail

M T y A survey on modal split isalsoagood opportunity to ask about A “minimum” modal-split survey willask for the mode that is A detailed modal split survey willcollect allthe data describing Th ode p e o e modes included inallsurveys were car, public transport, and s f in data c l u c ded and olle c ted c ombination o f mode s 323 A discussion about the different model split methodologies used in civitas elan 324 Rethinking everyday mobility 4. of different modal split analyses inwhich allthese aspects are combined • • • – of the following elements: if possible, awell-considered decision on the methodology inadvance involving different cities, should startwithaclear understanding –or, interpreting the results: which modal split should beanalysed? analysed, and modes or sub-modes included. All this calls for caution in because of the differences insurvey area and target groups, typesof trips the data. depending on the interviewed target group, guarantees the quality of collect modal split data. The use of effective and appropriate methods, difficult to compare. and motorcycles, canmake the surveys more interesting, butalsomore or tramfor public transport, and different minor modes like motors categories for carpassengers –driver’s family members or not. the other hand, some surveys go even further here, usingdifferent making itimpossible to have aview of the success of carpooling. On car driver and carpassenger. Not allsurveys include thisdistinction, integrated information systems. at conclusions about ”park and ride” systems or the importance of “before” and “after” mode. This type of analysis is crucial for arriving answers, or by asking specifics about nthe mainmode and the try to have collect information on thisaspect by allowing combined all combinations of modes used by the target group. Some surveys also trips and modes used, ensuringthat detailed analyses canbemade of

Con modes included. area and trips by people coming from neighbouring zones, the trips included inthe survey: trips by the inhabitants of that the analysis area inrelation to travel patterns, Further research seems necessary to develop astructured scheme Any modal split analysis, and especially amore general interpretation However, the results of the surveys canhardly becompared The CIVITAS ELANcities are usingawide range of techniques to Finally, the identification of different sub-modes such astrain,bus, A further important element seems to bethe distinction between As indicated above, some surveys include adetailed logging of all c l us ion s standardised approach to ensure comparability. surveys iscontinued inthe future aswell, on aregular basis,and witha measures more structural, itisimportant that performing modal split during CIVITAS ELAN and to make the evaluation of mobility both citizens and non-citizens. evaluation, the data canbeprocessed into differentiated figures for give the bestglobal view of travel behaviour inacity. For the CIVITAS relevant. Anoverall survey for the whole cityor metropolitan area will ways by the measures adopted inthe area, thisdistinction seems commuters and visitors. Since bothgroups are influenced indifferent give uscomplementary information on the impact of the measures on a survey of the trips coming inor going outthe area or corridor will changes inthe travel behaviour of these citizens. Onthe other hand, hand, asurvey of the citizens of aspecific area willprovide insight into the city–itseems important to have alayered analysis. Onthe one to effect travel behaviour for trips inaspecific area or corridor of impact of anintegrated package of measures, which are mainly aimed and linked to policy issues. To account for the long term impact of the measures implemented For the CIVITAS evaluation – where we are interested in the 325 A discussion about the different model split methodologies used in civitas elan ZAGREB I Public transport drivers have received special training to raise their awareness of the needs of older passengers and increase their safety in PT.

ZAGREB I 47 bio-diesel waste-disposal and street-cleaning vehicles have been introduced in the public fleet. GHENT I Free loading spots provide easier access to delivery trucks and ensure quick handling.

1. differences, to successfully execute this,to date biggest, CIVITAS many discipline-derived, administrative/bureaucratic, and cultural The intention of my analysis isto show how we managed, inspite of partners, where these concrete difficulties emerged. Quite the contrary. to point afinger at anindividual partner inthe project or agroup of specifically initsscientific coordination. Its intention is,of course not bottlenecks, that emerged inthe execution of the project, and successes, butalsothe difficulties and, inparticular, the many through research withobservation. that Iarrived at my conclusions, astermed insociological methodology, analysed these findings aspartof the work on the project. Thismeans and local/regional development for two decades. Iobserved and been dealing withurbantechnologies, new socio-spatial implications, project’s scientific coordinator, butalsoasaspatial sociologist, who has five partner cities Idraw on the findings Iacquired not only asthe of RTD improvements inthe complex system of public transport inthe project asawhole. Inthe self-evaluation of ourjoint efforts inthe field coordination therefore requires understanding and evaluation of the which the partners inthe project belong. To understand the scientific from awide range of natural science and sociological disciplines to scientific and research findings, and solutions deriving from them, a demonstration project, itisbased asawhole on the application of of the CIVITAS ELANproject. Although officially designated as

I nt The evaluation of ourjoint efforts points outnot only common This chapter presents aself-evaluation of the scientific coordination r od uc C tion OO R DINATION S EL F- EVAL

O THE F THE U P A E TION C RP IVITA LE

O X F S ITY THE ELAN

O Franc Trcek SC F A PR C IENTI TANT O J E � F C I S: C T

329 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 330 Rethinking everyday mobility society (see Trcek, 2003).Inreflecting on the dynamics of the project which Ideveloped for studying the development of the information findings and the meta-methodological dyadic model of four spheres, people and other (technical) artefacts. Inthisanalysis Iwillusemy own actor-network theory, asitoften goes beyond the outdated division into as starting point for the evaluation of the scientific coordination the background for reflecting on the RTD activities of our project and chose For thisreason Iconsidered itlogical to useaconceptual-theoretical the simultaneous political/developmental decision-making process. of technological issues, the technical solutions derived from them, and wishes and needs, become intertwined with the complexity and variety where numerous usersand service providers, each withtheir own conceptual and theoretical premises that form the basis for my analysis. and my entire evaluation. This willbefollowed by a subchapter on the because this is necessary to understand both the scientific coordination scientific coordination was included inthe CIVITAS ELANproject, merely different. findings or theirs are necessarily wrong or less important. They are matters indifferent ways, butthisdoes not mean that either my and responsibilities, willfrom their different points of view perceive course, that many partners included inthe project withdifferent tasks dealing withthe project’s scientific coordination. Ifreely admit, of future CIVITAS projects. This is after all my duty after four years of is rather to explore ourcommon findings and draw conclusions for the difficulties brought about by thiskind of perplexity. Its intention time itslimitation. The intention of thisarticle isnot only to point out by the articles’ title, is one of the project’s strengths, butat the same actants included inthe project. The perplexity of actants, asindicated of the actor-network theory, from the properties of the numerous from the project’s scope and nature and, on the other hand, interms particular attention to the difficulties. These derived on the one hand glossy brochures, but my professional deontology requires me to draw but inthe entire regions where the project’s participants are based. cities and beyond the corridors included inthe CIVITAS ELANproject, measures willcontribute to improvements, not only inthe partner expansion of the measures the results of our numerous successful Through the transfer of the acquired knowledge and the territorial project, which willhave long-term effects improving public transport. Improvements to public transport constitute an exemplary field Below inthischapter Iwillfirstprovide abrief history of how the In aproject’s finalphase itssuccesses are usually highlighted in ˇ better outcomes of future CIVITAS projects. recommendations and guidelines, which Ihope willcontribute to even mentioned conceptual-theoretical bodies. The conclusions contain analyse and evaluate ourproject through the prism of the three above explained indetail inasubchapter. I alsoconsider the findings related to the focus group method; thisis C 2. external monitoring partners to advise and evaluate them, contracted other horizontal workpackages, i.e. evaluation and dissemination, have countries and often also very different (organization) cultures. The two this very complex project, which includes over 40partners from seven These urgent tasks were largely related to the financial construction of e.g. getting familiarized withthe FP7administrative and financial rules. cooperating, aswell aswhole range of more critical and urgent tasks, get to know each other and find forms and ways of communicating and initial phase of the project involves, among others, that the partners and one of them, ifnot the basic one, certainly was the fact that the the course of the project implementation. There were several reasons with its importance, its quality was also expected to increase during had been anticipated in the preparatory phase of the project. Along the horizontal workpackages and gradual increase of their importance work and good coordination inorder to cope withthem. own, constantly encountering new challenges and requiring lots of hard and conduction of scientific coordination had to have adynamic of its processed. However, justlike any other serious work, the introduction dimension and increase overall amount of relevant inputs to befurther coordination, asaninstrument withapurpose to introduce additional set by the European Commission foresees the inclusion of scientific for which European cities apply askey organizers, the very concept not scientific projects inthe narrow sense,butdemonstration projects of work done withinthe project. Even though CIVITAS projects are and imperatives constantly increasing over time, along withthe amount expectations and completely fulfill its purpose, with the requirements had to beconducted inavery specific way inorder to meet the IVITA

