Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals: Offerings Both Within and Outside the Profession

Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals: Offerings Both within and Outside the Profession

By: Agnes K. Bradshaw

Bradshaw, A.K. (2013). Contrasting professional development and continuing education opportunities for library professionals: Offerings both within and outside the profession. In S.S. Hines (Ed.) Revolutionizing the Development of Library and Informational Professionals: Planning for the Future (144-162). Hershey, PA: IGI Global.

Made available courtesy of IGI Global: http://dx.doi.org/10.4018/978-1-4666-4675-9.ch010

Abstract:

By design or not, most librarians restrict their professional organization involvement to professional librarian organizations. Limiting professional involvement to only library related organizations will not provide the depth of professional knowledge that today’s librarian needs to have in order to keep up with the requirements of the profession. Library budgets and funding have been slashed due to economic downturns, and patrons are turning to libraries for assistance with a variety of concerns that libraries did not have to address in previous times. Reaching beyond the scope of the profession, librarians can broaden their knowledge base and use that broader knowledge base to benefit their patrons and communities.

Keywords: Libraries | Librarianship | Continuing education | Professional development | Professional organizations

***Note: Full text of chapter below Revolutionizing the Development of Library and Information Professionals: Planning for the Future

Samantha Schmehl Hines University of Montana - Missoula College, USA

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Revolutionizing the development of library and information professionals : planning for the future / Samantha Schmehl Hines, editor. pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4666-4675-9 (hardcover) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-4676-6 (ebook) -- ISBN 978-1-4666-4677-3 (print & perpetual access) 1. Librarians--In-service training--United States. 2. Library education (Continuing education)--United States. 3. Information science--Study and teaching (Continuing education)--United States. 4. Library science--United States--Societies. 5. Library institutes and workshops--United States. 6. Career development--United States. I. Hines, Samantha (Samantha Schmehl), editor of compilation. Z668.5R48 2014 020.71’55--dc23 2013025625

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Chapter 10 Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals: Offerings Both within and Outside the Profession

Agnes K. Bradshaw University of North Carolina – Greensboro, USA

ABSTRACT By design or not, most librarians restrict their professional organization involvement to professional librarian organizations. Limiting professional involvement to only library related organizations will not provide the depth of professional knowledge that today’s librarian needs to have in order to keep up with the requirements of the profession. Library budgets and funding have been slashed due to economic downturns, and patrons are turning to libraries for assistance with a variety of concerns that libraries did not have to address in previous times. Reaching beyond the scope of the profession, librarians can broaden their knowledge base and use that broader knowledge base to benefit their patrons and communities.

INTRODUCTION budget cuts, libraries are still facing demands from their constituencies that have forced them Librarians in all segments of the profession are to adapt to meet those demands. A variety of new being requested to assume a wider variety of skillsets are necessary to provide the services tasks and roles within their jobs. As with other that patrons now demand. Most professionals professions, technology has impacted the work rely on their respective professional organiza- librarians do, but so have economic and other tions to provide professional development and external forces. Libraries of all types have faced continuing education opportunities. Librarian- a variety of budgetary challenges; in spite of focused professional organizations offer a large

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-4666-4675-9.ch010

Copyright © 2014, IGI Global. Copying or distributing in print or electronic forms without written permission of IGI Global is prohibited. Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals

variety of continuing education and professional professional association committees. Professional development opportunities; however as librarians, development is not limited to academic librar- we must ask ourselves several questions about ians. In order to meet the service needs of an ever professional development and continuing educa- changing patron base, professional development tion. Should professional library/librarian-focused and continuing education are also important for organizations be the sole source of all our needs all librarians, no matter the constituent base they for professional development? My answer to this serve. Many professionals, librarians included, question is “No” and say that librarians should look obtain their continuing education and professional beyond librarianship for professional growth and development through their respective profes- development. There are several other questions sional organizations. Professional organizations that library professionals should ask concerning frequently offer or sponsor specialized profes- continuing education and professional develop- sional development and/or continuing education ment: How will our employers and constituencies opportunities that are unavailable elsewhere. Like benefit from our professional involvement outside other forms of education, technology has had a the profession? Are the continuing education and large impact, so professional development and/or professional development opportunities provided continuing education is now available virtually, by library professional organizations sufficient to using a variety of forms, such as webinars, online allow us to advance the profession? This chapter course offerings and teleconferences. will look at continuing education and profes- Bugher (1983) states the purpose of an asso- sional development opportunities provided by ciation is to “serve its members. Associations are major professional library organizations. The organized by people who voluntarily join together chapter will then outline some of the roles and to achieve common goals and solve common responsibilities that librarians are being asked to problems.” For purposes of this chapter, I will assume and compare those roles to the offerings by use the definition of “professional association” professional librarian organizations. Finally, this as provided by the Reference for Business Ency- chapter will review the advantages of professional clopedia for Business (2013): involvement outside of librarianship in fulfilling those roles and responsibilities. Professional and trade associations are membership organizations, usually nonprofit, which serve the interests of members who share a common BACKGROUND field of activity. Professional organizations—also called professional societies—consist of indi- Professional development and continuing educa- viduals of a common profession, whereas trade tion are crucial components to any profession. In associations consist of companies in a particular academic libraries, librarians may have faculty industry. Professional associations have the ad- status; and in fact may be tenured or tenure track ditional objectives of expanding the knowledge or faculty. Those librarians that are tenure track skills of its members and providing professional know that scholarship relating to the profession is standards. The definition of a profession is an a requirement for tenure attainment. In addition, occupation that requires considerable education there is the expectation that tenured and tenure and specialized training, such as medicine, law, track librarians will make meaningful contribu- accounting, and engineering. However, many use tions to the profession by professional writing, but the term more loosely to encompass any coherent also by presenting at conferences, and serving on occupation class.

