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KAY, Paul, and Chad K. Mcdaniel, the Linguistic Significance of the Meanings of Basic Color Language,Terms

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KAY, Paul, and Chad K. Mcdaniel, the Linguistic Significance of the Meanings of Basic Color Language,Terms 7 8 Cecil H. Brown KAY, Paul, and Chad K. McDANIEL, The Linguistic Significance of the Meanings of Basic Color Language,Terms. 54:610-46. KEMPTON, Willett, 1978. Category Grading and Taxonomic Relations: a Mug Is a Sort ofAmerican Cup. Ethnologist, 5:44-65. ----------- , 1981. The Folk Classification of Ceramics: a Study of Cognitive Prototypes. New York, Academic Press. LAKOFF, George, 1987.Women, Fire, and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about theChicago Mind. University Press. RANDALL, Robert A., 1977. Change and Variation in Samal Fishing: Making Plans to “Make a Living” in the Southern Philippines. PhD dissertation, University of California, Berkeley. ----------- , and Eugene S. HUNN, 1984. Do Life-forms Evolve or do Uses for Life? Some Doubts about Brown’s Universals Hypotheses.American Ethnologist, 11:329-49. ROSCH, Eleanor, 1975. Universals and Cultural Specifics in Human Categorization, in R.W. Brislin, S. Bochner, and W.J. Lonner (eds),Cross-cultural Perspectives on Learning: the Interface between Culture and Learning. New York, Halsted Press, pp. 177-206. ----------- , 1977. Human Categorization, in N. Warren (ed.),Studies in Cross-cultural Psychology, vol.l. New York, Academic Press, pp. 1-49. ----------- , and Carolyn B. MERVIS, 1975. Family Resemblances: Studies in the Internal Structure of Categories. Cognitive Psychology, 7:573-605. WIERZBICKA, Anna, 1985.Lexicography and Conceptual Analysis. Ann Arbor, Karoma. WITKOWSKI, Stanley R., Cecil H. BROWN, and P. CHASE, 1981. Where do Tree Terms Come from?Man, (n.s.) 16:1-14. FINGOTA/FANGOTA: SHELLFISH AND FISHING IN POLYNESIA Ross Clark University of Auckland A few years ago, in the course of a brief foray into the shallows of marine ethnotaxonomy (Clark 1981),11 suggested the possibility of “shellfish” as a labelled life-form category in some Polynesian languages. Among a handful of putative labels for this category which I cited was Tonganfingota. In this paper I will investigate some of the semantic and formal relations of this word. FINGOTA AS “SHELLFISH” Churchward’s dictionary provides the following definitionfingota: of sea creature of any kind other thanika. ..[including] shell-fish, crustaceans, cuttle-fish, jelly-fish, eels, sea-snakes, sea-slugs, star-fish, etc. and even sea-weeds (Churchward 1959:190). This is a varied assortment indeed, apparently defined, as Churchward suggests, as the residue of sea life not included inika (true fishes, sharks, cetaceans and turtles). It would appear, however, that shellfish are the most important or most typicalfingota. The English-Tongan section of the dictionary fingotagives as a translation forshellfish', the suffixed formfingota’ iais glossed as “abounding in shellfish etc.”; and a more recent, simpler Tongan-English dictionary (Schneider 1977) offers just “shellfish”fingota. for Kirch and Dye (1979:60-1) give the following account of the meaningo f fingota for the Tongan speakers of Niuatoputapu: Ika contrasts with the life formfingota “shellfish”. In the Niuan conception,ika generally have scales (’uno), a head (’ulu), eyes (mata) and are free-swimming; thus all fish, eels, turtles, cetaceans and cephalopods areika. Fingota have shells (nge’esi), are thought to be without a head and eyes, and move by creeping or crawling(totolo)-, they include crustacea, molluscs (excepting cephalopods), and echinoderms. This is consistent with the view that althoughfingota may be very broadly understood (as by Churchward), sea creatures with external shells are its prototypical members.2 Shellfish and Fishing in Polynesia 79 Cognates of Tonganfingota in other Polynesian languages include the following: Niuean fingota : an edible sea-crab (McEwen) : shell-fish; to gather shell-fish (Tregear and Smith) East Uvea fingota : coquille.. .coquillage et animaux rampant sur la terre et dans la mer (Rensch 1984) East Futuna fingota : terme gênêrique pour les mollusques: coquillage, coquille (Rensch 1986) Samoan fiigota : the general name for “shellfish” including “jellyfish”. [This term includes almost all sea animals except fish and turtles, viz. molluscs, crustaceans, Echinoderms and Acalephae.] (Pratt) : general term for edible molluscs and other invertebrate sea- animals (Milner) : edible sea animals (Allardice) Tokelau fiigota : general term for shell-fish(Tokelau Dictionary) Kapingamarangi hingodo : termite (Lieber and Dikepa) Taku fiinota : various kinds of shellfish and sea-foods gathered by women (Howard) Anuta pingota : a type of small shell-fish - either a type of abalone or a close relative (Feinberg) Despite the absence of cognates in East Polynesian and several Samoic languages, the number and distribution of forms and their formal and semantic agreement are clearly sufficient to support reconstruction of Proto-Polynesian*fi(i)ngota. Most languages use this term for a large class of marine organisms of which shellfish are an important part. (Anuta and