c>0

'ERIMENT STATION uth Dakota State College tgriculture &Mechanic Arts tOOKINGS, SOUTH DAKOTA Letter of Transmittal

Dean A. M. Eberle Division of Agriculture South Dakota State College

Dear Dean Eberle:

The sixty-third annual report of the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station is herewith presented for the fiscal year endingJune 30, 1950. Whileit pre sentsa report of progress of the Station'sresearch activities during the year, it differs slightly from former annual reports. The first 100 pages of this report comprise the year's quarterly issues of the South Dakota Farm and Home Research, which were mailed to the farmers and homemakers of thestate upon request. Subsequent pages set forth a brief report of the research activitieswhich have not been discussed in the first four issues of the Quarterly. Increased state funds made available for research by the State Legislature have enabled the Station to increase and strengthen itsscientific staff, acquire needed labo ratory facilities and tootherwise improve itsphysical plant at both theState College Station and the substations throughout the state. Through the cooperation of the Bureau of Reclamation, additional research in irrigation agriculture is carried on at the two Reclamation development farms near ffuron and Redfield. This research is conducted to secure the essential facts with respect to irrigation requirements and practices prior to the building of the irrigation structures by the Bureau of Rec lamation. During the year some of the research investigations have been completed and work has been started in eight new fields. Results of the completed research have been set forth in the various publications of the Station and in seventeen scientific articles submitted to technical journals. As in previous years. Field Days have been heldat both the main Station and at the substations. This year these field activities have been exceptionally well attended, andtheinterest shown by thefarm andranch operators of the state has been a real inspiration to the members of the Station staff, spurring them on to still greater achievementsfor the future.

Respectfullysubmitted.

Director, Experiment Station Agricultural Research in South Dakota

Sixty-third Annual Report July 1, 1949, to June 30, 1950

South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station I. B. Johnson, Director

SOUTH DAKOTA STATE COLLEGE of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts Brookings, South Dakota Index of Contents

AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY 104 Barley Varieties, Protein Content 104 Corn Plants, Chemical Composition 127 Hard Water, Household, Farm, Dairy Use 106 Minerals and Trace Elements in Feeds and Water 106 CROP DISEASES AND INSECTS 107 Corn Borer Control 62 Corn, Root Rot 111 Grasshoppers, 1950 ' 57 Lic]uid Seed Treatment 25 Potato Diseases 109 Tomatoes, Foliage Diseases :..... 109 Wheat Mosaic 110

CROPS, FIELD 101 Birdsfoot Trefoil 103 Corn Hybrid, S. Dak. 270 102 Corn Hybrids Tested 102 Grass Strains Tested __ 103 Legumes 103 Oats, James Hulless 49 Sorghums, Grain 103 Sorghum, Norghum 1 Soybeans .. 104 Sweetclover 103

CROPS, HORTICULTURAL Apples ..... Fruit Plants, Testing Fruit Varieties Strawberries, Vitamin C Sweet Corn Tomatoes 55 Vegetable Yields and Quality 107 dairy 120 Dairy Cattle Breeding 121 Dairy Calf Feeding 12 Manufacturing Cottage Cheese 121 Milking Machine Sanitation 120 Winter Housing 120 FARM ECONOMICS AND COMMUNITY WELFARE Belle Fourche Irrigation Project Egg Marketing Losses Farm Income Improving the Crop-Share Lease Irrigation, Changes in Methods of Farming Irrigation, Market Potentials Land Price Movements Marketing, Dairy Products Marketing, Feeder Cattle — Marketing, Slaughter Lambs Overproduction Threatens Farm Income School Reorganization Transferring the Farm

FARM ENGINEERING Farm Building Materials Farm Electrification Harvest and Threshing Machinery .. Methods of Water Application Septic Tanks Sprinkler Irrigation Steel Fence Posts

HOME ECONOMICS .. 133 Deep Freeze or Locker Plant Meat —- 29 Food Habits of Women Over 30 134 Frozen Fruits and Vegetables 32 Measuring Heat Transfer of Wool Materials — 134 Serviceability of Fabrics, Wool 133

LIVESTOCK 112 Breeding, Beef Cattle 112 Breeding, No-Tail Sheep 116 Breeding, Swine 5 Comparing Spring, Summer, and Fall Farrowed Pigs 119 Feeding, Norghum Sorghum and Feebar Barley for Pigs 117 Feeding Thyro-Protein to Lactating Ewes _____ 115 Feeding Ewe Lambs 115 Feeds, Urea Fortified 116 Feedlot Fattening of Lambs 116 Harvesting Prairie Hay for Greater Feeding Value 88 Hay and Concentrate Rations for Wintering Bred Ewes 114 Joint Use of Range by Cattle, Sheep and Antelope 114 Lamb Feeding, Colbalt 18 Lamb Feeding, Norghum 40 Lamb Feeding, Stilbestrol 77 Roughage and Pasture for Fattening Steers 112 Sagebrush as a Feed for Sheep 117 Summer Grazing Rates and Systems of Wintering BeefCattle 113 Swine Production, Irrigated Areas 118 LIVESTOCK DISEASES, PARASITES, POISONING 124 Cattle Grubs — 43 Cornstalk Poisoning 127 Insects, Mites and Ticks 125 Newcastle Disease 66 Nitrate Poisoning 3 Selenium Poisoning 126 Sheep Parasite Control 124 Sporadic Bovine Encephalitis 124

POULTRY 122 Chickens, Effects of Inbreeding 122 Dubbed Hens 52 Poultry Rations. Relative Values of Common Crop Varieties 122 Selenium Poisoning in Poultry 123 Turkey Eggs, Hatchability 123 Turkeys, Feeding Grain and Proso Millet 123

SHELTERBELTS 108 Cottonwoods 75 Hybrid Elms 108 Ponderosa Pine 69

SOILS 101 Soil Management Practices, Cottonwood 102 Soil Management Practices in a Dry Year 101 Irrigation, Redfield Soil Studies 34 Soil Sampling 15 Soil Survey, Spink County — 92

SUBSTATIONS Cottonwood, Range Field Station 7, 80, 88, 102 Highmore, Central Station 7, 88 Eureka, North Central Station 52, 88,122, 123 Newell Station 114, 115, 116, 118 Antelope Range 114, 125

WEED CONTROL 46

MISCELLANEOUS Publications 135 Journal Articles by Staff Members 135 Experiment Station Staff 137 Financial Statement 139 f 0

A foundation field of Norghum, an early grain sorghum.

By C. J. Franzke

Other grain sorghum varieties now grown in South Dakota have been an early combine grain sorghum, was brought up from southern states and developed by the Agricultural Experi have not been adapted to our shorter ment Station to meet the needs of growing season. These varieties are South Dakota farmers and ranchers too late in maturing and the crop is for a stable feed supply. As its name killed by frost before the grain ripens. implies,it is a sorghum for the north, and is adapted to all parts of South Later maturing varieties dry out slow Dakota. ly and spoileasily when put into stor age. Also, if the immature crop isleft Matures Early standingin thefield tocure, the stalks Norghum gets ripe beforefrost and break over making combining diffi can he harvested by mid-September. cult. In the past,sorghum has proved to be about as hazardous a crop to turing sorghum for South Dakota grow as corn. since 1930. Norghum isa crossof three different sorghums. Dwarf Feterita, Drought Resistant Dwarf Freed and Yellow Kafir. The Norghum fills the gap in feed seeds, which are medium in size and grains where corn is a hazardous crop reddish brown, germinate rapidly and due to drought and grasshoppers. at a low temperature. This is very im portant, especially in the northern Where corn failed in South Dakota this year, nearhy fields of Norghum states where it may be necessary to flourished and produced excellent plant early and under unfavorable growing conditions. crops. As a feed for livestock, it is almost equal to corn in the amount of nutri Rate of Planting tive value it supplies, 100 pounds of Norghum should be planted in grain sorghum being equal to 95 rows at the rate of 2^^ to 4 pounds of pounds of corn. seed to an acre. The lighter rate of seeding should be made in the drier Stands Up Well areas of South Dakota. Mature plants of Norghum stand Norghum will produce well on all longer and resist lodging better than soilssuited for general agriculture, but Sooner Milo or Early Kalo. Norghum thrives best in a rich, warm sandy grows to a height of 36 to 46 inches. loam soil, well supplied with organic The seed cluster is'long and open matter. A water logged soil will not which allows for thorough drying of grow a satisfactory grain crop. Heavy the seed and is better than other more types of soil that warm slowly in the compact types,such as Sooner Milo or spring and bake easily are lesssatisfac Midland, which often mold. Also, the tory than are the lighter soil types. seed head grows well above the foli However, these heavy soilsare usually age, making it easier to harvest by rich and will produce a high yield of grain combine. grain if properly handled. Soils that will not produce a crop of wheat sel Yields Are High dom produce a profitable crop of sor Yields of Norghum are consider ghum grain. Norghum, like other sor ably higher than other grain sor ghums, is more resistant to alkali soils ghumswhich were tested throughout than most other grain crops, but can the state. Tests at three locations give not tolerate excessive quantities. a 3-year average of 47.7 bushels an About 1600 acresof Norghum were acre for Norghum, as compared to grown by the County Crop Improve 26.2 for Sooner Milo, its nearest rival, ment Associations in the spring of and 29.2bushels an acre for Rancher, a 1949. forage sorghum. Norghum is the answer to the de mand for a dependable grain which Result of Years of Cross-Breeding will produce a crop on dry land dur Agronomistshave been working on ing hot summer months. (Project 61, the developmentof a hardy, early ma Agronomy Department.) Poisoning

By E. I. Whitehead and A. L. Moxon

LossesInvestigated While investigating previous cattle losses in Sully, Potter, and Walworth counties, samples of cornstalks from SUDDEN DEATH may strike cattle and 12 fields in which cattle losses had oc sheep in South Dakota this fall un curred were taken for analyses.About less proper precautions are taken. In one-third of these cornstalk samples dry seasons such as the past summer, had nitrate contents high enough to the nitrate content of forages from have caused death losses. This does common farm crops,such as oats, bar not explain the cause of the so-called "cornstalk disease," however, since ley, wheat and corn is increased and cattle losses occurred in other fields may prove to be dangerous for live having cornstalks with a low nitrate stock. Cud-chewing animals feeding concentration. on these forages sometimes develop ni trate poisoning, the symptoms of Drought Increases Danger which resemble those of cyanide or A material increase in the nitrate prussic acid poisoning. content of cornstalks is brought about by drought damage. Samples of bar What Happens ren corn plants from two drought This is what happens. The nitrates damaged fields were analyzed this year and these plants were found to are changed to nitrites in the first contain 1.93 and 1.62 percent potas stomach of the animal. These nitrites sium nitrate. react so closely with the hemoglobin of the blood that the blood can no Corn Grown on Alfalfa Sod longer carry oxygen to the body tis Silos filled with corn grown on al sues and the animal dies. falfa sod and damaged by the heat be- fore it is cut for the silo may cause In field studies this yearof oatsand trouble. A silo in Yankton county, barley grown in eastern and western filled with drought damaged corn areas of the state it was found that sev grown on alfalfa ground, caused con eral samples, particularly those from siderable excitement when pungent the Black Hills area, were high in nit smelling, yellowish - brown gasses rates. The values ranged from 0.14 to came out through the cracks between 2.20 percent potassium nitrate in oat the tiles. These nitrogen oxide gasses samples collected neartheeastern bor resulted from the breakdown of nitro der of the state, and from 0.41 to 5.42 gen compounds in the corn and percent for oat samples from the caused any vegetation with which Black Hills area. theycame in contact to turn yellow. A similar condition was observed in Pigweeds Also High in Nitrates Roberts county. Of all common crop plants and Samples from the silo in Roberts weeds analyzed, pigweeds contained county were analyzed for nitrates. A the highest concentration of nitrates. sample taken from thetopofthesilo a During dry growing seasons, pig few days after it was filled contained 6 weeds may contain up to 5 or 6 per percent nitric acid which would have cent nitrate as potassium nitrate. If been fatal to cattle if fed. hay or fodder contains appreciable After fermentation was complete, quantities of pigweed, it may be dan the silage from the top of the silo was gerousto feed. hauled out and spreadon a field. Sil age remaining after the top was re moved was found safe and has been Simplest Solution fed for several weeks without any bad When the nitrate content is about results. The nitrates, which were re 1.5 percent or more, the forage should leased when the silage fermented, all be fed with caution. Since a laboratory came to the top layer of silage and analysis would be necessary to deter thus were removed when the silo was mine the amount of nitrate in the for cleaned off. age, probably the simplest and safest We have no record of silage causing solution would be to mix the oats with cattle losses due to nitrate poisoning. haysof low nitrate content, suchasal falfa or prairie hays. Poisoning from Oat Hay During the drought years of the Analysis Done at Laboratory 1930's frequent cattle losses were re Samples sent in for analysis should ported when oat hay was fed. In the be representative of the feed and majority of these cases death losses should weigh at least one pound. Ad could be traced to the high nitrate dress to Experiment Station Chemis contentof the hay. A concentration of try Department, South Dakota State 1.5 percent of nitrates as potassium College, Brookings. There is a charge nitrate in forages (dry weightbasis) is of $1 per sample for the nitrate analy considered to be about the maximum sis. (Project 87,130, Station Chemistry content which can be fed safely. Department.) BREEDING BETTER PitU

By J. Walters McCarty

Finding more reliable mating sys tems for pigs which hog producers can put to good advantage isthe object of the swine breeding research con A four breed line cross pig. ducted by the Agricultural Experi ment Station. feel it would pay you to keep. We feel, Our present approach to the prob however, that a lot of improvement lem involves developing inbred lines, could be made by use of a few simple then crossing those lines to see how records alone. their crossbred pigs perform. Besides Pigs in that check group we men the inbred and crossline lots, we raise tioned are all purebred Poland Chinas. an additional lot in about the way we We go out every year and buy a boar think most hog producers raise their or two to mate with the best gilts and pigs. We call it our check lot. the best performing older sows. In eight check litters farrowed this What the Records Show spring there wereonly 5.1 pigseach,of In order to have something concrete which 3 were raised to weaning. Those 24 pigs weighed 160 pounds on which to base our selection we're keeping records of (1) litter size at apiece at 5 months of age and have farrowing and at weaning; (2) used 352 pounds of feed on pasture for weight of eachpig at weaning; (3) in each 100 pounds of gain. dividual pig weightsat 154 days; (4) a type score at 225 pounds, or market Inbreeding a Powerful Tool weight; and (5) completefeedrecords In developing two inbred Poland to determine how well each mating China lines, and one each of Duroc, group uses the feed it gets to make Hampshire and Yorkshire, we're at pork. All these figures go into a com tempting to take advantage of the fact posite figure or index which is the that inbreeding is a powerful tool in most accurate method we know for forming genetically unrelated fam being sure that all those performance ilies. At the same time, inbreeding characteristics are taken into consid promotes what we call segregation eration. Chances are that these records which means that some pigs get more are more detailed than most of you than an average share of characteris- tics for good production. And you're groups involves rotational crossing of right in adding that by the same proc four inbred Poland China lines, while ess some pigs get less than their share the other is a rotational cross of inbred of good production factors. Using our lines from the Hampshire, Poland records,we try to keep back for breed China, Duroc and Landrace breeds. ing those pigs which seem to have the Each fall during the mating season in best combination of good characteris bred boars from the next line in the ro tics, and to market those having only tation are brought in to mate with the average or less than average produc crossbred gilts saved from the previ tion. ous spring's farrow. Until this yearour Some experimental hog breeders— crossline pigs have been outperform like corn breeders—have found that ing the check lot on every count, but crossing these inbred lines produces this year, although there were still crossbred individuals which equal and three pigs more per litter at farrowing often better the performance of the and 234 more at weaning, the crosses parent stocks. averaged 3 pounds lighter at weaning and 12pounds apiece lessat 5 months Combining Ability of age than did the check lot pigs. We're testing several inbred lines in These differences in gain are still two mating groups to determine their offset by the greater numbers of the combining ability. One of those crossline pigs. We have also noted that the four breed line cross gilts, with few exceptions, recjuire just one service to he with pig. ^'Vij Recommendations Any recommendations.? Yes, these general and tentative ones. If you're raising purebreds, linebreed. That is, if you can't buy better sires than you produce at home, use sonsand grand sons and good females from the very best individuals in your herd. If you're producing market hogs, cross breed, using at least two and possibly three breeds, always introducing the next breed in the cycleby using good pure bred boars. Our experimental herds are located at the State Experiment Station at (Top) Inbred Poland Chinas. (Bottom) Out- Brookings, at the Irrigation Field Sta bred Poland Chinas. Our inbred Poland Chinas tion at Newell, and at the North Cen have been developed from an outbred popula tion such as those shown above. By careful use tral substation at Eureka. Stop in, of records with attention to economic character we'll be happy to show you around. istics, as described in the article, we are attempt (Project 124, Animal Husbandry De ing to pull a superior inbred line from the Po land China breed. partment.) *,4

New Ideas for Farm Septic Tanks By H. H. De Long and Niels B. Anderson

POWER LINES, running water and in small quantities. The precast con septic tanks—what's the connec crete tank is seldom used because of tion and what doesit add up to for the the high transportation costs involved farm home ? from the manufacturers to the farm. With rural electrification, it be Other tanks, such as the clay tile, are comes possible to have automatic generally too small for good perform water systems and modern sewage dis ance, or, as in the case of the steel tank, posal—and that's where the septic may rust. tank comes in. At present, the major ity of rural septic tanks are of the Two New Types of Tanks monolithic or poured concrete type. For these reasons, new types of Makingsucha tank requires.good ag tanks are being tried experimentally gregates (sand, gravel or crushed in hopesof getting around someof the rock) which are not always available above problems. The first to be built was a vertical cylinder type construct cu. ft. sand, 28 cu. ft. gravel, 1 gal. ed of concrete silostaves.This product Aquella No. 2. is available in the state and can be Excavation—diameter 71/2'5 depth transported readily. The other type 7'. Dig sides vertically and level floor built was of the rectangular concrete before pouring concrete. block type. This product is even more extensively manufactured throughout Floor: 6" thick, made of concrete (1 the state than the concrete silo stave. part cement, 2 parts sand, 4 parts grav The tests now being conducted will el, mixed to a smooth consistency.) prove the durability and ease of con The floor should cover the whole bot struction of the two new tanks. In op tom and the concrete should be well eration, they are no different than the worked when placed to form a strong monolithic poured concrete tank, and level foundation for placing the staves. the new tanks have already proved Walls: Made of concrete silo staves their functional equality. Neither of thick, 10" wide and of varying the two new tanks needs forms of any lengthsof 6", 24"and 30". kind for its construction. The joints must be staggered,so set In constructing the two tanks, the 24" and 30" staves alternately in the following procedure was followed by first tier. the Ag. Engineering department: The tank isheld together by3bands of round steel rods tightened on Concrete Silo Stave Tank opposite sides of the tank, with silo Type—Single chamber vertical cyl type lugs. The first band is placed 6" inder above the floor and tightened. The Capacity—850 gallons (family of 8) middle band is placed 3" below the Size—6' inside diameter, 5' deep. top of the first tier of 30" staves and Operating depth—T. partially tightened after the next tier ol 30" staves is placed over the top of Materials—12 6" staves, 14 24" the 24" staves. The remaining 30" staves, 3430" staves, 9 bagscement, 19 staves are placed over bottom 30" staves. Now tighten middle band as Placing the outlet tee. much as possible. Fill in remainder of tank with 6" staves. Then place the top band just below the outlet tee and tighten. Inlet and outlet tees: Place in the sec ond tier of staves using 24" staves in stead of 30" staves at this point to get the outlet tee 12" below the top of the tank. The inlet tee is placed 2" above the outlet tee. Plywood forms can be placed around the tees and a rather dry mortar can be worked into the forms with careful tamping around the tees. BACK FILL ABOUt 7'6'

AFTER PLASTERING TAVES EFORE ^ J PLiSTBRING

2 COATS OF AQUELLA

bANUb 1,^ - /UNDER2-124" STAVlESjEACH TEE 3/8"COAT \WM:a ^ ^ •« « ///'••/ OF PLASTER '• V

y===4-^i..^ ft- • »^ • .•* ' 6•• • *-. » SECTION THRU CENTER OF TANK '

Diagram for a concrete silo stave tank of 850 gallons capacity. Drawing for cover on page 10.

Plastering: Apply a coatof plaster Keep both coats damp for 2 days to of 1 part cement, 3 parts sand and % get proper curing. part "cem-mix." Screen sand through a screen. Before applying plaster, Cover: Reinforced concrete slabs, thoroughly wet the staves with water. Ayy thick and 8" wide, of variable Finish the plaster as smoothly as pos lengths as shown. sible. Mix 1 part cement, 2^2 parts sand Allow to cure for at least 7 days. and 354 parts gravel to a smooth con sistency, so that the concrete bonds Waterproofing: Curing of cement well around the reinforcing rods. should be complete before water Each slab is reinforced with two proofing. knobbed steel rods,spaced from the Apply two coats of Aquella No. 2 bottom, 1' from the sides. as per instructions. For best results, Handles can be placed at both ends apply the first coat, mixed to a creamy of the slab,using steelrods. consistency, with a stiff scrubbing Forms will be needed to make these brush. slabs, but used 2" x 6" lumber placed The second coat should be applied on asphalt paper on smooth hard 48 hours later with a paint brush. ground will do. Costs for the Concrete Silo Stave Tank, Concrete Block Tank and Monolithic Concrete Tank as at Brookings, 1948.

Concrete Silo Concrete Mon( Materials StaveTank BlockTank Cor Cement IZI $10.35 $17.00 $1 Sand 1.07 1.95 Gravel 1.55 2.75 Reinforcing rods 4.80 2.00 Tees 2.70 2.70 Aquella No. 2 3.95 3.95 Lime .! 50 .50 Concrete blocks 21.00 Rods, lugs and nuts - 9.15 Staves 18.00 Form rental 110.00 TOTAL $52.07 $51.85 $3$39.35

Concrete Block Tank lYi parts sand and 4 parts gravel not Type—Single rectangular chamber greater than YY' material). See drawingforinsertion ofthetees. Capacity—550 gallons (family of 4) Size—1' A" long, 2' 8" wide, 4' 8" Cover: Precast reinforced cover deep. slabs as for silo stave tank, but of uni form length. Operatingdepth—3' 9"

Materials—117 concrete blocks, 15 Cover for silo stave tank. sacks of cement, 35 cu. ft. sand, 43 cu. ft. gravel,1gal. Aquella No. 2. Excavation—9' A" long, 4' 8" wide and 6' 9'^ deep. Dig sides vertically and level floor before pouring concrete. Floor: Same method as for silo stave tank. Walls: 8" x 8" x 16'^ whole concrete blocks are laid in a mortar (1 part ce ment, 3 parts sand, part cem-mix). Tank is made entirely of whole blocks. Great care must be taken to keep blocks level and square at the corners. Use guide strings and square corners before laying the first course 3'7" — of blocks. 5' I" To add strength to the walls, stag ger the verticaljointsand fill the block cores with concrete (1 part cement. Waterproofing: Two eoats of materials when designed for the Aquella No. 2 as for stave tank. Wa smallest tank that should be made terproofing shouldbe tested by filling (550 gallons). The labor would be tanks with water. A third coat of about the same for both size tanks. Aquella may be necessary sometimes. Even then, the cost of the smallest silo Both of these tanks can be made stave tank exceeds that of a poured larger than described by using more concrete tank if forms can be rented staves in the silo stave tank, and for thepouredconcrete type instead of lengthening or widening with more bought. blocks in the concrete block tank. The The concrete block tank also runs basic method of construction remains higher than the poured concrete tank. the same. Aside from cost, however, these two Tanks should not be made smaller tanks haveseveral advantagesoverthe than outlined, because too small a poured concrete type of tank. You do tank will notoperate satisfactorily. not needto build or rent forms; if ag A comparison of the materials for gregates are scarce or expensive, less these two tanks, and also the poured aggregate is needed; staves or blocks concrete tank, is made in the table at are convenient to handle and trans theheadof the preceding page. port and no concrete mixer or machin The concrete silo stave tank was eryis needed to construct them. (Proj builtfor a family of eight or morebe ect 165, Agricultural Engineering cause there was a saving of only $6 in Department.)

Theconcrete block tank.Cover ismadeofprecast slabs, thesame asforsilo stave tank.

BACK FILL

Mi 1 I i I ABOUT 9'4"

SECTION THRU CENTER OF TANK The Dair

When the whole milk is sold, it has become necessary to look for new methods of raising dairy calves. Con sequently, therehasbeen a shiftfrom feeding skim milk to feeding pre paredrations suchasdriedskimmilk, dried buttermilk, prepared calf meals, semi-solid buttermilk and whey. ByArthur E. Dracy and Emery Bartle Dried Skim Milk as a Substitute Dried skim milk or dried butter J_ products, farmers are looking for milk can replace liquid skim milk, a new and more economical means for either by mixing 1 pound of dried raising dairy calves. Although many skim milk with 9 pounds of water to of the old and well established prac obtain the original composition of tices are still the best, they are by no skim milk, or by mixing an adequate means the most economical. Due to amount of dry skim milk or butter the high prices of whole milk and milk in the dairy calf ration. Difficul skim milk products, these means of ties encountered in trying to dissolve feeding calves arebeing discontinued. powdered skim milk or dried butter Yet nothing has been introduced into milk in water may be overcomeif care the dairy calfdiet which satisfactorily is taken in the mixing process. Feed replaces milk. ing powdered skim milk or butter milk in a ground dairy ration may not Whole Milk be too desirable because the fine pow Whole milk is by far the best feed der can get into the nostrils of calves for young calves after the colostrum and they may not eat as wellasexpect (firstmilk) hasbeen utilized. (Colos ed. The young calf, unlike the dairy trum can be easily stored by freezing cow, prefers larger pellets or whole during cold weather so that it can all grain while the older animals prefer be used, rather than discarding what ground feed. the calf cannot drink daily.) How ever, those farmers who sell cream can Semi-solid Buttermilk profitably use skim milk by feeding 1 Semi-solid buttermilk, when avail pound of skim milk for 10 pounds of able, can be used to feed dairy calves live weight. Feeding more milk, al under the same conditions as dried though it won't harm the calf,mayin skim milk. That is, add about 2 crease the costof raisingthe dairy calf pounds of water to 1 pound of semi- beyond the point where it iseconomi solid buttermilk to ensure the natural cal. composition. Although semi-solid alf Needs A Boosi

buttermilk may be difficult to obtain, meals fed at all ages. In general, the it will furnish a very nutritious feed calf must be fed a limited quantity of for young dairy calves. skim milk (approximately two or three hundred pounds during the first 60 days). By this time the animal will Whey be eating enough grain and hay to Whey (by-product of cheesemak- supply the body nutrients, and the ing) is sometimes available for feed skim milk may be reduced to a mini ing dairy calves. Whey, which is the mum or discontinued. These calves watery material of milk after the pro will not look as well nor make as rapid teins and fats have been removed, con gains as calves receiving some skim tains largely lactose (milk, sugar), milk product. and may be used as a carbohydrate supplement. However, it must be re membered that whey, unlike the other Cold Skim Milk Can Be Fed dairy products, is not a protein-rich There isstill another type of feeding feed. Therefore, the calf should be fed which may prove to be economical some high protein concentrate to sup when large quantities of skim milk plement proteins that have been re are always available. An experiment moved from the milk. It should also has been conducted at the Agricul be remembered that these vegetable tural Experiment Station at South Da proteins are not identical with milk kota State College to determine some proteins, and the resultsobtained may of the effects of feeding large quanti not be as good as those obtained by ties of cold skim milk to dairy calves. using someof the more completemilk This experiment consisted of feeding products. the calf milk through a nipple feeder connected to a can of milk. To date, Calf Meals the calves have received cold skim Raising dairy calves economically milk after they have been weaned and properly on a limited amount of from the cow on the fourth day. Al milk may be done by employing a though the calves did not drink too number of prepared calf feeds. Pre readily the first day or two, by the pared calf feeds will ensure satisfac third day they were eating as often as tory results provided the directions seventeen times a day. This frequent prescribed by the manufacturer are eating seemed to reduce the quantity followed.Usually, however, most calf consumed at one time and also re rations will contain only the various duced the incidence of calf scours. home-grown grains plus a limited Although some authorities believe quantity of skim milk. In viewof this, that cold milk is unhealthy for calf a number of experiment stations have feed, this experiment suggests that studied the effects of various calf when the calf receives cold milk in rel- atively small quantities it does not in veal up until about 2 months of age. jure the animal in any way. Despite Thus, besides being a good way to evidence that nipple feeders are insan utilizeexcess skim milk whereverpos itary, in these experiments, no animal sible, this may he another means of became ill due to insanitary equip producing veal calvesmore economic ment. The nipples and cans were ally than allowing them to nurse their washed each day to reduce bacterial dams or be fed whole milk for the 6- growth. However, if the cans and weeks period. feeders were not washed daily the Whether it is economical to feed milk tended to sour before the third largequantities of skim milk to dairy day.This isunderstandable, asfor any calves must be decided by considera approved dairy calf management, tion of the price received for the calf sanitation is of the utmost importance at the time of the sale and the price regardless of the method of feeding that must bechargedagainstthe skim the milk. milk fed the calf.At the present time, In general, the calves receiving all this method of feeding shows much the skim milk they wanted at any promise to the dairy farmer. (Project time, gained, on an average, from 15 191, Dairy Department.) to 25 percent more than calves receiv ing 8 pounds of skim milk. These measurements were made not only on Not to be Overlooked gain in weight, but on chest measure Not to be overlooked when raising ments and height at withers. The dairy calves is the water supply. Al chest measurement and height at though calves when very young do withers indicated definite skeletal not drink much water, water should growth and that all the increased always be available. In the winter and weight was not fat. In the same con thecooler months, young calves drink nection, even though the calves ap very little water, but in very hot peared to grow considerably faster months, all except the very young than the controlled animals, they calves will drink a considerable quan were always in condition for first-class tity of water.