T he The core of this chapter will use the storytelling method to The RTD and scientific coordination were planned as partof one of As anautonomous part of the project, scientific coordination S I n ELAN c l us P ion andRoleo r o j e c t f theS c ienti f i c Coo r dination inthe 331 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 332 Rethinking everyday mobility to encounter (Consuming Places and Urban Mobility, Alternative critical areas from the field of urbanmobility that the project was certain the Faculty of Social Sciences of University of Ljubljana, address many experience of the researchers in the Centre for Spatial Sociology of ELAN consortium. These themes, deriving from the extensive research thematic areas to bediscussed among the partners withinthe CIVITAS in local/ regional spatial development policies. related to public transport development and situating transport policies identification and opening upof conceptual and theoretical difficulties combination of methodological and advisory support to allpartners, management, the future role of WP11hasbeen envisaged asa facilitate comparisons between the cities. methodological approaches to common measures, which would from the experiences of previous endeavors and envisaged common document started withdeducting some upsides and related downsides many groups of stakeholders inplanning future transport policies. The involved inthe project, especially inthe light of greater inclusion of a broad selection of methodological approaches to studying the issues on interviewing methods, thisimportant document, aimed at presenting “Methodological Background Paper”. With the exception of the chapter Sociology and one of the firstso-called deliverables ingeneral, was the conclusion, among the firstmajor tasks of the Centre for Spatial be addressed somewhat more carefully in the future. Following that recommendation that optimization of scientific coordination should and considering the significance of the issue, there hasbeen a general successful scientific coordination. had served asaprecious inputinaneffort to design and implement a that sense,the experience gained through previous CIVITAS projects knowledge acquired by the partners insolving similarproblems. In to establish adiscussion space for the exchange and transfer of specific in the partner cities. This is a platform of common measures that was organization of essentially similarmeasures, which are implemented This issue willbeaddressed indetail inthe evaluation analysis. currently runningCIVITAS projects intheir firstyear, aswell aslater. influenced the nature of organizationmanagement and (joint) of allthe partners, combined withthose from the European Commission, largely by the CIVITAS consortium. Involvement and contribution of these Further consideration has resulted in defining the twelve conceptual- After consulting the partner responsible for the overall project As deducted from the evaluation of already implemented projects One of the strengths of the CIVITAS ELANproject was the the search for the reliable indicators of mobility changes. most notable piece of added value found inthe innovation regarding way to benefit from allthe thingsdone withinCIVITAS ELAN, witha that, besides all the support to the project, science had found its own in the form of afinalscientific report about the project. Inaddition to including thischapter asitspart,was envisaged from the beginning project and the preparation of ascientific monograph. The monograph, retained the dissemination of the scientific findings acquired inthe external contract partner POINTER. The scientific coordination however withthe support allCIVITAS projects are provided by the support was alsoto beprovided to the internal evaluators, coordinated in cooperation withthe partners responsible for evaluation. Scientific and offer every necessary help and scientifically based second opinion, Sociology was to closely monitor the implementation of the measures The key role of the scientific coordinator and the Centre for Spatial directly support common measures butrather to monitor them indetail. somewhat different role to the scientific coordination, as it was not to final decision about the issue. thorough harmonization, these topics have been incorporated into a Urban Public Transport” for Users). After acareful consideration and funding problems, socialexclusion...), What is“Safety and Security of on Mobility ((re)localization of production and consumption, public Population Influence Urban Mobility, Influence of Economic Crisis Mobility of Poor Stratus –SocialExclusion, How Will the Agingof the Mobility, SocialInnovations inUrban Transport, Mobility of Rich vs. targeted marketing, Disabled and Mobility –SocialModel of Urban Individualization on Mobility Patterns, Who are critical users–better City or/ and Regional Mobility Planning,Influence of Institutionalized Urban Mobility asaLifestyle, Urban-Rural Partnership and Mobility, o 3. bureaucratic procedures and monitoring, and the interests of numerous disciplines, democratic (co)decision-making processes, administrative- an extensive project –which involves natural science and sociological analyse the performance of the scientific coordination and RTD of such conceptual, theoretical premises. As mentioned inthe introduction to f

Fo T he Com The finaldecision was inclining towards anapproach that assigns Before turning to the self-evaluation, we have to outline its cus

Gr p le o ups x

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Ac tant s andtheQ u e s tion o f theSi z e 333 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 334 Rethinking everyday mobility transport systems (Latour, 1997). and Bruno Latour fittingly demonstrated thisinhisanalysis of public the “agency of things” seems to usto beANT’s essential contribution, theory, because actants can be non-humans aswell, the emphasis on group of people. Though ANTisoften criticised for being an“inhuman” can turninto anactant and, of course, itisnot necessarily aperson or a of an“actant”, borrowed from semiotics. Any active partof anetwork sociology’s dominant anthropocentric model to introduce the concept an actor. In their conceptualisation the adherents of ANTignored to the question who exactly operates and who exactly is(can be) between the system’s elements. temporal-spatial network emerges from the network of relationships or cause the network they belong to to implode. The topology of the within aSTSnetwork, and they may either help to create stability norms, charismatic persons, etc. Allthese are internal forces operating equipment, educational institutions, professional associations and their state research programmes, cancelled projects, the cost of research and groups of scientists over funding and research equipment, in anetwork that alsoincludes culturalnorms, fights between scientists science essentially does not exist, because itinvolves laboratory work often the assumed default autonomy and objectivity of (laboratory) on the one hand, and techno-determinism or realism on the other hand. researches ANTadherents are especially critical of socialconstructivism networks from the initialphase of the method’s development. Intheir have mainly addressed the research of socio-technical processes and macro levels, etc. Because it developed as part of STS, its adherents divisions like agency-structure, nature-culture, context-meaning, micro- for theoretical reflection, aimed at overcoming classical sociological suitable method for self-evaluation? our evaluation analysis. Why do Iconsider the ANTapproach to bea will serve especially in the firstsense,i.e.asamethod that willfacilitate that ANTcanbeperceived asbothamethod and atheory. Inourcaseit Latour, and John Law. We canagree withCrawford (Crawford, 2004:2) foundations of ANTwere laid by, inparticular, Michel Callon, Bruno – Science and Technology Studies) inthe 1980sand 90s,when the first developed inthe sociological study of science and technology (STS approach isthat taken by the actor-network theory (ANT).It isatheory groups of usersand service providers –avery adequate reflection and The key element of ANTfor ouranalyses isthe innovative answer In itsearly researches of “science inaction” they established that ANT is an “anti-essentialist movement” (Crawford, 2004: 1) to capture thisdidactics of practice and policy inthe widest sensein realise them, largely through systemic development policies. Itried between the range of the actors’ needs and wishes and the options to capacity. The carryingcapacity of asystem shows above allasthe gap competitiveness, aswell asto the limitof aconcrete system’s carrying In these transformations the actors go to the limit of their own aiming at usefulness and practicality ineveryday activities and living. capital the actors help to create and adapt the structural conditions, from the actors’ operation and daily practices. Using their emancipatory processes, social systems nevertheless are not ontologically separated facilitating the very existence of systems through structuration spite of the often assumed objectivity of socialsystems and structures, overcome the “micro-macro” and “objective-subjective” dichotomies. In abstraction of socialpractices isbased on anattempt to synthesise and properties and socialaction on the other hand. The decision to usesuch social system and the actors on the one hand, and the infrastructure’s which Ideveloped for the needs of studying the information society. between agency and structure. It involves adyadic mode of four spheres an attempt to solve the basic sociological dilemma of the relationship of ANTwithamore classical sociological approach that derives from To avoid this, I will enhance the conceptual/methodological usefulness limit to which we cango inenumerating actants relevant to ouranalysis. of course aware of the ANT’s defects, which show inparticular inthe socio-technical systems, something CIVITAS ELANcertainly is.We are whole isthe element of ANTthat hasproven to besuitable for analysing irreductionist complexities (see Latour, 2005;Law, 2003). these processes, which are, among others, attempts at simplifying nature of the internal network’s hegemony of course changes through actants makingupthe concrete network understand and accept. The network, aswell asthe results of these practices, whose conditions the The translations are thus simultaneously practices, occurring inthe attempts to achieve stability and (at least medium-term) durability. such aconcrete network of heterogeneous and irreductionist elements conceptual, and textual elements. Through processes of translation network of actants exists, which combines and mixes social,technical, facts and, ashasrecently become popular to say, soft power. Aprocessual divisions between nature and society, people and things,hard scientific theoretical (re)conceptualisation of ANT, ANTadherents ignore the In thismodel Istartfrom the dyadic relationship between the The concept of actants and the analysis of aconcrete network asa Slightly simplified, because the aimof thisarticle isnot anin-depth 335 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 336 Rethinking everyday mobility elaboration of new programmes and policies. operationalisation of development strategies, and improving the public policies, gathering proposals before takingdecisions, accurate new ideas and concepts, the evaluation of existing programmes and particular for the analysis of “common sense” views, the formation of how people form their views and opinions on themes under study. In interests or similarproperties. It isusefulfor understanding why and A focus group canbedefined asagroup of individuals who have common in the evaluation of projects and planning public (development) policies. method, while common inmarketing research, isparticularly successful addressed regarding the useof the focus group method. The focus group essential methodological starting-points and recommendations have to be competences of the socialactors. in aperplex network of actors –innovations deriving from the initial of mobility. The information sphere isthe field where innovations occur the question how well equipped individuals and groups are at the level question of the social sphere concerning changes inmobility patterns is democratic level of the (co)decision makingprocess. The development connected withtheir infrastructural level of equipment and withthe is the field where the actors’ socialcapital reveals itself. It isof course competences and emancipatory potential of the actors. The social sphere which basically determine new policies of urbanmobility, depend on the factors on ourself-regulation. Changes inthe balance of socialpower, regulation and management and the powerful influence of external often contradictory interests. At the internal level itrefers to the project’s making process that includes awhole range of actors withdifferent and development transport policies, which are formed ina(co)decision- power. Inourcaseitrefers at the external level to public socio-spatial political sphere refers to the field of regulation by the holders of political the least interesting sphere, itisanecessary infrastructural condition. The Even though from aclassical sociological point of view itisat firstglance infrastructure, which is akey development issue of ourtechnical sphere. of concrete socialsystems, inourcaseto the mobility/transport public Trcek, 2003). mastering the complexity of socialpractices inconcrete analyses (see information spheres). Thisisof course acognitive aid that facilitates to the properties of individuals and collective actors (the socialand properties of the system (the technical and political spheres), and two a dyadic model withfour spheres inwhich two spheres refer to the ˇ In the finalreflections on the approach to self-evaluation, some The technical sphere refers to the infrastructural development level human actants, which alsoinfluence the translation and durability of options inthe partner cities. While aware of the importance of non- mobility and attempts to improve and enhance the existing mobility the latter should give more sensitive consideration to changes in urban development strategies and new programmes and transport policies; and concepts, attempts to operationalise them, inclusion infuture evaluations of existing transport policies, researches into new ideas of the partners responsible for the project management, we used actually aseries of (quasi-)focus groups. Together withthe moderation opinion that most of the group work inthe CIVITAS ELANproject was was necessary for the self-evaluation that follows, asitstartsfrom the Krueger and Cassey, 2009). group method see Barbour, 2007; Greenbaum, 2002;Hennink, 2007; us withinformation inalive, usually colloquial language (on the focus the researched themes. It is a methodological approach that provides focus groups, aiming to find common and meaningful classifications of the further phases of the analysis we useacomparative analysis of the focus on aconcrete theme and address itthrough 5-6questions. In our focus groups. The method’s name indicates that the group hasto and essential focus we cananswer questions on the composition of the usersof the research’s results. Only when itisbased on adefined to define the reason and content of the research and alsowho willbe groups the conceptual phase isof key importance, because we have monopolize the group interaction. For successful performance of focus is always agreat risk that some members of the focus group will must guide the group dynamics towards the focused theme. There condition isthe presence of anexperienced moderator. The moderator groups, or to the entire population. the focus group method cannot begeneralised to other and different voluntarily included interviewees, the research findings obtained with them. Because itinvolves smallgroups (usually 7to 10members) of on the researched theme, not about the views of the individuals in us withanswers about the views of relatively homogeneous groups group level, not the individual level, because the method provides connected individuals; therefore, the results must beanalysed at the research theme and in accordance withthe principle of similarityof their influence. It isfurther based on group dynamics about aconcrete and opinions through interaction withother people and/ or under This brief summaryof the essence of the focus group method The method’s essential qualities are alsoitsweaknesses. Akey The method isbased on the fact that we usually form meanings 337 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 338 Rethinking everyday mobility Ca 4. subject. including awide range of experts dealing withthe concrete research knowledge, which largely occurred inthe form of expert focus groups the nature of ourjoint work, especially the exchange and transfer of the self-evaluation analysis of our activities, we have to be aware of the CIVITAS ELANnetwork, and usingthe model of four spheres for a whole range of concrete infrastructural/ developmental problems, transport infrastructure and the services itprovides. Together with a complex transport/ technical system of infrastructures: apublic city 4.1. chapters of thismonograph. our solutions for sets of problems were particularly successful in other future similarprojects. The reader canlearn about examples where intention isnot to provide internal criticism, butrather amessage for who dealt with a specific measure, will not bementioned, because our interventions. However, the names of the cities or concrete partners, impossible to beaware inadvance of allthe consequences of envisaged to the complexity of the researched theme and to the fact that itis our concrete project practices, through which I want to draw attention This approach involves references to often problematic examples from transport systems and transport and mobility policies certainly are. in fields withsomany different interwoven interests of the kind wish to point outinparticular how difficult itisto achieve changes et al.,2007;Miller and Zachary, 2007;Pollette, 2006). many socio-spatial issues (see more on the useof the method inBarber 1990). It isoften used inattempts to reach adeeper understanding of in many fields of sociology and other human sciences (see Nash ed., The storytelling method iscommon inthe field of narrative analyses extent from psychotherapy practices, where itwas firstdeveloped. in poststructuralist sociology (Antonino, 1991),borrowed to some evaluation. Storytelling is an established methodological approach

