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Marion Chronicle; Indianapolis Times; Indianapolis News; Indianapolis Star; Indianapolis Record­ Er; Kokomo Tribune NOTES CHAPTER ONE 1. The following are the best guides to the events ofAugust 6 and 7, 1930: Walter White to James M. Ogden, August 22, 1930, Lynching File, Harry Leslie Papers, Indiana State Archives, Indianapolis; Testimonies of Thirty Witness­ es, Grant County Court of Inquiry, August 13, 14, 15, 1930, Lynching Depositions, Box 20, James M. Ogden Papers, Indiana State Archives; "In­ terview Turnkey Marion Jail," n.d., Lynching Depositions, Box 20, Ogden Papers; Flossie Bailey to Walter White, August 8,1930, Papers of the NAACP, Part 7: The Anti-Lynching Campaign, 1912-1955, Series A: Investigative Files, 1912-1953, microfilm reel 11; Larry Conrad, interviews with Orville Scott, William Bernaul, Lowell Nussbaum, Faith Deeter Copeland, Thurman Biddinger, Evelyn Thompson, Don Stewart, Mary Campbell Fuller, Robert F. Myers, 1977, tapes in author's possession; author's interviews with James Cameron, June 10, 1993, Robert W. Newell, June 29, 1992, Mary Campbell Fuller, May 22, 1999; James Cameron, A Time of Terror (Milwaukee, 1982, Baltimore, 1994); Merle D. Blue to author, January 18, 1995, in author's possession; Fred Trueblood to H. Dixon and Mark Trueblood, August 11, 1930, copy in author's possession; Marion Leader- Tribune; Marion Chronicle; Indianapolis Times; Indianapolis News; Indianapolis Star; Indianapolis Record­ er; Kokomo Tribune. CHAPTER TWO 1. For a good overview oflynching scholarship see W. Fitzhugh Brundage, ed., "Introduction," to Under Sentence of Death: Lynching in the South (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1997), 1-20. In addition to the essays in the Brundage collection, see also W. Fitzhugh Brundage, Lynching in the New South: Georgia and Virginia, 1880-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1993); Linda Gordon, The GreatArizona Orphan Abduction (Cambridge, Mass., 1999), 254-74; Jacquelyn Dowd Hall, Revolt against Chivalry: Jessie Daniel Ames and the Women s Campaign against Lynching (rev. ed., New York, 1993), 129-57; Nancy Maclean, "White Women and Klan Violence in the 1920s: Agency, Complicity and the Politics of Women's History," Gender and History 3 (autumn 1991),283-303; Robyn Wiegman, "The Anatomy of Lynching," in John C. Fout and Maura Shaw 156 Notes to pp. 13-16 Tantillo, eds., American Sexual Politics: Sex, Gender, and Race since the Civil War (Chicago, 1992); Trudier Harris, Exorcising Blackness: Historical and Literary Lynching and Burning Rituals (Bloomington, Ind., 1984); Charlotte Wolf, "Constructions ofa Lynching," SocioiogicaiInquiry62 (February 1992), 83-97; Stewart E. Tolnay and E. M. Beck, A Festival of Violence: An Analysis of Southern Lynchings, 1882-1930 (Urbana, Ill., 1995); Walter White, Rope and Faggot: A Biography ofJudge Lynch (New York, 1929); J. William Harris, "Etiquette, Lynching, and Racial Boundaries in Southern History: A Missis­ sippi Example," American Historical Review 100 (April 1995), 387-410; George C. Wright, Racial Violence in Kentucky, 1865-1940: Lynchings, Mob Rule, and "Legal Lynchings" (Baton Rouge, La., 1990); Paul Finkelman, ed., Lynching, Racial Violence, and Law (New York, 1992); Orlando Patterson, Rituals ofBlood: Consequences ofSlavery in Two American Centuries (Washing­ ton, D.C., 1998), 169-232; Mark Curriden and Leroy Phillips, Jr., Contempt of Court: The Turn of the Century Lynching that Launched 100 Years of Federalism (N ew York, 1999). Visual evidence is provided in James Allen, Hilton Als, John Lewis, and Leon F. Lirwack, Without Sanctuary: Lynching Photography in America (Santa Fe, N.M., 2000). For a vivid fictional account see Theodore Dreiser's "Nigger Jeff," in The Best Short Stories of Theodore Dreiser (New York, 1956), 157-82. 2. Brundage, Lynching in the New South, 8. For challenges of counting and the changing definition of lynching see Christopher Waldrep, "War of Words: The Controversy over the Definition of Lynching, 1899-1940," Journal of Southern History 66 (February 2000), 75-100. 3. Ida B. Wells, Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in AlfIts Phases (New York, 1892), 14. 4. Lines from "Strange Fruit"-Lewis Allen © 1939 (Renewed) by Music Sales Corp. All rights outside the United States controlled by Edward B. Marks Music Company. Used by permission. All rights reserved. Strange Fruit. Words and Music by Lewis Allan. Copyright © by Music Sales Corporation (ASCAP) International Rights Secured. All Rights Reserved. Reprinted by Permission. 5. Thomas Cripps, Slow Fade to Black: The Negro in American Film, 1900-1942 (New York, 1977),41-69; David Margolick, Strange Fruit: Billie Holiday, Caft Society, and an Early Cry for Civil Rights (Philadelphia, 2000), 20. Lynching was also a central feature of many foreigners' understandings ofAmerica, particularly from those seeking to highlight the failure ofAmerican ideals. Japanese cartoons during World War II, for example, found in lynching useful images to present to Asians. Lewis A. Erenberg and Susan E. Hirsch, The War in American Culture: Society and Consciousness during World War II (Chicago, 1996), 192. 