The calf on the left was raised on a nipple and received all the milk it wanted. It gained 33 percent more in4 months than the calf onthe right which was raised in the conventional way. Just Dig a Hole

By Paul Carson

Your neighbor gets 45 bushels of p«orary program. It requires long term X cornpercorn per acreand youget 30,and planning that will maintain maxi you want to know why.Or there is a mum yields through the years ahead, hollow on your acreage that doesn't and it is essential that these long term yield as well asthe rest, and you think plans be flexible enough to take weath there must be a good season. er conditions and farm prices into So you decide to send in a soilsam consideration. ple to the State Soil Testing laborato- Get a Good Soil Sample Soil testing is a cooperative enter Time to Take Soil Samples prise in which you and the Soil Test The best time of the year to have ing laboratory participate. Your part yoursoiltested islatesummeror early of this job is the most important be fall. This is usually a slack period on cause the tests are made on the soil the farm when odd jobs such as soil sample you send. Recommendations sampling can be done without taking for fertilizer use and suggestions for valuable time from field work. But the soil management practices are value most important feature of having yoip less if they are based on a soil sample soiltestedin the fall is that it givesyou that does not fairly represent the field. an opportunity to make your plans Obviously, a soil sample taken from and order the necessary seeds and fer an eroded side hill does not represent tilizers. Soil management is not a tem- the soil found along the creek bottom. How to Prepare for Shipment The soil sample should be spread out on a clean paper and allowed to air dry. Do not ship moist samples to the laboratory and do not dry samples in an oven as this interferes with testing. A good container to send your soil ^4 sample in would be a pound coffee can, or a clean ice cream container. Label each sample on the map on the "Soil History Questionnaire," sheet.

Information Please Soil testing can be compared to going to see your doctor. He can take your temperature, make blood tests, Laboratory technician determining amount of available phosphorus in a soil. look at your complexion, etc., and know something about your health. Each area of different soil should be But any good doctor will ask you a lot sampled separately.For example,take of questions. He will ask you ques separate samples for light and dark tionsabout what youhavebeendoing, colored soils, and of areas varying in your appetite, your digestion, your slope,drainage, soil type,or past treat work and so on. ment (areas manured, fertilized and Likewise, chemical tests for avail cropped differently). A soil sample able phosphorus,availablepotash,etc., that does not represent the area in give the agronomist a general picture \vhich you are interested will lead to a of the fertility status of your soil. But false understanding of the fertility of the soil and may lead you to waste The x's show where soil was collected for your money on unneeded fertilizer. each of three samples from a 40-acre field. In collecting the sample, use a spade, trowel, or auger. Remove all *SmPLE'^l "J/" loose surfacelitter and dig a V-shaped ' UPLAND 'X "/ hole to a depth of 7 inches. Clean out the hole and cut a uniform l-inch slice from top to bottom along the side of ^SAMPLE *2 /' the hole. Collect this soil in a pail and bottomland/ " continue to the next location. Repeat this sampling procedure in at least 10 different places within the area to be SAMPLERS sampled. Then mix the samples well. Take one pint of this well mixed soil * STEEPoMdEPODED and youhaveyour composite sample. 16 if you tell him only that you do not certain chemical test shows that the think the crop yields are as high as soil from the field needs 20 pounds of they should be, he does not have phosphorus (available phosphoric enough information. Further infor acid) per acre,and if the bestyieldfol mation is asked for in the Soil History lows an application of this amount, Questionnaire, which accompanies then the test is accurate. Agronomy pamphlet 17,Soil Testing for South Dakota. Fill in the questions as completely as possible and add any information which you think may be Reports and Recommendations of value to the agronomist. Soil tests After the tests are completed, you are not perfect, but with the other in will receive a letter explaining the re formation they provide a good under sults found by the Soil Testing labora standing of the fertility status of a soil. tory, together with recommendations for better soilfertility management. If you have further questions concerning Tests Made the testsor soil management practices, The tests now used are those found you should either discuss them with to work best for South Dakota soils. your local county agent or write the The Soil Testing laboratory has Agronomy Department at South Da checked, and is continuing to check kota State College. (Project 172, the testsagainst actual crop yields. If a Agronomy Department.)

County Agent Alvar Aho helping Gilbert Peterson plan a program for soil fertility and fertilizer use, based on tests made by the Soil Testing laboratory. Should We Feed Lambs Cobalt ? By R. M. Jordan

SHEEPMEN maintaining farm flocks, country will not necessarily be true in as well as lamb feeders throughout another. The South Dakota Experi the United States, are concerned as to ment Station has conducted a series of whether sheep rations should contain trials in which cobalt supplemented cobalt.There are feed companies who rations were compared with typical sell cobalt feeds to sheepmen in South South Dakota lamb fattening rations. Dakota on the basis that there may be Two trialswereconducted during the a deficiency in this state. fall and winter of 1948-49. The lambs used in the first trial came from west Cobalt Content Varies ern South Dakota; the lambs used in Cobalt has performed miraculously the second trial came from Idaho. No in some areas in the United States. information was available as to However, the cobalt content in vari whether those two areas are deficient oustypes of soils varies materially, and in cobalt, and inasmuch as we were what may be true in one part of the interestedin determining whether the Table 1. Cobalt as a Mineral for Fattening Lambs—^Trial No. I Nov. 11-Jan. 9—59 days

Corn, hay, SBOM, Corn, hay, Corn, Corn, hay, 1'/^ oz. cobalt SBOM, 1 oz. cobalt hay, SBOM, SBOM, Vi oz. cobalt 15 lambs per lot per 100 lbs. salt* per 100 lbs. salt* Plain salt per 100 lbs. salt* Initial weight ^1.2 71.7 72.1 71.2 Final weight 94.1 94.4 95.7 91.3 Average gain per lamb 22.9 22.7 23.6 20.1 Average daily gain .389 .384 .400 .340 Average Daily Ration Corn 1.94 1.51 1.90 1.60 Roughage 1.41 1.52 1.59 1.43 Soybean oil meal 10 .10 .10 .10 Mineral mix 03 .04 .04 .03 Feed per ICQ lbs. gain Corn 502 395 476 470 Roughage 365 • 396 397 470 Soybean oil meal 24.6 26.0 25.0 30.0 Mineral mix 6.88 10.59 9.60 7.97

'Mixture of equal parts of salt and bonemeal.

Table 2. Cobalt as a Mineral for Fattening Lambs—^Trial No. n Jan. 21-Apr. 16—85 days

Corn, hay, SBOM, Corn, hay, Corn, Corn, hay, 11/2 oz. cobalt SBOM, 1 oz. cobalt hay, SBOM, SBOM, Y2 oz. cobalt 14 lambs per lot per 100 lbs. salt* per 100 lbs. salt* Plain salt per 100 lbs. salt*

Initial weight — 68 68.3 69.2 68.7 Final weight 112.1 113.5 112.2 111.9 Average gain per lamb 44.1 45.2 43.0 43.1 Average daily gain per lamb .52' .53 .51 .51 Average Daily Ration Corn 1.96 1.94 1.83 1.91 Roughage 1.60 1.58 1.58 . 1.59 Soybean oil meal .10 .10 .10 .10 Mineral mix .037 .034 .033 .028 Feed per 100 lbs. Gain Corn 379 366 359 • 375 Roughage 308 293 313 313 Soybean oil meal 19 18 19 19 Mineral mix 6.87 6.46 6.47 5.50

•Mixture of equal parts of salt and bonemeal. feeds grown in eastern South Dakota Lot II—I ounce of cobalt in 100 contained an adequate amount of co pounds of salt and bonemeal, 50-50. balt, that knowledge was not neces Lot III—Salt and bonemeal, 50-50. sary. Lot IV—14 ounce of cobalt in 100 The lambs in the two trials were pounds of salt and bonemeal, 50-50. full fed corn, alfalfa hay and soybean Results of the first two trials, given oil meal, with the supplement as fol in Tables I and 2, indicate that there lows : was no advantage in adding cobalt to Lot I—IY2 ounces of cobalt in 100 the rations. The daily gain, feed re pounds of salt and bonemeal mixed quirements, and the cost per hundred 50-50. pounds of gain were all quite similar. No Advantage in Adding Cobalt cate that the addition of cobalt to the During the summer of 1949, two ration of growing lambs in eastern lots of lambs were put on experiment. South Dakota was of no advantage. These lambs were allowed to nurse There was a tendency for the lambs their mothers on grass and received no receiving no cobalt to gain slightly feed other than grass. Lot I was fed a faster than those receiving cobalt.The mineral mixture containing nine parts lambs receiving no cobalt gained .42 salt, one part phenothiazine and one pounds per day compared with .40 ounce of cobaltchloride in 100 pounds pounds per day for those receiving of the salt and phenothiazine mixture. cobalt. Lot II received a mineral mixture of Under the conditions found in nine parts salt and one part phenothi South Dakota, which would apply to azine. Since the feeding of a mixture much of the corn belt, cobalt is not of salt and phenothiazine is a very likely to cure all the trouble encoun common practice of sheep raisers in tered in lamb feeding or lamb produc the corn belt, it seemed advisable to in tion. Intelligent feeding, manage clude the phenothiazine in this mix ment, and breeding are still the three ture to ascertain whether the pheno keys to successful sheep production. thiazine and cobalt in combination Minerals will take the placeof none of had any toxiceffects on the lambs. these. (Project 190, Animal Husband The results shown in Table 3 indi ry Department.)

Table 3. June 7—^August 22—76 days

Lot number Pheno-Salt Mix Pheno-Salt Mix

Number lambs per lot 15 17 Initial weight 54.67 56.56 Final weight 85.33 88.59 Average gain per lamb 30.66 32.03 Average Daily gain .403 .421 Mineral Mix consumed per day .043 .047

>f >f

Mixed Hay Lowers Feed Costs ^ Feeding ewesa ration of one-third alfalfa and two-thirds brome grass can 'give asgoodresults asfeeding straightalfalfa, at about 20 percent less cost. Re search workers at the South Dakota Experiment Station found during the past 3 years that thissystem of feeding provides a balanced rationover theentirepe riod and produces better results than the feeding of grass hay for 3 months, followed bystraightalfalfa. One-half poundof cornwasfedto bothgroupsthe last month of pregnancy. (Project 162, Animal Husbandry Department.) 20 /34fOO^ '^46^.^00 \73.M0

iMii^i I'm LLjilijjLiiMjLM /

Farmers must produce less wheat and on July first of this year, we al or have smaller incomes. If we ready had nearly 300 million bushels continue to plant 83 million acres of carryover. wheat in the United States, and have Can we sell 500 or 600 million bush an average yield of 16 bushels per els of wheat each year to other coun planted acre (about 1330 million bush tries? Yes, but not at prices to cover els) market prices will drop; that is, cost of production. We got rid of al unless the government pegs the price. most that much annually during the war years by helping the countries The Reason that fought our enemies. But we can't Normally we use about 700 million afford to help theseother countries in bushels of wheat within the country definitely. Neither can they afford to for all purposes. Of this only about buy that much wheat at our prices.In 490 million bushels are used for food, fact, during the past 35yearsour aver 80 million for seed, and 130 million age yearly exports have been less than bushels for livestock feed. If only 700 170 million bushels. And in the years million bushels are used within the just before the war, we exported only country, 640 million bushels must 40 to 50 million bushels of wheat an either be exported or put into storage. nually. As our aid to other countries end, and as these other countries, out The problem is more difficultin the of necessity, increase their own wheat western and central areas where the production, the question must be wheat acreage makes up a very large faced: What can we do about the share of the total cropland. Here farm wheat surplus ? ers have fewer choices. In most of the western areas, at least, there is little What Can Be Done question that much of the cropland The solution is a difficult problem. should be returned to grass. Two alternatives are commonly of More grassland will mean more fered : (1) remove price supports, or at livestock. When the farmer raises least lower the price support level, or more livestock, he is taking land out (2) continue to support the price but of grain and putting it into grass, and reduce production. at the same time he is conserving his We have, of course, selected the lat soil. As long as we have full employ ter. The Secretary of Agriculture has ment and incomes stay up, meat con announced a U. S. acreage allotment sumption will be high and expansion for 1950 calling for 17 percent less in livestock production justified. wheat acreage than this year. The al But regardlessof the desirability of lotment for South Dakota is 18 per such a shift, there are serious obstacles cent below the 1949 acreage, which in the way. Regrassing is slow,expen means the planted wheat acreage in sive,and not alwayssatisfactory. Dur South Dakota will be down about ing the period when a stand of grassis 775,000 acres. The total United States being established, the rancher not only wheat acreage will be reduced by 13 bears the direct costs of reseeding, but million acres. This is expected to re must also sacrifice all income from duce wheat production by about 200 that land. This makes the shifting of million bushels. To the extent that this plowland to grassland especially dis restriction results in reduced produc couraging to renters who often have tion, the surplus accumulation will be no assurance that they will remain on retarded, and the taxpayer's burden of the farm long enough to get the bene supporting the price reduced, provid fits of the new rangeland. Owner-op ed, of course,foreign production is not erators who lack sufficient capitalmay increased to offset this reduction. alsofeel that they cannot afford to sac rifice income from this land during Shift in Acreage Difficult the period required to get a stand of While an acreage reduction pro grass. gram may help substantially in re While farmers in the central area ducing the surplus, it is not likely to have more crops to which to shift their be accomplished without some diffi wheat land, such shifts may still be culty. Shifting 775,000 acres away difficult. Many of the farms in this re from wheat in this state is no simple gion are organized for highly special task. In the eastern areas of the state, ized and efficient wheat production.A wheat makes up only a small part of shift to grass and feed crops will in the total cropland. Many other crops volve major changes in organization, can be substituted without a loss in investment, and type of farming, which many will find hard to make. Nevertheless, such shifts toward more production from one crop to another. diversified production are desirable As long as we are interested in merely adjustments to both the physical en shifting land from the production of vironment and the economic condi- one commodity which is over abun dant to another for which there is suf ficient demand, acreage restrictions Why Restrictions Needed appear to work quite well. Acreage restrictions do interfere Problems of a Free Market with the farmer's freedom. Many ob Now let us turn to an alternative ject to such "regimentation." But solution to the surplus problem. Let sensible people realize that these re the priceof wheat drop. That is,either strictions may be necessary if we are lower the price support level or re to expect the government to support move supports entirely. Those who prices. By supporting prices at artifi recommend this solution believe that cial levels we have removed one of the the free market price is an automatic functions of price—that of equalizing regulator or equalizer of production production and consumption. If price and consumption. This islargely true. is not free to do this equalizing by Under a free moving market price, dropping in response to a surplus and surpluses would not pile up year after rising in response to a short supply, year. Lower prices would encourage something else must be used. Either consumption, and discourage exten we must (1) destroy the surplus, (2) sive wheat planting. But that does not subsidize increased consumption, or mean that theseadjustments would be (3) restrict production. We have had made without cost. Indeed our farm some experience with each of these. programs and support prices have We have been destroying large quan come about as a result of our dissatis tities of surplus potatoes, but it has faction with the way price has per been a costly and wasteful program. formed its functions. Free market We have attempted to correct the sur prices have moved up or down too far plus problem by increasing consump and too late. The extremely low price tion through the Food Stamp Plan of for hogs,for example,doesnot appear the late thirties and the School Lunch at the time of farrowing a bumper Program. Such programs are useful in crop of pigs, but after these pigs are improving the country's dietary stand raised and coming on the market. By ards. It might be difficultand extreme then it is too late to change production ly expensive,however, to increasecon plans. A much smaller price change sumption of wheat enough to elimin would havebeensufficient to shift pro ate the surplus now in prospect. duction had it occurred, or been Restrictions on production have also known, at breeding time instead of been tried before. Past experiencehas marketing time. It is this poor produc shown acreage restrictions to be inef tion control performance of an unreg fective in reducing total agricultural ulated price which has caused farmers production, as we attempted to do to demand price protection. Return under the Agricultural Adjustment ing to a free market prices does not Act of the thirties. Acreage controls constitute a solution. It merely admits are, however, very useful in shifting an inability to solve the problem. Protection Needed farmers from financial hardship, but The need for protection from the runs the danger of encouraging the unpredictable changes of market production of surpluses rather than prices of farm products is as great removing them. A price support pro today as ever. But, it must be recog gram without controls is almost cer nized that in supporting farm product tain to do this. A realistic program to prices in order to raise farm income, support farmer's incomes, it seems, the government has an obligation also should adjust production in harmony to take over the production and con with (1) the need for farm products sumption control of price in order to and (2) the physicaladaptation of our prevent maladjustments in supply and land. In addition, full industrial em demand. Such public controls of price, ployment should be promoted as a production and consumption should means of assuring larger and more not, however, place undue burdens on stable incomes for both farmers and taxpayers nor on consumers. consumers. (Project 150, Agricultural A price support program may save Economics Department.)

CHANGES IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN SOUTH DAKOTA A high demand for U. S. farm products during the war and postwar years, together with several years of above normal rainfall, have brought about im portant changes in our state's agricultural production. Wheat acreage has in creased nearly a million acres since before the war, and flax acreage is more than four times prewar. Spectacular changes have taken place in livestock production as well. The number of dairy cows has decreased by more than 20 percent, while the num ber of beef cattle has increased by more than 90 percent. Sheep numbers in the state have declined to about 56percent ofwhatthey were before thewar. These production changes in South Dakota show the shifts in production throughout the country. Harvested wheat acreage for the entire United States, for example, increased from about 56 million acres in 1940to 75 million acres in 1949.

WHEAT PRODUCTION AND PRICES

South Dakota U. S. Harvested Season Production Acreage Yield Production Average Price Farm 1,000 bu. 1,000 per Acre 1,000 bu. Cents Value $100

1938 919,913 3,095 9.1 28,227 66 15,230 1939 741,210 2,170 8.4 18,158 61 12,652 1940 ;L 814,646 2,693 9.8 26,261 70 17,885 1941 941,970 2,864 12.3 35,130 81 33,676 1947 969,381 2,630 17.2 45,274 97 48,530 1943 843,813 2,889 10.9 31,595 123 42,364 1944 1,060,111 3,058 12.7 38,847 141 54,322 1945 1,108,224 3,201 15.5 49,656 147 74,882 1946 1,153,046 3,588 14.8 53,197 172 104,798 1947 . 1,364,919 3,703 14.5 53,628 240 128,171 1948 . 1,288,406 3,848 13.1 50,391 215 102,977 1949 1,129,081 3,747 33,418

S. D. Crop and Livestock Reporting Service, Agricultural Statistics, 1948, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Treatment REDUCES HAZARD

The slurry seed treating machine. By C. M. Nagel CROP diseases are responsible for losses running into millions of dollars every season in South Dakota. These losses are indirectly sustained by each and everyfarmer and reflect on the general financial welfare of the state as a whole. Most farmers cannot afford to overlook crop practices which will reduce losses to their crops, just as most farmers know they can scarcely afford not to treat hogsto prevent cholera.Likewise,it isa recommended practiceto treat seedfor the prevention of crop diseases. Recently some important improvements have been made not only in seed treatment materials themselves, but also in the type of equipment used in ap plying these chemicals to crop seeds.Those who have treated seed are aware of the dust problem arising from mixing the dry chemical with the seed. In some instances these dusts caused irritation to the skin, while others tended to he more or lesstoxic when inhaled by the worker. Disagreeable Dust Problem tinct advancement in the field of seed Eliminated treatment. A new method in treating seed has Use Anti-freeze in Solution more or less eliminated most of the disagreeable effects associated with In view of the fact that most people seed treating. This has been accom wish to treat their seed during the plished through the development of winter when the temperatures may be fungicides which can be used in liq below freezing, it will be necessary to uid form and applied with machinery. use an anti-freeze to prevent the treat This method is now known as the ing solution from freezing on the ma slurrytreatmentand makes it possible chine and seed during the treating to apply these fungicides in a water process. The anti-freeze to use is mixture, virtually eliminating the methanol (wood alcohol) or Zerone dust which is the main hazard to the at the rate of 1 part of methanol to 2 worker in seed treating operations. parts of water and add treatment. Many of the seed treating chemicals This will reduce the freezing point to now being recommended by this Ex about 10 degrees below zero. Tests to periment station for crop seeds are date with a 1:2 mixture indicated no now available, not only in the dust injury to wheat, oats, barley and flax. form but also in the slurry (wettable) It is advisable when using anti treatment form. freeze to exercise reasonable care by allowing for some ventilation in the Slurry Treatment Adds Water room where the treating and storing The slurry treatment method con is done to permit the escape of the sistsof the addition of water to the dry methanol vapors resulting from the chemical dust, which has been manu evaporation of the anti-freeze. factured so that it will mix readily To date, tests have been conducted with water. The moisture added to only with methanol as an anti-freeze the seed in this way is so small, if ap and therefore it is the only material plied at the prc^per dosage, that it will being recommended for- the present. not interfere with the keeping quali Also it is one of the cheaper types of ties of the seed, provided the grain anti-freeze, and it does not appear to was normally dry before the seed injure germination. treatment was applied. The slurry treater is designed so that it is almost Seed Can Be Treated in Advance ' impossible to over or underdose once A good time to plan on treating the properadjustment hasbeenmade. seed is right after January first. Usual The slurry seed treaters now avail ly farmers have more sparetime then, able are principally for large scale op than if they waited until nearer plant erations. The capacity ranges from 50 ing time. to 300 bushels per hour. It is planned It will do no harm to the seed to that similar, smaller-sized machines treat it several months in advance of will be made available which will be planting if seed is thoroughly dry be more adaptable to the needs of the fore it is treated and if the proper smaller farms. However, as the situa treatment and dosage are applied. tion stands now, this method is a dis With such planning the farmer knows it will be ready to sow when ever the season warms up. The best results from seed treatment are ob tained when the seed is treated at least a week or two before it is planted. Fol lowing an early spring and after the grain has been planted, it is not un usual to have periods of cold and freezing weather, and under cold soil conditions, the seed will not germin ate. If the seed has been treated it will be protected from rotting and will be ready to germinate when the soil does warm up. Controls Seed and Seedling Diseases, Smuts, Blights / f ;f Treating crop seedswith the proper fungicide (seed treatment) is a recom mended practice for the control of cer tain destructive seed-borne diseases. It also provideseffective control of most smuts, exceptthe loose smuts of wheat and barley, and protects planted seed Treated seed Untreated seed and young seedlings from attack by Note that seed treatment improves stand and soil-borneorganisms which cause seed size of seedlings. decay and seedling blights. ately the proper seedtreatment can be Seed treatments will not control all expected to control this damaging types of plant diseases. When the crop disease 100 percent. This disease right seed treatment is applied at the has been on the increase during the recommended dosage it will control past five years in South Dakota. hunt or stinking smut of wheat, smut of sorghum, seed rots of corn and flax, Will Not Control Loose Smuts of covered smut of barley, oat smuts, Wheat, Barley stem smut on rye and kernel smut on Most seed treatments will not con millet. trol the loose smuts of wheat and bar Accurate loss determinations in ley because the organisms responsible farmers' fields, made in the state dur for these diseases live inside the seed ing 1948 where heavy infection of and therefore cannot be killed with bunt occurred, showed decreases in out destroying the germination of the yield up to 33 percent. In addition, seed. However, they can be controlled bunt-infected wheat receives a lower by the hot water treatment. This is a grade on the market because of its delicate type of treatment and is rec strong fish-like odor. If wheat carries ommended only where a grower only a traceof this typeof smut it can wishes to eliminate loose smut from a not be used for human food. Fortun- small amount of wheat or barley to get a new source ofsmut-free seed. Us the newer formulations might be ually only a few bushels are treated more effective than the treatments for such purposes. now being recommended. Most other diseases are carried on Consult Station Before Using the surface of the seed and therefore can be effectively controlled by the ap Soil-borne diseases frequently may plicationof the proper seed treatment. vary from one state to another and Seed treatments will not control such particularly from one region to an diseases as stem and leaf rusts of other; therefore, we cannot recom wheat, barley, oats, rye, flax, or corn mend a new fungicide until we have smut and most foliage diseases. experimental evidence collected under field conditions in the state to Not All Seed Treatments Satisfactory determine if it is equal to, or better Not all seed treatments available on than the currently recommended ma the market are satisfactory. Frequent terials. Before using any new seed ly seedtreatment materials are placed treating material it may be advisable on the market which may be either to contact your county agent, or your ineffective or inadequately tested State College Experiment Station. under disease conditions present on the farm lands of this state. New seed Improved Yield, Stand, treatments are not recommended by Quality of Grain the Experiment Station until suffi Seed treatment is one of the cheap cient experiments under field condi est forms of crop insurance. It costs tions have clearly demonstrated that only a few cents per bushel, and, on they are effective in controlling cer the basisof field experimentsconduct tain crop diseases, or that they possess ed by the Plant Pathology depart some other outstanding advantage. ment, yield increases have been ob New Compounds Tested in 1949 tained of two to three bushels per acre During the 1949 season, seed treat in flax, up to 10bushels in oats and as ment experiments were conducted on much as 11 bushels in sorghum. wheat, oats, barley and sorghum. Fif Additional information on various teen different treatments were tested aspects of seed treatment, or on crop on these crops except in the case of disease control, as well as plans for flax, in which 29 materials were under homemade dust treaters, may be ob field plot tests. Manyconsisted of new tained by contacting your county ex compounds, along with some of the tension agent or by writing to the currently recommended seed treat Plant Pathology department at South ments, to determine whether some of Dakota State College, Brookings.