Sel p T he t For the purpose of ouranalysis, the technical sphere isdefined as Through the (micro) story of the project’s temporal progress I Below Iwillusethe storytelling approach for the promised self- ur f T -eval e ed inRe c hni u c al S a tion – p p o he r ting r e – T he Pe I nitial rp D le i ff x e r ity o en c e f s

Ac in I tant n fr a s s t o ruc r

Tr t ur an e s lation a substitute mono-actant. The new tramcars indeed contain either a instead of the old actant was amicro-network of new actants, not just savings, alsobecause people were not aware that what was introduced caused in the network by the new actant. And, regarding the energy from the unawareness of all the possible multiplication effects that are more thanwas realised deceived the city. The matter primarily results as was initially anticipated. lighter “unintelligent” tramcars. And the energy savings are not ashigh burden on the tracks and cause more damage to them then the old and stimulate the useof the public transport system –prove to agreater attractive actant for the needs of the PR project and introduced to energy efficiency). Used in practice, however, the new tramcars – an announcing arrivals, incorporated CCTV reducing vandalism, higher tramcars, easier usefor handicapped people, aninformation system network/ technical sphere asa whole (e.g. air-conditioned, comfortable not only people, i.e.human actants, butindeed most actants and the of transport of course brings about arange of improvements, benefiting ones. The introduction of new computer-supported “intelligent” means tramcars to replace old “mechanical” and technologically less complex will have on the entire technical sphere. unawareness of allthe consequences the introduction of anew actant Beckian accepted socialrisk, butitisessentially more about people’s effects. Aquick sociological response would bethat thisisof course a sophisticated actant inthe technical sphere, does not yield only positive to everybody, for instance the introduction of atechnically more actants from the network. with technological standardisation and the elimination of incompatible of incompatible actants, which willhave to besolved inthe long term of the third generation. Thisisof course about aninherited situation light from the firstgeneration could simply not communicate withone impossible to manage them efficiently and simultaneously: atraffic of different and not entirely compatible series, makingitpractically faced the problem that their traffic lights belong to three generations the partner cities. Searching for away to optimise traffic flows, they translations between them are hard, ifnot impossible. mobility patterns, thissystems consist of numerous actors, where which differ between the partner cities and are related to changed This of course does not mean that the partner who promised Take, for instance, the introduction of new, more comfortable We often face asituation where animprovement that isobvious Let uslook at the example of avery banalproblem inone of 339 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 340 Rethinking everyday mobility anticipated at all until itemerges inpractice, isa partial correlation of scientific coordinator, this interference, which often cannot be more complex system. AsIhave continued to point outinmy role also heighten the immanent probability of interference inamuch numbers of actants included inthe technical traffic infrastructure transport policies. Thisincreasing complexity and the increasing infrastructural consequences of new strategies of urbanand regional about by improvements in the technical sphere in the form of the in complexity of the socio-technical system that isusually brought however, necessary to take into consideration the important surge the technical academic sphere, have the least to contribute to. It is, which spatial sociologists, unlike other CIVITAS ELANpartners from sphere. that isaquestion which inour dyadic model belongs to the political it may bepossible to substantially reduce the price per bicycle, but of lighter, more suitable, but also more expensive electric bicycles, all the cities of the CIVITAS consortium inajoint order of aseries bicycles are too heavy on account of their battery packs. By engaging insolvable financial challenge at the level of massuse,because electric fit citizens and visitors to join the cyclists, the cityfaces apresently tradition nor awell developed network of cycle lanes. Ifwe want less is situated on hillsabove ariver and hasneither arelevant cycling partner cities to questions how to introduce cycling to acitythat The issues may range from problems with the groundwater in the can perceive asanimportant actant inouranalysis of RTD performance. technical sphere isthe story that involves acity’srelief and which we derives from unawareness of the changes incomplexity. cost for maintaining the system and vehicles; this incorrect assessment not contribute the anticipated energy savings and caused additional superficial conclusion to say that the introduction of new tramcars did to the new actant inthe technical sphere. It would beapremature and actants (drivers, maintenance teams) have to beresocialized to adapt individual non-human actants they consist of, and that the human more complex tramcars alsomean ahigher risk of defects inthe mobile, since they require energy for their operation. Technologically efficiency of ourtechnical sphere, they are of course not aperpetuum Though these do indeed enhance the comfort inthe tramcars and the more complex and information/ communication supported systems. series of previously absent systems or updated old systems withmuch The domain of the technical sphere isimmanently afield on Easier to understand and more simple inthe analysis of the making P 4.2. measures. the results of ourhighly accurate series of indicators by individual that we have to take into consideration before judging too harshly funds from the national budget for the big (biggest) cities, obviously the countries adecision was adopted that very explicitly reduced the meaning reduced funding for investment ininfrastructure. Inone of anti-crisis measures have been adopted at the national level, usually in the course of the project. Inallthe countries of the five partner cities started –became anunanticipated actant, whose power only increased financial and economic crisis,and thisquickly –assoon asthe project in the application phase before the outbreak of the present global network. greatest extent determined the behaviour of the entire CIVITAS ELAN The logic and dynamics of reporting isthe meta-actant that to the contents of reports at the time of execution and conclusion of projects. game, contained inthe public tenders of CIVITAS and inthe forms and attempts to objectivise, the key actant proves to be the rules of the of a legitimate hegemon, to use the language of classical sociology. In acting withinthe project’s balance of socialpower from the position dissemination advisors constitute akey (co)decision-making partner, European Commission, the evaluators and external evaluation and are co-funded over 50% by the European Union. Thismeans that the factors on ourself-regulation. The projects of the CIVITAS consortium regulation, project management, and the powerful influence of external disinclined to cooperate. realising their personal and legitimate interests, and consequently were cities, they did not perceive the project asanimportant means for taxi drivers insome of the measures introduced inone of the partner For instance: inthe attempt to obtain more active engagement from contradictory interests, wishes, expectations and opposition meet. transports policies where awide range of human actants and their often sphere isthe field of public socio-spatial development and especially they are of course interwoven in practice. The external political sphere canbedivided inanexternal and aninternal one, although