145 Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals

Library professionals have been discussing initial preparation for librarianship. A second the importance of continuing education and pro- Congress, which focused on continuing education, fessional development for decades. Almost 50 was held in 2000 (ALA, 2000). A third Congress years ago Rothstein (1965) recommended that was held in 2003, designed to focus on the needs the American Library Association (ALA) assume of library support staff. The initial list (from the responsibility for continuing education and pro- first Congress) contained seven items on which fessional development for librarians. One of his to focus, but there were three items that specifi- recommendations was for ALA to “sell and publish cally mentioned continuing education and the role syllabi of ‘guided reading’” and for state library of ALA: developing a coordinated approach to associations to make continuing education their continuing education for library professionals post chief objective. (Rothstein, 1965, pp. 2226-2227) MLS; to explore an independent center for con- Elizabeth Stone seemed to be a pioneer in writing tinuing education for library professionals; and to about the importance of continuing education for work toward establishing professional conference librarians. Stone (1974) looked at numerous other programs towards a focus of continuing educa- professional organizations (examples include the tion that would have standards in place. (Varlejs, American Association for Respiratory Therapy, 2000.) Years after the initial ALA Congress, it is and the Ohio Society of Professional Engineers) unclear that these recommendations have been and reviewed their practices for recognition of implemented. continuing education systems. Stone (1990) refers Varlejs (2003) is critical of the approach that to the 1977 International Federation of Library has been taken for continuing education for librar- Associations (IFLA) Jubilee Conference held in ians and points out the difficulty of comparing Brussels in which she called for IFLA to assume librarians to other professions that require cer- a leading role in continuing education for librar- tification or licensure. She is also critical of the ians. Decades later after writings not only by institutions that offer professional development Rothstein, Stone and others, it would appear that and continuing education opportunities for librar- librarianship, unlike many other professions, still ians that are sources of revenue for the sponsoring does not have universal or uniform standards for organization or professional association. This is continuing education and professional develop- also a criticism directed at other professions that ment. Standards are important, as standards would require continuing education by their members, address quantity, frequency, and quality of the and obtain the continuing education from their content of the material. Standards would also be sponsoring professional association. Varlejs also a way to assess if learning took place. A further points out the difficulty in requiring continuing way to assess the quality of the learning would education where there is no state requirement, be to determine if the learning transferred to the as with licensure. The problem of enforcement actual workplace and the impact on the external of standards is difficult, since employers are not beneficiaries of that learning. Admittedly, this required to hire only those with the certification, would be difficult to measure, but as professionals, such as the MLA certification program. we have an obligation to ensure that we have the appropriate measures concerning our professional Where and How Do Librarians growth and development in place to meet the needs Get Professional Development of the people who come to us for assistance. and/or Continuing Education? In 1999, the American Library Association held the first of three (thus far) “Congresses on Professional librarian organizations are available Professional Education” which focused on the on the international, national, state and/or local

146 Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals

level. In “National Trade and Professional Asso- since learning can take many forms; the results ciations in the United States” there are 72 profes- of informal learning are difficult to capture and sional associations categorized under the heading measure, but still have a profound impact on a “Libraries.” These listings do not include the state profession and its members. Examples of informal library association in each state, e.g., the North learning would be participating in professional list Carolina Library Association. In addition, within serves to learn about current professional activi- larger associations such as the Special Libraries ties: publications, upcoming events, participation Association (SLA), there may be more than one in a professional network to get practical solu- chapter within a state that has a large population tions for real-life issues conference attendance, or is spread out over a large geographical area, participation in professional associations, and such as Ohio, which has three chapters: Cleve- participating in a mentor-mentee relationship. land, Central Ohio and Cincinnati. As a librarian For this writing, professional development and who had a different career prior to becoming a continuing education as defined by the Reference librarian, I wanted to investigate the continuing for Business Encyclopedia for Business (2013) education and professional development offerings will be used. Professional development is: from ALA and other large librarian professional association. Some of the organizations listed in Process of improving and increasing capabilities the “National Trade and Professional Associations of staff through access to education and training in the United States” are divisions of the largest opportunities in the workplace, through outside librarian professional organization, ALA; such as organization or through watching others perform the Association of College and Research Libraries the job. Professional development helps build and (ACRL) and the American Association of School maintain morale of staff members and is thought Librarians (AASL). ALA has eleven divisions, to attract higher quality staff to an organization. based upon professional segment (academic libraries or public libraries) or on professional Continuing education will be defined as: specialty/focus or interest (technical services or management.) ALA membership is required to Formal lectures, courses, seminars, webinars, or join a division. any other similar type of educational program According to the literature, many librarians designed to educate an individual and give him or seek professional involvement through a formal her further skills or knowledge to be applied in his international or national professional library as- or her line of work. These programs are intended sociation, such as ALA. This chapter will focus on to educate persons on new advancements, or to library organizations that are based in the United build upon a person’s expertise in a given field. States; an international analysis would require a These may be optional for some trades, but in different focus and would result in a much longer other circumstances can be required to maintain chapter. The literature indicates that librarians status, certification or licensure. often confine their professional associations to library related professional organizations. Re- I feel it is important to distinguish between stricting professional organizational membership the two because much of the professional litera- to one’s own profession is not unique; one of the ture regarding librarians refers to “professional primary purposes of a professional organization development.” is to provide opportunities for the members that As other professional organizations do, ALA cannot be obtained elsewhere. In this chapter, I serves a multitude of functions, many of which are will use professional development in a broad sense, not related to professional development. ALA has

147 Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals

advocacy functions, and is also responsible for the education; it just means in the absence of a formal accreditation of graduate library science programs requirement, there are librarians that will chose throughout the United States and Canada. Other not to update their skills at the expense of their professional librarian organizations are devoted to own professional growth and at the expense of the a specific constituency within the profession, such constituencies that rely on librarians. In addition, as the Art Libraries Society of North Americas, the the absence of a formal requirement will also Medical Library Association, and the American mean that there is no objective way to measure the Association of Law Librarians. Members of those quality of the professional development delivered organizations may or may not belong to ALA; and few measures to determine the value of that membership in a job specific association may be professional development received when put into more beneficial professionally. practice back on the job. Unlike many professions, librarians do not Certification for librarians has been discussed have continuing education or certification require- in the professional literature, and that is not the ments in order to remain a working member of focus of this chapter. However, the absence of a the profession after achieving the MLS. Many requirement does not mean that librarians do not professions, including attorneys, certified public take advantage of opportunities to continually accounts, physicians and other professionals are learn new skills and advance their knowledge of required to attend continuing education classes the profession. Learning may take a variety of and obtain a minimum of continuing education forms, and much of the learning we do as adults requirements in order to continuing practicing may be considered informal and/or self-directed as a member of the profession. Librarians do learning. Exceptions to what could be described not have certification or licensure requirements as informal learning would include formal degree (School Media Specialists are the exception to requirements or specific certification require- this; each state determines its own requirements ments. Reading current professional literature, for certification of school media specialists, or if participating in professional listservs, attending certification is even required). Law librarians may webinars, and attending professional associa- have a law degree, and be members of the state tion meetings are all examples of self-directed bar and continuing education may be required professional development in which a librarian for them to continue to maintain their license to can participate without belonging to a library practice law. Continuing education for those li- professional organization. However, the problem brarians who have a law degree should be viewed with self-directed learning is that there is little in separately from the requirements that would be the way of objective measurements to determine necessary for the librarian to practice law. if learning did take place, as well as the value There is no requirement that a librarian receive of that learning. We have seen that many other any additional education (formal or informal) in professions have formal ways of providing and a defined time period after the completion of the assessing continuing education and professional MLS degree, although there are academic librar- development, but librarians have not. ians that have a second master’s degree. The value and need for a second master’s degree is up for Reasons to Join a debate, and the requirement for a second master’s Professional Association degree can vary by employer (Mayer and Terrill, 2005). Lack of a continuing education requirement The reasons to join a librarian professional organi- does not mean that professional librarians do not zation are varied. Frank (1997) gives the following pursue professional development or continuing reasons for joining a library related professional