(1) All seed should be cleaned before it is treated. (2) Treat only enough seed to plant the acreage intended. (3) Treated seed which is left over should not be fed to livestock as it may cause death. Because most seed treatments are toxic to both humans and livestock, especially when they are exposed to such materials over prolonged periods, it is important to use caution in their use around the farm. Avoid accumulation of mercury dusts on moist skin. (Project 115, 110, Plant Pathology Department.) 'pieefc or Locker Plant How DOES the cost K>1 F" 1. Operating costs. 2. d£ owning and op- II r" Effect of size and con crating a home freezer *'MEAT struction. 3. Rate and unit compare with the gyBy Ellis A. Pierce capacity of freezing. 4. commercial locker Effects of wrapping plant? This is a broad questionstion and materials. several factors will have to be)e consid-consid 5.Quality retained stored ered in arriving at an answer. Some of the more important of these are: Operating Costs Figured for 1. The initial cost of installation. Home Freezers 2. Cost of operation, such as power All costs were calculated for an 8- rates and upkeep. cubic-foot home freezer and were 3. Depreciation. based on power rates of the Brookings 4.The individual cost of transporta Municipal Power Plant. A power con tion to and from the commercial sumption range of from 40to 210 kilo locker plant. watt hours was used, as this amount 5. The value received from the con represents the average farm consump venience afforded by owning a tion per month for the eastern section home freezer. This is an individual of South Dakota. Using these rates item and must be considered sepa and consumption ranges, the cost of rately for each case. operating a freezing unit was three cents per kilowatt hour. These factors enter into the cost of owing a home freezer and must be The normal freezing period re quired approximately 12hours and an taken into consideration. Problems may also be encountered which are be average of two kilowatt hours of yond the control of the individual power. The storage periods consumed owner, such as power failures or me only 1.5 kilowatt hours for each 24- hour period. On this basis, the cost of chanical breakdowns which result in thawing and possiblespoilageof food. storage operation was $16.40 per year However, in most instances these and the freezing cost was similarly stoppages in operation are not of suffi calculated to be 37.5 cents for each 12- cient duration to be serious, but they hour period. should most definitely be considered. Locker Rates Compared 2-yearStudy Made on Home Freezers Locker rates at the local locker plant for a 5.1 cubicfootcapacitylock A summary of two years' work, which included studies on three types er are $10.00 and $12.50 per year with of home freezers and a commercial a $.65 insurance fee and a $.50 key de locker plant, was used in making posit added to the rental fee. A charge comparisons. The major items com of D-fx cents per pound was made for pared were: the cutting, wrapping, and freezing of meat and 2 cents per pint for freezing portance where inexperienced persons vegetables and fruits. It must be re are doing the processing. membered that services rendered to patrons vary within rather wide lim Types of Home Freezers Compared its and the charges for these services Each of the two common types of also vary widely among plants. To home freezers has its advantages and compensate for the difference in size disadvantages. The deep chest type between the commercial locker and has the advantage of physical design the home freezer units, the locker ren to retain coldness, in that heat enters tal fee was adjusted to make an equal with greater difficulty when the door capacity comparison of lockers and is opened. In contrast, the opened freezers possible. door of the vertical type literally The following comparison shows "pours" cold air from the bottom, the freezing costs for 200 pounds of which is replaced by warmer air near meat and 50 pints of fruits and vege the top of the cabinet. It also was tables. This amount could have been found in this study that freezers of the frozen easilyduring one period by the deep chest type required less time to commercial locker, but required six reach sharp freezing temperatures. freezing periods for the home freezer. This fact was attributed to the greater The extra freezing periods for the cold-retaining ability of this type dur home units were necessary in order to ing the loading period. conform with recommended loads of three to four pounds of meat per cubic Home Freezers Have Faster foot of freezing capacity. Freezing Rate Locker Plant (1 freezing) Qmc\ freezing or sharp freezing is Locker rental (8 cu. ft.) $20.25 one of the primary concerns in the 200 lbs. meat at 2^2 c lb 5.00 freezer locker business. Without this 50 pts. fruits and vegetables, process, freezing would spoil more at 2c each 1.00 food than it would preserve. There Total costper year $26.25 fore, it is important that owners be familiar with the powers and limita Home Freezer (6 freezings) tions of their home freezer units. For Operational cost per year $16.40 this reason, freezing rates of the dif 6 freezing periods at 37V2C 2.25 ferent units were compared. The re Total freezing cost per year $18.65 sults of this comparison showed that all home units studied had a faster An annual saving of $7.60 was freezing rate than the commercial madewhere only operational expenses locker, one unit freezing nearly half were figured in the total home freezer again as fast. costs. However, this is not sufficient to cover depreciation of the unit or cost Wrapping Material Affects of paper and supplies necessary for Freezing Rate home processing. Neither does it In addition to type of freezer, type allow for any insurance in case of of wrapping material alsoaffected the spoilage or loss of meat or other food freezing rate. All meat cuts wrapped products. This factor is of great im by the No-Air method froze in less time than the cuts that were wrapped The length of time different kinds of in paper. The latter show only slight meat will keep under storage condi variations in rate of freezing. tions, and the need for accuracy in dating and labeling must be under Smaller Losses in Weight for Meat stood. Research has definitely shown Stored in Locker that length of storage has a direct rela Losses in weight of the different tionship on the quality of frozen cuts as a result of freezing and storage meats. It is important that recom were considered a quality reducing mended storage periods be observed factor and, therefore, were compared in order to insure the retention of on freezing units and wrapping mate high quality. rials. This comparison revealed small In this connection, "food turnover" er lossesin weight for all meats frozen is important. The efficiency of storage and stored in the commercial locker operation depends upon the availabil than for any frozen and stored in the ity of space to accommodate products home units. purchased at a saving. With this fact When wrapping materials were in mind, it is easily understood why it considered separately, the wax, lock- is important to use up stored frozen er-paper-wrapped meats had an ex foods. Otherwise, t]uality is lost and tremely large loss in weight during valuable space occupied. freezing and storage. As a result of The home freezer is excellent for these losses, the meat was of much freezing small quantities of meats, poorer quality after freezing and stor fresh fruits, or vegetables. Its freezing age than it was originally. Much de efficiency and quality-preserving abil hydration had taken place, but this may have been due to the fact that ity are greatly impaired if large only one thickness of paper was used amounts are attempted. in wrapping. It is suggested that all It would be advisable to use the ex meat cuts be wrapped with two thick perience and facilities of the commer nesses ofpaper ifthis type wrapping is cial locker operator in those instances to be used. where a large quantity of meat is to be Only limited information was ob processed. The home freezer could tainable from this study on the rate then serve as a storage unit for the and capacity of freezing, but other food products. This system of opera- workers have suggested an optimum ation would enhance the efficiency of load of from three to four pounds of the home freezer by permitting the meat or other products for each cubic owner to take advantage of the lower foot of freezing capacity during any processing costsof the commercial op one 24-hourperiod. This was substan erator as compared to home process tiated in this study by the increased ing, and also enhance the quality of length of time required for freezing his meals by having a greater assort when freezers were loaded beyond ment of fresh foods at home. (Project this amount. 158, Cooperative. Leaders: Ellis A. Pierce, Animal Husbandry Depart Food "Turnover" Important ment; H. H. DeLong, Agricultural Still other factors need mentioning. Engineering.) FRUITS and\ the home freezer

Method of Preparing Food Lida M. Burrill and Beth Alsup Each food was prepared for freez ing according to accepted methods. LONG with the increased use of The cherries were pitted and mixed .home freezers have come many with sugar in the proportion of one questions concerning the use of this pound of sugar to four pounds of new piece of household equipment. fruit. Freshly harvested beans were Will food freeze as fast in one freezer stemmed, washed, scalded for four as in another.? Does slower freezing minutes in boiling water and chilled seriously affect the palatability and in ice water. Immediately after har nutritive value of foods.? And of vesting, the peas were shelled using course there are questions about the the shelling attachment for a home relative merits of the many types of mixer, scalded for 2Vi minutes in boil packaging materials and containers. ing water, and chilled in ice water. After husking, the corn was scalded Cherries, Green Beans, Corn and for 414 minutes by placing six ears in Peas Tested six to eight quarts of boiling water, Whereas the Animal Husbandry chilled in tap water and then in ice department studied the freezing of water, and cut from the cob. meat, the Home Economics and After thoroughly mixing the entire Horticulture departments worked amount of each food, samples were re with fruits and vegetables. Nanking moved for ascorbic acid determina cherries, green beans, and corn were tions, and the containers filled, the used in 1947-48, and garden peas were same amount being weighed into included in 1948-49. each one. A thermocouple for measur Three home freezer units were pur ing the temperature of the food was chased. Two of them were of the chest placed in the center of each package. type, one having a separate freezing Duplicate packages of each food in compartment, while the third was an each type of container were then upright freezer with drop-front placed in each of the three freezers, shelves. the cold control switch on each box In addition to comparing the effi having been turned to "freezing" po ciencyof the three freezers in preserv sition severalhours previously. ing palatability and nutritive value, The temperature at the center of several types of packaging were stud each package was recorded at 15min ied: (1) the cellophane bag inside a ute intervals until each one reached waxed carton, (2) the polyethylene 0°F. When the last package registered liner in a waxed carton, (3) a plain a temperdture of zero degrees, the waxed carton, (4) glass jars, and (5) cold control switch was adjusted for an aluminum foil container. "storage." The packages of frozen food already in the freezer maybean other factor in determining the rate of freezingisindicatedbythe fact that in foods were stored in the same freezer 1948 the freezers were more than half in which they were frozen. full of frozen meat whereas in 1949 Some of the results for green beans the freezers were practically empty at are shown in the accompanying the time the freezing tests were made. graphs. Those for corn followed much No Differences Detected in the same pattern. In these diagrams a Appearance or Palatability few observations stand out: (1) there After storage periods of 3 to 4 and were small but consistent differences 9 to 10months, sample packageswere in the rates of freezing in the three removed for ascorbic acid determina freezers; (2) the rate of freezing was tions and palatability tests. The cher higher in 1949 than in the preceding ries were defrosted and tasted without season; and (3) the beans in the foil further treatment. The vegetables containers froze at a considerably fas were cooked, without previous de ter rate than those in any of the other frosting, until tender, and, while still types of containers used. warm, were served to a taste panel Container Important in Rate consisting of six trained judges. No of Freezing consistentdifferences in appearanceor The typeof container wouldappear palatability have been detected be to be more important in determining tween the samples frozen in the dif the rate of freezing than the type of ferent freezers or in the different freezer. That the quantity of frozen containers. Since the data on ascorbic acid is still incomplete, it will be reported later. (Project 98, Home Economics.)

<2 2:

. .<3-

X ^ X liJ< o< i!S lola)! lo)|m IJ FREEZERS TYPES OF CONTAINERS Comparison of the rate of freezing for green beans. 33 ^•*^.'i • M-'

•.

SBBiig®!

m dons were established in 1949 and will ing these two treatments. Phosphorus be continued for an undetermined and potassium fertilizers did not ma time. In order to compare dryland terially increase yields.The use of ma with irrigated yields,half of the exper nure instead of commercial fertilizer imental area is irrigated and half is to supply the nitrogen did not give not. The main object of rotation stud satisfactory results this particular ies is to determine the most desirable season. length of time the legume should re In the 1949 season, corn on dryland main in the rotation. Fertilizer studies plots yielded about one third (17 are set up to test manure and various bushels per acre) as much as corn on combinations of commercial nitrogen, irrigated plots. phosphorus, and potassium as they in Wheat, like corn, responded in fluence yields. The effect on soil prop growth and yield mainly to nitrogen, erties of manure and legumes plowed and only very slightly to phosphorus. under is also to be determined. Soil This was true of both irrigated and samples from plots are taken to deter non-irrigated plots. Average yields of mine chemical and physical effectsof irrigated wheat were 9.9 bushels per practices used on the soil itself. acre for all plots not receiving nitro gen and 23.3 bushels per acre for all Soil Moisture Recorded plots receiving nitrogen fertilizer. The amount of moisture in the soil Non-irrigated wheat yields averaged was recorded in both irrigated and 9.8 bushels for all plots not receiving dryland plots by means of electrical nitrogen compared to 18.8 bushels for resistance gypsum blocks. These all plots receiving nitrogen. blocks are buried in the soil at various depths and contain electrical termin Land Leveled for Irrigation Needs Nitrogen als connected to lead wires which are brought to the surface. The electrical To determine the best means of rap conductivity is proportional to the idly bringing leveled areas into high moisture content of the soil and can production, various combinations of be read in a few minutes by means of commercial fertilizers, fertilizers plus a special type of conductivity bridge. straw, and manure were applied to Readings from these blocks can also plots from which topsoil had been re be used to determine when it is neces moved. These treatments were made sary to apply irrigation water. in 1948 and 1949. Results thus far indi cate that very large quantities of nitro Yields for 1949 gen must be applied to leveled lands Corn responded to nitrogen fertili in order to get good growth and zation quite markedly, with a 13 yieldsof crops. This means a fertilizer bushel per acre increase in yield re application of at least 90 pounds of sulting from 60 pounds of nitrogen nitrogen per acre and preferably 120 per acre. Increasing the nitrogen rate to 150 pounds. Very heavy applica up to 140 pounds per acre increased tions of manure (40 T. per acre) had the yield only slightly, giving 56 bush some effect, but apparently not as els per acre as compared to 50 bushels marked as that of commercial nitro per acre for 60 pounds of nitrogen. gen. (Project 173, Agronomy De This is an average of all plots receiv partment.) "W--W ,p^ ii A sk - -'t: t :••.:5S, I ,\a/ •:^#., Vv5-

?tifr i <

Modern home of one of the successful farmers on the project.

By W. F. Kumlien Because of its possible bearing on u the proposed Missouri River Basin Development, now in the pro cessof formation, many farm families will be interested in developments in the Belle Fourche irrigation project which has been in actual operation for the past 38 years. A study has recently been made indicating significant soc ial adjustments that have taken place in western South Dakota irrigation during the past four decades. Newell high school where many of the children of th yearsa large number of operatorspur Want Children to Farm chased additional land which previ Perhaps the best evidence that proj ously had been lost by foreclosureand ect families like irrigation farming is had been taken over by either the state the fact that the great majority of par or county during the drought and de ents interviewed on the project testi pressionperiod. Under the limitations fied they wanted their children to of project irrigation the family unit farm and had definitely made an ef with one deed could not own more fort to interest them in farm life, by than 160 acres. It was possible, how having the children study agriculture ever, for the wife to own separately and homemaking in high school and another quarter section,or in some in belong to 4-H clubs. stances, extra quarter sections could Many of the present operators be deeded to a son or daughter who worked their way up the "agricultural was 21years of age or older. ladder," starting as laborers, then ten An interesting sidelight on farm ants, and finally as owners. In recent parents' favorable attitude toward irri- amilies Like Irrigation FARMING *1 getting underway and in over-coming the agriculturalcustoms and habitsof the western ranching region. It should Ha also be pointed out that the project was started a number of years before present day developments in modern agriculture. Even without irrigation, the Northern Plains states have passed through revolutionary techni cal changes in agriculture and home- making since the middle thirties. These changes have paved the way for irrigation. Another important factor in trying to estimate the rate and degree of irri gation progress in western South Da kota lies in the nature of its soils. West of the Missouri river, the soils have not been glaciated but had their ori gin from the bottomof an old sea bed, project study agriculture and home economics extending from the Hudson Bay area gation farming was that out of 53 to the Gulf of Mexico. About three- families interviewed, at least 10 of fourths of the Belle Fourche project them had retired on the farm. They soil is popularly known as "gumbo." explained that with the rapid devel This soil type is difficult to manage opments taking place in farming under irrigation. The fertility of there was still much light work they "gumbo" soil is fairly high but diffi could do, such as making home im cult to handle because of its compact provements, taking care of the gar physical structure. The "gumbo" soil den, or occasionally helping to has a shorter cropping season than irrigate. sandyloamsand ismuch betteradapt Early Irrigation Project ed to certain types of crops than This project is located in the north others. west part of South Dakota and was It may be pointed out, also, that started in an area much lessdeveloped during the first decade (I9II-I92I) agriculturally than the Missouri river much more emphasis was placed on basin. It was thus naturally slow in the engineering features of the project than on its agricultural development. thickly settledpopulation and smaller The Federal Experiment Station near farms. Newell, established at the beginning Larger Net Farm Incomes of the project, did not have as much Comparisons were made between local experience in comparing irriga theirrigated family farms on theproj tion farming with that of dry land ect and the dry land farmers in sur methods as it does today. rounding communities in northwest South Dakota. During the past dec Well Integrated Community Life ade the income from irrigated land One of the most encouraging fac has proved to be consistently larger. tors of the project is the closely knit This was shownto be true in spite of relationship between town and coun fairly good rainfall on dry land farms try. Like most areas in western South during the past 9 years. Dakota there were a number of small Farmers gradually have learned neighborhood service agencies estab that irrigation water should not be lished. This, in part, was due to poor considered as merely supplementary roads, horse and buggy transporta to rainfall but should be applied to tion, and the fact that there were in crops without delay when needed. numerable improvements to make on Formerly the tendency was for farm a new irrigation project. It was not ers on irrigated farms to wait for rain, until after the depression period that thinking that it would probably come net incomes were sufficient to mod within a few days. Careful studies ernize the farms and provide for com show that to produce maximum crop munity services. Since then, decided yields, the application of irrigation improvements have been made in water required verycarefultiming. road conditions, power lines, REA Stabilized Farm Life and the expansion of service agencies While good crops can be raised in in towns. normal rainfall years in most parts of Practically all churches are now lo South Dakota, there are seasons when cated in towns, also health facilities, rainfall is below normal or unseason recreational life, and high school edu able, producing only a fraction of a cation. Even rural elementary schools crop. This is seen more clearly when are beginning to decline both in num examining a rainfall map with a cor ber and enrollments and many chil responding map indicating annual dren are being sent to public grade averagecrop yields. Leaving out losses schools in town. These and other sim from such hazards asgrasshopper rav ilartrendshavebeenmadepossible by ages, hail, etc., widely varying yields larger incomes per family on the proj can be equalized so that the income is ect than in other nearby non-irrigated made consistently more stable under communities, and because farm fam irrigation. ilies are becoming accustomed to From 1930-40 the combined making more and varied contacts in drought and depression was so seri towns and villages in that area. In ous, that between 35 and 40 percent of many respects this better relationship the farms in the state were taken over between town and country also has by foreclosure. Much of this could been made possible because of a more have been avoided if the operators could have continued on the farms Today's Irrigation Farmer without having to dispose of their Prospective irrigation farmers of livestock, equipment, and without today can start in a much more ad losing title to the farm. Three differ vanced stage of agricultural develop ent decades have passed since 1911 in ment than was possible 38 years ago. which western South Dakota farm operators lost heavily through a col Scientific research, practical experi lapse in farm prices in 1921. The fol ence, extension demonstrations and lowing decade from 1920 to 1929 instruction in both agriculture and ended much the same way preceding homemaking are rapidly displacing the drought and depression period. the former "trial and error" methods. The period from 1930 to 1940 is eas Because of more thickly settled ily understood as a difficult one in population and smaller farms or irri practically all parts of the United gation projects, a much closer town- States. Even under the Belle Fourche country relationship has been built irrigation it became evident that a up. New discoveries and inventions, improved communicationsand trans new contract with the government portation are all playingtheir part. was necessary for farmers to "pay out" under prevailing conditions. Larger net incomes through more There were 166 farm mortgages fore efficient production have made it closed by the county or state because possible to build up a much better re farmers could not pay their water serveof working capitalin this period charges nor taxes. To meet the prob than was true when the Belle Fourche lem, the water charges were reduced project was begun. by the U. S. Reclamation Service, In spite of earlier difficulties and based on a 10-year land-use survey fol occasional set-backs, project families lowed bya complete reclassification of feel that farm life has been stabilized all irrigable land.The nineyears from and they like irrigation farming. 1941 to 1949 have been more prosper (Project 64. Rural Sociology De ousdue to good yields and high prices. partment.)

More farmers each year are raising alfalfa under irrigation for winter feeding. J^o^uiJui4n

... ITS FEED VALUE FOR LAMBS

By R. M. JoRDAP

Livestock men naturally are eager to know how good afeed Norghum is in comparison to the grains that normally are grown in the Northern Great Plains area. Norghum shows promise ofproducing a feed crop inareas where corn and small grains perish for lack of moisture. Heretofore, livestock men have had to rely on sorghums developed in the southwest. These sorghums were too slow inmaturing and could not stand the cold springs that we have in this area. They were of necessity planted late in the spring and usually were frosted before they were mature. Previously experiments have shown that when sorghum is fed to beef cat tle, or swine, as ground grain, it is worth about 90 to 95 percent as much as corn. However, lambs seem to be the most efficient in the utilization of grain sorghums, as ithas been found that sorghum grain is about equal to corn when fed to fattening lambs. Grain sorghums do not have to be ground when fed to 40 lambs and are fed in exactly the same was very palatable as the lambs ate wayas one would feedshelledcorn. more per head daily than did those re To determine the actual feeding ceiving yellow corn. The results of value of Norghum in comparison this experiment are given in Table 1. with corn, the South Dakota Agricul This information is in the nature of a tural Experiment Station conducted a progress report and another trial will lamh feeding trial during the fall of he conducted later this winter. 1949. Lambs that originated in the This experiment indicates the fol central part of South Dakota were lowing results; purchased and placed on feed the 1.The new variety of sorghum, early part of October. These lambs named Norghum, is a palatable were all vaccinated for overeating dis feed for lambs. ease and were fed as follows: 2. It does not have to he ground when Lot I received a full feed of whole fed to lambs. Norghum sorghum, hrome hay, and 3.It is as easy to keep lambs on feed 10percent, by weight, of the grain ra when feeding Norghum as when tion of soybean oil meal. The ration they are being fed corn. for the major portion of the experi 4.Daily gains made by lambs receiv ment supplied the lambs with about ing Norghum during this experi 65percent grain and about 35percent ment wereequal to,or excelled, the roughage. gains made by lambs fed shelled

Lot II was full fed shelled yellow corn. corn,plus 10percentsoybean oil meal and hrome hay. This ration consisted Digestibility of Norghum of about 60percentconcentrateand 40 Determined percent roughage. To determine the digestibility of The Norghum fed in this trial wholeNorghum sorghumwith lambs weighed 56 pounds to the bushel, as in comparison to the digestibility of did the shelled yellow corn.Norghum other grains,a digestion trial wascon-

Table 1. Comparison of Norghum Sorghum and Shelled Com as a Feed for Fattening Lambs Lot I—Norghum Sorghum Lot II—Shelled Corn Soybean Oil Meal, Brome Hay Soybean Oil Meal, Brome Hay Lambs per lot — - 25 Days on feed — 75 Initial weight, pounds 70.7 Final, weight, pounds 95.5 Total gain per lamb, pounds 24.8 Average daily gain, pounds — 331 Average daily ration, pounds Norghum sorghum .... 1.72 Shelled yellow corn — 1.64 Soybean meal .... .17 .16 Brome hay . .... 1.18 1.19 Feed per 100 pounds gain, pounds Norghum sorghum ....513 Shelled yellow corn 495 Soybean oil meal l— .... 51.3 49.5 Brome hay ....351 358 ducted at the same time. Four lambs Chemical analysis of the Norghum were placed on trial and fed slightly fed isgiven in Table 2.This shows the less than two pounds of Norghum a percentage of each nutrient that is in day. No hay was fed during the trial. the feed. The results of the digestion The preliminary period was of 10 trial are given in Table 3, and show a days duration as was the collection comparison of Norghum to shelled

period. corn. To illustrate: The lambs are fed the A considerable amount of the sor feed to be tested 10 days before the ghum passed through the lambs trial starts; this eliminates contamina whole,but in spiteof that, the digesti tion from someother feed that may be bility compares favorably with corn in their digestive tract. This is called and further substantiates the results of the preliminary period. At the begin feeding trials, that grinding sorghum ning of the next 10 days (collection is not economically practical. period) a sack is fastened to the lambs Norghum sorghum offers to the to collect the feces. farmers and ranchers in South Dako All the feeds that are fed are ta a drought-resistant grain that is weighed accurately as are the feces. about equal to corn in feeding value Chemical analyses are made on the and yield, and should enable many feed and the feces, and the apparent feeders to stabilize and, in many in digestibility is calculated. For exam stances, expand their operations. Its ple,if a lamb ate 2 pounds (dry basis) ability to withstand the cold damp of feed that contained 10 percent pro weather during early May, its early tein and 1 pound (dry basis) of feces maturity and high yield are but a few was excreted that contained 5 percent of its many virtues that are giving protein, the apparent digestibility of livestock men in South Dakota new protein of that particular feed would hope. (Project 123, Animal Husband be 75 percent. ry Department.)

Table 2. Chemical Analysis of Norghum Sorghum and Corn*

Total Digestible Total digestible Ether N-free dry matter protein nutrients Protein extract Fiber extracti Minerals

Norghum ...... 91.17 9.04 82.04 12.15 2.79 1.78 72.97 1.48

No. 2 Corn.... 85.2 7.1 80.6 9.4 3.9 2.2 68.4 1.3 *The abovetable showsthe relationship betweenNorghum sorghum and No. 2 Dent corn. This analysisindicatesthat Norghum is superior to corn in all constituents, with the exception of ether extract.

Table 3. Digestive Coefficient of Norghum Sorghum When FedTo Lambs Without Roughage

Crude Ether Crude N-Free Dry matter protein extract fiber extract

Lamb No. 1 88.35 74.98 83.07 51.93 93.34 Lamb No. 2 85.20 71.40 78.97 28.42 91.16 Lamb No. 3 .86.18 70.20 75.13 37.91 91.86 Lamb No. 4 88.51 81.12 84.32 38.12 92.28 Average 87.06 74.43 80.37 39.10 92.16 Well dried dent com* 76 91 57 94 •Average of 22 trials as listed in Feeds and Feeding by Morrison. Spraying cattle for grubs in the Hughes county control area south of Harrold, South Dakota.