T he Politi Here an urgent remark must be made: our project was put together At the internal level we understand the political sphere as(self) For the analytical needs of the CIVITAS ELANproject the political r o c c e ss al S andPo p he r e –theCom w e r le ss Re p p le o x r ity o ting f the D e c i s ion- 341 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 342 Rethinking everyday mobility management, dissemination, and evaluation had to bridge the gapthat partners and the internal actants. Most of all,those incharge of project’s the very delicate mission to coordinate the demands of the external relations and the tasks assigned caused the emergence of a group with the same side of the language barrier. Namely, the complexity of the than the partners had perceived when the project started. proved to be a very time-consuming task. It indeed absorbed more time the city, the measures taken and horizontal workpackages, reporting and regular intermediate teleconferences, reports on the conditions in and task division to besecured. Given the pace of semi-annual reports required additional efforts putinorder for the optimal coordination reporting logic. Overcoming the possible stalemate regarding the issue in some casescausing frustrations and additional distress about the actants who had no such previous experience, thiscreated difficulties, that consisted of aseries of acronyms and EUreporting expressions. For understood itonly partly. Within the project adiscourse soon prevailed understand thisspecific language, the reporting code, and others, who on their responsibilities inthe project, were forced to accept and reporting procedures. Adivision emerged into partners, who based the level of their familiaritywiththe specific terminology of the EU situations marked by the multi-actant interdependence, regarding project. actants, divisions consequently emerged within the CIVITAS ELAN Commission and the external dissemination and evaluation meta- With reporting exposed asameta-actant, defined by the European transparency of such project co-funding by the European Commission. use of public funding, the monitoring thisinvolves, and the required to despair. Iamof course aware of the legitimate need for optimal the essential bottleneck that often drove the partners inthe project after four years of observation withparticipation –that reporting was the self-evaluation of the internal political sphere, I can conclude – more efficient transport policies have to beelaborated and developed. logic that more services must beprovided withalower budget, and that partner citythat itmust conclude the project inline withthe prevailing This external decision from the higher territorial level means for our non-central regions, which often depend on asingle economic branch. it easier to draw on internal resources thanother, smaller towns and based on the logic that inthe spreading crisis these cities would find However, there have been certain differences alsoamong those on On the one hand, certain difficulties occurred, typical for those If we now return to the position of the meta-actant and address proposed measures and their (envisaged) effects. significant others inthe local communities, to besceptical about the professional collaborators as well as politicians, including the so-called improvements inselected corridors withinthe five cities, causing the levels. The project aimed at introducing rather ambitious changes and organisations, aswell asat the municipal, regional, and national political processes at the level of professional associations and complex public the CIVITAS ELANproject than was expected inthe decision-making proved to bethe two critical actants, causing lower political support to from them. The content of the project and the perplexity of the field policies, aswell aslegally enacted implementation plans resulting translated into long-term urbandevelopment strategies and concrete interests intersect. Through (co)decision-making processes they are this is a field of perplex contents, where a wide variety of needs and the external urbanpolitical spheres. As mentioned inthe introduction another difficulty emerged withinthe political sphere at the level of frustration among the project partners from the local urbansubsystems. logic provided by the external meta-actants. In some casesthis led to cities, assumed the role of mediators and transmissions of the reporting management, evaluation and dissemination at the level of the partner In these replications the actants who performed the tasks of project the level of the cities, as well as the level of the horizontal workpackages. human actants engaged inthe project, similarreplications occurred at key matrix inthe (re)production of the balance of power between the reporting-discursive competences, where the latter often acted asthe emerged asyet another challenge to beovercome. became adominating aspect. Far from being destructive, this situation leading to asituation where reporting at certain times during the project subsystem thus established itself in the project as a higher-level system, aforementioned group and the rest of the project team. The reporting this discrepancy created anatmosphere of pseudo conflict among the of the project itself. Reflected on the inner structure of the project team, comparability, such unifying measures often conflicted with the agenda justified ifunderstood bothinthe senseof practicality and aswishing CIVITAS projects. And while thistendency could beconsidered well strove towards utilitarian unification of the five contemporarily running external consulting partners for the evaluation and dissemination, who and the agenda and priorities of the European Commission and the appeared due to certan differences between the workplan of the project As the project isof ademonstration and implementation nature, Besides the divisions withinthe project, resulting from the 343 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 344 Rethinking everyday mobility has the inexhaustible capacity to produce new and unknown types experience related category. However, amultitude of stakeholders produces certain lack of tacit knowledge, astacit knowledge isthe influenced the temporal and cost aspects of concrete RTD measures. of the planned RTD activities, causing anumber of difficulties which the case,awhole range of unforeseen actants emerged inthe realisation as akey actant, affecting the viability of their expectations. As is usually multiplication effects. The financial and economic crisisthen emerged joined the project withhigh expectations and because of possible sense, etc. –constitute the field inwhich RTD occurs. Many partners the decision-making process, involvement withpolitics inthe narrow social power, differences in organisation culture, significant others in structures, latent vs. manifest and formal vs. informal balances of are (usually) partof universities. transport, and finally aseries of research institutes and centres, which private infrastructure companies withconcessions for providing public cities withtheir public administration, then numerous large public- CIVITAS ELANpartners were complex, large organizations. First the in the project and the moderate-sized consulting organizations, most numerous partners. Given the modest number of civil society partners from the organisation cultures and organisation structures of the traffic) and, on the other hand, itraninto arange of difficulties deriving related to the themes (e.g. giving priority to public transport over car its innovativeness clashed with the dominant views inthe disciplines to the balance of political power. Onthe one hand, the project and high level of autonomy inthe RTD activities, the field was not immune analysis of the political sphere, Icansay that while the partners had a on itscourse and performance. external actants that are connected with the project and have an impact This example isaperfect illustration how difficult itisto foresee allthe criticism to gaingreater influence and respect inhisnew environment. solution. The newly arrived priest thus made useof the project and its local environment, ourpartners were forced to look for analternative holy services. Ashe proved to beanimportant political actor inthe traffic regime as a threat that would hinder the believers from attending fringe of aselected corridor. He considered the envisaged change inthe cities. The priest was newly appointed inalocal community on the Such acomplexity of the internal structure and relations inevitably These complex organisations and their key actants –organisation Considering the field of RTD inthe narrow senseat the end of this A good example isthe experience withanew priest inone of the friendlier and more efficient, thisdecision was not made. Though this one, something that would of course make intermodal transport was to decide on the integration of two typesof e-tickets into asingle national levels. In another partner city, where the responsible ministry territorial-level decision-making at the local/municipal regional and divided into two partsand hasto cope withacomplex system of (co)decision-making isfrom acountry that isethnically and regionally and responsibilities isequally evident inourproject. in the issues. Such sectoral and territorial-level dispersion of authority that no less than11ministries and government offices were involved in detailed planning of mobility inthe UKinthe 1980s,they found out recently told me anillustrative example. When they started to engage policies. ABritish researcher withforty years of experience inthe field live and work, are afield that isconnected withmany sectors and their patterns, which result from the spatial temporal organisation of how we attention to the fact that the issue of changes to ourdaily mobility balance of power and to Weber’s iron law of bureaucracy. know alltoo well that such difficulties are often related to the internal of RTD measures withintheir own organisations. Associologists we that they often met withnumerous difficulties inthe implementation the highengagement of the staffincluded inthe project –we must say of the partners from the public transport field –while acknowledging decision-makers with the partners to the project. Ifwe take the example attitude of administrations, department heads and other (important) in their annual financial plans. Thishad animportant impact on the i.e. the partfunded by the European Union, constituted aminor share funded by the city or national budget. The funds of CIVITAS ELAN, the execution of the measures were public service offices and largely projects increasing demand for attention. their daily duties as well, occasionally beingforced to neglect the implementation, asmany of the project executives had to cope with the project caused some additional difficulties due to its prolonged project’s cooperation. Furthermore, a very demanding nature of their own capacities to suitably perform the reporting part of the excellent partners had to put additional efforts in order to optimize further upgrade. Inpractice thismeant that numerous, professionally the box. Therefore every expertise hasto berelative and asubject to a of situations with anobvious imperative for applied thinking outside The partner citywiththe longest transparent policy of democratic At the end of ouranalysis of the political sphere we must draw We must point outthat numerous organisations instrumental to 345 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 346 Rethinking everyday mobility 4.3. socio-spatial development ingeneral. challenges and problems inplanning transport policies, mobility, and that reflection isrequired on supra-sectoral and other organisational of sectoral approaches, the field of mobility illustrates quite well chapter does not allow for adetailed discussion of the (in)adequacy space for the project’s implementation, was of course much more RTD. drawn into adiscourse on reporting rather thandeal intensively with mediators or key nodes inthe project’s network, where we were often the human actants withthe biggest pool of socialcapital became key decision-making processes. Anadditional difficulty was the fact that problems in the socio-technical (sub)systems to difficulties inthe (co) including often unforeseen ones. These ranged from difficulties and implement them, which were connected withawhole range of actants, the wishes incorporated inthe project’s contents and the options to wishes and the available options. Onthe one hand, of course, between lack of professional knowledge, butabove allagapbetween people’s the scientific coordination connected withit,was that there was no and amixture of diverse, butsynergetic socialcapitals. implementation of the project, constituted a large pool of behaviours over three hundred human actants were involved inand working on the preparations for the project. Over forty organisations, meaning that project selected qualitypartners at the internal citylevel intheir supranational ones. The cities that applied for the CIVITAS ELAN and informal network of cooperation at different levels, including of ushave many years of experience and awell-established formal organisational environments who deal with common issues. Most say that ournetwork consists of arange of experts from different of the (co)decision-making process. their level of infrastructural equipment and withthe democratic nature their emancipatory potential. The latter isof course connected with concept of socialcapital, see Halpern,2005inFine, 2001)and defines the field where the socialcapital of the actors manifests itself (on the depend on the competences of the human actants. The socialsphere is