148 Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals

organization: “relevant sources of information; librarians (science and technology) that librarian contributors to effective leadership; opportunities focused professional organizations do not address for research and publication; facilitators of effec- and asks the participants about membership ben- tive communication; and a sense of professional efits in discipline based professional organizations. community.” Glendenning and Gordon (1997) Just as librarians choose to join librarian pro- promote leadership as a reason for the importance fessional organizations, there are those that elect of professional association, and cite several pro- not to join a professional association. The reasons fessional library organizations (American Library for not joining also vary, but Kamm (1997) cites Association, the Medical Library Association and economic concerns (especially if the employer the Special Libraries Association) as examples does not pay for the cost of memberships); personal of organizations that have developed leadership dissatisfaction with the organization; too large of programs for their members. Burch (1999) also a time commitment (to serve on committees, etc.) discussed the value of leadership opportunities. and not feeling the value is justified by the price of Zabel (2008) points out the value of mentoring membership. Cassner and Adams (2006) list lack that professional librarian associations provide, of funding as barriers to obtaining professional while Davidson and Middleton (2006) include development, specifically for distance learning retention of librarians (specifically of science librarians. However, the librarians in this study librarians) as important for joining professional recognized the need for professional development associations. Davidson and Middleton specifically in areas specific to the work they do, including point out the value of science liaison librarians instructional design and assessment skills, keep- joining professional organizations outside the ing current with technological changes, and the library profession in order to obtain benefits that ability to attend industry specific conferences. cannot be obtained elsewhere. Castro (2010) gives proficiency, leadership, and advocacy as reasons to join a professional association. Both Burch and OPPORTUNITIES PROVIDED Castro specifically mention memberships in state BY MAJOR PROFESSIONAL library associations. Thomas (2012) lists the fol- LIBRARY ASSOCIATIONS lowing as reasons to join a professional association: educational opportunities; advocacy; networking American Library Association opportunities; and leadership. The literature is not clear that formal professional development In preparation for writing this chapter, I wanted to is a primary rationale for joining or continuing learn the specifics about professional development membership is of a professional library associa- that ALA and other librarian professional association; however this may be because there is not a tions offer their members. I am a member of both universal definition of professional development ALA and SLA so I receive correspondence from for librarians. Davidson and Middleton (2006) cite them (print and electronic) about professional networking as the rationale for joining a profes- development opportunities. Much of correspon- sional organization and mentoring (both formal dence I receive from ALA seems to center around and informal) as a reason for joining professional offers to purchase ALA professional publications organizations; their study showed their participants and opportunities to participate in various virtual consider networking to be an informal method professional development offerings, including of mentoring. Theirs is one of the few articles webinars and online course offerings. However, that makes mention of the professional develop- ALA does give their members the opportunity ment and continuing education needs of specific to self-select some of the correspondence they

149 Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals

receive, which makes it difficult to understand interest. In addition, since ALA dues are based on their marketing attempts. When I began the re- the amount of divisions or round tables to which search for this chapter, there was no link on the you belong, joining a group in which you have home page that would take a member directly to a a minor interest or need to obtain some quick section devoted specifically to professional devel- information about a new assignment at work may opment. As my work on the chapter progressed, not be economically feasible. ALA did update their site, and there is now a link I viewed the site to see what offerings that on the home page that will connect the viewer represented my professional interests and re- directly to online learning offerings. The ALA sponsibilities were available. I am a member of site is a large portal, and from the site it appears ACRL, so I went to the ACRL elearning page. that professional development offerings are the On the day of my access (March 3, 2013), there responsibility of the various divisions of ALA. were three elearning course offerings under the While is it difficult to know the specific reason ACRL page (see Table 1). ACRL holds a biennial the site is organized in this manner, I suspect that conference; the literature review earlier in the the organization of professional development chapter revealed that many librarians consider offerings may have been done in this manner be- conferences to be a significant and important cause professional development is often specific source of professional development and continuing in need: the professional development needs of education. ACRL offers institutes and workshops, a librarian who has responsibility for electronic but all the offerings I saw when I accessed the purchasing may be very different than the needs site were held previously. There were no current of a librarian that has responsibility for public offerings. ACRL also offered various elearning services. Since ALA is so large, I suspect many opportunities, including webcasts. These offerings members confine their personal involvement to are available to non members. One of the elearning specific divisions or round tables in order to have opportunities were “On Point Chats” which are access to targeted information about their specific live, unmoderated chat sessions on topics such

Table 1. ACRL E-learning course offerings March 3, 2013

Course Name Course Type Fees Course Length Learning Outcomes/ Objectives Listed Embedded Librarians: Live Webcast ACRL member: $ 50 90 Minutes Yes Integrating Information ALA member: $75 Lieracy with Instructino Nonmember: $90 at the Point of Need Student: $40 Group*: 295 Implementing Online This course was offered in ACRL member: $50 Unknown; the course Yes Teaching and Learning: September 2012. It was not ALA member: $75 was offered in two Using Moddle and Other clrea from the site if the Nonmember: $195 phases. It was unclear Web 2.0 Feature course would be offered Student: $60 from the description again. the frequency of the course offering. Mobile Apps: What You This course was offerend in ACRL member: $135 Unknown; the course Yes Need to Know October-November 2012. It ALA member: $175 was offered in two was not clrea from the site fi Nonmember $195 phases. It was unclear the course would be offered Student: $60 from the description again. the frequency of the course offering.