6. Brundage, Lynching in the New South, 8. Perhaps a much smaller black population, a tradition of free African Americans rather than slave, a less rigid class system and more fluid society, a culture that allowed women to be a bit Notes to pp. 16-20 157 less "protected," the remnants of an antislavery sentiment, and memories of the Civil War all helped keep incidences oflynching fewer in the North than the South. 7. Dennis B. Downey and Raymond M. Hyser, No Crooked Death: Coatesville, Pennsylvania, and the Lynching 0/ Zachariah Walker (Urbana, Ill., 1991); Michael W. Fedo, "They Was Just Niggers" (Ontario, Calif., 1979); Dominic J. Capeci, Jr., The Lynching a/Cleo Wright (Lexington, Ky., 1998). 8. Bernard W. Sheehan, '''The Famous Hair Buyer General': Henry Hamilton, George Rogers Clark, and the American Indian," Indiana Magazine o/History 79 (March 1983),20-21; Harrison quote in R. David Edmunds, "Justice on a Changing Frontier: Deer Lick Creek, 1824-1825," Indiana Magazine 0/ History 93 (March 1997), 48. 9. Brian M. Doerr, "The Massacre at Deer Lick Creek, Madison County, Indiana, 1824," Indiana Magazine 0/History93 (March 1997), 19-47, quote on 37. See also George Chalou, "Massacre on Fall Creek," Prologue (summer 1972), 109-14. For a fictional account see Jessamyn West, The Fall Creek Massacre (New York, 1974). The willingness of a white jury and community to punish white murderers ofIndians in 1824 was influenced to some degree by white fears of Native American retaliation if the murders of the Seneca families went unpunished. Kurt Vonnegut, Jr., in Sirens o/Titan (New York, 1959),315, has his character on his return to earth from Titan decide to land not in sunny Florida but in snowy Indianapolis because "the kind of people who'll hang a white man for murdering an Indian ... that's the kind of people for me." 10. The discussion of lynching in Indiana draws from the pioneering work of Emma Lou Thornbrough, The Negro in Indiana: A Study 0/ a Minority (Indianapolis, 1957),276-87. See also Clifton J. Phillips, Indiana in Transi­ tion: The Emergence o/an Industrial Commonwealth, 1880-1920 (Indianapolis, 1968),374-78; Richard Maxwell Brown, Strain a/Violence: Historical Studies 0/American Violence and Vigilantism (New York, 1975),21-25,95-133. 11. Darrel E. Bigham, We Ask Only a Fair Trial: A History o/the Black Community o/Evansville, Indiana (Bloomington, 1987), 104-07. 12. Winfield T. Durbin, "The Mob and the Law," Independent55 Ouly30, 1903), 1790-93. For Durbin's counterpart in Illinois, see Stacy Pratt McDermott, "'An Outrageous Proceeding': A Northern Lynching and the Enforcement of Anti-Lynching Legislation in Illinois, 1905-1910," Journal o/Negro History 84 (winter 1999),61-78. 13. Gordon, Great Arizona Orphan Abduction, 254-74. 14. New York Telegram, April 23, 1920; New York Times, April 23, 28, 1920; Indianapolis Star, April 23, 1920; New York World, March 16, 1920. 158 Notes to pp. 20-30 15. This account is from Marion Chronicle, July 17,24, 1885. See also Indianapolis Journal, July 16, 1885. 16. IndianapolisJournalJuly 16,1885. 17. Marion Chronicle, July 24, 1885; IndianapolisJournalJuly 16, 1885. 18. History ofGrant County, Indiana (Chicago, 1886),569-70. 19. Indianapolis Journal, July 16,1885. 20. See Larry J. Griffin, Paula Clark, and Joanne C. Sandberg, "Narrative and Event: Lynching and Historical Sociology," in Brundage, ed., Under Sentence ofDeath, 24-47; Gail Williams O'Brien, The Color ofthe Law: Race, Violence, andJustice in the Post-World War II South (Chapel Hill, N.C., 1999). There was at least one other averted lynching, in 1902: Marion Chronicle, May 26, 1902. CHAPTER THREE 1. The standard local histories used in this chapter are History of Grant County Indiana (Chicago, 1886); Biographical Memoirs of Grant County, Indiana (Chicago, 1901); Rolland Lewis Whitson, ed., Centennial History of Grant County, 1812-1912 (Chicago, 1914); "Lest We Forget": Reminiscences ofPio­ neers of Grant County, Indiana (Marion, [1921]); A Century ofDevelopment: Grant County, Indiana (Marion, 1937); W. H. McGrew, Interesting Episodes in the History ofMarion and Grant County, Indiana (Marion, 1966); Steve Bunish, The Golden Age of Marion (n.p., 1989). Also important is the collection of local history done under the auspices of the Federal Works Progress Administration in the 1930s. The reports and notes for Grant County are in the Indiana WPA Collection, Indiana State University, Terre Haute. These published and unpublished local histories are similar to their counter­ parts across the Midwest in structure, format, and interpretation. For the commemoration of midwestern pioneers, see John Bodnar, Remaking Amer­ ica: Public Memory, Commemoration, and Patriotism in the Twentieth Century (Princeton, 1992), 113-37; James H. Madison, "Celebrating Indiana: 1816, 1916,2016," in Robert Taylor, Jr., ed., The State of Indiana History 2000 (Indianapolis, 2001), 274-96. 2. Stewart Rafert, The Miami Indians ofIndiana: A Persistent People, 1654-1994 (Indianapolis, 1996), 108-13; 179-229; Bunish, The Golden Age ofMarion, 90. 3. Jacqueline S. Nelson, "The Military Response of tlte Society of Friends in Indiana to the Civil War," Indiana Magazine ofHistory 81 Oune 1985), 111.
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