T he So The external social sphere, the key field and communication What became obvious quite soon, at least inthe field of RTD and If Itryto firstanalyse the socialsphere withinthe project, Ican Changes that thoroughly define new policies of urbanmobility c ial S p he r e – M obility Ca u ght B et w een Wi s he s and Op tion s

I 4.4. in one of the finalchapters of thispublication. innovations. Those will, however, beelaborated inmore detailed form three partner cities) . And this new social sphere facilitated a range of met (for example the cooperation on hybrid and CNG buses between of ameta-social sphere where many previously unconnected actants and that itenabled at the level of the partner cities the development say that the CIVITAS ELANproject functioned asanimportant catalyst necessary condition inthe search for future optimal solutions. We can to understand the complexity of the issues at hand, because thisa becomes the essential issue, i.e.acode that would enable the actants where translation and searching for acommon communication code where a wide range of very diverse groups of actants intersect, and the field of mobility is aproblematic development field parexcellence, to constraints interms of time and money. person, who however was not able to join the planned cooperation due cycling network inone of the partner cities. It isdriven by asingle able to translate the project’s logic. A good example is the civil-society approach, these pioneers, heralds of change, were at times simply not mobility. Despite of their dedication to the activities and their vigorous inadequate solutions, demonstrating and introducing new forms of initiatives succeeded (or halfway succeeded) inquestioning old, composed of ahandful of human actants, who through civil society its (hidden) potential. Certainimportant nodes inthissphere were diverse and chaotic. Moreover, thissphere was often not aware of scientific articles of the collaborators of the CIVITAS ELANproject. I will befeatured inthe planned publications on the project and inthe Some of them are described inthe other chapters of thisbook; others were either direct effects of concrete measures or stimulated by them. fields, it is impossible to list most, let alone all the innovations, which competences. Inaproject with 68 measures, divided over eight policy actants, innovations deriving from the enhancement of their initial sphere” refers to the field where innovations occur in the network of the above addressed (analytical) spheres. The term “information of four spheres the success of ourinnovative measures depended on the project and RTD activities, Icansay that based on the dyadic model nnovative

T he Similarly to the political sphere, the socialsphere demonstrated that Turning to the information sphere inconcluding the evaluation of I n f o N r et mation S w o r king andCa p he r e – fr p om illa I nnovation r y Eff e c t s

s to 347 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 348 Rethinking everyday mobility with other people and groups. Project brought together awhole range opinions, and change their behavioural patterns, through interaction the intercity level. It isafact that people usually form meanings and of mutually connected focus groups. These are mixed internally and at social developmental political debate. the margins to the attention of the wider public and the centre of the energy-friendly public transport, hasmoved inthe partner cities from mobility and transport, withastrong emphasis on ecological and – the long-term result of CIVITAS ELANisthat the discussion on the language of ANTthese are referred to asdifficulties intranslation popular concepts and solutions inindividual fields and disciplines –in fields and disciplines and, lastbutnot least, different fashionable or and organisation cultures, different professional languages of individual the difficulties that are typical of cooperation based on different values different fields of the social regulation of urbanpractices. Inspite of all fact that itisaplatform offering equal communication to actants from innovativeness of networking enabled by CIVITAS ELANlies alsointhe from allfive cities engaged intryingto solve similarissues. The measures offered aplatform for discussion between the human actants own network. actants who before the startof the project usually acted each intheir triggered inthe partner cities aprocess of trans-sectoral linkingupof local urbanenvironments, butabove allinthe fact that CIVITAS ELAN project not somuch inthe results of concrete measures, innovative in Starting from these facts, I see the innovativeness of the CIVITAS ELAN well asefficient solutions for the new needs and interests of the users. development policies and, of course, better solutions for old needs, as civil society initiatives, the interests of service providers, (new) public emerge withinthe information sphere inamixture of scientific findings, CIVITAS projects ison public policies and users,innovative solutions connected withthese issues. Inspite of the fact that the key focus of methodological approaches from awide range of sciences and disciplines policies of mobility isnot possible without conceptual-theoretical and the field of (daily) mobility and searching for new, more adequate narrow sense,itisnevertheless afact that understanding changes in the project. ELAN made possible inthe partner cities and between the partners in therefore wish to point outinparticular the long-term effects CIVITAS Personally, Iview and understand the project above allasaseries Moreover, the project and itsinnovative approach of common Although CIVITAS projects are not scientific projects in the more successful? Although Iamaware that inthe described casesquasi- the tramcar. problematic actant thus emerged: the narrow space for moving down proved to beproblematic because of the layout of itsinterior. Anew more comfort and issafer because of the useof CCTV monitoring, but instance the above mentioned new tramcar: itismore punctual, provides at least information was collected for future improvements. Take for the partner cities. And even if their implementation was not possible, workshops. Their needs were incorporated innumerous measures in opportunity to become visible and to beheard inaseries of thematic transport, and userswho are less mobile for avariety of reasons had the of the marginalized groups. The socially marginalised are less visible in possible citizen engagement, withaspecial emphasis on the inclusion the basic focuses of CIVITAS ELANwas taken into consideration: widest established through the activities of ourdissemination networks. One of modal split were made possible. led to acondition where comparisons between the cities concerning specifics and differences between the individual cities and approaches, arrived at joint key conclusions, which consequently and in spite of the of a joint methodological approach to study modal split we gradually they make cooperation necessary. Inthe caseof the repeated rejection of techno-cultures in which we live are structured in such a way that because thisisapopular phrase, butbecause the info-urban habitats where we have to enter inter- and trans-disciplinary cooperation, not work involved socio-technical networks withcomplex series of actants, I cansay that we found acommon language and understood that the from the technical disciplines and sociologists inthe discussions on RTD, eliminated. Inaretrospective view of the attitudes between the partners others meant that obstacles between different groups of experts were concrete issues at hand. Inthe four years of the project this among groups. These included awide selection of experts who deal withthe transfer of knowledge, largely occurred inthe form of expert focus these changes would bring about. understand the changes and sought to find answers to the challenges together experts, providers, mediators, and userswho endeavoured to were professionally dedicated to concrete problems. And many brought thematic fields. Many of ourgroups, though not really homogenous, of actants inaseries of focus groups, where we dealt withconcrete How canwe make ournetworking and numerous (focus) groups Developmentally equally important are the networks that were Most of ourjoint work inthe project, especially the exchange and 349 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 350 Rethinking everyday mobility mobility and the temporal-spatial organisation of working and living. effect, to the numerous fields inourcities that are connected with down further when CIVITAS ELANhasended, through acapillary project’s essential long-term innovative contribution, which will trickle participating cities. From the position of aspatial sociologist this isthe which go beyond the former forms of dealing withthe contents inthe planned extent, CIVITAS ELAN(co)created new information spheres which resulted in some measures not being implemented to the anticipated aswell asunanticipated difficulties and problems arose, in the future project and CIVITAS follow-ups. lessons withagreat capacity to contribute to asubstantial improvement have been occurring occasionally, canbetransferred into valuable with their features. In that sensesituations regarding reporting, that framework inorder for aproper treatment to beprovided inaccordance be recommendable to consider puttingsome of them into aseparate measures have proved to be fairly demanding and massive and it would individual partners affected oursearch for common answers. Some the quite big differences between the numbers of measures inthe fairly challenging. concrete measures and connected series of measures, proved to be ELAN project the content matrix of the project, organised around for successful performance of the focus group method. Inthe CIVITAS focus groups were involved, we cannevertheless usethe instructions 5. • • for future CIVITAS (and similar)projects. end of thischapter Inow briefly listproposals and recommendations difficulties we had inthe implementation of the contents. Coming to the of the qualitycontribution of the CIVITAS ELANproject, aswell asthe colleagues from the evaluation network, Itried to provide my own view “objectivised” and quantified evaluation asitisperformed by the