150 Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals

as “PhDs in Academic Libraries” and “Student the Certified Library Support Staff Certification.) Learning Outcomes.” According to the site, the For the CPLA program, there is a core curriculum last chat was held in 2011, although chat archives (Budget and Finance, Management of Technol- are available. ogy, Organization and Personnel Administration, I am also a member of the Library Leadership and Planning and Management of Buildings) and Management Association (LLAMA) so I went and a series of electives, 3 out of the 5 electives to the LLAMA elearning page to view their cur- are required. Recertification must be done every rent offerings. There were none, although there 5 years, and recertification is contingent upon were elearning offerings under “Management the applicant obtaining the appropriate required Issues for Library Leaders.” Under that label, there number of continuing education credits. PLA were eight categories: Budgeting: Buildings & also offers a series on on-demand webinars on Facilities; Certification; Friends, Foundations, a variety of topics, as well as online workbooks Trustees & Volunteers; Human Resources & Staff and online classes. They sponsor social media Development; Leadership & Management; Mar- forums (using Facebook) which give members keting & Public Relations; Technology. There an opportunity to discuss topics of interest with were course offerings for all categories except for a subject matter expert. one: Certification. The Budget category had one The final ALA division I reviewed for pro- offering: “Trustee Academy: The Library’s Bud- fessional development and continuing education get (United for Libraries.) The intended audience opportunities was the American Association for this course was given as “Trustees.” Since I of School Librarians (AASL.) AASL has an am responsible for the human resources function e-Academy that provides a variety of elearning within my library, I went to the “Human Re- opportunities. AASL offers eCollab, which is sources & Staff Development” section to see what billed as AASL’s elearning laboratory. eCollab offerings were available. See Table 2. is only available to AASL members, or by paid As stated earlier, professional development and subscription. Since I am not a member of AASL, continuing education from ALA appears to be the I was not able to see the eCollab offerings. AASL responsibility of the Divisions. ALA is huge, and offers “Licensed Institutes” which as defined as it has many divisions devoted to serving specific “full day educational workshops.” Topics include segments and interests within the profession, such “School Library Advocacy;” “Reading and the as the Library Information and Technology As- Elementary School Librarian;” and “Collabora- sociation (LITA) and the Association for Library tive Leadership.” Collections and Technical Services (ALCTS.) To learn about the other professional develop- Special Libraries Association ment opportunities that ALA offers from divisions to which I do not belong, I viewed the continuing In order to learn how other library professional education opportunities from the Public Library organizations promote professional development, Association (PLA) and the American Asso- I viewed the sites of two other librarian profes- ciation of School Librarians (AASL.) Together sional organizations to analyze their professional with ACRL, those organizations are the largest development offerings. In addition to being a Divisions within ALA. PLA holds its own bien- member of ALA, I am also a member of the Spe- nial conference and in 2013 sponsored a pilot cial Libraries Association (SLA.) As a member, leadership academy. PLA sponsors the Certified I was able to access the full site (http://www.sla. Public Library Administrator ® Program. (PLA org/), not just the pages that are only available to also sponsors a program for library support staff, non-members, so I had complete access to their

151 Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals

Table 2. Human resources and staff development: E-Learning course offering March 3, 2013

Course Name Course Type Fees Course Length Learning Outcomes/ Objectives Listed How Diversity Matters: Micro- Recorded Webcast ALA member: $20 55 minutes No Practices that Keep Libraries Nonmember: $25 Relevant Group: $120* PLA Customer Service/Staff De- Unknown- This link led N/A N/A N/A velopment On-Demand Webinars to a page giving course offerings from the Public Library Association Recruiting for Diversity Recorded Webcast ALA member: $20 55 minutes No Nonmember: $25 Group: $120 The Accidental Public Library Real time course (via Web PLA Personal Member: Four Week Course Yes Technology Trainer Ex and Moodle) offered $129 by the Public Library As- ALA Personal Mem- sociation ber:$159 Nonmember: $179 The Diversity Committee: Your Recorded Webcast ALA member: $20 55 minutes No Library’s Completive Advantage Nonmember: $25 Group: $120* The Diversity Conversation: Why Recorded webcast ALA member: $20 55 minutes No You Need to Have it and How to Nonmember: $25 Start It Group: $120* Valuing Diversity Recorded webcast ALA member: $20 55 minutes No Nonmember: $25 Group: $120*

professional development and continuing educa- ing education opportunities. A large variety of tion offerings. elearning opportunities are available through According to the Encyclopedia of Associations, SLA. SLA offers elearning courses through its SLA is described as an “international association own Click University (Continuous Learning to of information professionals who work in special Improve Career Knowledge) and SLA has created libraries serving business, research, government, the Click University Consortium to partner with universities, newspapers, museums and institu- several ALA accredited Masters programs (includ- tions that use or produce specialized information.” ing Drexel University and Kent State University) to As with ALA, there are local chapters of SLA, and offered discounted program tuition. Open only to well as divisions and caucuses that are devoted to SLA members, the Innovation Lab is supposed to specific interests within the larger group. I belong provide a platform to experiment with a variety of to the Academic, Leadership & Management and technology applications for free. However, I found Insurance & Employee Benefits divisions. SLA’s many of the links in the “Technology” section are dues are charged on a sliding scale, according to not new (Facebook, Google, MySpace) but other the salary of the member. links to web tools such as online survey building As an SLA member I receive correspondence tools may be valuable to a librarian working in a (print and electronic) about membership benefits, small library and/or with a limited budget. Other including professional development and continu- professional development opportunities from SLA