HEEL FLY AND CATTLE GRUB

By J. A. LOFGREN, P. H. KOHLER, J. J. O'CONNELL

Losses experienced by feeders, tempt to evade the flies, may become slaughterersand hide dealers, due mired down in water holes, sloughs, to grubs in cattle, are passed hack to or rivers. the feeders and ranchers in the form When the cattle feeder sees the of lower prices for their cattle. From hacks of his animals humpy with the viewpoint of all concerned, it grubs and matted with pus, he won would he highly desirable to stop ders if the parasites are holding his these losses if possible to do so. stock hack so that they won't gain One of the major losses apparent to properly. It is obvious that he would the rancher results from the running rather get cattle which have no grubs. or stampeding of the cattle, due to the At the slaughter houses the trim activity of the flies when they are lay ming which is necessary on an infest ing their eggs. At times, when a herd ed carcassruins the appearance of the isbeing attacked by the flies, the cattle loins and other choice cuts of meat, may tear down fences, or in an at thereby reducing its value. When a hide has more than five grub holesit is their skin, for the first time and then classed as grubby and brings a lower perforate the skin of the host. price. Holes in the hide are made by Because the grubs arrive under the the grubs in the middle of the back skin of the backs of the cattle from which also happens to be the most val January until June and remain there uable part of the hide to the tanner. about a month, it is necessary to treat Rotenone Kills Grubs grubby cattle more than once. In We know that rotenone, when ap order to kill the greatest percentageof plied correctly, will kill the larvae grubs the cattle must be treated four after they have perforated the skin of and sometimes five times. the back.Up to the present time, with Rotenone Used as Spray or Dust present methods, this seems to be the The safest, most effective, and gen best time in the life cycle to attack the erally used insecticide known to date parasites. In order to know when to for killing grubs is rotenone. The ro apply the treatments to obtain the best tenone may be applied in several dif control, we must know the life cycles ferent ways; one of the most common and seasonal histories of the two spe being by power sprayer and another cies of insects concerned in the prob by hand application of the dust. The lem of grub control. most widely used method in range Two Kinds of Cattle Grubs country is by means of a power There are two kinds, or species, of sprayer. cattle grubs in South Dakota, the A powder containing five per cent common (Hypoderma lineatiim) and rotenone is used at the rate of seven the northern (H. bovis). They are and one-half pounds per 100 gallons very similar in their habits but the of waterand applied at a pressure of at common grub appears earlier under least400 pounds per square inch at the the skin of the backs of cattle than nozzles. The nozzles should be does the northern species. equipped with discs having a 5/64- The eggs of both species are laid on inch opening, or with drive discs.The the hair of the cattle, usually on the .spray should be coarse and driving lower part of the legs. The grubs rather than fine and mist-like. The hatch from the eggs in about a week nozzles should be held 14 to 20 inches as tiny maggots which burrow from the skin of the animal being through the skin at the base of the sprayed and in sucha way so as to di hairs. Considerable time is spent by rect the spray almost vertically on to the grubs in migrating through the the skin of the animal. An area 10 to connective tissues of the host and at 12 inches on each side of the spine onestagetheylocalize in the gullet(in from the shoulders to the tail head the case of the common grub) while should be well treated. One hundred with the northern species, theyremain gallons of the mixture isusually suffi in the spinal canal for a time before cient to treat about 150 head. continuing to the back. The grubs Another effective method of apply first appear under the skin of the ing rotenone is in the form of a dry backs of South Dakota cattle about dust. The dust is formulated by mix the end of December or the early part ing one part of five per cent rotenone of January. Here they molt, or shed with two parts ofinert carrier such as tripoli earth or pyrophyllite. There per cent. The reduction of infestation are many commercial dusts available of the cattle located on the outer edge on the market all mixed and ready of this area was not as great. Much for use. Most of these are labeled as less fly activity was reported in the containing 1.67 per cent rotenone. center of the area also. The cattle were The dust should be applied by means not bothered by the flies as much as of a shaker can. A suitable container the cattle out of the control areas. may be made from a quart fruit jar These experiments indicate the need fitted with a lid in which 10 or 12 one- for community action in combatting fourth-inch holes are punched. About cattle grubs and heel fl'es. It is essen three ounces of the dust should be ap tial diat ranchers join forces and co plied to an animal and rubbed in well operate with allother ranchersin the'r with the finger tips with a rotary mo community in an effort to control the tion. Some people prefer to use a stiff parasites and reduce the losses caused bristled brush, but unless the brush is by them. kept clean, it will become matted with hair and will not work the dust Feed Lot Cattle Treated through the hair to the skin. There has been a need for informa tion concerning the effect of cattle Area Organization Necessary to grubs on the rates of gain of feed lot Combat Pests cattle. In an effort to determine this effect, experimental lotsof cattle were One farmer or rancher may treat set up at the Morrell feed lotsin Sioux his cattle for grubs and reduce the Falls and at the college feed lots at grubbiness slightly, but there is usual Brookings. In these experiments, ly reinfestation taking place from some of the cattle were treated with neighboring untreated farms and rotenone by spraying, dusting, and by ranches. It is necessary therefore to or means of the automatic currier; the ganize an area in which all the cattle others were left untreated. There are treated to effectively combat the were no significant differences be pests. In such areasthe outer fringe of tween treated and untreated feed lot ranches may get some reinfestation cattle in any of the tests. from the outside, but the centrally lo The average daily rates of gain of cated herds will experience a notice able reduction in grubbiness from one the cattle in the Morrell feed lots for year to the next. 1949 were: Automatic currier . 2.15 lbs. per day Such areas were set up experiment Grubby, untreated . 2.04 lbs.per day ally in Hughes, Haakon, Meade, Grubby, sprayed 2.03 lbs. per day Lawrence and Harding Counties. A Low grub infestation 2.00 lbs.per day total of about 11,500 head of cattle Grubby, hand dusted 1.99 lbs.per day were involved in the whole program. (Project 163. Leaders: John A. Lof- They were sprayed each year in gren, Entomology-Zoology Depart February, March, April and May. ment; Paul H. Kohler, Animal Hus Ajter two years, the grub infesta bandry Department; James J. O'Con- tion in the center of the Hughes nell. Extension Animal Husband County area was reduced about 75 man.) Timely cultivation practices aid in controlling weeds. Tinted (^oHtnol By D. E. Kratochvil, L. M. Staiiler and L. A. Derscheid ouTH Dakota has one of the most Investigations at the Scotland Parr 'effectiveweed control programs of cover two broad phases: (I) develoj; any state. ment of cultural control method A program to develop practical con which include intensive cultivatior trol methods for weeds infesting agri intensive cropping, and combination cultural land was initiated in 1945 at of the two methods and (2) the inve; the Scotland Bindweed Research tigation and development of chemict Farm as a cooperative project by the herbicides (weed killers) and meth Agronomy department of the Experi ods of application for bindweei ment Station, the Bureau of Plant In control. dustry of the USDA and the State Cultivation Controls Bindweed Weed Board. The Scotland project is Intensive cultivation repeated a considered as a regional project by the two week intervals may occasional! United States Department of Agricul eliminate bindweed in one sea.sor ture for the development of methods but in general, two full seasons of op of control that can be applied to areas eration are necessary. There has beei of adjoining states as well as to the no marked advantage in repeatinj problem in South Dakota. cultivation operations at less thai 'o-vveek intervals. Wind erosion has 2,4-DTested Early and Extensively en a definite hazard and a disad- At no other station in the United ntage in continuous cultivation op- States has the use of 2,4-D for the con ations. trol of bindweed been so thoroughly Cultivation Plus Crops Effective and intensively investigated. All available formulations of 2,4-D and A combination of intensive cultiva- its derivatives have been tested at vari )n with crops appears more practi- ous rates and dates of application, I in bindweed control than the use using various methods and equip intensive cultivation alone. Fall ment, ranging from aerosol applicat anted rye or wheat, seeded after a ors and knapsack sprayers to specially ason of intensive cultivation, has designed low-volume field sprayers. nsistently given satisfactory control bindweed when repeated for two or Other herbicides have been thor ree years,and has largely eliminated oughly tested in comparison to this e hazard of soil erosion. Early new material. Having established the anted spring barley with cultiva- efficiencyof 2,4-D as a selective herbi )ns similar to fall planted rye and cide, intensive investigations were un heat has given equally good control. dertaken since 1947 to determine the It has the disadvantage of risking most efficient combination of crops II and winter erosion. and cropping systems in which to use An alternative practice is the use of 2,4-D. As a result, the use of 2,4-D at rates tensive cultivation from the first of to % pounds per acre as a spray nergence of the bindweed to late solution in 5 to 10gallons of water per ineand then solid planting to forage acre on bindweed in growing crops of rghum, Sudan grass, millet or soy- wheat, oats or barley has become a ;ans, or to proso millet, as a seed standard practice in South Dakota op. Sorghum or Sudan grass used in and the region as a whole. This prac is practice over a 3-year period has ven satisfactory control of bind- tice with a total cost for chemical and application of less than $2.00 per acre eed, and the extensive surface root and without any measurable effect on stem developed by these crops dur- yield or quality of the cereal grains, g the short growing period has ma- has proved of great value to the entire rially reduced the hazards of winter area. ind erosion. Many Weeds Tested Grasses and Legumes Help Recognizing the importance of Control Bindweed other perennial weeds such as leafy One of the most encouraging and spurge, Canada thistle, perennial sow- •actical investigations undertaken at thistle, quackgrass, Russian knap leScotland Farm is the use of peren- weed and woody perennial species al grass and legume forage crops as (such as buckbrush, sage and wil bindweed control measure. In the low), and the even more extensive :otland area, bromegrass, crested problems of annual weeds, research heatgrass, or alfalfa, have been out- has been undertaken for the control of anding in their ability to control these pests. Investigations concerned ndweed. with control of these latter species have been largely to determine the ef and improved. In 1946 standard rec ficiency and use of chemical herbi ommendations for application of her cides. bicides,such as 2,4-D,called for 80gal It was recognized early that even lons of spray solution per acre as a bindweed presented a different prob minimum—in 1948 our recommenda lem in the western drier areas of the tions had been revised to include 5 to state and that control methods devel 10 gallons spray solution per acre as a oped at Scotland would not apply standard application. consistently in these areas. For this When we consider that the use of reason, additional plot investigations from one-fourth to one-half pound of concerned with bindweed—chemical 2,4-D per acre applied in 5 to 10 gal control and competition of grass and lons of water per acre,or 1to 2 gallons legume crops, in particular—were of oil per acre, was uiidertaken on ap established in areas not covered by the proximately 3 million acres of grow Scotland investigations. ing crops in South Dakota this past It is worthy of note that brome- season—which ranks it first among grass, which has been a star performer the 48 states in acres sprayed with at the Scotland Farm, is not so well 2,4-D—the effect that these develop adapted in the west river area, crested ments have had on our agricultural wheatgrass and Russian rye grass practices is well evident. Throughout being much more efficient in the con these investigations and developments trol of bindweed under conditions of the possible effect of 2,4-D on yield, lower available moisture. The use of quality, germination and genetic 2,4-D for control of bindweed in the make-up of crop plants has not been areas of lower moisture has resulted overlooked. in less consistent and less efficient control than under conditions experi Recommendations for Field Use enced at the Scotland Farm. This is a problem that is receiving more and Results of weed control investiga more attention from the research per tions conducted at the South Dakota sonnel of the weed project. Agricultural Experiment Station and recommendations for field use of Annual Weeds Controlled by 2,4-D weed control practices derived from Research investigations in South these data are available in circulars Dakota have played an important and bulletins. These publications are part in the development of use of revisedeach year to conform with lat 2,4-D as a selective herbicide for the est findings and developments in this control of annual weeds in growing rapidly growing and ever changing crops of wheat, oats, barley, flax, corn field of agricultural research. These and sorghum. Asa result of the inves current publications may be secured, tigations in South Dakota and coordi through the officeof your local coun nated and cooperative trials underta ty agricultural agent, or Agricultural ken in the adjoining states of Minne Experiment Station, S. D. State Col sota and North Dakota, field spraying lege, Brookings, South Dakota. (Proj and equipment were radically revised ect 32,Agronomy Department.) By J. E. Grafius and V, A. Dirks Anew oat like anew car is expect ed to have some improvements over the old model. After becoming the proud owner of a new car we begin to discover some of the faults as well as the advertised virtues. The purpose of this article is to give the background of the development of James hullessoats and to acquaint the farmer with its good and bad points. James is a mid-early, stifT-strawed, hulless oat, with resistance to stem rust, leaf rust and smut. Hulless oats are desirable as feed for swine and poultry. Varieties of hulless oats have been known for many years, but because of susceptibility to smut, none of them gained favor with the farmers of this area. Recognizing the problem, Mathew Fowlds, a member of the Agronomy department of South Dakota State College, pro duced, after a decade and a half of work, a smut resistant variety of oats from the cross of (Markton-Rich- land) X (Swedish Select-Kilby Hull ess). This variety was named Nakota. It produced an excellent yield, but— like all varieties, had its weakness. JAMES OATS

Nakota was released in 1935. It had been produced and tested under the dry conditions of the 30's, when leaf rust was not a problem. In I94I, with the advent of higher rainfall and and resistant to leaf rust were saved. greater relative humidity, leaf rust be At the end of the season, only 100 came a major problem in oat produc rows were marked to be saved. These tion in eastern South Dakota. Nakota 100 rows were further eliminated by proved to be extremely susceptible. yield tests in replicated rod-row plots Reluctantly, the farmers dropped the in 1945. Sufiicient seed was available hulless variety in favor of new vari by 1946 to test the remaining lines for eties of common oats that were resis yield in rod-row plots at the field sta tant to leaf rust. tions at Highmore, Eureka and Cot- Breeding for New Rust Resistant tonwood as well as at the main experi Oat Started ment station at Brookings. If common varieties of oats could In the winter of 1946-47, eight of the be made resistant to leaf rust by hy superior lines were tested for smut re bridization, then a hulless variety action. In this same year increases could also be made resistant. Two were started of two of the remaining sources of resistance to leaf rust were adapted, hulless types that were resis known—Bond and Victoria. A cross tant to leaf rust, stem rust and to all was made between Nakota and a known races of smut. Subsequent Bond derivative and the breeding statewide performance testing nar program was initiated. However, it rowed the field to one variety which was learned that Dr. H. C. Murphy, was named James. USDA pathologist, had bulk third New Oat Early and Leaf generation material of a similar cross, Rust Resistant Nakota x (Double cross-Bond). Re Seed and plant characteristics of quests were made for this material James can be described best by com and seed was obtained in the spring of paring it with the varieties shown in 1942. This generosity on the part of Dr. Murphy and the Iowa Agricul Table 1. In comparison with Nakota, James tural Experiment Station advanced shows an improvement in earliness, the release of a new rust and smut re lodging resistance, leaf rust resistance sistant hulless oat for South Dakota and test weight. The increase in test by three years. weight is largely due to increase in It was fortunate that the seed ob leafrust resistance. It shouldbepoint tained from Dr. Murphy was an un- ed out that James, like Clinton and selected bulk lot. This meant that a Mindo, is susceptibleto Race45of leaf large number of different types exist rust and Races 3 and 7 of stem rust. ed in the population and that after the While no good testson shattering are F5 (the fifth generation of selling) available, field observations indicate many true breeding types could be se that it is equal to Nakota which was lected. Plant selections were made in satisfactory in this respect. 1943. In 1944 the seed from about 2,000 Yields Are High plants were seeded in the individual 5- In calculating the yields of hulless foot rowsand rigorously culledduring oats (Table 2) it is necessary to adjust the season.Only true-breeding hulless for hulls in order that the data may be types' that were early, stiff-strawed comparable to that from common Table 1. Average plant and seed characteristics of James,Clinton Vikota, Mindo, and Nakota, grown at Brookings, 1946-49. Helmin- Leaf thosporium Date Lodging Height Stem rust rust victoriae Variety headed resistance inches resistance resistance resistance

James ...6/18 Rt 33 Clinton ...... 6/18 R 32 Vikota ...6/18 MS 30 Mindo ... 6/15 R 30 Nakota .. ...6/20 MS 34 •The legal test weight for hulless oats is 42 pounds per measured bushel. |R_resistant, S—susceptible, MR—moderately resistant, MS—moderately susceptible.

Table 2. Yield comparisons in bushels per acreof James with four standard varieties at four locations in South Dakota. Brookings Highmore Cottonwood Variety 1946-49 1947-49 1947-49 James* i 82.0 74.8 36.6 Clinton : ...75.4 64.4 31.4 Vikota 63.5 70.5 37.1 Mindo 72.4 69.0 38.8 Nakota* 68.2 — — Least significant difference — 5.1 5.6 5.0 •Hulless, adjusted for hulls by dividing by 0.7. oats. This adjustment was made on ticular area. Hulless oatoats should not the assumption that approximately 0.3 bebecutcut greenasthisgreen as this willccause the oats of the weight of common oats was to belightbe light weight and hardhi to thresh. due to the hull and that the remaining For feed purposes no ;special clean 0.7was due to the groat. ing is necessary. For seedseec purposes, it The average yields of James, when is best to scalp with a fanning mill adjusted for hulls, compare favorably andthen use a Carter disdisk. with the yields of the standard vari- Storage underunderSouthDakotaSouth E condi eties,andat Brookings the 4-year aver- tions presents no serious seriou problem as age for James exceeds all others by a hulless oats that have amoisture r con statistically significant difEerence. tent of 13 percent or leless have been This variety is best suited to eastern found to store well. South Dakota and should be restrict- InformationonInformation on FRelease ed west of the Missouri river to small About 2,000 bushels^ of James will acreages for a special purpose crop be released to the County Crop Im and to areas mthe Black Hills. provement Associations in the spring Cultural Practices in South Dakota of 1950. The seed is linlimited and no James oats should be seeded at the direct sales to individindividuals will be rateof 50 pounds peracre, made.Limited quanti quantities will be Nospecial equipment is needed for available in 1951 for indindividual farm harvesting. James may be cut with a ers through purchases ofi seed from binder, windrowed, or direct com-the County Crop ImprovementImpro Asso bined in accordance with the best ciations. (Project 25 and 181. Leader: practices for common oats in the par- V.V.A.Dirks,A.Dirks, Agronomy IDepartment.) By D. G. Jones and Wm. Kohlmeyer

Removal of most of the comb and reka. These birds were compared in XV wattles of the chicken is known respect to egg production and mor as dubbing. Cockerels, which are to tality from November 1,1947, to Sep besaved for breeding males, are c]uite tember 14, 1948. The experiment was commonly dubbed in many sections repeated with a similargroup of pul of the United States. The practice has lets from October 1, 1948, to Septem beenfound beneficial in prevention of ber 21,1949. freezing damageevenin sections hav Leghorns were chosen for this work ing milder winters than SouthDakota. Because dubbed males are less likely because the mature females usually to be affected by low temperatures have a large comb and wattles. If and less subject to injury from fight freezing damage does occur due to ing, they commonly give higher fer low temperatures it is reasonable to tility than normal males. There has expect that it would be more severe in been no information available on the females with large combs than in efkects of dubbing females in a climate those with small combs such as those where winters are as cold as those of commonly found in New Hamp- South Dakota. shires or White Plymouth Rocks. To insure as nearly complete removal of White Leghorn Pullets Used the comb and wattles as possible, the To obtain information on the effect dubbing was postponed until the pul of dubbing females, two pens of letswere nearly sexually mature. The normal and two pens of dubbed pullet illustrated shows the complete White Leghorn pullets were housed ness of comb and wattle removal. at the North Central substation at Eu- The laying house was of rammed- DUBBED HENS LA'

1947-48 Normal White Leghorn pullet Graph 1. Percentage eggproduction and mean low tempi

Weekly Productiot

80 15 7o '——\ /'""X ^ 60' \

45 Mean Lows Weekly earth construction. All pens received a free-choice grain and mash laying ration with water and oyster shells. In these and other details of manage ment, their care was not greatly differ ent than that of the average well- fed South Dakota farm flock. Daily records were kept of egg production and mortality for each pen. To elimi nate the effects of differential mortal ity in the various pens, percentage egg production was calculated on a hen- day basis. Dubbing Operation Not Serious Although the dubbing operation causes some loss of blood, it is not a serious operation since no deaths oc curred as a result of dubhing in either year. The dubbed pullets were slight ly slower in coming into production which is probably a direct result ol dubbing the birds when theyare near ly sexually mature. This delay coulc nprh.-ins be avoided bv dubbimr ear of physiological adjustment to cold. males in 1948-49, but no difference in Egg Production Increases 1947-48. The explanation for the difference During the winter of 1947-48, there in the two years would seem to be was little difference between the found in the fact that the winter of dubbed and normal birds in egg pro 1948-49 was more severe than that of duction with the exception of a one- 1947-48. During 1948-49 the mean low week period. However, during the temperatures were lower and they winter of 1948-49 the dubbed birds lasted for a longer period. laid better than the normal birds dur- It is evident that in some years ing most of the period. The response South Dakota farmers might expect to get more winter eggs from dubbed of the birds in the two groups to White Leghorn pullets than from changes in temperature arequite sim normal ones. Almost identical num ilar, but in 1948-49 the dubbed birds bers of birds died in the dubbed pens weremuch less seriously affected than as in the normal pens so it is evident were the normal birds. As might be that dubbing does not influence mor expected from the appearance of the tality. Likewise, on the basis ofyearly graphs, a statistical analysis reveals egg production there was no differ there is a significant difference in egg ence between the normal and dubbed production of norrrial and dubbed fe birds. (Project 194. Poultry Dept.) FOWL CHOLERA J. B. Taylor and G. S. Harshfield Varioussulfadrugs have beentried Losses from fowl cholera are seen in experimental birds and in farm ^every month of the year, but out flocks to check the death loss that ac breaks are much more prevalent dur companies acute outbreaks. Sulfathia- ing the fall months. The most logical zole,sulfaquinoxaline and sulfameth- explanation of this seasonal preva- azine have proved effective in check- lence is the exposure given to young the losses from death during the birds brought in contact with older period that the drugs were supplied. U"birdsJ_ in_ 1housing •in •the 1fall. /• 11 "Healthyci-r -r 1 . Often,1 however, additional1 I-.- 11 deaths1 oc carriers," (apparently normal birds curred after the sulfa drugs were dis which carry the fowl cholera organ continued. Where fowl cholera infec ism in their respiratory passages) are tion existed in flocks as a chronic dis known to be present in flocks. ease, control of death loss has not been Since carrier birds are often the satisfactory with these agents. source of infection for newoutbreaks, Sanitation measures should include it would be desirable if they could be frequent removal of sick and dead identified and culled from the flocks. birds, thorough cleaning of the poul A test similar to the rapid, whole try house and the feeding and water- blood stained antigen test for pullor- ing equipment. The cleaning opera um disease has been used in flocks tions should be carried outduring the where fowl cholera has occurred. This period that the drugs are supplied to test hasidentified a few ofthecarriers, the flock. (Project No. 141. Veterinary but has not been accurate enough. Department.) *'1omcuoeA,.. SOUTH DAKOTA HYBRID NO. 2

By S. A. McCrory to rank the various hybrids in differ Home gardeners will like the ent sections of the state. South Dakota hybrid No. 2, a The yields given in Table 1 are ex solid, meaty tomato of a size that is pressed in tons per acre. However, it ideal for canning. It is a medium should be kept in mind that this ex small fruit, about two inches in diam periment was disturbed by the causes eter,and willfit nicely into home fruit mentioned. Results are based on three jars without cutting. Its smooth sur randomized replications of 12 plants each with a spacingof 4 by 5 feet. face, free of cracks, make it very at tractive. Also one of the earliest toma CostofHybridTomatoSeed Justified toes, it yields a high percentage of marketable fruits with veryfew culls. Getting enough seed of this hybrid The desirability of growing a well- has presented a problem. Someexperi adapted hybrid tomato is now well mental work conducted during the known to people who have planted past twoyears bytheHorticulture de South Dakota No. 2. After undergo partment has indicated that this is a ing testing for three years at various time-consuming and rather expensive locations in the state, this hybrid has operation. demonstrated its ability to produce Crosses were originally made from early fruit aswell as a hightotal yield. greenhouse-grown plantings. Thisop Performance tests were conducted eration consists of planting the pistil at Brookings, Yankton and Redfield late plant, (the one producing the in 1949. Cut worm loss, hail damage fruit) and in a nearby location plant and drought reduced yields material ing one pollen-producing plant for ly, andearly frost shortened the pick every tenpistillate plants. Astheflow ingseason at Redfield and Brookings. ersdevelop, the crossing technique re It is not our intent to show differences quires timely visits to remove any of in yield at the different locations, but thepollen-bearing partoftheblossom Table 1. Tons per Acre Yield at the Following Locations Variety Brookings

Chatham 3.58 3.17 3.00 Earliana 1.01 3.82 2.83 Firesteel 4.11 4.78 3.67 Long Red 1.82 3.39 1.23 Sioux 2.97 9.56 1.34 Stokesdale 1.09 6.87 1.72 Victor 3.38 7.82 (3)3.84 Main Crop 1.00 2.30 .81 Early Crop 2.40 5.51 South Dakota No. 2 (1)*4.49 (3)11.26 (1)5.23 Stokes Crop No. 5 1.83 4.73 .83 South Dakota No. 23 (2)4.44 (2)11.85 2.57 Red Rival F 1.14 6.80 Red Knight 3.75 7.95 South Dakota No. 3 (3)4.21 (1)13.18 (2)3.92 South Dakota No. 21 _ 3 97 10.91 3.32 N. D. No. 49 3.06 M. D. X-A Fe 1.71 L. B. R. 104 Fs 2.89 ♦Numbers in parentheses denote rank for yields. before there is danger of its fertiliza to produce about one pound of seed. tion. The following day the cross is A spacing of 3 by 4 feet is a desir made hy a hand operation. Immature able distance for a planting when the blossoms or any that may have fertil plants are grown with the aid of stake ized themselves are removed and a supports. At this spacing, a planting tag carrying the date and record of large enough to produce a pound of cross is then attached to the flower seed would occupy approximately cluster. This same technique is neces one-twentieth of an acre. An addi saryfor plants growing in the field. tional space would be needed for the The number of seed obtained in the pollen-producing plants. greenhouse and under field condi The number of man hours labor re tions did not differ materially. Ap quired to carefor such a plantingwill proximately one seed per gram of vary depending upon the type of fruit, or 450 seeds per pound,were ob labor available, sothat figures are dif tained. For a variety such as South ficult to quote. For example, girls of Dakota Hybrid No. 2, four different high school age who did much of this flower clusters canbecrossed duringa work improved their skill materially growing season. after a few weeks ofwork. A planting Since not all the blossoms develop of one-half acre would need two uniformly, an average of two fruits workers for the first cluster with addi per cluster is a fair number to use for tional helpers the following week crossing. These will generally run until five or six would be needed at about four to the pound, or two •the peak of the growing season. pounds of fruit per plant. There are It is not practical to make crosses approximately 10,000 seeds per ounce later than the 20th of August in the for this hybrid, or 160,000 seeds per Brookings area, since we may expect pound. At the above mentioned rate, frost by September 25. (Project 49. 350 pounds of fruit will be required HorticultureDepartment.) By H. C. Severin years have been very influential in keeping down grasshoppers in South Dakota and have undoubtedly affect ed the grasshopper expectancy for 1950. Grasshopper infestations in South Dakota for 1950 are expectedto be about the same as during 1949. Where to Find Egg Beds One hundred and fifteen different kinds of grasshoppers live within the borders of South Dakota, but usually only five of these become injurious to crops. The differential and two-striped grasshoppers prefer to lay their eggs in grassy areas—roadsides, ditch banks, grassy borders of grain fields, weedy idle land, andgrassy borders of corn and sorghum fields. Eggs may also belaidin grassy borders of alfalfa fields or eventhroughout alfalfa fields

'HOPPERS

JP itis estimated that in South Dako 1950 ta alone, grasshoppers caused a loss of $43,203,000 to the growers of cereal, if the stand of alfalfa is poor.The less forage and truck crops. Grasshoppers er migratory grasshopper often lays vary in abundance in South Dakota most of its eggs amongst the roots of over a long series of years, occurring grain stubble, but some may also be in outbreak numbers over large areas laid in grassy headlands, fence rows, during some years and doing an im pastures, and similar locations. mense amount of damage, and in other years occurring in negligible Methods of Controlling numbers in some of these same areas. The use of early maturing varieties This much is certain, however, grass of grains is especially important dur hoppers occur in damaging numbers ing years whengrasshopper outbreaks somewhere in the state every year. are forecast, for this may spellthe dif Control measures practiced by ference between a good harvest or a farmers and ranchers in the past ten very poor one. The Agronomy depart- r/7re<7^e/?//7^y /07'to20^ ^ L/<^/?t, Cp to/OOc^/??c7^e The 1950 grasshopper outlook.The situation can change with the weather. Map prepared by U. S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine in cooperation with the State CollegeExtension Service ment of South Dakota State College, times it is possible to kill young hop the Extension service agronomist, or pers on their hatching beds, and since the county agent are in a position to such beds are frequently localized in offer sound advice on this matter. the borders of grain fields or along Using resistant varieties and substi roadways rather than in grain fields, it tuting sorghum for corn are highly means considerable saving of time, desirable practices to follow in areas labor and materials if the hoppers are where a severe grasshopper outbreak destroyed before they invade a culti is forecast. Here again, advice should vated field. In addition, if this is done, be sought from the agencies men all damage to crops will be avoided. tioned. Should grasshoppers hatch through Poisons in baits, sprays and dusts out a field, then the only recourse is to have been used successfully for killing treat the entire field. Baits can best be grasshoppers for some time. Since applied throughbaitspreaders. Sprays chlordan and toxaphene have become and dusts may best be applied available, these poisons havesupplant through power sprayers, dusters or by ed to a large extent all other poisons, planes. to date, in South Dakota and most Chlordan other states. Sprays—In general, 1 pound of Killing Young Hoppers Gives technical chlordan should be used per Best Results acre. Young hoppers can be killed When poisons are used it should be with three-fourths pound chlordan remembered that it is a much easier per acre, but for longer residual effect jobto killthe younghoppers than it is and for older nymphs, 1 pound per to kill mature grasshoppers. Often acre should be used. For adults, and whenvegetation issparse and dry,1/4 when vegetation is sparse and dry, 2 pounds ofchlordan may be desirable. pounds oftoxapbene per acre may be Dusts—When cblordan is applied desirable. as a dust, someof it is lost because of Dusts—When toxapbene is applied wind drift. As a consequence, increase as a dust, some of it is lost becauseof the dosage by one-fourtb pound in wind drift. As a consequence, increase each of the recommendations men thedosage by one-half pound for each tioned. of the recommendations mentioned. Baits—Cblordan may be substitut Baits—Toxapbene may be substi ed for sodium fluosilicate in preparing tuted for sodium fluosilicate in pre baits.These baits may be prepared in paring baits. These baits may be pre either a wet or dry formulation, ac pared in either a wet or dry formula cording tothedirections oftheUnited tion,according to the directions of the States Bureau of Entomology and United States Bureau of Entomology Plant Quarantine.^ and Plant Quarantine.^ Toxapbene CAUTION: Remember that cblor dan and toxapbene, like most other Sprays—In general, 114 pounds of insecticides, are poisonous. Precau technical toxapbene should be used tions should be taken in handling per acre. Young hoppers can be killed them and in feeding recently sprayed with 1 pound of toxapbene per acre, forage to livestock. Alfalfa recently but for longer residual effect and for sprayed with cblordan or toxapbene older nymphs, 114 pounds of toxa should not be fed to milk cows or to pbene should be used. For adults, and beef cattle that are to be slaughtered iWakeland, Claude and Parker, J. R. Grasshopper Con trol Improved by New Insecticides, U. S. Bureau of in a shorttime. (Project18, Entomol Entomology and Plant Quarantine, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Ec.--7, February 1949. ogyDepartment.)