McEwen’s Niuean use the term for a particular species within this class; the Kapingamarangi reflex has strayed well out of the normal semantic range.) It should be noted that Frenchcoquillage refers strictly to edible molluscs and does not include crustaceans. Thus several sources introduce the criterion of edibility, or allude to the activity of gathering sea-food. This points the way to a connection with an established PPN*faangota. verb, FANGOTA AS “FISHING”? Biggs (n.d.) reconstructs PPN*faangota “to obtain seafood by fishing or hunting on the reef’. It will be of interest to examine the evidence on which this reconstruction is based: Tongan fangawta : shell-fish; the act of picking up shell-fish on the beach at low water (Mariner) faangota : to fish, or to search for shell-fish (or any kindfingota of ), especially the latter (Churchward) Niuean fangota : to gather shellfish on the reef (McEwen) : shellfish (Tregear and Smith; English-Niue section) East Uvea faagota : pêche aux coquillages; prendre des coquillages (Rensch 1984) East Futuna fagota: pêche, pêcher, prendre des poissons, des coquillages; bande de poissons qui apparaissent sur les recifs (Rensch 1986) : get seafood from reef (Biggs n.d.) Samoan faagota : to fish, fishing (Milner) Tokelauan faagota : school of fish; fish, catch fish Tuvalu fagota : long-handled scoop net (Ranby) faagota : shoal, school (of reef fish) fagota : to fish (Besnier) Pukapuka waangota : generic term for rod-fishing (Mary Salisbury, p.c.) Kapingamarangi hangota : go fishing with a line (Elbert 1948) Nukuoro haangoda : fishing (Carroll and Soulik) Taku faanota : go fishing (Howard) Luangiua haangoka : women diving for shell food (Salmond) Sikaiana haanota : general term for fishing (Donner) Rennellese haangota : to fish or gather shells, especially by women on the reef (Elbert 1975) Tikopia faangota : fish in deep sea by hand line.. .catch prey, generally (Firth) Anuta pangota : 1. fishing, to fish, generic term covering all possible methods, but 2. applied especially to fish drives on the reef (Feinberg) 80 Ross Clark Mele-Fila faagota : gather shellfish, etc. on the reef West Futuna fagota : 1. to fish, generic term for fishing; to hunt for any kind of animal sea life; 2. to fish from a canoe (Dougherty) fangota : to fish (Capell) West Uvea faangota : pêcher, faire la pêche (Hollyman) Rarotongan ’aangota : a large mat basket carried by the women in ancient times when they went out on the reef; the name was also given to a particular manner of fishing (Savage) ’angota : reef foraging (Ma’uke dialect; Richard Walter, p.c.) Aside from the Tuvalu and Rarotongan glosses referring to fishing implements, all the senses here are verbal. The largest number refer simply to fishing in general. But a well-distributed minority refer to a particular type of fishing. Sometimes, as in Tongan, both the broader and the narrower senses exist in the same language. The more specific mode of fishing referred tofaangota as is described as having shellfish or fingota as its main catch (TON, NIU, EUV, LUA, MEF), the reef as its location (NIU, EFU, REN, MEF, RAR), and women as the fishers (LUA, REN, RAR). FINGOTA/FANGOTA The similarity of form and meaning between these two words can hardly be coincidental; yet the formal difference seems to be an ablaut relation (noun:/::verb:a), no other examples of which are known to me. We cannot even tell whether noun or verb is to be taken as basic. Evidence from outside Polynesian, however, can shed some light on this. PPN*fangota has a number of clear cognates in non-Polynesian Oceanic languages which show a similar range of meanings: Rotuman hagota to fish, fishing excursion, shoal of certain fish 3 Nguna pavagoda to gather/fish for shells and seafish; to look for shellfish Namakura bavagot to fish Paamese avahangor shell sp. SE Ambrym paegor to fish Lonwolwol fogoor fish, look for fish (on reef etc.) Atchin wa-warog look for fish with torches Mota vangona to catch fish with a line, to get shell-fish etc. for a relish, on the reef or in a canoe Sa’a hangoda haliotis used as bait for crayfish Nggela vangonda to collect food on the reef Bugotu vagoda hunt for shellfish on the reef Marshallese yaged go fishing Motu haoda to fish These forms imply a verb*pangonta reconstructable at least at the level of Proto-Remote-Oceanic and possibly Proto-Oceanic, referring either to an activity of shell-fish gathering on the reef or to fishing in general. Just asfingota was less widely attested in Polynesian thanfangota , so cognates outside Polynesian are much harder to find. The only exact cognate I have found is Kilivila vigoda shell (clamps [sic] and snails) If, on the strength of this and the Polynesian reflexes, we reconstruct Proto-Oceanic*pingonta “shellfish”, we confront once again at this earlier level the problem that such a derivational relation does not seem to be otherwise attested. Two slightly different forms, however, suggest an explanation: Nguna vinagoda shell, shellfish Tolai winaqonoi generic name for sea-shells The relation of these two nouns to the verb is by infixation-in-, which of is an attested noun-deriving process in both Oceanic and Western Austronesian languages.
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