152 Contrasting Professional Development and Continuing Education Opportunities for Library Professionals

include a resume review service, a podcast center MLA. Admission to and the level of academy and a searchable vendor database. SLA offers membership (Provisional, Member, Senior, Distin- certificate programs in both Copyright Manage- guished and Emeritus) are based on three areas of ment and Knowledge Management through Click achievement: academic preparation, professional University as well as a leadership program, which experience, and professional accomplishment.” is designed for those that want to assume a leader- According the site, ship role within SLA. For the professional librarian, academy mem- Medical Library Association bership provides a structure for professional development. From the initial needs assessment The home page of the Medical Library Association and mentoring of provisional members to the http://www.mlanet.org/) describes the organiza- recognition of professional accomplishments of tion as “a nonprofit, educational organization distinguished members, the academy is here to with more than 4,000 health sciences information support professional librarians. Membership in the professional members and partners worldwide. academy recognizes and encourages professional MLA provides lifelong educational opportunities, activities, and the AHIP designation demonstrates supports a knowledgebase of health information this commitment to professional development. research, and works with a global network of partners to promote the importance of quality While MLA has had a credentialing program information for improved health to the health care since 1949, the latest credentialing program community and the public.” MLA’s continuing has been in effect since 1993. Members of the education offerings are described on the home Academy must demonstrate continuing educa- page of the site and at the time of site access, the tion requirements every five years. There are five organization was preparing for their upcoming levels of membership; members can be admit- annual meeting and exhibition. According to the ted without an ALA accredited MLS, but those site, “[t]he year 2013 will provide a unique op- without the degree must demonstrate successful portunity to explore the global interdependency completion of documented coursework aligned of health information at a federated international with the professional competencies as defined by meeting incorporating the 2013 Annual Meeting MLA. Membership in MLA is not required for and Exhibition of the Medical Library Association admittance into the Academy of Health Informa- (MLA ’13), the 11th International Congress on tion Professionals. According to the MLA site, Medical Librarianship (ICML), the 7th Interna- in 2014 the Provisional membership status will tional Conference of Animal Health Information require applicants to demonstrate 5 professional Specialists (ICAHIS), and the 6th International accomplishments annually. Clinical Librarian Conference (ICLC).” The home According to the website, becoming a member page had a listing of continuing education course of the Academy not only benefits the employee, offerings that would be available at the meeting. but the employer of the member as well. “Em- MLA is unusual within the profession, because ploying institutions view academy membership as they administer a credentialing program (which proof that their librarians are committed to their is not the same as certification or licensure) for own professional development and continuing those within the medial librarian profession. Ac- education. Institutions who value academy mem- cording the MLA site, “The Academy of Health bership recognize and reinforce the importance Information Professionals (AHIP) is a professional the health information professional plays in their development and career recognition program of organization.” However, it is difficult to accurately

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assess the employer value of certification, since and some from other organizations, such as the certification is voluntary, and not required to be National Network of Libraries of Medicine, the a medical librarian. Institutes for Healthcare Advancement and the Application for membership in the academy is a National Institutes of Health. Course offerings multi-step process, the first of which is to provide are searchable, and each course has a well-written documentation: evidence of educational creden- description providing the course objectives, type tials such as an MLS. Membership admittance is of course (webinar, lecture, etc.) and the length based on the point system in five categories: Con- of the course. What I was unable to determine as tinuing Education; Individual Accomplishments a non-member was the cost (if any) of the course (divided into two sub categories: Part 1 includes offerings. MLA offers an online “boot camp” for teaching and publishing and Part 2 includes ac- new medical librarians, which is a series of elearn- tivities such as poster presentation, and meeting ing and self paced course offerings that are tied to attendance); Professional Association Participa- MLA’s professional competencies. The boot camp tion; and Other Activities. Level of membership is offerings are directed at recent MLS graduates or determined by number of years in the profession those experienced librarians that are transitioning and the number of Professional Accomplishment to health library responsibilities. The offerings Points. It is important to note that accomplish- were varied, ranging from topics on health science ments that are considered job requirements are not information (“Making PubMed Work for You;” considered towards the total. Those that wish to health sciences resource management (“Tips for become a member of the Academy must complete Negotiating Electronic Licenses”) information an application documenting evidence of profes- technology (“Geeks Bearing Gifts: Unwrapping sional practice to the credentialing committee for New Technology Trends” and leadership (“Every- review. Part of the credentialing process for Provi- day Leadership for Medical Librarians.”) There sional members is submission of a “Self Review are even course offerings on instructional design of Professional Competency” areas, by which an and curriculum development. applicant completes a self-assessment of his/her “Level of Knowledge”, “Importance to Career” Is Professional Conference and “Areas for Attention” to the mentor. In addi- Attendance Professional tion, the applicant is responsible for listing areas Development? of professional development that must be reviewed annually by the applicant’s mentor. Included in There are those in the profession that consider the professional development plan is documen- conference attendance a major source of profes- tation of success in achieving the objective. At sional development. (Miller, 1999; Lyons, 2007; the “Member” level of AHIP, documentation of Harrison, 2010) However, librarians should ask completion of continuing education is required, themselves, “Should professional conference although the definition of continuing education is attendance be considered professional develop- broad, and can range from completion of a course ment?” Since there are no uniform standards to participation in a professional discussion group for what is considered continuing education and as well as self-directed learning. professional development, how do we determine MLA also offers two specialization programs, that sessions attended at a conference will pro- one for a specialization in Consumer Health and vide value and how can that value be assessed? one for Disaster Information, as well as a variety The literature also indicates that there are library of professional development and continuing professionals that do not join librarian profes- education course offerings; some from MLA sional organizations. It would be safe to assume