< . c-ij frnm a cpvprp trrasstinnnpr outbreak.

- f' _ VITAMIN C

By S. A. McCrory Strawberries are the one fruit produced fruit containing as much as grown in South Dakota which 20percent more vitamin C in the June equals citrus fruit in vitamin C con crop than was found in ripe fruit in tent. A 3'/2-ounce serving, or approxi late September. This evidence is fur mately one-sixth of a quart of straw ther proof that light is a very impor berries, is generally considered ade tant factor in producing strawberries quate for the daily requirement of of good quality and with a high vita vitamin C. min C content. However, in observations made at Eight commonly grown varietiesof the Experiment Station, much varia strawberries were observed and are tion in vitamin C content was found ranked in Table 1 according to their between different varieties. In gener vitamin C content. al, those that produce fruit on long Table 1. Ascorbic Acid Content of stems are higher in vitamin C content Strawberry Varieties than those that bear fruit on short Variety Mg. Vit. C/100 Grains stems.Fruit exposedto the direct rays Fairfax — 66.20 of the sun is higher in vitamin C con Burgundy 65.43 tent than that shaded by the leaves of Mastodon 64.52 the plant. Also, fruit harvested on Dunlap 63.95 Premier 56.31 clear dayscontainsa higher vitamin C Gem 55.67 content than fruit harvested during Aberdeen 49.10 cloudy weather. Everbearing varieties Pathfinder 49.10 Table 2. Ascorbic Acid Content of Fruit Exposed June crop, which is quite in keeping to Direct Sun and Fruit Shaded by Leaves with the idea that light is directly re Mg. Vit. C/100 Grams sponsible forsynthesis ofVitaminC. Variety Exposed to sun Shaded byleaves The fall crop of everbearing straw Burgundy 66.26 64.60 berries is generally highly prized by Dunlap -65.38 62.53 Aberdeen 53.98 44.23 the grower. Usually the peak of the Gem — -64.96 46.39 yield for the fall crop at this location Mastodon .65.48 63.57 comes in late September. The vitamin Fairfax — —66.76 65.64

Table 3. Ascorbic Acid Content of Fruit It was decided to sample fruit ex Harvested on Clear and Cloudy Days posed to the direct rays of the sun, Mg. Vit. C/100 Grams and, from the sameplants,select fruit Cloudy day Clear day shaded by leaves. Six varieties were Variety Exposed Shade Exposed Shade usedin this studyand are described in Gem 59.73 53.7 65.35 47.37 Table 2. With the exception of Aberdeen, Fairfax 62.56 61.75 66.76 65.64 Burgundy —59.94 59.32 68.86 65.64 there is little difference between varie-

ties in vitamin C content when the C content of fruit collected on June 10 fruit is exposed to the direct rays of and on September 25, from compara the sun. The Aberdeen variety is a bleplants ofGemand Mastodon vari poorly colored fruit and was not eties, is much greater in June, as found to contain much vitamin C. shown in Table 4. It is well known that strawberries To make practical applications of harvested during cloudy weather are this it seemsthat, with everything else ofpoor quality. To measure the influ equal, it would be advisable to select ence of cloudy weather on vitamin C varieties of strawberries producing content, strawberries were sampled on clear and cloudy days. The fruit taken fruit on a long fruit stem. Locate the from an exposed position, as well as planting in full sunlight, space the that taken from under the leaves, plant soas to avoid a crowded condi shows a higher vitamin C content on tion, and see that no weed growth clear days than during cloudy weath shades it. (Project 145. Horticulture er. This would certainly indicate that, Department.) for high quality fruit, exposure to full sunlight is necessary. Table 4. Comparison of Spring and Fall Crops of Everbearing Strawberries The value of everbearing strawber ries has sometimes been questioned. Mg. Vit. C/100 Grams In the Gem and Mastodon varieties Gem - -55.67 the vitamin C content is materially Mastodon —64.52 lower with the fall crop than with the THE EUROPEAI4 CORN BORER

By Gerald B. Spawn

'"AiHIftGrOMI ATASMABAuGH

•• 80 'yo io ICQ °fo of stalks infesied 50% io 80% of jfalks infested. I' .' 1 up to 50 "/o of -staLks infested

'he European corn borer is at pest has increased in numbers and present South Dakota's No. 1 has spread rapidly during the four corn pest. Although having only re years it has been with us. cently established residence here (it During the past two years the was found in South Dakota for the South Dakota State College Experi first time in the summer of 1946) the ment Station has conducted fall corn borer has now made its unwelcome borer abundance surveys. The survey presence felt in the entire eastern half figures were submitted to the U. S. of the state. With favorable weather Bureau of Entomology and Plant conditions for its development this Quarantine for comparisonwith those of other states. On the basis of these mains in South Dakota. Entire fields, figures the Bureau estimated that in plowed in the fall, produce a soil- South Dakota in 1948 the corn borer blowing erosion hazard which is not caused a lossof $2,436,000 in field corn believed tobejustified from thestand harvested for grain. In 1949 this loss point of borer control. figure was placed at $7,545,000. Burningof cornstalks isnot recom Since South Dakota has had the mended. Our soil needs the humus corn borer for such a short period of provided by the stalk residue, not only time, the Experiment Station recom to assist in maintaining soil fertility, mendations for control must necessar but also for keeping the soil mellow, ily be quite largely those of other for providing aeration, for holding states, revised for use under our cli the necessary, moisture and for the matic and soil conditions. We cannot prevention of erosion. expect to obtain 100 percent control of Planting Dates the corn borer in field corn by any The earliest and the latest planted single control measure. However, a fields in a community usually suffer very large proportion of the loss can the heaviest infestations of borers. be prevented by the use ofa combina Midseason-planted fields usually have tion of different control methods. the lightest infestations. These dates obviously will vary with years and Field Sanitation Is Important will also be different in the northern The Experiment Station recom andsouthern parts ofthestate. Where mendsthat stalks be plowed under in planting can be delayed to the middle the spring, ifthe plowing can be com of the planting season such a proce pleted by May 10 to 15. If this practice dure is recommended. However, the is toprovide the utmost benefit to the farmer is cautioned to consider the farmer it must be done throughout a number of growing days needed to wide area, preferably a state-wide pro bringhisvarieties ofcorn to maturity. gram, since the corn borer moths can fly asfarasfifty miles. Parasite Introduced The Station does not recommend A small, wasp-like parasite {Chel- fall plowing-under of corn stalk re onus annulipes) has been introduced into the state. If it becomesestablished it will be merely an aid in control of the borer; it will not solve the borer problem. Sprays or Dusts Give Satisfactory Results Chemical control is the recom mended emergency control measure against corn borers infield corn, using either sprays or dusts ofDDT.

(Top left) An egg mass, showing the hlack- head stage. (Center left) Known distribution of European corn borer in South Dakota, Fall 1949. (Left) Newly-hatched borers on corn leaf. Photos courtesy of USDA Extension Service. The need for the use of insecticides per acre. Emulsion concentrate stock should be based upon the farmer's is recommended for use inallground own survey of his fields at the time the corn borer moths are laying their sprayers which do not have mechani The Station plans to carry on a cal agitators in the tank. If the tank service to the farmers wherein the has a mechanical agitator then DDT farmers will be advised, by radio, wettable powders may be used, and newspaper releases, and through not less than 15 gallons of finished county extension agents, of the devel spray should beapplied peracre. opmental progress of the borers. If For aircraft application the emul there are as many as 50 or more egg sion concentrate stock is recommend masses per 100 plants Iq corn when it ed, in from 2to 5gallons ofwater per is not less than 35 inches high with acre. Concentrated oil solutions of leaves fully extended upward, then in- DDT used as such are recom secticidal controls will pay. mended. DDT and Ryania (a South In such caseseither a two-treatment American plant), are both satisfactory for use as dusts. or one-treatment method is recom mended, depending upon the severity Of these insecticides DDT is lessex of the infestation and degree of con pensive and much more readily avail trol desired. Ifthe two-treatment plan able at present. The 10 percent DDT is used then the first application dust should be applied at the rate of should be made about seven days after 20 pounds per acre; 5 percent DDT the first eggs hatch. The second appli dust, at 40 pounds per acre. These cation of insecticide should follow one rates of application will give the re week after the first. If only one treat quired 2 pounds of technical DDT ment is to be given, then spraying or per acre.Rowcrop dusters with two or dusting should be done 10 to 12 days more nozzles per row are suitable for after thefirst eggs hatch. use in control of corn borers. Ground dusters providing high air velocity Recommendations and volume are more satisfactory than The use of 114 pounds of technical are dusters with low velocity and vol DDT per acre is recommended for ume. If aircraft are used for dusting, sprays, while with dusts 2 pounds of the flight height should not be greater technical DDTper acre are suggested. than six feet from corn tops towheels. The amount of stock insecticide to be used will depend upon the percentage The above recommendations apply of DDT in the stock. Use just enough to firstgenerationborers. The control to givethe requiredamount of techni of second generation borers in field cal DDT per acre, and in the case of corn is not ordinarily recommended emulsion concentrates use only such because of difficulty of application. emulsionsas have been found safefor However, infields with heavy infesta application to growing corn. Xylene tions (100 or more egg masses per 100 base concentrates have produced no plants) the control ofsecond genera tion borers, for prevention of stalk burning of leaves ifused properly. breakage and ear dropping, will be Where emulsion concentrates are profitable. Because ofthe height ofthe used the stock material should be corn at the time the second brood bor added to five to ten gallons of water ers appear, control applications of sprays and dusts for this brood can be or more egg masses per 100 plants, made only by use of aircraft or by (b)Ifplanting will not be harvested sprayers and dusters mounted on de- during thesucceeding twelve days. tasseling machines. The grower should startexamining Recommendations for Canning Corn plants for egg masses for second gen South Dakota does not at present eration borers when examination of produce large acreages of sweet corn first-generation tunnels, .in earlier for canning purposes; however, a re planted fields, shows that moths have stricted area in the extreme northeast emerged, or when moth flight has ern part of the state does produce been observed, or when advised to do some. so by state and local agricultural In the examination of sweet corn agencies. Examinations should be plants for deposits of egg masses the made at 3 to 4 day intervals, with farmer should start making inspec particular attention being paid toflag- tions of his fields when the plants leaves, husks and undersides of true reach an extended leaf height of 25 leaves. Firstapplication ofinsecticides inches. Fields should be examined at should be made when the first black 4-day intervals until egg deposition is head or hatched eggmass isobserved. completed. Attention should begiven Treatments should be continued at 5- the undersides of the lower leaves. day intervals aslong asthere are20 or If the inspection shows 20 or more more unhatched egg masses per 100 egg masses per 100 plants on varieties plants, or until 12 days in advance of with maturities of 75 days or less, or harvest. Special conditions might 50 or more masses on varieties with make it necessary to deviate slightly maturities of more than 75 days, then from this schedule. spraying or dusting is recommended. Observe Cautions Duringvery early seasons, late-matur DDT treated fields should not be ing varieties may be so advanced in pastured following harvest; neither growth that treatment will be war should stalks or husks be used for fod ranted at egg mass levels of less than der or silage. Small amounts of DDT 50 per 100 plants. (a cumulative poison) may beexcret When to ApplyInsecticides ed in milk or deposited in fat of ani In timing application ofinsecticides malsbeingfinished for slaughter. oncanning corn, make thefirst appli If Ryania is used, then stalks, etc., cation on early maturing varieties may be used for feed, since experi when there are 20 or more egg masses ments from other states indicate that per 100 plants and one or more ofthe Ryania when properly used in borer egg masses shows signs of hatching control does not harm animals even if (the black-head stage). On late ma they eatrecently treated plants. Also it turing varieties, make the first appli does not accumulate in milk or ani cation seven days after the first evi mal fat. dence of hatching. More detailed suggestions on corn The need for treatment against sec borer control are available through ond brood borers in canning corn is the South Dakota Experiment Sta based upon twoconditions ingeneral: tion, State College, Brookings. (FBJ (a) If inspection of plants shows 20 Project 187. Entomology Dept.) Newcastle

Disease BY G. S. HARSHFIELD Anew, highly contagious poultry backwards, and twisting of the head disease made it first appearance and neck are the more common ones. in 1946.This disease, named Newcas In older birds the same symptoms tle, has been a cause of serious out occur, butmay be so slight as toescape breaks in several European and Asiat notice by the caretaker. The most ic countries for over 20 years. A dis common and significant feature of the ease called pneumo-encephalitis disease in laying flocks is the sudden which later proved to be the same as and almost total drop in egg produc Newcastle disease, was recognized in tion within a period of three or four California in the period from 1935 to days. Floor eggs, soft shells or irregu 1940. In 1945, Newcastle disease was larly-shaped eggs are common during found in New Jersey and it has since the drop in production. It usually re spread into all of the states and also quires three or four weeks before any into Canada and Mexico. material return of production is evi Nature of Disease dent. Newcastle disease may affect birds Death losses in outbreaks vary over of all ages. In young chicks the first a wide range. In general, losses are symptoms are usually gasping,cough higher in chicks than in adult birds. ing, rattling and difficult breathing. We have had outbreaks in chicks in In these respects thesymptoms resem South Dakota in which over 80 per ble these ofother respiratory diseases. cent died, but an average for this age Within two or three days some of the is nearer 40 percent. On the other chicks may develop symptoms indi hand, some outbreaks inlaying flocks cating nervous disorder. These symp occur with not over one or two per toms vary. Partial or complete leg cent of the birds dying. The average paralysis, tremors, circling orwalking death loss in mature birds is 10 to 15 percent. All birds in a flock become humans, it results in an irritating eye infected in an outbreak whether infection lasting for a few days. symptoms areobserved or not. Technical Skill Needed to Other fowls are susceptible. Tur Make Diagnosis keys may show symptoms similar to Sometimes, when symptoms are those observed in chickens. Geese and typical, a tentative diagnosis can be ducks are less susceptible. Outbreaks made by observing the flock. Since have occurred in pheasants in captiv ity. We have tested blood from 70 nervous and respiratory symptoms are wild pheasants and found evidence of also associated with other poultry dis some previous exposure to the disease eases such as fowl cholera, laryngo- virus in two. tracheitis, and infectious bronchitis, There are several reports of people laboratory examination and specific becoming infected bycontact within tests are necessary for positive diag- fected fowls, either live or dressed. In

Lack ofcoordination ofthe muscles inNewcastle disease, manifested by twisting ofthe head. The laboratory of the Veterinary mechanically carry Newcastle disease department has been using specific virus from placq to place. Transmis tests for the diagnosis of Newcastle sion through theegg is possible ifeggs disease since 1946. We have found laid in the first few days are used for Newcastle disease in 36 counties since hatching. it first appeared in the state and it is Control Depends On Quarantine most probable that outbreaks have oc and Sanitation curred in many of the remaining Medicines or vaccines have no cura counties. tivevalue in flocks havingthe disease. Good care and feed will keep the loss No. of counties es at a minimum. Should there be more than one group of poultry on the farm, provide separate caretakers for thesick andthe healthy birds. Pro vide a strict quarantine of the sick Fowls submitted to the Veterinary group, keeping out all visitors. As department for examination and tests soon as the disease has subsided, the for Newcastle disease should be live house should receive a very thorough birds. They should be brought in by cleaningand the litter burned.Chemi private conveyance, rather than cal disinfection with a cresol or other dependable disinfectant should fol shipped by rail orbus, toavoid danger low. There is no evidence at present of exposing other poultry. If distance of recovered birds remaining carriers is too great the blood of two or three of the virus. of the sick birds may be collected in clean dry bottles and sent to the labo Two Types of Vaccines Used ratory by mail. A letter and remit Two types of vaccines are being tance of one dollar ($1.00) for the produced commercially for protection diagnostic service should accompany against infection. One is a virus which the specimens. has been chemically killed, but does notproduce ashighor aslong immu Spread of Newcastle Disease nity as that produced by living virus Thedisease may be spread either by vaccines. Its advantage is that it will direct or indirect contact. Once it is not introduce an active virus into the introduced into a flock none of the flock. The live virus vaccines confer a birds escaoe the infection. It is not al more lasting immunity, but can cause ways possible to determine the source serious loss in chicks under 4 weeks of the infection. In the first outbreaks old. Inlaying flocks itcauses atempo in thestate, evidence pointed to intro rary drop in egg production. There is duction through chicks which were also the possibility of spread of dis shipped in. It may be introduced or ease to other non-vaccinated suscepti spread from one group of poultry to ble birds. It is hoped that experimen another on contaminated feed bags, tal work will provide vaccines with crates, egg crates or litter. Visitors, less serious limitations. (Project 170. wild birds, dogs, catsor vermincould Veterinary Department.) MW.

^"Vf

in stands •

(d Pcmdemdxz Pme S'

UMpiyiW*. «».

By M. A. Maxon SOUTH Dakotans have ahigh re state but comparatively few in the 0 gard for trees, especially for the ev-ev central and western section. Yet this is ergreens, whose dark winter beauty a tree supposedly at home in all parts and dense growth are the best protec of the state where crops may be tion against the sweep of the winds. grown. Whythen isit notused ? The hardiest and most drouth resis Losses of Seedlings Extreme tant of these trees are the red-cedars The answer lies in the trouble we and the ponderosa pine,whichare na have in getting the young plants tive to the state and occur in abun through the first few years; losses of dance in the Black Hills. The ponder young seedlings the first year are ex osa pine isthe Big Treeof South Da treme and further lossesusually occur kota for it is our only dependablecon in the second and third years. Often iferadapted to all our climatic zones. seen are shelterbelts with a solid stand Despite the fact that it ishighly de of elm, ash, or Russian Olive with sirable for use in shelterbelts because many a gap in the pine rows. of its long life and dense crown, and How are we to overcome these loss very drouth resistant once established, es in transplanting and insure a great the low survival of the ponderosa er survival of the remaining plants after planting has limited its use in during the first few years? regions where the soil and climatic Earlytests were madeby Dr. Leon conditions are favorable. We find a Snyder under an experiment station number of older shelterbelts in the project which was set up to investi south and southeast sections of the gate ways ofincreasing the survival of conifer plantings. Anumber ofphases acid, indolebutyric acid, naphthalene of the problem were to be studied, acetamide and vitamin Bi. These ma such as: source of seed, season to terials have been widely used for root transplant, use of potted plants, seed stimulation on cuttings and on trans lingprotection, effect of soil type and plants. Seedlings were dipped into a benefits of watering. In the spring of weak solution of these chemicals for a 1942, Dr. Snyder started a series of short period, then washed and plant tests along these lines. These tests ed. Counts were then made on their with potted seedlings compared with survival in the field in 1947, 1948 and bare-root seedlings showed a slight in 1949. Treatments with the chemi crease in survival for the potted stock. cals did increase the survival of both Actual figures on this test were 87 grades of cuttings, especially those percent survival for potted plants treated with naphthalene acetic acid against 74 percent forbare-root plants. and vitamin Bi, but the test showed Wax Coating Tested that No. 1 grade plants had a much Studies of protective devices were better record of survival than No. 2. undertaken by Dr. Snyder, using Again in 1949these two most effec Dowax, a wax emulsion, as a coating tive chemicals were tested on a large to check loss of water from the leaves. number of plants graded as before Also tested at the same period were into two groups. In addition, plastic the plant hormones, or root-forming emulsions: Goodrich polyvinyl resin chemicals: indolebutyric acid, vitamin latex (Geon, formerly) and the same Bi, and the commercial preparation, substance in a commercial brand, Rootone." Although the test was on "Plantcote," were used to give the a small scale, it indicated a benefit seedlings a thin coating to check loss from treating with Dowax. of water from the leaves. Late plant The war interrupted further work ing and a dry summer practically until 1947, when Leonard Yager and wiped out these trials but again the S. A. McCrory made new test plant No. 1grade plants survived in greater ings on a larger scale than before. numbers and most of the No. 2 died. Feeling that the basic cause of failure This then seems to be an indirect lay with the individual seedling way of saying that the best plants makeup, these workers divided the grow best. plants as they came from the nursery Although treatments with chemi into two groups. Those plants with a cals and waxes may be helpful in rais well-balanced top and root were grad ing the percentage survival of trans ed No. 1; those poorly rooted or tap- plants, the essential ability to survive rooted, were graded No.2. Poorly de seems toliewithintheseedling. Plants veloped, injured and dead seedlings of hardy drouth-resistant seed stock, were, ofcourse, discarded. Thisgrad well-grown in thenursery and so han ed the plants on easily recognizable dled by the nurseryman and farmer points. that little loss of vitality occurs be Root-Forming Chemicals tween digging and planting may be A series of trials were then run on the answer to the problem, provided both these grades, again using root- good care is given after planting. forming chemicals .-naphthaleneacetic (Project 142. Horticulture Dept.) ySeeoo \

^4^00

(Pr6>// m.)

m

Trend in labor returns of selected farms in north central South Dakota, 1943-49. Farm Income in the Red ? By Russell L. Berry and Maurice L. McLinn W'lTH RAPIDLY FALLING farm to lower farm prices, lower crop prices and highfixed cost some yields, and slightly higher operating thing more than a government farm costs on these farms. Drouth and hail program will beneeded tokeep farm made it necessary for farmers to use ers out of the red. much of their rough feeds and grains. Ten farmers in north central South The decrease in their rough feeds was Dakota earned only $1900 for their nearly $4000 per farm as an average. laborand management in 1949. These These 10 farms are the first of 50 to be same farmers averaged nearly $7000 analyzed for farmers in this area. A return for their labor and manage more complete report on last year's ment in 1948. While these farmers farm earnings will be made in the may not be representative of their next few months. area, they do suggest what is happen In the meantime, the "something" ing to farm incomes. needed to keepfarmers out of the red This difference in earnings was due ink is easily seen from past farm rec- 71 ords furnished by nearly 100 farmers eastern counties and 1500 in the north located in north central and southeast central counties. ern South Dakota. Such figures may suggest that all These records show that farm earn farmers should attempt to enlarge ings are affected by several factors. their farms, but this is not always true. Some of these are: (1) size of busi Many efficient farmers might lose ness, (2) labor use, (3) crop yields, much of their efficiency on larger and (4) livestock feedirig. Allof these farms. As a result, their net income factors affect efficiency of production, would be smaller on a larger farm. costs, or sales. While an individual Some farmers lack theability to man farmer cannot do much about farm age large farms, and they do much prices hemay be able todosomething better on small farms where their at _about his size or volume of business tention to detail makes them more ef and his efficiency. At least the spread ficient. between high- and low-income farm While some large farms make less ers suggest that this may be the best money than the moreprofitable small place to tackle the problem offalling farms, there isgood reason to believe farm incomes. the more efficientsmall farmer would In 1948 a few South Dakota farmers keep much of his efficiency even had labor and management earnings though he had a larger farm. This is of $20,000 each, while a few actually particularly true when small grains lost money. What made the differ and beef cattle are the chief enter ence ? prises that would be expanded. Ex Sizeof Business Is Important panding the business by adding a large poultry or dairy enterprise Size of the farm business is an im would generally require more man portant reason for variation in farm agerial ability than would an increase income. Size means much more than in size ofbeef cattle orsmall grain en justacres in the farm. A 40-acre pota to farm may have a larger volume of terprises. business than a two-section farm. It Increase inFarm Size Necessary for all depends upon what is done there, Efficient Use ofEquipment and that is best measured in days— The tractor andcombine have, in ef days of productive work. Using this' fect, reduced the size of wheat farms measure of size, eleven largest farms the same way that the airplane has re in the north central area averaged duced the size of the earth. Many of $9,000 for their labor and manage these farms are too small for efficient ment. This was twice as much as the use of the equipment available. As a eleven smallest farms. result, costs are high and fixed at the The most profitable farms in the moment when they should be low southeast were 65 percent larger than ered. Adjusting farm size to fit mod the leastprofitable farms. In the north ern tractors and combines is needed. central area the most profitable farms A recent study indicates that 80- were 80 percent larger than the least cent wheat would give a labor and profitable. The most profitable farms management income of $1,100 on an averaged over 400 acres in the south 800- acre wheat farm at 1944 costs, and require only 30 days hired labor. If made slowly until the farmer is cer this same farm were operated as two tain that the increased volume will farms of 400 acres each, the labor and not be offsetby lessefficiency. management income would be only Shifting about 25 percent of the $340 each. cropland to legumes and grasses has Many farms in the north central been proposed. This may be a profit area have been enlarged by buying or able alternative to summer fallow or renting additional land. Farms have green manuring, especially, since it increased from an average of 1000 would permit an expansion of the acres to 1200 in the five years, 1944 to livestock enterprises to increase the 1948. This change may be exaggerat volume or size of the farm business. ed by the turnover in farm record On rented land the lack of build keepers, but it is characteristic of the ings, fences, water supply, or location general trend. with respect to the tenant's farmstead Such an increase in farm size is nec may make such a program impracti essary, in many cases, in order to use cal. The tenant will hesitate to seed le Diesel powered tractors and other gumes and grasses on land rented by large and expensive equipment tobest the year. The landlord may find it advantage. more profitable to let the land lie fallow. Perhaps grass and legume Size of Farm Business Increased by seed production may be the solution Adding More Livestock on some of the rented land that can Size and volume of farm businesses not be adapted to livestock produc have also been increased by adding tion. There are reasons to believe that more livestock. In the years 1944 to there will be a comparatively strong 1948, the labor required to care for demand for legume and grass seed for livestock in the north central area in several years. creased 100 days. Livestock units in Irrigation in the James River valley creased from 68 to 80 during the same may ease the population pressure and time. The number of beef cows in permit anexpansion ofthesize ofdry creased from 25 to 33, as an average, land farms. This will be true if many for the record keepingfarms. There is of the dry-land farmers on inadequate reason to believe that farmers capable sized farms shift to irrigation which of handling 30 head of beef cattle requires less acreages. On the other could, in most instances, handle twice hand if irrigation farmers come in that many with little loss in efficiency. from other areas there may be little To increase the livestock numbers in opportunity toexpand thesize ofdry this manner requires more grazing land farms unless some of our present and hay land than it may be possible farmers find more attractive opportu for the farmer to rent or buy. Buying nities in other lines of work. additional land would appear to be risky, especially if credit is used. Efficient Use of Labor Buying feed to produce more live Labor is one of the most important stock may bethe easiest way for these costs of farming. This is true even farmers to increase the size of their though the farmer does not have a farm business. Adjustments should be hired man. His own labor could be marketed, as a hired man or perhaps Judgment Needed in Adjusting Crop as a manager of an elevator or some Yields and Livestock Feeding other business. Therefore his labor is valuable whether his farm keeps him Higher crop yields are desirable if fully employedor not. the cost of summer fallow, green ma nure crops, grasses and legumes, or A good manager uses his labor on the enterprises that give the greatest fertilizer do not exceed the value of labor and management wage for the the added yields. When grass and le year. He willattempt to keep himself gume seeds are expensive it may pay fully employed by adjusting the size farmers to prepare better seed beds of his business and by choosing enter and plant less seed per acre. prises that require labor at different Feedcosts arethe largest single item times. Livestock uses laborduring the of expense in livestock production. winter months when field work can Farmers differ greatly in the amount not be done. Dairy, poultry and hog of feed used to produce a hundred enterprises use much labor gnd are pounds of pork, beef, or milk. More particularly suited to small farms. important, they differ as to the costof Table 1 shows that some farmers do feed per hundred pounds of meat. almost three times as much work as Successful farmers consider carefully others. As a result they areable toget thepossibility ofsubstituting one kind larger farms, handle more livestock, offeed for another. When hay ishigh and make more money. Similar fig priced it may payto feed more grain. ures can be given for the southeastern Whengrainishighit may paytofeed area. Again it should be remembered morehayor to depend on pasture. that halfof the largerfarms madeless Protein supplements substitute for than $10,488. Some of these farms several pounds of farm grains. Yet made less earnings than did smaller when protein supplements arehighin but more efficient farms. relation to grains it may not pay to Table 1. Daysof Productive Labor per Man and feed them free choice. Choices among Labor. Earnings on 43 Farms in North Central the grains also need to be made. Care South Dakota, 1948. ful judgment is needed to determine Average what proportions of hay, grains, and Days work per worker Number of operator's Range Average farms labor earnings proteins will be most profitable. For Under 235 181 example, it hasbeen found bytheAn 235—440 ,343 imal Husbandry Department that a 440 & over 574 ration of one-third alfalfa and two- thirds brome grass, when fed to ewes, How can a man do more work than can give as good results as feeding there are days in the year.? The an straight alfalfa. swers are that he may work"dayand The ability of farmers to analyze night," or he does his work more ef the effect of changing price relation ficiently, or both. Efficiency that re ships on their business and to make sults from desirable size of farm, en needed adjustments will determine terprises, labor saving machinery, how they will come through farming equipment, and work methods is im in thefifties. (Project 137, Agricultur portant. al Economics Department.) >> c-rm,'

tS4^^2>tr

: .V-.44 .- itch's Hs- .r', '•^''MCv^» ^• jv^-wtij Ctjf , •:,. 'jf- ys , ^•',;

., • > ; -••.^t'Vi- -.» f <,•« .f^ -v •> -.' fSfv "- Three rows of cottonwoods grown at Brookings in 1949. The row on the left is a strain highly resis tant to the destructive leaf rust disease which is common in South Dakota. The middle row is a sus ceptible commercial strain. Note that the disease has killed all the leaves. The row on the right is another leaf rust resistant strain developed at this station.