P r sense to consider reducing its quantity. Reduction of resources As reporting isthe most time-consuming activity, itwould make common issues the partner cities tryto solve. Greater emphasis should begiven to similarcontents and In spite of the fact that inthe course of the project arange of In addition to the reporting system, the number of measures and In my reflections, which are not anevaluation inthe way of an o p o s al s

f o r F u t ur e C IVITA S P r o j e c t s • • • • • • • the projects, asthey would bemore interested in their success. These crisisregions would certainly provide more support to into a long development crisis caused by deindustrialisation. towards mid-size and small towns and regions, which have fallen In future itwould make senseto direct CIVITAS projects of that factor. ELAN has,among other things,pointed out at the significance possible level of institutional and political support. CIVITAS should be conducted in a way that would provide the highest Selection of the cities included inthe project consortium based on their similarexperiences. CIVITAS projects, point outdifficulties and help solve them, and dissemination, could act asexternal consultants infuture with project management, evaluation, scientific coordination, new CIVITAS projects. Inparticular the partners who dealt knowledge that deserves to bepassed on to future partners in As collaborators inthe project we acquired substantial tacit to remain abreast of the project’s dynamics. project consortiums since thiswould bethe only way for them would actively and regularly participate inthe meetings of the dissemination, and scientific coordination. These consultants internal consultants anexternal consultant for evaluation, solution would befor every CIVITAS project to have besides because of their levelling down approach. Amore adequate to benot sufficiently synergetic and productive, especially The external evaluation and dissemination actants proved month exchanges between the cities). similar issues (inthe form of joint workshops and longer, 2-3 experiences between the actors inthe cities who deal with Greater emphasis should be given to the exchange of very beginning. phase, and incorporate conclusions inaworking plan from the among cities of the sameconsortium, withinthe preparatory project withthe other ongoing CIVITAS projects, aswell asthat It seems usefulconsidering the comparability of the concrete dimension of the reports. of the information and innovations, not on the quantity entire four-year course of the projects and focus on the quality The form of the reports should remain uniform during the available for the other, core partsof projects. and time dedicated to reporting could greatly strengthen those 351 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project 352 Rethinking everyday mobility Ency of Sociological Pragmatic Truth-Seeking: The Discursive Base of Social Theory. Re • • Methodological Approach to Understanding Hurricane Katrina. Journal Pr Cambridge: Cambridge Uni. Press. Publications. Gui Routledge.

f actical Public e de r the current development crisis. cities and regions willfind ithard to gather financial means in It would make sense to consider new funding shares because to bewidened. of mobility challenged and handicapped groups hastherefore selection of “usual”special groups intransport, and the concept marginalized groups who normally are not included inthe emphasis should begiven to the socialactants, especially In the socio-technical improvements of mobility greater Crawford S.,Cassandra.2004.Actor Barbour, Roslaine S.2007.Doing Barber, Kirsten etal.2007.Narrating the Storm: Storytelling asa An Krueger, Richard A.and MaryAnne Cassey. 2009.Focus Fine, Ben.2001.Social Greenbaum, Thomas L.2002.Moderating Halpern, David. 2005.Social Hennink, Monique M.2007.International clopaedia en

for c tonino, Robert J. 1991. Postmodern Storytelling versus e

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(Zbirka Kiber, 1). Ljubljana: Center zaprostorsko sociologijo/Fakulteta zadružbene vede and St Rural Sociology 22(1):15–27. N Law-Notes-on-ANT.pdf, 12.3.2012. Studies. Available at http://www.comp.lancs.ac.uk/sociology/papers/ Str Routledge. A ctor-Network-Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press. arrativity: orytelling ategy

Politics. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Trcek, Franc. 2003.Problemi Polletta, Francesca. 2006.It Nash, Cristopher (ed.). 1990.Narrative Miller, Stephen K.and Michael Jack Zachary. 2007.Storytelling Latour, Bruno. 2005.Reassembling Latoru, Bruno. 1997.Aramis, Law, John. 2003.Notes �

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353 The perplexity of actants: self-evaluation of the scientific coordination of the civitas elan project GHENT I The Civitas school competition resulted in real hands-on solutions for mobility problems in school environments.

ELAN Youth Congress I On the last day of the ELAN Youth Congress the students presented fresh ideas on how to improve PT in the cities. Up: ELAN Youth Congress I The winning team of the Mobility

Treasure Hunt solving the last riddle. Down: GHENT I Enthusiastic teenagers performing in the Civitas school competition. www.civitas-initiative.org/index.php?id=69. 1 ranging from such “soft issues” asinfluencing people’s behaviour to accurately reflect the scope of the project, which includes measures The papers address agreat variety of subjects and approaches and the researches carried outaspartof the CIVITAS ELANProject. necessary for daily life. to provide to the inhabitants better access to institutions and facilities detect two maingoals: to increase the competitiveness of the cities and modern urbanised world. Closer insight into such policies would likely various urbanpolicies indifferent socialand political contexts of the mobility isstillone of the most distinctive and recognisable features of modern, urbanised societies. Therefore, the aimto increase citizens’ have been identified asanessential component of socialinequality in public goods (among others education, health, work, recreation, etc.) Differences inthe spatial accessibility of institutions providing different various public and non-public goods that sustainpeople’s daily life. point of view, the mobility issue isconnected to spatial access to the level of sustainability for modern urbanliving. From the sociological mobility isof critical importance to the endeavours to achieve ahigher urban agglomerations. It isquite obvious that the issue of urban procedures, operational and technical details inthe cities and their author did not have complete insight into allthe project’s phases, on sustainable mobility carried out in five European cities reflection on the entire CIVITAS ELANproject –amultiannual project

This paperisbased on reading the collection of paperson The following contribution does not aimto beacomprehensive F or adetailed description of the project and the cities involved see: http:// UR S OME BAN C S HANGE O C IOLOGI

AND C AL SUS C ON TAINABLE S IDE R Pavel Gantar ATION

MOBILITY 1 ,– as its S ON

357 Some sociological considerations on urban change and sustainable mobility 358 Rethinking everyday mobility policies and participation inchanging them. and urban change, and the issue of the public legitimation of mobility closely considered only two issues: the interconnectedness of mobility fuel. It isactually impossible to cope withsuch diverse approaches and I very technical issues like, for instance, usingnew, more sustainable 1. wider agglomerations. between the different various spaces and structures inthe cities and their and changing the urbanstructure and form to redefine the relations changes to urban mobility are not possible unless they target adapting and (automobile) mobility on the other hand, show that fundamental of conflicts between the urbanform and structures on the one hand policies. The lessons learned from the pastnearly one hundred years various forms of public discontent, leading to a quest to change mobility on urbanlife have become increasingly evident and have given riseto urban life. Since the 1960sthe negative and partially devastating effects to decrease and contribute to the general deterioration of the qualityof congestions. At the end of such circulos vitosus effective mobility tends effects: more space for carscreates additional transport flows and thus increase traffic flows. Thisdevelopment hasproduced self-perpetuating developments served to promote the mainimperative of automobility – building commercial centres on the outskirts of the cities: allthese into parking lots, street widening projects, promoting suburban housing, door” transport. Highway construction, transformation of public spaces speak, to adapting urbanforms to the demands of personalised “door-to- projects, the history of urbanreconstruction hasbeen narrowed, soto an urbanplanning doctrine. Inaddition to urbanhousing and renovation inherited urbanforms to the requirements of automobilism to the level of International d’Architecture Moderne) and elevated the idea of adapting Corbusier, codified the conclusions of the IV. Congress of CIAM (Congrès and private services. The Athens Charter, edited and published by Le of urbanforms and the spatial distribution of work, housing, public the no less enormous impact of automobilization on the transformation urban forms inthe 19thand early 20thcenturies, and thiswas followed by historians have described in great detail the impact of the railway on patterns of urbangrowth throughout history. Urban researchers and of transport on the transformation of urbanstructures and the spatial

M obility andthe

One cannot overlook the enormous impact of the development ur ban c hange s 2. • • • first’ inthe dual senseof: the project: “The starting point for CIVITAS ELAN is to ‘put citizens on citizen engagement and participation, asstated inthe description of by those who are affected by them. the citizens. Such measures canbesuccessful only ifthey are accepted project, 14 measures out of 68directly addressed the travel habits of signalisation) effect the habits of the users.Inthe CIVITAS ELAN normal and expected, since even minor changes (i.e.changing traffic responses from their citizens and usersof transport facilities. Thisis individual cityand itsurbanagglomeration. Indoing so,they face mixed cities, takinginto consideration the specific mobility problems of each • • • • ome o