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that many of those same librarians do not attend in academia or in the non-profit sector. However, annual conferences. How do those librarians get librarians who work in public libraries or for state their professional development? Often the profes- institutions face decreasing state or municipal sional development offerings are only available support for funding. This means many librarians to members; how do non-members get what they will face the possibility of having decreased em- need to broaden their knowledge and skills? ployer support or not having employer support at There has been debate as to whether confer- all for conference attendance or other professional ence attendance may be considered professional development opportunities. development. I have seen comments on discussion I belong to a section of an online group di- lists about the value of conference attendance, both rected at librarians (however, the larger group is pro and con. As mentioned earlier, conference at- not librarian-specific) and one of the members tendance is often expensive, and usually the larger posed a question to the discussion board asking professional organizations hold their conference in about how to develop a proposal to justify her large metropolitan cities because those cities are attendance at ALA. She was a public librarian, the only places that can accommodate the size of and the library’s budget was controlled by the the audience. While it would be more cost effec- city manager. In the opinion of the city manager, tive for conferences to be held in cites that do not conference attendance did not count as professional have high lodging and transportation costs, it is development. While ALA does have a statement not possible, given the limitations that many other prepared that potential conference attendees can conference hosting cities may have. In addition, use in an attempt to justify conference attendance, difficult economic times have had an impact on it may be hard to make the case that spending everyone, including vendors who underwrite a $1000 or more is justified for professional de- portion of the conference costs. velopment when the collections budget has been Another problem that impacts conference atten- slashed, and that repairs to the physical facility dance is justifying conference attendance as actual have been delayed due to financial limitations. In professional development. Justifying professional addition to the financial concerns, library direc- conference attendance as professional develop- tors and managers may want to determine how is ment may not be a large a problem for academic learning assessed and measured from attending librarians, whose job is to support faculty and a conference session? How do you measure the students. However, for public librarians or those impact of conference session attendance on the academic librarians serving smaller institutions, in employee, the additional beneficiaries (patron, an era of decreasing budgets, travel budgets may be student, client, etc.?) These are the questions one of the first items to be reduced or eliminated. that professional library organizations will need This happened at my institution—due to state to address in a different manner than they have budget reductions, our professional development in the past. budget, which included travel funds, was reduced. The profession is becoming more responsive We were still permitted to travel to conferences, to those who do not have the resources (time and/ but staff members had to incur a greater personal or money) to travel to professional conferences. share of the cost. There are institutions that do not Virtual conferences and “unconferences” are of- have the funding to sponsor conference attendance. fered by professional organizations, and can offer What is the impact of non-conference attendance access to professional development or continuing on those librarians? education courses in a more cost effective manner, Return on Investment is a common term in as there are no travel and lodging costs. However, the private sector, and it is a term not often used in a virtual conference, interaction with other pro-

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fessionals may be limited; and it is contact with literature surrounding librarians obtaining profes- other professionals that is seen as one of the most sional development from non library professional valuable components of professional development. organizations is limited. Flatley and Weber (2004) Due to technology changes, professionals (along directed their article to new academic librarians, with others) are interacting with each other in a and they specifically recommend ACRL and “at variety of ways virtually; librarians are no differ- least one local or state library association.” They ent. Virtual learning opportunities also have their make no mention of joining professional organiza- own set of challenges such as immediate technical tions outside librarianship, either not considering support for learners, appropriate hardware and that many academic librarians have collection de- software requirements, broadband access (not velopment and subject specialist responsibilities, universally available within the U.S.) in addition or believing that librarian focused professional to the concern about the quality of the instruction organizations would provide everything a librarian being delivered. I participated in a 60-minute would need for professional development. webinar where the facilitators had technical dif- Tysick (2002) argues that librarians that only ficulties and no on-site support to guide them. attend professional conferences directed at librar- In addition, it appeared the facilitators were at ians overlook the professional development ben- best subject matter experts on the content being efits that can be derived from attending specific delivered, not experts at content delivery. It was disciple based conferences. She specifically cites obvious to me that the facilitators did not practice her opportunity to meet an important author to with the technology being used for the session the discipline she supported in her work as an prior to the live session. At the end of the session, academic librarian, as well as the opportunities I had such a poor impression of the course that to acquire skills that will be helpful to her patron I would not attend another session provided by base (faculty and students). Her attendance at a this group. However, since there does not seem professional conference not related to librarianship to be universal standards on the design, develop- gave her an opportunity to learn how to create ment and delivery of professional development a database for specific discipline-related data opportunities for librarians; I am certain I am that are not available through librarian-related not the only librarian who has experienced this. professional organizations. Tysick also points Those professions that have defined standards out another advantage of attending conferences about professional development and continuing outside librarianship; the opportunity to create a education would have an easier time of not offer- wider professional network. ing (or eliminating) course offerings that did not As mentioned earlier, the literature makes little meet the defined standards. mention of professional development obtained by librarians outside the profession. Lyons (2007) does discuss academic librarians with collection PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT development responsibilities deciding to attend OUTSIDE OF LIBRARIANSHIP discipline related conferences as opposed to annual ALA conference. Lyons specifically compares the What about those subject liaison/subject specialist various learning informal learning opportunities librarians--will they get the knowledge necessary at the American Political Science Association to keep up with trends in their respective disciplines (APSA) conference and an ALA annual confer- from a library professional organization? Lyons ence. Lyons makes note of the difference in ven- (2007) and Bennett (2010) argue that they will dors at the APSA (more monograph publishers at not. Both Lyons and Bennett point out that the ASPA, while ALA was dominated by electronic

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vendors.) Lyons concludes that attendance at a opportunities for mentoring (both being a mentor professional conference not directed at librarians and being a mentee); the potential for leadership may be beneficial to librarians that have collection roles; the opportunity for advocacy on behalf of development responsibilities. the profession outside librarianship and the patrons Bennett (2010) has one of the few studies that you serve; availability of professional colleagues actually look at the impact of librarians belonging to provide and seek solutions to workplace and to non-librarian professional organizations, not professional issues; opportunities to collaborate just attending non-library-related professional with colleagues to make meaningful contributions conferences. While the sample size was small to the community you serve; and the chance to take (10 librarians) the study did conclude that there advantage of continuing education on a formal or are significant benefits (increased knowledge for informal basis. Non-library-related professional collection development responsibilities, improved associations can offer even more benefits. I will relationships with faculty for those involved in illustrate with an example from my own job. liaison work, increased knowledge of current At my institution, I am responsible for manag- trends within the field; possible positive impact ing human resources functions. My responsibilities on outreach activities.) The consideration of the require that I keep current with specific human impact for those academic librarians who are ten- resources issues such as legislative changes and ure track (specifically the issue of how to measure current best practices for recruitment. None of the professional and/or service contribution made the professional library organizations to which outside of the librarian profession) must not be I belong can give me the information I need to overlooked. For academic libraries that do not be effective in the work I do. As an example, the value professional contributions outside librari- upcoming implementation (federal legislation) of anship, this may pose a problem for evaluating the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act tenure criteria. (PPAC) will go into effective January 1, 2014. PPAC will require most employers to offer health insurance coverage to employees working 30 or SOLUTIONS AND more hours a week. As a member of a national RECOMMENDATIONS human resources professional organization, including a local chapter, I have known about the I would argue that restricting professional in- potential impact for employers for some time now. volvement only to library-related organizations Membership in the national human resources may limit professional growth for librarians of organization allows me to have access for human all types. Library patrons and users may also be resources benefits information compiled by other impacted by these limitations. As librarians are human resources professionals that I would not asked to assume new and varied responsibilities, have otherwise. My library is open 24 hours a day, they should strongly consider the benefits of join- 5 days a week and we employee a large number ing non-library-related professional organizations of students, including undergraduate, graduate to take advantage of the professional development LIS students, other graduate students working as offerings that might not be available through graduate assistantsLibrary managers and super- library-related professional organizations. No visors need to be able to understand the impact matter the type of library in which a librarian is of the legislation and the impact it will have on working, the benefits of belonging to a professional employee work scheduling. association can be many: expansion of your per- Not only will my knowledge and expertise be sonal and professional network; the ability to find useful within the library, but it will be helpful to