Shelterbelt Cottonwoods J.im! ... BY C. M. NAGEL Anew strain of cottonwood which one of the more permanent types of is resistant to leaf rust, has been trees used in such plantings. During developed by the Plant Pathology de recent years, as a result of the number partment of the Experiment Station. of dead cottonwood trees which ap This new disease resistant strain when pear in many of the shelterbelts and released to farmers, will reduce the farm plantings, many farmers hesi losses in stands of thecottonwood tree. tate to use them as commonly as they Approximately 5,000 miles of shel did during the 30's. Experimental evi terbelt and farmstead plantings have dence indicates that one of the major been planted in the state during the hazards responsible for these mortali past 15 years. One of the important ties is the damage caused by leaf rust, trees used in shelterbelt plantings is which weakens and ultimately kills the cottonwood. Approximately 750,- cottonwood stands. 000 cottonwoods are planted each Researchinvestigationswere under year in the state, and it is considered taken in 1944 to work out control measures because of the damage under test included not only commer which occurred in shelterhelt and cial stocks, some of which defoliated farmstead tree plantings hy this de 100 percent during the peak of the leaf structive disease. It resembles in ap rust attack, hut also a wide range of pearance the rust which attacks small resistant strains resulting from green grain. However, it is distinctly differ house inoculation tests, which seldom ent in one respect and that is, it will lose any leaves under similar leaf rust not infect small grain, hut only the attacks. Stillother strainsare virtually cottonwood tree, in so far as is known immune to this particular leaf rust at the present time. disease. In those cases where the leaf rust The experiments were conducted in damage is not sufficient to kill the Brown County at Hecla in coopera trees, they are so seriously weakened tion with the Brown-Marshall Soil that other diseases become very de Conservation district, and at the Ex structive, particularly the canker dis periment station locatedat Brookings. eases which girdle the hark on the branches and main trunk of the tree. Damage by Leaf Rust Mistaken for Lack of Winter Hardiness Trees Defoliated by Rust Under certain conditions the dam Leaf rust appears on leaves of cot age caused hy disease has been con tonwood trees about the first of Aug fused with a lack of genetic hardiness ust. Under conditions favorable to to low winter temperaturesin the case rust infection,it becomes soheavy that of cottonwood trees. Actually the so- both surfaces of the leaves are covered called winter-killing under conditions with rust, and in about ten days on of heavy leaf rust the previous season highly susceptible treesthe leaves turn seems to he directly associated with brown and drop. Frequently, the sus this disease. Its damage during the ceptible cottonwoods are defoliated previous seasons cuts down on the from rust hy the middle of August. normal food production, causing a Once the leaves of a tree are killed, the weakened condition which makes the plant cannot manufacture sufficient plants susceptible to ultimate killing food, which is stored in tissues of the when they had previously appeared to plant, to protect it from low tempera possess sufficientgenetic hardiness. In ture damage during the winter this connection, experiments have months, and the tree may starve to demonstrated that strains of cotton death. As a result, hy spring the trees wood which possess sufficient winter are either dead or in a weakened con hardiness do become injured and are dition. killed if they have been seriously de Experiments conducted during the foliated and weakened during previ past several years attempted to find a ous seasons hy the leaf rust disease. method of control for this destructive Further trials are underway and, if disease, and a search was made for a these continue to prove satisfactory, leaf rust resistant type. Several hun plans will he made for the releaseof a dred strains of cottonwoods have re leaf rust resistant cottonwood for sulted from greenhouse and field plot planting in South Dakota. (Project investigations since 1944. The strains 142. Plant Pathology Department.) iil

'm These instruments and pellets, though small, pro duce big results in daily V gains of lambs.

Implanting a stilhestrol pellet in lamb's neck. %

\-t

Stilbestrol

Boosts Lamb Gains 20%

By R. M. Jordan IT doesn't require amiracle to in fast and simple. This chemical, with crease the dailygains made by feed hormone-like properties, comes in lit er lambs by about 20 percent and tle pellets ahout half the size of a ker lower the feed required to put that nel of wheat, and is deposited under gain on by an equal amount. About the skin of the animal in the region of two cents worth of chemical will do the neck. After the pellet has been de the job, a chemical which reacts in the posited, there is no further treatment hody much like the female sex hor required, though, of course, a good mones and is called stilhestrol (pro well-balanced ration is required in nounced still-^cry-trol). This is the any successful feeding operation. same chemical that poultrymen have been tenderizing roosters with during First Trial Conducted on the last few years. Cattlemen also Suckling Lambs haveincreased the dailygainsas much To substantiate early findings and as a third of a pound a day with this cast further light on the subject, a ser .same chemical. ies of trials were conducted at the The administration of the pellet is South Dakota State College Experi- ment Station during 1949-50. The first subject, but at this time the work of« trial was conducted with young suck this station indicates there is no object ling lambs of about one to two in planting stilbestrol pellets in young months of age. Twelve pairs of twin suckling lambs, as apparently inherit lambs of which both lambs in the pair capacity to grow is at a maximum and were of the same sex were used in cannot be accelerated with the im order to minimize genetic variation plantation of 12 milligrams of stil between the lambs. One lamb of each bestrol. set of twins received a 12-milligram Fattening Lambs Four Months of pellet of stilbestrol implanted just Age Treated under the skin. All of the lambs in the experiment received grain and hay in Two other trials were conducted to a creep, plus their mother's milk. The determine the effect of stilbestrol on ewes were fed alfalfa hay, free choice, fattening lambs. In the first trial the plus about one pound of grain per lambs treated were about four months head daily until about May 15, at of age. Four lots of 13 lambs each which time the ewes and lambs were were full-fed from August 22 to No turned onto grass and no grain was vember 5, a period of 74 days. These fed either the lambs or ewes after that lambs receiveda full feed of corn, soy period. bean oil meal (10 percent by weight), and brome hay. They had access to Capacity of Suckling Lambs to fresh water and salt. No attempt was Grow Cannot Be Accelerated made to equalize the feed intake as it The effect of stilbestrol treatment was felt that it was c|uite important to on the rate of gain in suckling lambs determine whether the treatment of is summarized in Table 1. Results in stilbestrol would increase the feed in dicate that treating suckling lambs take per day. Each lamb in two of the with 12 milligrams of stilbestrol did four lots was treated with a 12-milli not increase the rate of gain. On the gram pellet of stilbestrol, implanted other hand, the treatment did not just under the skin below the ear. The causeany dwarfing, as normal growth other two lots were not treated and was made in all treated lambs. In ad served as the check lots. dition, the hormone did not cause a cessation of the reproductive ability, Treated Lambs Gain 20 Percent More as both ewe lambs and ram lambs The effect of stilbestrol on fattening proved to be fertile in later tests. Fur lambs is given in Table 2. In the first ther experimentswill be conducted to trial the results of the treated lambs obtain additional information on this from Lots I and III were averaged to gether in one group for easeof presen Table 1. Effect of Stilbestrol on Rate of Gain of Suckling Lambs tation, making a total of 26lambs,and 12 Milligram Lots II and IV were grouped together Stilbestrol Controls making a total of 26 lamhs in the con Number of lambs ..... 12 12 trol group. The treated lambs gained Days on feed ....90-105 90-105 .43 pound a day over a 74-day period, Initial weight ..... 24;o 25.0 Final weight ..... 72.8 74.7 whereas the control lambs gained .35 Total gain per lamb ... 48.4 48.8 pound per day for the same period.As Average daily gain 469 .478 shown in Table 2,there was verylittle diflFerence in-their daily feed con periment and received a full feed of sumption, and the carcass grades of corn, soybeanoil meal, and brome hay treated Iambs were equal to the con in a manner similar to that in the first trol lambs. As might be expected, the trial. Twenty-five of the lambs had a lambs that gained the fastestalso were 12-milligram pellet of stilbestrol im the most efficient in their feed utiliza planted under the skin.The results of tion, inasmuch as the lambs in Clroup this experiment are also given in I required only 362 pounds of corn per Table 2. hundred pounds of gain and the con The treated lambs gained .37pound trol lambs required 411 pounds. per head daily, and the control lambs gained .29 pound per head daily. It is 7-Month Feeder Lambs Used the opinion of this station that the To get further information, a sec slowerdaily gains made in the second ond trial was conducted using feeder trial, irrespective of treatment, were lambs that were about seven months due to the fact that the lambs were of age. These lambs were divided into poorer quality to start with. As with two groups of 25lambs each and were the first group of feeder lambs, the fed for a period of 92days. They were daily gains were significantly greater sheared beforebeing placed on the ex for those lambs that were treated.

Table 2. Effect of Stilbestrol on Growth Rate, Feed Consumption, Feed Efficiency, and Carcass Grade of Lambs

Trial I Trial II (Feeding Period 74 days) (Feeding Period 92 Days) I 11 I II Treated Controls Treated Controls Av. Lots I& III Av. Lots 1! & IV

Number Lambs Growth Rate (lbs.) Average initial weight - 62.1 63.5 69.1 Average final weight 93.9 89.7 103.1 Gain per lamb 31.8 26.2 34.0 Daily gain per lamb : 0.430* 0.354 0.370t Average Daily Feed Consumption (lbs.) Shelled corn 1.56 1.46 Soybean Oil Meal — .15 .14 Brome Hay 1.17 1.20

Feed per 100 pounds of gain (lbs.) .362 411 501 626 .211 339 371 480 Soybean oil meal 36.2 41.1 50.2 62.6

.670.2 791.1 922.2 1168.6 Carcass Grade:^ Carcass grade in number .. 9 9 1 3 .. 5 5 6 19 U. S. Commercial — 12 3 U. S. Utility 6 *DiiIerence was significant (P 0.05) over controls tnifierence was highly significant (P 0.01) over control group JEwe lambs in the first trial were not sold. About 15Percent Less Feed Required for Treated Lambs Again the feed consumed per head daily was not affected by the treat ment. The feed required per hundred pounds of gain was about 15 percent less for the treated lambs than that re quired for the control lambs. How ever, in this trial in which lambs of about seven months of age were treat ed, the effect of stilbestrol on the car cass quality was quite marked, inas much as the lambs that were not treat ed graded on the average about one grade higher than those that were treated. It would appear from these two trials that the best results can be obtained from treating lambs that are four to sixmonths of age. Lambs treated when they are older will make greater gains than untreat ed lambs, but their carcass quality may be lower. In spite of that short coming, an increase of about 20 per cent in daily gains,accompanied by a decrease of 15 to 20percent of feed re quired per hundred pounds of gain, cannot be treated lightly or over looked if one is to make maximum profitsfrom the lamb feedingventure. Whether breed differences, such as slow-maturing Rambouillet lambs as compared to early-maturing Hamp shire or Suffolk lambs, would have a significant effect on the carcass quali ty is not known at this time. At the present time, the Pure Food and Drug Administration does not sanction the use of stilbestrol for large farm animals. It isstudyingmeans of determining stilbestrol content in the tissue of meat as the basis for possible approval of the use of stilbestrol in the not too distant future. (Project 199, Animal Husbandry Department.) LECTRIFICATION

By H. H. DeLong highline service could beused, hut the smaller plant would not start when Many farms await modern facili several large appliances came on at ties and the coming of electric once. lightand power. Eventually they may The other plant tested was a wind- have central service,but some may be electric 110-volt, DC with battery set in territory so thinly populated as to of 180-ampere-hour rating. At the make such service very expensive. Brookings' test location it was mount Others have possibilities of using gas ed on a 105-foot guyed steel tower. oline-electric plants or other types of The following year, when placed on electrical plants a few years while they the substation farm at Cottonwood, it wait for highline service. Others may was mounted on a 65-foot tower. The wish to know the cost of maintaining wind-electric plant was automatically a standby plant, even after they have controlled from a panel near the bat highline service, to give added secur teries, and the plant wasturned on at ityagainst line damage from storms. all times. The propeller turned the Electric service provided by a cen generator at any time the wind was tral station isconceded best for thickly sufficient. A governor prevented ex settled areas. No doubt, however, cess speeds in high wind, and the there is an economic limit to how automatic controls regulated the manymiles of linecanhe run to serve charging rate to fit the needs of the one farm. battery. Two Typesof Plants Selected Lights, heating elements, universal for Comparison AC-DC motors commonly used on Two types of farm electric plants the highline were used on this plant. were selected for study from the many The larger electric motors had to be kinds and sizes available (Table 1), shunt wound DC motors. The refrig and their cost of operation compared erator used as a test load had to he of to the cost of electric power from a the open motor type with belted central station service. compressor. The plants selected for the research The plant performed without mis on "cost of operation" were those hap, except for a broken insulator due which could match as nearly as possi to a defective part, and it was able to ble the voltage and current of central ride out all high winds of the period service, and those which would be without damage. automatic in their operation. An auto matic gasoline-electric plant produc Test Procedures Set-Up for the ing 110-volt, AC,60-cycle current was Automatic Engine Plants one selection. Both a 1500-watt plant The gasoline-electric light plants and a 3000-watt plant were used. were of the two-cylinder, air-cooled These plants started automatically as design, with direct, connected gener soon as any load was turned on. Any ator. They were mounted on a con of the common appliances used on crete base, hut had rubber shock ah- sorber mounting bushings. The room lights, a heating appliance and a was dry and well-ventilated, although motor. winter temperatures did get down to Special tests were run with gaso below freezing. line-electric plants to test their de Each plant had its automatic con pendability and ability to handle trol box mounted above it on a panel. loads. A refrigerator was added to the The output current went to a watt 3000-watt plant load for one month. meter, and thence to the outlet panel. The plant handled this additional One outlet for each plant was hand load above its average of 6 kwh per switched for testing purposes. Each day and fuel costs increased sharply plant had an outlet to which machines due to the much more frecjuent start with their own automatic switch ing and stopping of the plant. Daily could he attached. In addition, each consumption increased from 6 to 8 planthad several outlets controlled by kwhand daily fuel consumption from relay switches operated by a master 2'/2 to 5 gallons. rotoswitch. Records Kept on Fuel Consumption Plants Carry Typical Farm Load Records were kept on fuel con The roto-switch turned once in sumption, kwh of current generated every 24 hours, and it could he set up and labor for care and servicing. so as to turn on loads at various times These costs when added to deprecia ofthe day. For most ofthe test period tion and interest represented the total the plants were run on a loading pat cost of the plant. Totalcost for a peri tern that resembled typical farm od divided by the kwh generated for power and light load. That is, lights that period gave the unit cost for the were turned on for a short time in the electricity. The fuel consumption morning and from 5 p.m. in the eve curves for the 3000-watt plant at vari ning. Figure 1 shows the pattern of ous loads are given in Fig. 2. The the daily loads for the plants. Each large plantwas slightly more econom was loaded with three appliances: ical and, in addition, could start under

LOAD SCHEDULES rON 1500 a 3000 WATT PLANTS

LOAD SCHEDULES as of MARCH 7, 1949

Fig. 1. Time chart showing the "on" periods during the day for the gasoline-electric plants. 82 FUEL CONSUMPTION WITH VARIOUS LOADS

3000 WATT PLANT o o o ° o o o

18 22 HUNDREDS Fig. 2. Maximum loading of the 3000-watt plant gave the highest kw-hours per gallon of fucL Table 1.Initial Costs ofVarious Farm Electric Light Plants Approximate Plant Size and Description — First 35()-watt gasoline-electric, 32-V DC, manual control $400 $500 1000-watt gasoline-electric, 32-V DC 400 5 1000-watt gasoline-electric, 32-V DC, complete with battery set 530 60 2000-watt gasoline-electric, 32-V DC,complete withbattery set - - "50 ^700 350-watt gasoline-electric, 110-V 60c, AC, manual controls - $175 $. 750-watt gasoline-electric, 110-V 60c, AC, manual controls 200 1000-watt gasoline-electric, 110-V 60c, AC, manual controls 250 . 1500-watt gasoline-electric, 110-V, 60c, AC, automatic controls - 400 . 3000-watt gasoline-electric, 110-V 60c, AC, automatic controls 475 12-V small size wind-electric, 20' tower, automobile-type battery set $160 $ 32-V small size wind-electric plant, guyed tower 60' high, 180 ampere hour battery set 700 32-V large size wind-electric, guyed tower 60' high, 400 ampere hour battery set 1400 1 110-V large size wind-electric, guyed tr)wer 60' higM 80 amperejicmr bat^ry set . 1700 1 Table 2.Operating Costs for 3000-Watt Powerlite Plant with Various Daily Consumption 1 t'osts per Kilowatt Hour Daily Service Con and sump KWH Cost of Labor Depre Interest on Total tion Gener Hours Fuel Fuel for Repair Labor ciation Investment Cost KWH ated Run Consumed Consumed Refueling Oil Repairs $0.1312 $0.0206 $0.3478 4 48 84 $ 6.43 $0.13,396 $0.0125 $0.0245 $0.0044 $0.0188 .1050 .0164 .2883 5 110 154 13.49 .12264 .0099 .0158 .0035 .0150 .0125 .0875 .0137 .2431 6 210 245 21.38 .10181 .0083 .0163 .0029 .0750 .0117 .2137 7 56 56 5.19 .09264 .0071 .0139 .0025 .0107 .0103 .1924 8 24 21 2.08 .0867 .0062 .0121 .0022 .0094 .0656 Operating costs for all loads during entire period Jan. 8—May 26 .1()«44 .008-! .0138 ^0018 .0071 .0833 Note: Daily running time assumeii constant at 7 hours heavier loads. The total costs per kwh Although not needed on the test are shown in Table 2, with individual plants during the test period, aperiod cost items and the totals under various ic overhaul is advisable in the life of loading conditions. any frequently-run gasoline engine. Only Minor Repairs Needed Cost of an overhaul was included in One operator had full charge of total cost estimates. both light plantsand a careful record Valuable Features Offset High Cost was kept of all time spent with the While cost of electricity for the plants. At times daily refueling was gasoline-electric plants is high, 2/2 necessary, because the original, fuel cents per kwh, plants ofthis type have tanks of 5-gallon capacity were used. several valuable features. First, the This need not bethe size of tank used plant can produce electric service for on regular farm installations. Oil was the isolated farm or ranch. Secondly, changed according to manufacturer's it can hurry the process of farm elec instructions. trification whilethe farm owner waits At the manufacturer's specified for a proposed lineto be built into his times, the engineheadswereremoved territory. (The same appliances can and carbon deposits removed from be used.) Thirdly, the automatic plant piston and cylinder head. Only minor can be used for standby service by the repairs were needed, such as an oil REA consumer in case ofoutages due leak on^ the small plants, one fuel to storm damage of lines. pump replacement, governor reset Records for more than two years ting to keep the plants on 60 cycles per show the cost ofelectricity generated second, and slight trouble with the by a 110-volt, DC, wind-electric breaker point assembly. Only one plant to be from 9to 10 cents per kwh. minor replacement was necessary in A plant similar in capacity, but with the automatic control cabinet, tbat of 32-volt battery set will generate cur an electrical relay. rent for 7or 8 cents per day. This is for an average daily consumption of 5.55 kwh. Retailratesof mostof the rural elec tric cooperatives in South Dakota av erage 3% to 3% cents per kwh, line density of one farm per mile to 2Vi farms per mile, and average consump tion per farm of about 150 kwh per month. Calculations show, however, that current costs would have to go up as line costs increased, so that in territory where there were three or more miles to one consumer, the cost would be come greater than for some of the al ternate methods. (Project 188, Agri A typical gasoline-electric farm light plant. cultural Engineering Department.) By E. PiiDEK How DO EGG marketing practices in South Dakota compare with those in other states? Are eggs mar marketing keted in South Dakota equal or infer ior in cjuality to eggs marketed else where in the Midwest? losses The answer to these questions is of interest to South Dakota consumers and to the industryin appraisingtheir competitive position in the large cen tral markets of the middlewest and the east. To some extent, the answer Characteristics of the Country Buyers may be found in a survey which was In South Dakota, 23 country sta conducted on a cooperative basis by tions were studied. The volume of experiment stations of 13 north cen eggs handled by the various types of tral states. This survey attempted to stations was small, as Table 1 sug ascertain the quality of eggs sold by gests, ranging from 250 cases per year the farmers to the first buyer and to for the smallest, to 30,300 cases for the analyze the loss in quality that oc largest buyer. For most of the stations, curred as these eggs moved from the egg sales did not form an important country buying stations to larger as part of the total business. Fifteen out sembling plants. In addition, various of 21stations reported that between 90 methods of marketing eggs by egg to 100 percent of all eggs were deliv buyers and central assembling plants ered by farmers at the stations. were studied and their influence on Eggs were delivered mainly on the quality of eggs analyzed.^ Wednesdays and Saturdays, almost one-third of the eggs coming in dur ^Spcc. Bui. 361 of Michigan Slate College. ing the weekend. A large proportion SP/?/A'&

Cencra/ P/ant

Ce/itra/ P/a/jt SO7^ /3 /oss

50MMEP

Centra/ P/ar?t /O 7'/oss

Stat/on_ ^ II CP. 367' /-^yo/oss—• Fig. 1. Percentof "A" eggs (including stains and dirties) at the station and central plant, spring and summer,for South Dakota and the region,showing how many "A" eggswere lost betweengradings- Table 1. Volume of Business of 22 Country Egg Buyers* byTypeof Business (1947)

Total Eggs Purchased Type of Business Number (cases of .10 doz.) Average

Retail grocery 4 1650 487 ("ream station 3 3000 1000 Produce station 7 6,5056 6723 1latchery 1 600 600 Independent creamery 3 6050 2027 Cooperative creamery 4 46778 11665 Total 22 126464 5746 *One produce station did not report the number of cases purchased.

Table 2. Candling Practices of Egg Buyers, by Method of Purchase from Farmers

Number of Number of Stations Stations Not Method of Purchase from Farmers Candling All Eggs Candling All Eggs Purchasing all or some eggs on graded basis 3 I» Purchasing ail eggs on loss-ofT method 6 7 Purchasing all eggs on current receipt basis _ . . 4 2 *lhis station reported grading some eggs, hut also reported no candling.

Table 3.Percent of"A" Eggs* onDelivery byFarmers (Producer Lots) andOne Day After (Other Receipts), South Dakota and North Central Region Compared

Spring Summer Fa.l Average S. D. Region S. D. Region S. D. Region S. D. Region Producer lots 55.3 65.4 53.5 Other receipts 60.4 25.6 *Not including stains and dirties of A quality. of the stations reported weekly door Quality of EggsMarketed by delivery, and no station reported that Farmers and by Stations farmers brought their eggs more than In orderto determine thequality of twiceweeklyat any time of the year. eggs, a total of 456 lots of 100 eggs Of 23 stations, only one station re each, selected at random out of farm ported that it bought all its eggs from ers' shipments, were graded on feder farmers on a grade basis, although al standards and the amount of "A" threepurchased part of theireggs on a eggs determined. Three hundred grade basis. Nineteen stations han sixty-three lots were graded on the dled all eggs ungraded (current re day they were received and therefore ceipt or "loss-of?"). showhow many"A" eggsout of a 100 As becomesapparent from Table 2, a farmer sells ("producer eggs"). not enough buyerscandled their eggs, Ninety three lots were gradedthe day since only 13 stations reported candl after delivery by farmers ("other re ing all eggs all year round and one ceipts"). station reported no candling at all. Results for the various seasons, for Only eight stations held all or part eggs graded on day of receipt and of their eggs in a refrigerated cooler. thosegraded one day after are shown On the day of the survey, 15 stations in Table 3. In summer, farmers deliv were holding their eggs at a tempera ered only 53percent "A" eggs; in fall ture ranging from 65-70°. the proportion of "A" eggs was still only 60 percent. On the average only marketing praetices will approach 55 out of a 100 eggs sold by farmers those of the states farther east. were clean "A" eggs. It is well known that the loss in Holding eggs for one day at the sta cjLiality of eggs increases with the tion strongly affected the cjuality of days they are held. In the survey, eggs eggs since, on the average, only 34 per were not held under identical condi cent of the "other receipts" were "A" tions and therefore the results shown eggs. in Fig. 2 referring to loss of "A" eggs Poor Holding Conditions at according to number of days held at Buying Stations the station, are not strictly compara Poor holding conditions such as ble. They demonstrate, however, how lack of temperature control, and num the length of time eggs are held and ber of days eggs were held between re the temperature in the holding room, ceipt and shi[)ment adversely affect or outside, contribute to quality dete the cjuality of eggs. One hundred thir rioration. This is first class evidence ty four lots were graded in spring and that where marketing practices are summer, first at the station and then poor, financial losses to farmers and at the central plant ("paired grad- handlers are inevitable and the con ings"). Fig. 1 shows how many "A" sumer is getting a poor cjuality prod eggs were lost between gradings in uct. (Project 175. Leaders: E. Feder, South Dakota and in the region as a Agricultural Economics Department, whole. It indicates that South Dakota Wm. Kohlmeyer, Poultry Depart has a long way to go before its egg ment.)