T o citizens by using five characters, representing not only the five Throughout the project thiswillbecommunicated with the they may sometimes appear to the transport practitioner. the “ELAN cities” -difficult to achieve or contradictory as giving priority to the needs and expectations of citizens in aspects of the project, and by, dedicated participation and consultation processes inmany them become partof “the solution” through, sustainable transport system, but to “mobilise” them by letting considering citizens not only to be“the problem” increating a readjust modal split preferences infavour of public transport. constructing more cycle lanes, etc., adjusted to cartraffic, to other forms of mobility. e.g.by adapt the street and road infrastructure, now completely mobility and for public use, reclaim public spaces occupied by carsfor other forms of and work, education and services, mixed spatial use, reducing the distances between residence a gradual transformation of mono-functional urbanareas to The CIVITAS ELANproject was conceived from the onset to focus Some of these changes are, of course, already under way inour These changes to the urbanstructure should encompass: w a p r en d s qu

pu e bli s tion c

c s on s ent abo u t c hange s to ur ban mobility: 359 Some sociological considerations on urban change and sustainable mobility 360 Rethinking everyday mobility public opinion, they may face the project’s collapse. situation; butifthey opt for more substantial changes, which split incremental, i.e. they may only slightly, if at all, improve the mobility adopt only changes that enjoy wide public support, they might not be interests, the decision makers face the following dilemma: ifthey Nevertheless, when there isaconflict of different views, let alone in the self-organisation of the people concerned (civil society). issues deliberated? The author isinclined to search for the solution is based on procedural rules or on the substance or content of the final conclusion opens the question whether the legitimation process in the cityor even the whole metropolitan region”. Obviously, his estate owners, employees, and people withspecial mobility needs) parties (residents, visitors, carusers,public transport users,real operational institutional framework representing allthe interested about consensus, but concludes “that it is difficult to establish an the various modes of the deliberation processes that would bring situation infacilitating changes. He describes and analyses indepth factual (empirically observed) situation and the normative (desired) process”. He tackles the problem of the inconsistency between the transparent information process and participatory decision-making mobility changes, emphasising consensual legitimation “through a proposed changes inurbanmobility. because itseems to becritical to greater public acceptance of the distinctive measures devoted considerable attention to thisissue, perceive themselves or “benefiters” as“victims” of the changes? bring to them, how are they going to affect their daily life, do they expectations about changes inurbanmobility. What willthese changes have different value orientations, interests, and above all different seems to beunavoidable, butbecause of the simple fact that people because of acertain degree of “distortion” inthe communication, which deeds is,however, along and often conflict ridden process. Not only changes designed in ajoint communicative process. From words to users asobjects of transport planning butasactive participants in certainly one of the project’s major strengths, since itdoes not consider ELAN cities, butthe citizens of Europe”. Drago Kos, for example, addresses the legitimation issues of urban The researchers who scientifically evaluated some of the project’s The above cited orientation towards citizens and transport usersis (The Civitas Initiative, http://www.civitas-initiative.org/index.php?id=69) of the changes: the individual caruserhasthe following options inthe implementation where access to certain urbanareas by carisincreasingly restricted, the measures to bealleviated or even abandoned. Incircumstances massive discontent and resistance to the measures and eventually cause fines on caruserswho break the new rules, butthiswould likely cause the free rider dilemma canbesimply eliminated by imposing heavy to the citycentre, highparking fees, traffic limitations, etc. Ofcourse, setting restrictions on caruse,including, for instance, payable access avoid the “free rider” dilemma when changing mobility policies and cooperative one and improve traffic flows. Putvery simply, how to car usersistherefore how to change anon-cooperative game into a participants are off worse. The issue of mobility policies affecting with no regard for others. The obvious result iscongestion and all game, inwhich every usertries to maximisehis/her own benefits unconnected car users can be seen as the problem of a non-cooperative the problem of the traffic behaviour of alarge number of mutually deserves further elaboration. From agame theory perspective, interpretation. that strongly depend on the useof cars.” Thisiscertainly aviable with a“deep-rooted ‘carculture’ and avalue system and lifestyles also explains the respondents’ strong opposition to restricting caruse towards limitingcarusederiving from their cost-benefit analysis. He sustainable mobility on the one hand, and their “professed attitudes” convincingly analyses the discrepancies between people’s values on users therefore have no alternative. Matjaž Uršic understandably and public transport are available, or at least not at acomfortable level, and of course, understandable ifno alternative modes of mobility such as Such discrepancy between mobility values and actual behaviour is, oppose measures that would restrain caruseincongested urbanareas. (cycling, walking etc.), buton the other hand they nevertheless tend to People tend to putahighvalue on more sustainable modes of mobility behaviour does not correspond with their professed mobility values. of “passive activism” is that people’s actually observed mobility in studies on environmental values and behaviour. The mainfeature article reveals so-called “passive activism”, anattitude observed also possible changes to Ljubljana’s transport and mobility system. The is raised by Matjaž Uršic inapaperanalysing people’s attitudes towards However, inmy opinion, another dimension of the problem The second issue that needs closer or even alternative elaboration ˇ ˇ 361 Some sociological considerations on urban change and sustainable mobility 362 Rethinking everyday mobility seem to beinevitable inthe elaboration and design of such policies. the relations between private and public transport. However, conflicts Brno), the solution towards more sustainable mobility lies inchanging cities involved inthe CIVITAS ELANproject (withthe exception of to substantially improve sustainable mobility inourcities. For the conditions and existing urbanstructure of the cities -to expect them is unrealistic –takinginto consideration the specific geographical unrealised opportunities for increasing walking and cycling, but it cost-benefit calculation. There are, of course, stillunexplored and mode? Thisbrings usback to Uršic’s initialinvestigation of people’s are the benefits for traditional carusersifthey change their mobility game into acooperative one isactually based on thisquestion: what therefore only option b) remains viable. To change anon-cooperative d) actually changes nothing and is unsuccessful by definition, and and egoistic behaviour islikely to besanctioned withfines. Option behaviour canbeexpected only from aminority of participants Obviously, options a) and c)do not tend to berealistic. Altruistic (non- cooperation). d) he willnot cooperate ifothers do not cooperate either rider, egoism), and c) he will not cooperate even if others do cooperate (free b) he willcooperate ifallothers cooperate too (cooperation) a) he willcooperate even ifothers do not cooperate (altruism), ˇ

The Contributors

Veronique Van Acker ([email protected]) is a member of the evaluation team in the CIVITAS Elan project in Ghent. She is a post-doctoral researcher at the Department of Geography, Ghent University. Her research focuses on transport geography, spatial analysis, the interaction between the built environment and travel behaviour, and lifestyles and attitudes related to mobility.

Eliene Van Aken ([email protected]) is a project evaluation manager of CIVITAS ELAN. She holds a master’s degree in Commercial Engineering and Economics of International Trade and European Integration. She is currently employed with Tractebel Engineering as a consultant on various mobility projects.

Carlos Aguiar ([email protected]) is an Affiliate Professor at the Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP). He has a master’s degree in Equipment and Product Design (FAUP). His research focuses on industrial design, environment, and sustainability.

Mojca Balant ([email protected]) is a team member of the CIVITAS ELAN project measures 2.1-LJU Integrated High-quality Mobility Corridor and 4.9-LJU Update of the Sustainable Urban Transport Plan. She is a landscape architect, who is active in the fields of spatial planning and urban landscape design.

Bernardo Almada Lobo ([email protected]) is the leader of the measure 1.5- OPO Light Weight Bus Shuttle. He holds a PhD in Industrial Engineering and Management and is an Assistant Professor at the Industrial Engineering and Management Department, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP). Research areas: planning and scheduling, supply chain management, project management, quantitative management methods.

Nelson Barros ([email protected]) is an Associate Professor at the Fernando Pessoa University and a team member of the CIVITAS ELAN project. He has a PhD in Environmental Sciences, a master’s degree in Thermal Engineering and a degree in Environmental Engineering. His research focuses on atmospheric air quality.

Begga Van Cauwenberge ([email protected]) is a site evaluation manager in the CIVITAS Elan project in Ghent. She is a director’s assistant, employed with the traffic research department of Ghent’s mobility company. Her research focuses on traffic research - mobility surveys, traffic counting, traffic modelling, and GIS analysis. Nuno Couto ([email protected]) holds a master’s degree in Mechanical Engineering and is a researcher at the Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP). His research focuses on the production and development of products and automotive engineering.

Dirk Engels ([email protected]) is an expert in mobility and traffic modelling with a long experience in the design and evaluation of multimodal traffic systems. He is currently an independent consultant with Traffic&Mobility Leuven. He acted as the project evaluation manager of CIVITAS ELAN until 2012.

José Manuel Ferreira Duarte ([email protected]) has a PhD in Mechanical Engineering and is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP). Professional interests: mechanical characterization of sheet metal materials, sheet formability characterization, automotive engineering, FEM simulation.

Tânia Fontes ([email protected]) is a team member of the CIVITAS ELAN project involved in the assessment of the impact of road traffic measures, implemented in Oporto City, on air quality. She is a researcher at the Faculty of Science and Technology, Fernando Pessoa University, Porto. Her main research interests are road traffic emission modelling and the assessment of the impact of mobility strategies on air quality.

Pavel Gantar ([email protected]) is an Assistant Professor of Urban Sociology, former Minister of the Environment and Spatial planning, Speaker of the National Assembly of the Republic of Slovenia 2008-2011. He lectured Spatial Sociology at the Faculty of Social Sciences in Ljubljana until 2008. Before entering professional politics, he was involved in numerous research projects in the field of urban social research.

Marko Gerbec ([email protected]) is a Professor at the Jožef Stefan International Postgraduate School and a senior researcher at the Department of Inorganic Chemistry and Technology. Jožef Stefan Institute. His research focuses on process safety issues (major accidents prevention), including risk assessment and safety management systems.