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other departments on campus. As an academic for those librarians working in small libraries that institution, my expertise has an impact on a variety have limited financial resources for professional of employee types, including both undergraduate development, or for those librarians that are located and graduate students, adjunct instructors, grant in geographical areas where traveling to a large funded employees and contract and temporary conference in a large metropolitan area may be employees. Not only am I responsible for interpret- prohibitively expensive. Researching the impact ing the impact of this upcoming legislation on my of distance learning, including Massive Open library, I presently chair the University Benefits Online Courses (MOOCs), would be beneficial Committee at my institution. My local human to the profession. resources chapter is sponsoring an upcoming meet- As an academic librarian, I am very familiar ing specifically designed to provide employers with the increased emphasis on assessment and its with information on upcoming healthcare reform impact on the work that we do. I think the oppor- changes. I will be working with other university tunities for assessing both the type and the impact employees (both faculty and non-faculty) in help- of professional development and continuing educa- ing to communicate the impact of this legislation tion for our profession is huge. Other professions across the campus. In my role on the Benefits have formal methods of ensuring that members Committee, I will perform a service in working obtain continuing professional development and to communicate the impact of these changes on continuing education; librarians should also. campus and provide guidance to departments to My participation in professional organizations best manage the impact. outside librarianship has helped provide value to I have mentioned previously that librarians do my institution, my library and the library employ- not have licensure or certification requirements. ees. Future research opportunities would include The MLS is the terminal degree for a librarian; a more exhaustive study about those librarians however other professions have formal continuing who do belong to other professional organizations education requirements, even after the individual outside librarianship and what they gain from has been awarded the professional degree. Today, that membership. We need to be able to assess many professions have uniform standards for the value of that learning and knowledge and its continuing education and formal professional importance to the profession. Finally, since not development offerings that are standardized and all librarians belong or participate in library pro- offer their members the opportunity to benefit from fessional organizations, it would be beneficial to those standardized options. For reasons that are learn how those librarians obtain their professional unclear, librarianship seems to have not taken the development and continuing education. direction that many other professions have when it comes to developing formalized and standardized continuing education. CONCLUSION

If librarians are expected to assist those seeking FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS knowledge and information for either professional or personal reasons, then expecting all professional With the increased opportunities for technology- development needs to come from library-related based learning, librarians have even more re- professional organizations is not realistic in today’s sources at their disposal to engage in professional rapidly expanding world of information. Confining development and continuing education. Distance professional development to only library related learning opportunities are especially important professional organizations risks overlooking op-

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portunities that would assist librarians in gaining a way of expanding professional knowledge, which wider base of professional knowledge and network not only benefits the individual librarian, but also that would benefit not only the librarian, but also the patrons they serve as well as the profession. benefit patrons. Professional development and/or continuing education offered by professional associations REFERENCES may be generalized or determined by professional specialty. For example, a session on budgeting American Library Association Report on the from a management association may be beneficial Congresses of Professional Education. (2000). to librarians that wish to advance in their career Retrieved from http://www.ala.org/offices/hrdr/ from librarian to department head or a librarian educprofdev/congressprofessional who has recently assumed the position of library Bennett, M. H. (2010). The benefits of non-library director. Such a session might also be helpful for professional organization membership for liaison a person on a professional association committee librarians. Journal of Academic Librarianship, that will have responsibility for handling funds. 37(1), 46–53. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2010.10.006. The budgeting session does not have to be directed specifically to libraries, although a session Bugher, R. D. (1983). Historians in professional directed specifically at librarians might provide associations. The Public Historian, 5, 77–83. informal networking opportunities from other doi:10.2307/3377030. librarians within the immediate geographical area. Burch, S. (1999). Professional library associations: A public library director for a large library system An ally for the 21st century. Kentucky Libraries, may be asked to oversee a renovation project or 63(4), 14–17. a major funding raising campaign. Membership in non-library-related professional organizations Cassner, M., & Adams, K. E. (2006). Assessing such as project management associations or non- the professional development needs of distance profit executive associations may be beneficial librarians in academic libraries. Journal of Library due to continuing education offerings that may Administration, 45(1-2), 81–99. doi:10.1300/ not be readily available from library professional J111v45n01_05. organizations. In addition, the opportunities to Castro, M. (2010). The value of professional tap into a network of other professionals whose associations. Texas Library Journal, 86(4), 116. area of expertise is outside librarianship may be extremely beneficial. Davidson, J. R., & Middleton, C. A. (2006). Professional development comes in a variety Networking, networking, networking: the role of of offerings. Like other professionals, librarians professional association memberships in mentor- must make choices when making decisions about ing and retention of science librarians. Science joining a professional association as well as which & Technology Libraries, 27(1-2), 203–224. professional associations not to join. Limiting doi:10.1300/J122v27n01_14. memberships may be a necessity due to financial Flatley, R. K., & Weber, M. A. (2004). Perspec- considerations or other professional commitments. tives on… professional development opportunities However, as part of a professional community, for new academic librarians. Journal of Aca- librarians are often expected to fill multiple roles demic Librarianship, 30, 488–492. doi:10.1016/j. in their libraries. Membership or activity in non- acalib.2004.06.011. library related professional organizations is one