Fig. 2. Samples of 100 eggs held with and without refrigeration in the summer, showing loss of "A" eggs. /OO /k/d W/ihout Refrigerat/on in Sa/nmer //e/e/ Under RePr/gerai ion

Z Days 4 Daus^ 8 Days 6 Days 25'As SA's

20 "As BUT

/2 A'5

1 day Egg case temperature at first grading 64.7°; outside 83° 2 days -Egg case temperature at first grading 72.5°; outside 83° 4 days -Egg case temperature at first grading 78.9°; outside 88° 8 days -Egg case temperature at first grading 72.4°; outside 94° 6 days -Egg ca.se temperature at first grading 59.8°; outside 74° HARVESTING PRAIRIE HAY for

By G. E. Staples between July 1 and July 15 when the OUR PRAIRIE GRASSES Ciui he Harvest seed stalk is in a "shooting" stage. ed as hay anytime from late June Medium hay is cut in August at a up until the time winter weather pre "seed ripe" stage, usually after August 15. Late hay is cut in a mature and vents haying operations. The patient over-ripe, or "seed falling," stage us nature of this valuable crop in await ing the harvest, together with the ually from Sept. 20 to early October. pressing work of the summer, causes Storage hay is harvested at an early many stockmen to lose sight of the stage of maturity and tested over a pe riod of years to determine the effects fact that there is a "hest" time to har vest prairie hay. Losses in valuable of storage on nutritive value. nutrients from prairie hay when the These hays from three of our sub opportune time for harvest is past are stations, Cottonwood, Highmore and not so evident to the eye as with such Eureka, have been tested in feeding crops as our small grains. However, and digestion trials. The digestion even though the grasses may change trials are more technical in nature comparatively little in outward ap than the feeding trials and serve as a pearance from July to October, check on the feeding trials as well as changesare taking placein the chemi give additional information on how cal composition of the grasses which the proportions of the various nutri exert great influence on their feeding ents found in the hays influence di value. gestibility. During the past few years research has been conducted to gain informa Early-Cut Hay Gives Highest tion on when prairie hays should be Daily Gains harvested for highest feeding value. Table 1 summarizes the results The hays used in the study are desig from the 1949-50 feeding trials con nated Early, Medium, Late, and Stor ducted at Cottonwood. Each lot was age hays. The early hay is usually cut fed the same amount of hay and sup- plementecl the same exeept that the hay (1.02 lbs.), the lotreceiving med pelleted soybean oil meal in Lot 6 con ium hay, was in third place with re tained 5 percent molasses and 5 per spect to gains (0.90 lbs. average daily cent urea. The early hay showed the gains) closelyfollowed by the two lots highest daily gain (1.07 lbs.) closely receiving the two-year-old storage hay followed by the one-year-old storage (0.88 and 0.87 lbs.), showing that the supplement containing urea and mo lasses gave almost identical gains when compared to plain, pelleted soy bean oil meal. The lot receiving the late-cut hay showed the lowest gains with 0.72 pounds average daily gain per head. Although needles were ob served in each of the various cuttings of the hay, no trouble from needles has resulted during any of the feeding or digestion trials since this experi ment was started.

3-Year-Old Storage Hay Ranks High in Producing Gains Results of the 1949-50 feeding trials at Eureka showed that the early and medium-cut hays in this trial gave gains that were identical. The hays were supplemented with 1 pound of oats and 1 pound of pelleted soybean oil meal, and the lots receiving the early and medium-cut hay rations produced 1.5 pounds average daily Savings of 500 to 600 lbs. of hay, over 40 lbs. of gain. The three-year-old storage hay oats and 40 lbs. of soybean oil meal per 100 lbs. of gain resulted when early rather than late-cut closely followed these lots in produc hay was used in wintering calves ing gains, and the 1.4pounds average

Table 1. Feeding Results 1949-50 at Cottonwood—Fed 112 days

Lot 1 Lot 2 Lot 3 Lot 4 Lot 5 Lot 6 2-yr.-old 2-yr. old 1-yr. storage Late-cut Early-cut Medium-cut storage storage hay hay plus hay plus hay plus hay plus hay plus plus urea supplement* supplement* ;supplement* supplement* supplement* supplementf 1.U2 0.72 1.07 0.90 0.88 0.87 n .1109.8 1538.9 1039.4 1225.4 1250.4 1257.6 ... 95.6 132.7 89.63 105.7 107.8 96.9 - 100.1 138.9 93.8 110.6 111.9 112.3 9.91 13.10 14.54t 10.87 8.67 8.46 ••Supplemeiueti with 1 pound each of pelleted soybean oil meal and oats per head daily. tSupplcmcnted the same as other lots except pelleted soybean oil meal contained 5 percent urea and 5 percent molasses. tit was noted that the early-cut hay contained larger than average amounts of "buck brush," Symphoricarpos orbiculaltis, which accounted for most of the refused material here. daily gain here was faf superior to the Highmore hay in 1948 was 107.4 0.83 pound average daily gain pro pounds for the early, and 37.5 pounds duced in the lot receiving late-cut hay. for the late-cut hay. The early hay The storage hay used in this trial was produced an average of 49.9 pounds baled, stacked in a large pile and the more protein per acre, or over 70 pile topped with loosehay. pounds more protein per ton, as an average for these two stations than 500 to 600Pounds of Hay Saved did the late-cut hay. It would require on Early Ration more than 150 pounds of 40 percent Experiments in wintering beef protein supplement added to each ton calves have shown that a gain of of late-cut hay to furnish the same about 0.75 pound to 1.0pound is a de amount of protein produced in a ton sirable level of nutrition. A calf of the early-cut hay. should gain nearly 100pounds during Digestibility of Late-Cut Hay Lower the wintering period. Comparing the early-cut hay ration with the late-cut The 1949 digestibility studies are hay ration in producing 100 pounds of the only ones complete, at present, gain, the early ration at Cottonwood which have not been previously re saved500 pounds of hay, 53pounds of ported. Table 2 shows the chemical 40 percent pelleted soybean oil meal composition and the coefficients of and 45 pounds of oats. Similar com apparent digestibility for early, med parisons with the Eureka feeding ium, and late-cut hays and two-year- trials show a saving of 605 pounds of old storagehay cut at an early stageof hay, 43 pounds of oats and 43 pounds maturity. Both steers and lambs were of pelleted soybean oil meal, where used in testing these hays. early-cut hay is used rather than late- When hays of low protein content cuthay toproduce 100 pounds ofgain. are fed alone they do not furnish as The storage hays would rank inter digestible a ration as when some pro mediate between the early-cut and tein supplement is added. This is at late-cut hays in regard to feed saving tributed to the fact that protein is re per 100 pounds gain. These savingsat quired to stimulate the growth of bac feed prices during the past winter teria in ruminants; these bacteria are would result in savings of from $6.00 largely responsible for the breakdown to $8.00 per calf, wintered under the of fiber and coarse materials, which in conditions found in these experi turn accounts for the greater efficien ments. cy with which sheep and cattle can utilize forages when compared to Early Hay Has 70Pounds More pigs, poultry, or other animals lacking Protein Per Ton such bacterial action. Protein is perhaps the most import From Table 2 it can be seen how ant nutrient in prairie hay; at least it poorly digested the protein of the late is the nutrient most apt to be deficient hay is, compared to the other hays. In and is an expensive nutrient to fur these trials the early hay furnished nish. The 1948 yield of protein per more than five times as much digesti acre at Eureka was 89.7 pounds for ble protein for steersas did the late-cut early-cut and 60.2 pounds for late-cut hay, while the same comparison with hay. The per acre protein yieldfor the lambs showed the early-cut to furnish Table 2. Chemical Composition and Coefficients of Apparent Digestibility (Steers and Lambs) of Eureka Hays--1949

Nitrogen-free Dry matter Crude protein Ether extract Crude fiber extract

Chcinical ComjTo.sition percent Early 91.30 7.08 2.56 29.50 41.67 Medium 91.32 6.60 2.64 29.42 43.49 Late 91.79 4.75 3.10 30.37 43.64 2-vear-old storage hay - 91.44 8.35 2.60 29.85 41.04 Average coefficient of digestibility Early hay Steers — 46.51 41.15 29.11 62.95 47.99 Lambs - 40.55 34.38 19.12 54.03 46.66 Medium hay Steers - 42.63 29.80 21.98 56.62 46.66 Lambs 40.25 30.35 15.34 55.38 42.36 Late hay Steers 40.51 11.88 37.39 56.96 43.79 Lambs 37.90 12.56 34.81 55.28 39.92 Storage hay Steers — 46.44 45.98 34.60 59.26 47.04 Lambs -- 44.29 40.86 46.77 52.76 47.00 more than four times as much digesti In only one instance did the late-cut ble protein as did the late-cut hay. hay produce more pounds of dry mat (Found by multiplyingthe percentof ter than did the early-cut hay (late-cut chemical composition by the digesti at Eureka exceeded early by 5 pounds bility coefficient of the protein.) These studies show how the late-cut dry matter per acre in 1948); during hay has two strikes against it: first, all otber years and at all other stations late-cut hay contains considerably less the early hay led in producing dry protein than the early-cut, and second, matter. the digestibility is much lower in the small amount of protein which the It Makes a Difference late-cut hay does retain. Early cutting of prairie hay pro duces more nutrients per ton and per Acre Yields Average Higher for acre than does late cutting. Medium Early-Cut Hay cutting is intermediate between early Acre yields of dry matter may prove and late in producing nutrients, and to furnish the means of calling the botb early and medium cutting is pre third strike on the late-cut hay. Fol lowing is presented the pounds of dry ferred greatly to late cutting in pro matter produced per acre (an average ducing feed nutrients. Hay stored from three stations) during two years. tbree years retains mucb of the origi nal nutritive value, but should be cut Table 3. Pounds of Dry Matter Produced Per early and well stacked for best results. Acre (Average for Three Stations, Eureka, Highmore and Cottonwood) If the operator wants to feed about one-third lesshay and saveon the con Early Medium Late centrates, he should make hay in July 1948 1149.6 1024.6 970.7 rather than late September or October. 1949 1376.0 899.2 743.3 (Continued on Page 100) Left; The original Oahe area, showing where the new irrigation project will be. Center: Spink County, South Dakota, showing location of Lake Dakota Basin. Lower right: A soil scientist using a permeability rack to measure how much water comes through the soil in a certain period of time. Soil samples are taken in brass cylinders and water is made up to simulate the composition of Missouri River water with the same salt content.

Soils Surveyed for Irrigation in Splnk County

.\y.j LAKE DAKOTA By F. C. Westin BASIN

SAMPLE AREA

The success of the Oahe irrigation to deal with. It involves, among other project, or any other irrigation things, keeping a favorable calcium project, depends ultimately on two saturation in the soils and preventing things—how well-adapted the soils an unfavorable sodium saturation are for irrigation and how successfully from developing. the good soils can be kept in a favor able condition under irrigation. The Calcium or Sodium—It Makes basic soil survey being conducted in a Difference Spink County by the South Dakota The amount of calcium or sodium Experiment Station, cooperating with present is extremely important in the United States Department of Ag managing soils especially if they are riculture, will assess the adaptability under irrigation. If the calcium con of Spink County soils for irrigation as tent of the soil is high the clay acts as a well as answer some of the needs of glue and binds the soil particles to dry land farmers. gether as granules. This imparts a fa However, the problem of success vorable physical condition to the soil fully maintaining the soils in a favor allowing free passage of water, air and able condition is much more difficult plant roots. When the clay plates are saturated with sodium, however, the prevention of solonization by main opposite effect isachieved.Theclay no taining in the soils a calcium satura longer actsas a glue, and the claypar tion and by preventing a sodium satu ticles slide easily over one another, ration from developing. causing breakdown of the soil gran Sodium saturation may develop in ules with lossof good physical condi soils in three principal ways: by ac tion. The soil no longer affords free cumulation of sodium carried in by passage to water, air and plant roots. the irrigation water, by raising of the This process takes place rapidly in water table,or by riseof dissolved sod soils having sodium-saturated clays if ium through the soil by capillary ac these soils are cultivated or disturbed tion (riseof a liquid similarto the rise when wet. It alsotakes placenaturally of kerosene in a wick). The capillary as a soil-forming process, and is re water itself evaporates leaving a con sponsible for the fairly common clay- centration of sodium in the soil. pan soils developed in the Oahe area. Fortunately it appearsthat the Mis The soil survey of Spink County souri River water anticipated for use separates soils where this process on the Oahe project will not result in (called solonization) has already a harmful accumulation of sodium. taken placefrom soils not yetaffected. Preventing a sodium accumulation One of the most important soil man from developing due to capillary rise agement practices in Oahe, if and or water table elevation appears to be when irrigation comes, will be the a problem of considerable magnitude, however. Solving it will involveestab lishment of an adequate drainage sys tem for the project.

Soils of Oahe Are Variable A large part of Spink County is lo cated within the Oahe area. (See map, page 92.) The Experiment Station and its cooperating USDA agencies have covered approximately 300,000 acres in the basicsoil survey of Spink County. Most of this surveying has been in the so-called Lake Dakota basin (See map, page92) and a small er part in the glacial till plain.Four of the Lake Dakota basin soils will illus trate most of the soil problems en countered over the course of the sur vey. These four soils are: BeardenGi, Abbe, Aberdeen, and Lxline. They have all developed from the same par ent material, (water deposited silts and very fine sands,) but different A kinds of profiles have formed due to the influence of topography and salt in Table 2, which lists the percentages concentration. of sodium and calcium in these soils. Bearden has developed on gently It can he seen from this table that the undulating topography, has a deep Exline soil has an extremely high .sod mellow profile and no claypan. Abbe ium content compared to the other has formed on almost level topog three soils. raphy, is deep and has a slight clay- pan. Aberdeen has developed on level Table 2. Water Soluble Sodium and Calcium in B. or Claypan Layer of Four Lake Dakota Basin topography, has a moderately hard Soils (Milliequivalents per 100 grams) claypan, and Exline has developedon Bearden Gj Abbe Aberdeen Exline leveldepressional topography and has Sodium 0.09 035 036 5i) a very hard claypan. Calcium __3).31 0.20 5.95 Permeability studies on these soil profiles, or studies showingthe ability From this it can be inferred that our of soilsto permit passageof water, in field mapping units based on degree of compaction actually tell us what is dicate that the Exline claypan is im the relative sodium saturation of the permeable (not permitting passage) soil. Another conclusion which can be while the claypans of Abbe and Aber drawn from this, is that the Abbe and deen are moderately permeable. The Aberdeen soils and possibly the Bear Bearden profile is also permeable. den soils are potential Exline soils. If Permeability studies on the parent proper precautions to prevent sodium materials (lake-laid silts and clays) saturation are not taken, some of the for these soils show a low degree of best soils in the Lake Dakota basin in permeability. Oahe can be changed to non-irrigable The amounts of total clay (particles soils in a matter of a few years. less than .002 millimeters) for these Percent of Irrigable Land Classified four soils present in the B2, or clay The results of mapping have not pan, layer is shown in Table 1. been completely tabulated as yet to show the actual percentages of the Table 1. Percent Clay in B2or Claypan Layer of various classes of land. However, pre Four Lake Dakota Basin Soils liminary work on a typical township Bearden G, Abbe Aberdeen Exline in Lake Dakota basin. (See map) Percent Clay ....23,5 35.5 39.9 36.4 showed the following classes of soil.

These data seem to conflict with the Table 3. Soil Classes in T117N R63W Spink County, South Dakota field appraisal of the degree of com paction (unfavorable condition of the Class 1 .5 Cla.ss IV 32.0 soil which does not readily allow for Class II -...-30.5 Class VI 32.0 the passage of air and water) in which Class III . .. 25.0 Exline was the most compact, and also the most impermeable. Exline The word "soil" used in the term may actually have a smaller percent "soil classes" in Table 3 means soil in age of total clay than either Abbe or its broad sense, that is, the natural Aberdeen. The explanation for this landscape. This however does not in- apparent inconsistency can be found ( Continued on page 100) Plan to pass ownership to own generation Transferring

cv A <- No plans except to divide land equally among THE FARM heirs m WITHIN THE

Plan to pass ownership to next generation FAMILY

©o

No plans at all

EACH II = 3 FARMERS

Seventy-nine South Dakota landowners. What will become of their farms?

By Max Myers ily be transferred as a "going con cern." I haven't thought about it... but One has only to look around the av maybe I should!" erage farming neighborhood to real That was the most common reply ize that relatively few farms stay in when almost two hundred farm fam the same family for successive genera ilies were asked about the disposition tions, and that even fewer farms are of their farms. Entirely too many transferred as complete, operating farm owners—most of them in fact— businesses. (lenerally the retiring die before they get around to making farmer sells his stock and ecjuipment a decision as to who gets the farm. at public auction, takes his valuable The families, the farms, and the pub management knowledge ofT the farm lic will benefit if farm transfer ar and lets a new operator learn by trial rangements are made more carefully and error. and sooner. Specific evidence as to the ways in Many farmers want to keep their which South Dakota farmers acquire farms in their own families for future and disposeof land was gathered dur generations. There are sound reasons ing 1947-48 from a study of the tenure to support this desirefor thoseon ade histories of 144 families who have op quate and efficient farm units. One of erated or owned 130 farms in South these reasons is that a farm trans Dakota counties. Of these, 107 owned, ferred within the family can more eas or had owned, land, but only 20 owned land which had been acquired that of deciding who is willing and by an earlier generation of the same able to take over from the present family. owner. For families with children this Ninety-one percent of the acreage may raise the problem of creating in acquired was obtained from non-rela at least one of them an interest in tives. Inheritance clearly played a farming and in continuation of the small part. home farm business. This interest There are numerous reasons why cannot be created overnight just when farms do not stay "in the family." the parents wish to retire. It is some These include the lack of heirs, or the thing that starts in childhood, possibly unwillingness of heirs to farm, inade with small shares in farming such as quate size of farm business, lack of 4-H and F.F.A. projects, and the con capital and reluctance to discuss the tinuation of such interest is frequent disposition of property or to take any ly tied to an understanding by the action until after the death of the young man or woman of how the owner. However, there are many home farm is to be passed on and to families which have a suitable busi whom. nesswhich they wish to transfer to the D. The family should be able to dis next generation. What can they do cussfuture plans for the farm business about it ? and the eventual disposition of the Points to Consider property, to discuss this sensibly and No two farm family situations are with a realization that different exactly alike. Therefore no one defi members have different interests. nite plan can be laid down for use by This should be done early.Some deci all farm owners. The study of many sions should be made before all the farm family situations and the experi children choose other paths and leave enceof manySouth Dakota attorneys, home. It seems preferable that these as brought together in this report, decisions and the necessary legal ar seem to indicate that the following rangements be made long before the points are important: parents expect to leave this world or A. It is rather generally believed even to retire. This does not necessar that there are benefits to individuals, ily mean that title to property has to families, communities, and the public be transferred early,but somedefinite if successful farm businesses are hand plans should be made. Such planning ed down as going concerns through and action can forestall friction and the right kind of farm families. uncertainty within the family. It can B. Some farms probablyshould not take into account the effects of taxa be kept in the family. Unlessthe busi tion and make it possible to avoid nessis adequate in size and efficiency losses to the family or the farm and to support a family and sometimes unnecessary expenses to the future two families, there is little reason to estate. make the efTort necessary to keep one E. There are various alternative of the children on it. methods or legal devices which can C. If a given farm business is ade be employedto put the family's plans quate and if it is desired to keep it in into effect. These devices differ and the family, then the next question is are suited to different situations. LegalWays of Transferring 3. The interests of other heirs in the Farm Ownership family, who under the American way The principal alternatives which lie of doing things, expect to receive before the farm owner who is consid ec]ual or ec]uitable treatment. ering the disposition of his property 4. The interests of the farm, which are these: should not be deteriorated in the /. The laws of inheritance (or de process of farming or of transferring scent)—The owner may make no the farm. The community and the disposition or plans. After he dies in general public also have an indirect testate (without a will) thecourts will interest in the farm—an interest in ef make disposition of the property to ficient, continuous production of the heirs. foods. 2. A will—He may bequeath the The importance of eachof these in property in a will, and specify who terests willvary fromfamily to family getswhat and on what terms. and from time to time. The problem, 3. Joint tenancy—He may hold the then, is to select arrangements which property injoint tenancy with right of will fit the particular combination of survivorship so that when he dies the circumstances in the individual case. property will pass to theother person It is difficult to rank one method as or persons named in the title. better than others, but certain general 4. Gifts of property—He may give izations can be made. For the farm his farm away before he dies, or he owner who must depend on the in may give future title but retain life come from the farm as long as he use of it. lives, the disposition by means of a 5. Sales of property—He may sell will is probably most suitable. In situ the farm, either outright or with vari ations where it is more important to ous restrictions. give thenext generation certainty that 6. Incorporation—He may incorpo they will get the farm, it is probably rate the farm business, and then dis most satisfactory to sell the farm to pose of shares in the corporation by them when the owner is ready to re methods listed above. tire. However, in both these situations Many Interests to beReconciled a case can be made for the use of a Several sets of interests must be rec deed with a retained life interest to onciled in order to accomplish a suc the parents. The land owner should cessful family transfer of a farm busi decide what he wants to do. ness. These interests include: A matter as important as the ar 1. The needs of the parents (land rangements for transfer of farmprop holders) for security of income as erty should never beundertaken with longaseither lives. This isparticular out competent legal advice and assist ly important when the farm is their ance. A lawyer can advise the farm only property. owner as to the effect of various plans 2.The desire of the young man and and methods on the farmer's particu his family for security of expectation, lar situation. Once the owner has de that is, the certainty that they will cided what he wants to do the attor own the farm if they work on it and ney can tell him how to do it legally. improve it. (Proj ect 166, Agricultural Economics.) To Obtain Unil In Areas of I-

By John L. Wiersma SPRINKLER IRRIGATION WaS developed in an area where average wind veloci- « ties are 2 miles per hour or " less and the maximum veloc- « ity seldom exceeds 4 miles ° per hour. Standard designs I are based on this figure. In 2 sol Pr«seur« — 56 p ouod* South Dakota the average ^ I Noe»l« — X5/32" wind velocity is between 10 Ri»er ftiight — 2U" and 11 miles per hour with 6 8 10 12 maximum velocities much Vlnd, miles per hour greater than this. Therefore, Figure 1. Dniformity for Verloue Speolnge our sprinkler designs must be modified to compensate for this suit inabout 10 percent better pattern difference. than a pressure of 40 pounds per Common methods of getting a square inch. A pressure increasefrom more uniform water coverage to com 50 pounds to 60 pounds per square pensate for the wind distortion are to inch will increase the uniformity only use increased riser pressure, closer about 5 percent. spacing of the sprinklers on the line and shorter moves between lines, larg Spacingof Sprinkler Heads Tested er nozzles, and special typeheads. Closer spacing of the sprinkler heads on the line and shorter moves Increasing Water Pressure between lines will also aid in more Improves Distribution uniform water application. Labor Increasing the water pressure will costs will be increased if the move be improve the water distribution. The tween lines is decreased. Theexpected maximum usable pressurewill be lim uniformity for various moves is illus ited by the pump operating cost and trated in Fig. 1. It is noted that there will not be determined by the uni is little difference in a 30-foot, 40-foot formity of the water distribution. and a 50-foot move in a 10 mile-per- Higher pressures will increase pump hour wind. However, there is a con ing cost considerably. However, in a siderable difference between a 50-foot 10 mile-per-hour wind a riser pressure move and a 60-foot move. The tests of 50 pounds per square inch will re- for determining these lines were run kanc# Hoi*l» and Plug Urge Noul# 20- I 50* ("1*0" * 50'

pr«8#ur« — i^O pound# iter Distribution Rloer !iei£ht — 2ii"

nd Velocities 6 8 10 12 Wind, mile# per hour Figure 5. Comperleon of Uniformity for K

work schedule, and the rate at which the water is avail able will usually determine the nozzle size that can he used, but if a choice can be made, the larger nozzle will help to obtain more uniform

Spwolng — I4O' X 50' water distribution. In Fig. 2 Pressure -- ijD pounds conditions were identical JOsed -- Stenderd with the exception of the size 2 It 6 a 10 12 lit 1 Wind, mllee per hour of nozzle used. The large nozzle would apply about 21 gure 2. Onlfomlty for Different Slxe Woesles gallons of water per minute, which is equal to a precipita using a medium weight sprinkler tion rate of about one inch per hour head mounted on a 24-inch riser. The when spaced 40 feet between sprin nozzles used applied •13 gallons of klers and moved 50 feet. The medium water per minute, at 56 pounds size nozzle would apply about 13 gal pressure. lons of water per minute, which is A sprinkler head from which the equal to 0.6 of an inch of water per spreader nozzle has heen removed minute with the same spacing, and and replaced with a plug and only the the small nozzle will apply about 6.5 range nozzle is used will also aid in gallons per minute which is equal to obtaining more even water distribu 0.3 inchesof precipitation per hour. It tion during winds of 8 miles per hour is noted from Fig. 2 that for low wind or greater. The top line in Fig. 3 rep velocities there is little difference, but resents the expected uniformity for a as the wind velocity increases the dif spacing of 20 feet between sprinklers ference becomes more noticeable. The and a 50-foot move between lines. It is larger nozzle is superior to the small, noted that other type heads and noz nozzle. zles are superior for lower wind vel ocities. Type of Nozzle Head Makes Large Nozzle More Efficient a Difference The size of nozzles used will also Figure 3 shows a comparison for affect the distribution. The type soil, different nozzles and spacings in which the precipitation rates are ap and moved 50 feet will give about an proximately ecjual. The pumping identical pattern as a medium-size costs would be identical because the nozzle placed 20 feet on the line and same pressure was used throughout moved 50 feet between moves. The the entire comparison. For winds of 8 latter method would be more expen miles per hour or greater the head sive because twice as many sprinkler with only a range nozzle and a plug heads would be required per line. in the spreader nozzle, spaced 20 feet In determininga suitably designed on the line,issuperior to any other in this comparison. The labor costs for sprinkler irrigation system, all factors these three comparisons would be such as available labor, pumping identical. A small nozzle placed 20 costs, maximum allowable precipita feet apart on the line and moved 30 tion rate, location of the system, and feet between moves is not as good as type of crop grown must be given the larger nozzles with greater spac consideration before the desired uni ing. There would be twice as much formity of waterapplication canbeat labor involved in doing this. A large tained. (Project 192, Agricultural En nozzle spaced 40 feet between heads gineering Department.) (Harvesting Hay, Continued from page 89) (Soils, Continued from page 94) Technique Improved elude an item such asoveralldrainage. A by-product of these studies which Class I soilis that ideally suited for irrigation at the time of the survey. It is of more interest and value from a occurs on a favorable slope, has no technical standpoint than from a pop clay pan or other impermeable layer, ular standpoint was a comparison of is low in sodium and other harmful 7-day collection periods versus 10-day salts, has a deep profile and is not collection periods in determining di stony. Class II soil is less suited for ir gestion coefficients. The 10-day period rigation than Class I. This may be is most commonlyemployed. A study due to less favorable conditions of involving 27 comparisons in which slope, permeability, sodium, depth of double feces samples were collected soil, or stoniness. Class III soil isagain over 7 and 10 day periods and ana less favorable than II. Class IV soil is lyzed, showed the loss in efficiency considered as being suitable only for when 7-day periods were used rather irrigated pasture and Class VI is un than 10-day periods wasvery small ex suitable for any kind of irrigation. cept for nitrogen-free extract. Thus from this sample area, and Except for nitrogen-free extract, from the basis of soils alone, 36 per none of the other efficiency losses cent of the soil falls into one of the (computed from digestion coeffi first three classes which are considered cients) reached 2 percent. On the basis asbeingirrigable, while 32 percent ap of these findings the shorter period is pears suitable only for pasture and 32 being used for the 1950 trials. (Project percent seems unsuitable for any type 120. Leaders: George Staples, R. M. of irrigation. (Project 183, Leaders: F. Jordan, Animal Husbandry Depart C. Westin, A. J. Klingelhoets, C. B. ment; A. L. Moxon, Chemistry De Lee, W. Moldenhauer, D. Lettering, partment; J. G. Ross, Agronomy.) Agronomy Department.) Annual Report supplementing the quarterly reports

of the South Dakota Farm and Home Research for the year ending June 30, 1950 Major projects in research for many of the departments have been report ed on in the forepart of this Annual Report. They will be listed here under the proper subject and a page reference given so the entire accomplish ments of the Station in any one field will be apparent under a single heading.