Tone Godeša ([email protected]) is a team member of the CIVITAS ELAN project for measure M 1.7. “Pure plant oil for vehicle propulsion“. He is a researcher with a master’s degree in Agricultural Engineering, employed with the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Institute of Slovenia His main research interests are the use of biogenic fuels in vehicles (conversion of engines for using pure plant oil) and energy efficiency. Hrvoje Gold ([email protected]) is the leader of the measure 8.2-ZAG Public transport priority and traveller information. He is a Full Professor of Transportation Engineering and Head of the Intelligent Transport Systems Department, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, University of Zagreb. His main research interest is the development and application of computer science and technology in transportation.

Fernando Gomes de Almeida ([email protected]) obtained his PhD in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Bath, UK, and is an Associate Professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP). His main research areas are motion control, fluid power systems, robust and neural control of non-linear systems, force and impedance control of robotic systems.

Ivan Grgurević ([email protected]) is a project researcher in the CIVITAS ELAN project and an assistant teacher and researcher at the Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, Zagreb, Croatia. He is a doctoral candidate in traffic and transport technology. His fields of interests are transport planning&simulation, mobility management, and ICT technologies in transport.

Květoslav Havlík ([email protected]) is the Head of the Marketing and Development Department of KORDIS JMK, and the Public Transport Coordinator of Brno and the South Moravian Region in the Czech Republic. His fields of interest are public transport marketing and research, new technologies in public transport, implementation of international and local EU-funded projects.

Marjan Hočevar ([email protected]) is an Associate Professor of Spatial and Urban sociology and Travel and Tourism Studies at the Faculty of Social Sciences and the Faculty of Architecture, University of Ljubljana. His research focuses on urban changes and networking, urban regeneration, spatial planning, and mobility.

Viktor Jejčič ([email protected]) is the leader of the CIVITAS ELAN measure 1.7. “Pure plant oil for vehicle propulsion”. He is the Head of the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Institute of Slovenia, and a researcher. He has a master’s degree in Mechanical Engineering and a PhD in Agricultural Engineering. His research focuses on renewable energy resources (biogenic fuels with emphasis on the impact of biogenic fuels on the carbon footprint), biogenic fuels for vehicles with internal combustion engines and rational energy use.

Niko Jelušić ([email protected]) is an expert assistant in measure 8.2-ZAG Public transport priority and traveller information of the CIVITAS ELAN project. He is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, University of Zagreb. His research focuses on intelligent transport systems, especially the application of telematics technologies in traffic systems and collecting traffic flow data.

Davor Kontić ([email protected]) is the site evaluation manager for Ljubljana. He is currently employed as a researcher with the Jožef Stefan Institute (Department of Environmental Sciences) and as an assistant at the University of Nova Gorica (School of Environmental Sciences). His research focuses on environmental management related topics, specifically process safety related to land-use planning issues (major accidents prevention) and environmental impact assessment.

Drago Kos ([email protected]) is an Associate Professor of Urban and Environmental Sociology, Head of the Research Centre for Spatial Sociology at the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana. His research focuses on urban, environmental and developmental studies.

Iva Machalová ([email protected]) is employed with the Transport Department of the Brno City Municipality as a transport specialist and site manager of the CIVITAS ELAN project. She is a doctoral candidate at the Faculty of Science of the Masaryk University and currently working on a thesis entitled “Intermodal passenger transport in European cities involved in the CIVITAS ELAN Project”.

Marko Matulin ([email protected]) is the site evaluation manager for Zagreb. He is currently employed as a research assistant at the Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, University of Zagreb, where he also attends the postgraduate study programme Technological Systems in Transport and Traffic. His main fields of interest are telecommunication, intelligent transport systems, and the evaluation of the quality of service.

Luka Mladenovič ([email protected]) is a team member of the CIVITAS ELAN project’s measures 2.1-LJU Integrated high-quality mobility corridor and 4.9-LJU Update of the Sustainable Urban Transport Plan. He is a researcher in urban design and spatial planning. He is active in the field of spatial planning, focusing on transport in urban areas, especially walking, cycling, and accessibility to all users.

Štefica Mrvelj([email protected]) is an Assistant Professor and Vice Dean for academic and student affairs at the Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, University of Zagreb, and a member of the CIVITAS ELAN evaluation team from Zagreb. Her main research fields are the quality of service in traffic networks, network performance analysis, and capacity optimization, as well as intelligent transport systems.

Aljaž Plevnik ([email protected]) is the leader of measure 4.9-LJU Update of the Sustainable Urban Transport Plan. He is a researcher in urban and transport planning, active in the fields of transport and spatial planning, with a special focus on their integration, strategies of urban transport planning, and mobility management.

Tomaž Poje ([email protected]) is a team member of the CIVITAS ELAN project for measure M 1.7. “Pure plant oil for vehicle propulsion”. He is a researcher with a master’s degree in Agricultural Engineering and employed with the Department of Agricultural Engineering, Agricultural Institute of Slovenia. His research focuses on renewable energy sources with emphasis on liquid biogenic fuels (pure plant oil and biodiesel) and energy efficiency. Veselko Protega ([email protected]) is a team member of the CIVITAS ELAN project’s measures 7.1- COM Integrated Freight Policy Development and 7.4-ZAG Freight Delivery Restrictions. He is a Senior Lecturer at the University of Zagreb (Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences) and a researcher at the Faculty’s Institute of Road Transport and Traffic. His research focuses on road transport technologies and city logistics.

Lea Ružič ([email protected]) is a team member of the CIVITAS ELAN project’s measures 2.1-LJU Integrated high-quality mobility corridor and 4.9-LJU Update of the Sustainable Urban Transport Plan. She is a researcher in geography, active in the fields of transport, spatial planning, and environmental protection.

Daniel Seidenglanz ([email protected]) is an Assistant Professor of Geography at the Department of Geography, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University (Brno, Czech Republic). His research focuses on transport geography, especially railway and air transport, and the relations between transportation and urban and settlement systems.

Marko Slavulj ([email protected]) is the leader of measure 3.2-ZAG: Study of congestion charging and dialogue on pricing. He is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Urban Transport, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, University of Zagreb. His research focuses on urban traffic technology, transport planning, and road safety.

Ljupko Šimunović ([email protected]) participated in the development of measures 4.8-ZAG Improving cycling conditions and 2.5.-ZAG Intermodal high-quality mobility corridor and as site evaluator in the CIVITAS ELAN project. He is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Transport and Traffic Sciences, where he is the Head of the Chair of Urban Traffic Technology. His narrower professional interest is non-motorized traffic. José Pedro Tavares ([email protected]) is the site evaluation manager for the city of Porto, and responsible for supporting the City Council in the development of measures 2.10-OPO Participatory planning for new intermodal interchange and 3.5-OPO Integrated accessibility planning in Asprela quarter. He lectures at the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto (FEUP). His research focuses on urban traffic modelling, traffic engineering, and traffic management.

António Torres Marques ([email protected]) has a PhD in Mechanical Engineering and is a Full Professor at the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto (FEUP). Research areas: mechanical behaviour and durability of composite materials; design, manufacturing and testing of composite materials, NDT, biomechanics.

Franc Trček ([email protected]) is the scientific coordinator of the CIVITAS ELAN project. He is an Assistant Professor of Sociology at the University of Ljubljana and researcher at the university’s Center for Spatial Sociology. His research focuses on urban and regional studies, cybersociology, and Balkan Studies. He is the editor of Community-net in South and East Europe (2003) and co-editor of Glocal Localities (2002).

Matjaž Uršič ([email protected]) is a researcher a the Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Ljubljana, He is a member of the Centre for Spatial Sociology. His research focuses on society development, regional economies, infrastructural development, urban cultures.,and changes of consumption spaces, with particular reference to transformations due to processes of suburbanisation, deurbanisation, and reurbanisation.

Jana Válková ([email protected]) is a site evaluation manager of the CIVITAS ELAN project. She is employed as a project and evaluation officer with the Foreign Relations Department of the Brno City Municipality and is responsible for the management of international projects co-funded by the European Commission. Her research focuses on family policy, employment policies, and work-life balance in political discourse.

Cristina Vilarinho ([email protected]) is a researcher in the CIVITAS ELAN project, involved in measures 2.10-OPO Participatory planning for new intermodal interchange and 3.5-OPO Integrated accessibility planning in Asprela quarter. She is doctoral candidate in Transport Systems at the Faculty of Engineering of the University of Porto (FEUP). Her main area of research is traffic modelling.

Elias De Vos ([email protected]) is a member of the evaluation team of the CIVITAS ELAN project in Ghent. He is a director’s assistant, employed with the traffic research department of Ghent’s mobility company. His research focuses on traffic research - mobility surveys, traffic counting, traffic modelling, and GIS analysis.

Francisco Xavier Carvalho ([email protected]) is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto (FEUP). Research focus: industrial automation, the cork industry.

Frank Witlox ([email protected]) is a Professor of Economic Geography at the Department of Geography, Ghent University. He is also a visiting professor at ITMMA (Institute of Transport and Maritime Management Antwerp), and an Associate Director of GaWC (Globalization and World Cities, Loughborough University). Since 2010 he has been the Director of the Doctoral School of Natural Sciences (UGent). His research focuses on transport economics and geography, economic geography, spatial modelling techniques, (city) logistics, world cities and globalization, and land use change/development.

Anže Zorman ([email protected]) is a sociology graduate and post-graduate student of the Environmental and Spatial Sociology programme. His research focuses on the history of urban habitats and innovative forms of urban revitalization. He was instrumental in the implementation of CIVITAS ELAN public opinion polls on civil engagement in the Ljubljana region.