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Frank, D. G. (1997). Activity in professional as- Stone, E. (1990). IFLA continuing professional sociations: The positive difference in a librarian’s education round table: Origins, founding, activities career. Library Trends, 46(2), 307–319. and projects, future. In Gorman (Ed.), The education and training of information professionals: Glendenning, B., & Gordon, J. (1997). Profes- Comparative and international perspectives, (pp. sional associations: Promoting leadership in a 177-201). Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press.. career. Library Trends, 46(2), 258–277. Stone, E. W. (1974). Continuing library educa- Harrison, R. (2010). Unique benefits of confer- tion as viewed in relations to other continuing ence attendance as a method of professional professional education movements. Washington, development for LIS professionals. The Serials DC: American Society for Information Science.. Librarian, 59(3-4), 263–270. doi:10.1080/0361 526X.2010.489353. Thomas, R. (2012). The advantages of association involvement for library professionals. Partnership: Kamm, S. (1997). To join or not to join: How The Canadian Journal of Library & Information librarians make membership decisions about their Practice & Research, 7(2), 1–3. associations. Library Trends, 46(2), 295–306. Tomaszweski, R., & MacDonald, K. (2009). Lyons, L. E. (2007). The dilemma for academic Identifying subject-specific as professional devel- librarians with collection development responsi- opment opportunities for the academic librarian. bilities: A comparison of the value of attending Journal of Academic Librarianship, 35, 583–590. library conferences versus academic conferences. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2009.08.006. Journal of Academic Librarianship, 33(2), 180– 189. doi:10.1016/j.acalib.2006.12.001. Tysick, C. (2002). Attending conferences outside of librarianship. College & Undergraduate Librar- Mayer, J., & Terrill, L. J. (2005). Academic libraries, 9, 75–81. doi:10.1300/J106v09n02_08. ians’ attitudes about advanced-subject degrees. College & Research Libraries, 66(1), 59–73. Varlejs, J. (2000). The first Congress on Pro- fessional Education: An agenda for continuing Miller, S. J. (1999). Professional development education. Journal of Education for Library for the library media specialist. Book Report, and Information Science, 41(2), 143–146. 17(5), 20–21. doi:10.2307/40324061. Reference for Business. (2013). Encyclopedia of Varlejs, J. (2003). Continuing education: Continu- Business. Retrieved from http://www.referencefor- ing education tiptoes online: Where are the quality business.com/encyclopedia/Per-Pro/Professional- guidelines? Journal of Education for Library and and-Trade-Organizations.html Information Science, 44, 332–335. Rothstein, S. (1965). Nobody’s baby: a brief Zabel, D. (2008). The mentoring role of sermon on continuing professional education. professional associations. Journal of Busi- Library Journal, 90(10), 2226–2227. ness & Finance Librarianship, 13, 349–361. Ruffner, F. G., Fisk, M., & Gale Research Com- doi:10.1080/08963560802183187. pany. (1961). Cultural organizations: Libraries. In Encyclopedia of associations (Vol. 1), (pp. 1266-1279). Detroit: Gale Research Company.

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ADDITIONAL READINGS Scherrer, C. S. (2004). Reference librarians’ perceptions of the issues they face as academic Audunson, R. (2007). Library and information health information professionals. Journal of the science education-discipline profession, vocation? Medical Library Association, 92(2), 226–232. Journal of Education for Library and Information PMID:15098052. Science, 48(2), 94–107. Stone, E., Sheahan, E., & Harig, K. J. (1979). Baldwin, C. (1997). International library associa- Modeling continuing education recognition system tions. Library Trends, 46(2), 392. in library and information science. New York: Blakiston, R. (2011). Building knowledge, K.G. Saur.. skills, and abilities: Continual learning in the Thomas, J. (1997). Associate ‘members of the new information landscape. Journal of Library club’ speak out: Individual response to a state or Administration, 51, 728–743. doi:10.1080/0193 regional association. Library Trends, 46, 278–285. 0826.2011.601272. Varlejs, J. (1999). On their own: Librarians’ Fisher, W. (1997). The value of professional as- self-directed, work-related learning. The Library sociations. Library Trends, 46(2), 320–331. Quarterly, 69, 173. doi:10.1086/603053. Hahn, T. B., & Lester, J. (2012). Faculty needs Varlejs, J. (2009). Still nobody’s baby? Seeking and preferences for professional development. a global home and high standards for continuing Journal of Education for Library and Information professional development. Library Leadership & Science, 53(2), 82–97. Management, 23, 122–139. Kroeker, K. L. (1997). The best associations for Wagner, S. C. (1999). Integrated archives and electronic media professionals. Emedia Profes- records management programs at professional sional, 10, 117. membership associations: A case study and a The American Archivist 62 Lynch, B. P. (2010). Professional associations and model. , , 95–129. library education. RBM: A Journal of Rare Books, Manuscripts, &. Cultural Heritage, 11, 32–46. KEY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS McGuigan, G. (2008). The MBA and academic business librarians: More than graduate educa- Continuing Education: Formal lectures, tion for subject specialists. Journal of Business courses, seminars, webinars, or any other similar & Finance Librarianship, 13(3), 405–417. type of educational program designed to educate doi:10.1080/08963560802183179. an individual and give him or her further skills or Meir, J. J. (2010). Solutions for the new subject knowledge to be applied in his or her line of work. specialist librarian. Endnotes, 1, F1–F10. These programs are intended to educate persons on new advancements, or to build upon a person’s Phillips, J. T. (2004). Professional certification: expertise in a given field. These may be optional Does it matter? Information Management Journal, for some trades, but in other circumstances can 38, 64–67. be required to maintain status, certification or licensure (Reference for Business, 2013).

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Librarian Education: The primary and training, such as medicine, law, accounting, and continuing education for those in the profession engineering. However, many use the term more of librarianship (Reference for Business, 2013). loosely to encompass any coherent occupation Professional Associations: Professional and class (Reference for Business, 2013). trade associations are membership organizations, Professional Development: Process of im- usually nonprofit, which serve the interests of proving and increasing capabilities of staff through members who share a common field of activity. access to education and training opportunities in Professional organizations—also called profes- the workplace, through outside organization or sional societies—consist of individuals of a through watching others perform the job. Pro- common profession, whereas trade associations fessional development helps build and maintain consist of companies in a particular industry. morale of staff members and is thought to attract Professional associations have the additional ob- higher quality staff to an organization (Reference jectives of expanding the knowledge or skills of for Business, 2013). its members and providing professional standards. Professional Membership: Those who be- The definition of a profession is an occupation that long to a professional association (Reference for requires considerable education and specialized Business, 2013).

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