Crops and Soils Good Soil Management Practices crops with respect to nitrogen and phos Pay in a Dry Year phorus are more able to withstand and recover from the effects of drought, and For South Dakota the most important therefore make the highest yields. For soil fertility problem is the maintenance example, wheat yields averaged 20 bush of soil organic matter and nitrogen. The els per acre where the soil nitrogen and effects of soil treatments, especially rota organic matter was well maintained in a tions, crop residues and tillage on the sweetclover-corn-wheat rotation. In a nitrogen and organic matter balance of corn-oats-wheat rotation, crop residue the soil is emphasized. The work is car removed, wheat yields averaged only ried out on the Agronomy Farm and on 9.5 bushels per acre. In the same rota outlying field plots. tion where all crop residues were re Changes in nitrogen and organic mat turned, the wheat yields averaged 13 ter as influenced by soil treatment were bushels per acre. as follows: In a corn-oats-wheat rotation Corn yields were much influenced in (1942-48), with tillage by plowing and 1949 by the method used to prepare the crop residue removed, the surface soil lost 544 pounds of nitrogen and 8600 seed bed. Subsurface tilled plots gave the pounds organic matter. In the same rota largest yieldsof corn. Where all the crop tion with crop residues returned, the soil residues were returned, the corn yielded lost 202 pounds of nitrogen and 2940 19 bushels per acre under plowing and pounds of organic matter per acre in sur 37 bushels per acre under subsurface face soil. tillage. The corn on the subsurface tilled Results from the rotation and fertil plots was not as tall as the corn plants on izer plots showed that well-nourished the plowed plots. For this reason the corn on the subsurface tilled plots ap inbreds, thus illustrating the importance peared to have been more able to with of obtaining lines from other stations. stand the effects of the summer drought Forty to fifty such inbreds are main and therefore made the highest yield. tained in the breeding nursery. (Project 46. Leaders: L. F. Puhr and In order to develop new hybrids sev W. W. Worzella, Agronomy De eral thousand hand pollinations are partment.) made each year. This is to maintain old linesand to develop new ones. In devel Good Soil Management Practices opingnew inbreds, open-pollinated vari Increase Yield at Cottonwood eties are being used as source material, Rotation, fertilizer and tillage experi as well as double crosses, F/s and back- ments at the Cottonwood Field Station crosses. Also, several second-cycle or re in 1949 indicated considerably higher covered inbreds now being developed yields of wheat may be obtained after show considerable promise. sorghum or fallow than after oats. Am After experimental hybrids are made, monium nitrate fertilizer applied at 15 it is necessary to test them to see if they pounds of nitrogen per acre increased have any value. In 1949, nine yield tests barley yields by 3 bushels per acre. Sub on experimental double crosses and six surface tillage of sorghum land resulted on single crosses (for prediction pur in about 314 bushels higher wheat yields poses) were completed. These fell into than did plowing of sorghum stubble. four maturity groups. Several combina Six-inch and 12-inch drill row spacings tions were good under climatic condi were compared with all soil treatments tions as they existed last year. (Project on both wheat and barley. There was a 66. Leader: D. B. Shank, Agronomy De slight advantage for wheat with 12-inch partment.) spacing on fallow or sorghum land, but a decided advantage in favor of 6-inch Popular Corn Hybrids Tested spacing with wheat on oat stubble land. As a Service (Project 4. Leader: L. O. Fine, Agrono my Department. Carl B. Larsen, Supt. One of the services which South Da Range Field Station, Cottonwood.) kota StateCollege performsis the testing of commercial corn hybrids in yield Soil Sampling, See page 15 trials each year soas to be able to supply farmers with information on the partic Soil Survey, Spink County, See page 92 ular hybrids tested. In 1949, ten such Irrigation, Redfield Soil Studies, See page 34 trials were put out with at least one being located ineach oftheeight agricul tural districts in the state. Seven were New Corn Hybrid Excels harvested, the other three being lost be in Yielding Ability and Appearance cause of adverse climatic conditions. The As a result of the work conducted on ones completed were locatednear Spear- corn breeding, it was possible to release fish. Eureka, Claremont, Brookings, to farmers one new South Dakota hy Mitchell, Carretson, and Vermillion. brid early in 1950. This hybrid has been Information secured consisted of designated South Dakota 270. It is yield and percent moisture in the grain slightly later than South Dakota 224, at the time of harvest. In the published being about 95-100 days in maturity. It report, average yields for a period of will.outyield 224 and will far excel it in years are also given. The results have appearance. been published in Circular 79, entitled South Dakota 270 is composed of two "1949 South Dakota Corn Performance South Dakota inbreds and two out-state Tests." (Project 151. Leaders: D. B. Shank and Glen Nachtigal, Agronomy secured from the hybrid field located Department.) near Bison, South Dakota, and self progenies established from most of these Oats, James Hulless, See [lagc 49 in June 1950. Special breeding stocks have been obtained from other experi Developing Grain Sorghums ment station workers, from the United That Germinate in Cold Soil States Department of Agriculture, from foreign introductions, and from Canad Sixty-two strains of grain sorghum ian workers. Selections are to be made were placed in a cold chamber for 14 from this material (on basis of disease days at 45° F. before being taken out resistance, in most instances) for combi and placed at room temperature for nation with our own type selections. emergence. The results showed that the Agronomic data have been secured on strains varied in emergence from 0 to 66 standard and new varieties of alfalfa. percent. A high correlation was found between the results of the past two years, which may indicate that it is possible to Sweetclover Under Test select and breed grain sorghums that can Seed increases of certain large-seeded be planted earlier in cold wet soils. This species of sweetclover were secured by will aid considerably in producing ma hand-selfing in the greenhouse. Further tured grain of a high quality which will increaseand somecrosses with the adapt keep better in storage. It also will make ed small-seeded forms are planned for harvesting the grain crop come early in these species. Approximately 45 strains the fall during the better drying weather, from the USDA and Canadian workers thereby producing grain with a lower have been assembled for test here. (Proj moisture content before it is placed in ect 74. Leaders: M. W. Adams, W. W. storage. These are very important factors Worzella, Agronomy Department.) for the keeping qualities of grain sor ghum when placed in storage. (Project Birdsfoot Trefoil Treated 112. Leader: C. J. Franzke, Agronomy For Cold Resistance Department.) Open-pollinated seed stocks of 22 se Sorghum, Norghum, See page 1 lections were subjected to a preliminary test for cold resistance in December New Legumes Developed 1949. Eight lines were found to be su for Our Climate perior enough to warrant further exper Following a year's observations of imentation. some 5,000 naturalized hybrid plants in a hybrid population initially established Thousands of Grass Strains Tested at Brookings in 1915, 80 plants of alfalfa in Breeding Program were selected in October 1949 for trans Eight thousand plants of bromegrass, fer to the greenhouse for further work. Ree wheatgrass and crested wheatgrass These were arranged into mating groups were started in the greenhouse and on the basis of type classification, i.e., transplanted into the field in May.These pasture, hay, or dual type, and all com consisted of progenies of plants selected bination crosses made witbin each on the basis of appearances, and also group. Twelve such groups, comprising seed collections from old fields in the over 700 single crosses were worked state. with, and both selfed and crossed prog Forage yields were taken from brome enies established in the field in June grass strains tests and other forage tests 1950. at Brookings, Highmore, Eureka and An additional 66 plant selectionswere Cottonwood. The superiority of native strains of bromcgrass was again demon New Soybeans Tested for Maturity strated and it was decided to composite In cooperation with the Regional Soy the best of these to form a South Dakota bean Laboratory located at Urhana, Illi source.Mixtures of hromegrassand alfal nois, and aided by farmer-cooperators in fa again proved their superiority over Roberts and Clay counties, the Experi hromegrass alone. ment Station has conducted variety and Controlled pollinations ot superior strain tests of soybeans in three maturity plants of hromegrass, Ree wheatgrass groups, the very early, the early, and the and crested wheatgrass were carried out mid-season. Previously about 15 to 20 both in the field and in the greenhouse to entries comprised each test. In 1950, the determine desirable combinations from entries numbered 18 for the very early, which further selection might he made. 18 for the early, and 20 for the mid-sea Preliminary studies ot the heritahility of son group. Each entry is grown in four seed and forage production in hrome replications and scored for yield, ma grass indicate a comparatively highvalue turity, lodging, height, seed cjuality, seed for the seed and a very low value for the size, and shattering. forage. There would appear to he no se lection pressure exerted against forage Chemical determinations for [x;rcent production by selection for high seed oil and protein are madeat the Regional production. Methods of increasing seed Laboratory. Since 1947 through partici production in grasses are being studied. pation in the Regional Testing Program, Cytological examination of grass the Experiment Station has engaged in foundation seed increase and release of clones used in forming strains is being three improved varietiesof soybeans, one made. The possibility of making crosses each for the three maturity zones of the between rye and Russian Wild Rye and, South Dakota soybean area. These re in addition, hack crosses of wheatgrass leases have added and will continue to hybrids to wheatgrass were investigated. add stability and increased income to the A cytogenetic studyof accessory chromo soybean grower in this state. (Project somes in hromegrass is being continued. 148. Leader: M. W. Adams, Agronomy (Project 182. Leaders: J. G. Ross and Department.) W. W. Worzella, Agronomy Depart ment.) Weed Control, Sec page 46

Agricultural Chemistry

Variation in Protein Content of barley from South Dakota as compared Barley Varieties Studied to other states is not altogether apparent. That Minnesota and Wisconsin have The importance of barley as a crop in established malting varieties and areasof South Dakota is attested by the fact that known reputation is evident. On the our state ranks second in barley produc other hand, our most suitable barley tion. Our farmers produce about 32,- varieties are largely the result of recent 000,000 bushels of barley annually. breeding work. While neighboring eastern states find a ready market for much of their barley The problemthus resolves itselfas one at premium malting prices, our farmers for determining the adequacy of our are generally forced to sell their malting new barley varieties for maltingand also type barleys at reduced rates comparable feeding purposes. The farmer willprofit to feeding grade prices. The reason for if some means can be found to evaluate the frequent price discrepancy toward both malting and feedingbarleyvarieties Station chemists measuringthe poisonous effects of selenium in animal tissue. Useof arsenic in salt when fed to farm animals is still the only practical way to alleviate effects of selenium poisoning. in different areas of the state. The suc protein variations within a variety when cessful termination of the study would grown in different areas of the state. thus eliminate the present excessive pro duction of substandard malting type bar Protein Distribution in Different Barley Varieties ley.Such barley,when rejected for malt Odessa^ Feebar^ Plains'^ ing, must be used for feeding in spiteof the disadvantage of its usual low protein Albumin 0.66 0.69 0.73 content. Thus, it is obvious that high (Jlobuiin 1.40 1.63 1.40 protein barley varieties suitable for feed Frotcose 0.98 0.93 0.87 Non-Protein nitrogen* 0.65 0.66 0.56 ing may well be the logical barley vari Horciein 3.96 5.14 4.57 eties for many areas of the state. Ciiitelin 6.58 6.80 5.96 The Station Chemistry department, in Total protein"' 14.23 15.85 14.09 'Odessa—A stajidard malting variety for neighboring cooperation with the Agronomy depart eastern states but not well adapted to most .South ])a- kotti areas. ment, is studying the variation in pro ^Feebar—A new high protein feeding barley well adapt tein composition of different barley ed to South Dakota. "Plains—A new medium protein barley adapted to South varieties. The protein content of barleyis Dakota. (This barley .seems stiitablc for malting rc- iptiremcnts but the malting companies arc reluctiint to the primary constituent affecting malt use it.) ••(".alctilated as ptotein. ing as well as nutritive quality of barley. •"'Conversion Factor 6.25 employeil for all protein The preliminary observations which are calculations. shown in the table indicate definite dif ferences in protein composition between A purified sample of one of the major different varieties (see hordein and protein constituents of barley (hordein) glutelin). Future studies will evaluate has been prepared. The nutritive quality of this protein will be studied by estima of analysis for iodine needs refining be tion of the hydrolysis products obtained fore reliable values can be obtained on after treatment with digestive extracts roughage materials. (Project No. 180. (pancreatic and intestinal enzymes). It Leaders: A. L. Moxon, E. 1. Whitehead, is hopedto find someexplanation for the G. F. Gastler and A. W. Halverson, Sta extremely low nutritional valueof cereal tion Chemi.stry Department.) (Prolamines) proteins. Cereal proteins are the most abundant, yet the poorest in Treatment of Hard Water for nutritive quality of all availableproteins. Household, Farm and Dairy Use Thus, any study aimed at improvement Water used for cleansing purposes of cereal protein quality is of paramount must be soft for most satisfactory results. importance. (Project 195. Leaders: A. In South Dakota the water supply is, for W. Halverson, A. L. Moxon, Station the most part, excessively hard. This pre Chemistry, and J. E. Grafius, Agron sents a serious problem in laundering, omy.) and in cleansing of dairy and household equipment. Minerals and Trace Elements Tested In an effort to find an answer to this in Feeds and Water Supplies problem equipment has been assembled Samples of grasses were collected for and preliminary tests have been tried on the second year from Roberts and fabric which has been uniformly soiled. Marshall counties. These samples do not Various soaps, synthetic detergents and show a generalized low phosphorus for softening agents have been tried in vari the entire area as has been reported for ous combinations with moderately hard the adjacent area in Minnesota. The water. In all cases the cleansing action samples do, however, indicate a great was poor when compared with the same variation in phosphorus content between cleasing agent in softened (base ex plots in adjacent townships. It is possible change process) water. The study will that the plots which show a low phos be extended to include stainless steel phorus content can be correlated with aluminum and other materials com certain (Pleistocene) glacial deposits. monly used for dairy and household Grasses and other roughages which equipment. (Project 193. Leaders: A. L. have been analyzed from various loca Moxon, G. F. Gastler, Station Chemis tions within the state indicate that the try Department; D. F. Breazeale, Dairy range area, in general, produces rough Department; Lillian Lund, Home Eco ages which arelowin phosphorus. Cattle nomics Department.) and sheep which are fed mostly on roughages shouldbegiven a supplemen tary source of phosphorus such as bone- meal or some other suitable mineral Corn Plants, Chemical Composition,See pg. 127 which will supply a similar ratio of Nitrate Poisoning, See jiagc 3 phosphorus to calcium. Selenium Poisoning, Sec page 126 Iodine determinations have been made on a few samples but the method Harvesting Prairie Hay, See page 88

Crop Insects

Corn Borer Control, See page 62 Heel Fly and Cattle Grub Control, See page 43

Grasshoppers, 1950, Sec page 57 Insects, Mites and Ticks, Sec page 125 Student assistants helping with apricot-crossing by doing hand pollinations. Pollen is collected from tubbed plants and from experiment stations in other states and kept under refrigeration until used. Fruits and Vegetables Vegetable Yields and Quality Promising Sweet Corn Obtaining a good yield from a vege Hybrids Selected table is frequently the main objective of Most sweet corn now grown commer the grower. To obtain high quality over cially, as well as that grown in home a long period of time is just as frequently gardens, is a first-generation hybrid. overlooked. Determining cultural prac This hybrid is a cross of two inbred lines tices that will give the grower the most whose characters have been fixed by high quality vegetables has been the ob years of inbreeding. Many inbred crosses jective of a vegetable study at this Sta are necessary in order to determine the tion. The value of transplanting seed ability of a line to produce superior lings as compared to direct seeding, the hybrids. age of the seedlinggoing to the field, the Many promising lines have been se degree of hardening necessary, the influ lected and their hybrids are being eval ence of fertilizer and the benefit of irri uated. One line known as 176 is a Ban gation have all been studied. Prelimi tam type which offers much promise. It nary results indicate that for most vege is one of the most vigorous, produces a tables, earliness, quality of product and good quality hybrid in many combina yield are practices now overlooked by tions, possessessome degree of resistance the grower. (Project 118. Leader: S. A. to smut and produces a good supply of McCrory, Horticulture Department.) pollen.Line 226isa veryearly line. High quality and earliness generally show lit Collecting, Preserving, Cataloguing, tle positive correlation. However, line Propagating and Testing of Fruit 226 gives a good quality hybrid for an Plants Having Genetic Value early sweet corn. Many others have also The Department of Horticulture has been selected. a collection of fruit plants, many from A succession of high quality hybrids is foreign sources, which may have genetic needed by both the home and commer value. This project was started with the cial grower. The sweet corn breeding objective of arranging in a systematic program under way at this Station has order all of this collection and to give a developed the inbred lines to do this. preliminary evaluation to them. One is now being increased for release next year. Others will follow as quickly The work of cataloguing is largely as they can be increased. (Project 68. completed. Evaluating three apple root Leader; S. A. McOory, Horticulture stocks is under way. The Manchu crab is Department.) producing a semi-dwarf tree and may have some merit as a root stock. The New Fruit Varieties Named selection called Yellow Siberian crab is A fruit breeding project was started at producing a large tree with up-right the South Dakota Experiment Station in growth habit. 1895. Since that time many winter-hardy A collection of 20 varieties of apples fruit plants have been collected from from Russia, which were rated as their both foreign and native sources. Hy leading varieties, were planted for obser bridization of these with high quality vation. They and the other plants are varieties has been the method of im located in a foundation planting to be provement. maintained for observation and study. In 1949 many seedling apples fruited This material will be used in the fruit for the first time. Sixty-eight of these breeding work as well as be made avail were selected and given a number for able to other experiment stations. (RMA further observation. A new apricot selec Project 174. Leader: S. A. McCrory, tion of the hardy Siberian type was Horticulture Department.) named Sunshine. Also a sandcherry- Hybrid Elms Considered plum hybrid was named Honeydew. For Use in Shelterbelts Growing seedling plants to a bearing age is a long time project. Apples, apricots, The purpose of this project has been to plums, cherries and pears are receiving study new varieties and species of trees attention under this project. (Project 1. and shrubs for the shelterbelts of South Leader: S. A. McCrory, Horticulture Dakota. The breeding of superior types Department.) has received little attention, but superior strains and chance hybrids are available. Genetic Stock to be Combined with Most nurseries in this region list hy High Quality Apples brid elms; in some cases they are said to The main work in connection with be crosses of American and Chinese this project the past year has been the elms, others of slippery (red) elm and relocation of genetic stocks used in the Chinese elms. Crosses among these spe development of Triploid apples. To date cies may occur naturally, for all of these the apples that have been developed as a trees bloom about the same time in early result of this project have been promis spring. According to Mr. E. C. George ing only asgeneticstock.For testing, it is of the Field Station at Mandan, North planned to combine these with high Dakota, who worked on controlled quality apples. (Project 59. Leader: N. crosses, these are seedlings of Chinese R. Hansen, Horticulture Department.) and slippery elm. The American elm crossed with Chinese elm failed to set elm. The seed, when sown, develops into seed. hybrid elms which resemble the Chinese Many of the trees listed are simply elms in many ways, but are stronger, selections of unusual chance seedlings faster growing trees. found in nursery rows. Any outstanding A superior early-maturing strain of tree may be propagated by grafting or Chinese elm, the Harbin, has been tested budding so that all the resulting plants and a planting made in 1950 to obtain a are the same as the selected specimen. good seed source for nurserymen of the The price of the resulting trees is then region. (Project 142. Leader: M. A. much higher than the seedling stock sold Maxon, Horticulture Department.) for shelterbelt or shade tree planting. Tomatoes, See pa<;e 55 Observations have been made for a number of years on trees raised from the Strawberries, Vitamin C, See pajte 61 seed of slippery elm grown near Chinese Pondercsa Pine, See pa>;e 69

Plant Diseases

Search for Resistance to Foliage with cultures of Septoria lycopersici. Diseases of Tomatoes Twelve lines showed a high degree of resistance and will be used in future ex Further trials with various fungicides periments. (Project 146. Leader: L. T. for the control of foliage diseases of to Richardson, Plant Pathology Depart matoes were conducted in 1949. The ment.) treatments included tribasic copper sul phate, dithane z-78, cop-o-zinc, zerlate, yellow-cuprocide, phygon, methasan Control of Potato Diseases Sought paste, zerlate alternating with tribasic Fungicide trials for the control of foli copper sulphate, and check. Four appli age diseases of potatoes were continued cations were made at 2-week intervals in 1949. The fungicides used included beginning July 6. tribasic copper sulphate, dithane z-78, Owing to the dry season, yields were cop-o-zinc, zerlate, yellow cuprocide, low, and foliage diseases developed only phygon, crag 658 (copper zinc chro- lightly. Significant increases in yield mate), and Bordeaux mixture. DDT were obtained with tribasic copper sul was used with each, and also on the phate, zerlate, and yellow cuprocide. A check plots for insect control. Four ap decrease in yield resulted from the use of plications were made at 2-week intervals phygon in 1949, although it produced beginning June 24. favorable results in previous trials. No late blight and very little early In the search for resistance to foliage blight developed on the foliage during diseases, particularly septoria leaf spot, 1949. All treatments reduced the 73 tomato lines, mostly crosseswith wild amount of early blight as compared with species were grown in the field. Because the checks, but there was no significant of the light disease development in 1949, difference between treatments. The dif no selection for resistance was possible. ferences in yield between treatments in Seed from each line was collected in the this trial were not statistically significant. field and planted in the greenhouse dur Further selections were made on 30 ing the winter. Over 7000 plants were scab-resistant potato lines grown in artificially inoculated at the 5-leaf stage randomized blocks with 3 replications. 1 2 3 (1) hard red spring wheat (2) durum wheat and (3) winter wheat, showing healthy plants and plants infected wtih mosaic. Notice stunted growth and fewer number of heads on infected plants.

The type and degree of scab infection, be encountered in 1950, a number of foliage diseases, yields, and other char other fields are so heavily infected that acters of each line were observed. Twelve major losses in yield will result. The lines were discarded on the basis of their most seriously affected fields are in Ben reaction to scab. All stocks reserved for nett, (jregory, Lyman, Pennington, and further tests were eye-indexed in the Tripp counties, where in some instances, greenhouse during the winter to elimi up to 80 percent of the plants are infect nate virus diseases. (Project 107. Leader: ed. Mild infections have been discovered L. T. Richardson, Plant Pathology De in most areas in the southern half of partment.) the state wherever winter wheat is grown regularly. Mosaic Disease Found on Wheat The mosaic disease is caused by a in South Dakota virus. Plants may become infected at any A disease called mosaic has recently time between emergence and heading, been found infecting winter and spring but they are most susceptible from the wheat in certain areas of South Dakota. three-leaf to the jointing stage. The first Although infection is so light in many symptoms are faint streaks or flecks in of the fields that no noticeable losses will the young leaves. The streaks become more pronounced and cover more of the other hand, has a better chance of escap leaf until, in severe cases, the entire leaf ing serious infection when sown early, becomes yellow to white, and dies. and it should not be sown adjacent to When the plants are infected early, their severely infected winter wheat fields. growth is stunted and uneven. Some Two hundred samples of wheat from plants die prematurely, others mature Turkey and India are being tested in an without producing seed, and still others attempt to find new sources of resistance produce some seed which may be of a to leaf rust. Some of these samples have poor grade. If the plants are not infected produced plants carrying considerable until a later stage the symptoms will be resistance to the races of leaf rust import milder and the damage to yield will be ant in this area, but further tests will be correspondingly less. necessary to determine their usefulness The exact method of spread is not yet in developing improved varieties for known. Present indications are that in South Dakota. (Project 204. Leader: fection spreads with the aid of insects, John T. Slykhuis, Plant Pathology De partment.) from infected green shoots and volunteer plants to the new winter wheat crop dur Corn Selected for Resistance ing early fall. The disease can overwin to Root Rot ter in infected winter wheat, then during Several hundred lines of corn selected the late spring and summer it apparently for resistance to root rot were grown in spreads to other winter wheat plants and experiments at Brookings, Renner, and to spring wheat. Colome in 1949. Open-pollinated, in All of the currently grown varieties of bred lines, single and double crosses and winter and spring wheat tested are sus introductions from Ouatemala were in ceptible to mosaic. The spring wheats, cluded. Approximately 50 percent of the especially the durums, are somewhat lines were discarded at harvest time be more susceptible than the winter vari cause of insufficient tolerance to root and eties. Barley and oats can also become stalk rot. The balance was planted in the infected, but they are not seriously field last spring for further selection. damaged. Laboratory isolations of fungi from a Tests on 200 samples of wheat from severely damaged corn field near Renner western Asia have indicated that some indicated that perhaps additional experi of them carry a certain degree of resis ments on these isolates will show them to tance. There is hope that resistant vari be highly pathogenic. These cultures will eties may eventually be developed, but be included in greenhouse trials on a this work will require considerable tinae. large number of corn lines this winter. In the meantime several precautionary Root and stalk rot caused much lodged measures should be followed to help corn in 1949. It was difficult to determine control this disease. It is advisable to lodging as caused by the corn borer and avoid sowing winter wheat in a field that that which was caused by disease unless has just grown a crop infected with mo the stalks were pulled and examined. saic. Volunteer wheat plants should be Root rot continued to be the most preva destroyed by thorough cultivation before lent disease on corn, however. Helmin- the next year's crop of winter wheat is thosporium leaf blight and what ap sown in nearby fields. Late sowing of peared to be a new disease of the stalk winter wheat is preferable to early sow was found to be on the increase. (Project ing from the standpoint of mosaic con 185. Leader: C. M. Nagel, Plant Path trol, but late sowing is not a good prac ology Department.) tice in some areas because of the danger Liquid Seed Treatment, See page 25 of winter killing. Spring wheat, on the Shelterbelt Cottonwoods, See page 75 These yearlingswere put on limited winter feedingfor moderate gains and then finished on alfalfa- hrome pasture. They werealso given a supplement of grain throughout the grazingseason.

Livestock Production

Improvement in Beef Cattle (Project 167. Leaders: Richard O. Through Better Breeding Smith and Karl Rasmussen, Animal The beef cattle breeding project is Husbandry Department.) continuing by establishing lines to (1) develop selection techniques that will Using Roughage and Pasture to aid the commercial producer to make Produce Fat Yearlings reasonable improvement in his herd and With the present trend of increasing (2) to develop lines of high-producing the acreage in pasture and hay to con beef cattle. The results of the past year's serve our soils, livestock producers must test show a wide spread between individ find ways to use such feed profitably. ual bulls in average daily gain, ranging This experiment is designed to find an from 1.71 pounds daily to 3.01 pounds efficient methodof utilizing a maximum daily. The following table shows the of roughage for fattening steers under differences between sire groups: South Dakota conditions. Different win-

Production Data on Bull, and Steer and Heifer Progenies Tested in 1948-49 sire No. 601 23 Animals fed Steers and heifers Steers and heifers

Number of calves fed 6 Weight at start, lbs 392 Days on feed 256 Average final weight, lbs 927 Average daily gain, lbs 2.07 Feed per 100 lbs. gain Corn and cob meal, lbs. 634.8 Soybean oil meal, lbs 49.4 Alfalfa hay, lbs 218.7

*Fed in the same lot. Fattening Cattle on Pasture—1949

Bronie- Brome- Native grass fed alfalfa fed alfalfa fed Native grass fed Summer grazing (1949) dry Ic 7/20 to market 7/20 to market 5/25 to market 5/25 to market

Number of animals 12 Initial weight, lbs. 757. Final weight, lbs ...926. 953. 956. 100.5 941. Daily gain, lbs. ... 1.87 1.99 2.01 2.81 2.30 Feed per 100 lbs. gain Shcllcfl corn, lbs. ... 706.9 467.3 501.3 542.6 593.9 Soybean oil meal, lbs. ... 53.1 33.0 32.9 18.8 22.9 Salt, lbs. . ... 1.5* 1.5 I.I 0.9 1.5 Acres pasture I .37 .18 .13 .31 Allalta hay, lbs. — ^265.4 Hrome hay, lbs. 17.1 8.2

Feed cost per 100 lbs. gain $19.36 $12.54 $12.96 $12.72 $14.37

Carcass data (iratle ... IIA 6A 7A 9A 4A IB 3H 2H 5B

Selling price per 100 lbs...... $25.25 $25.64 $25.17 $26.51 $26.13

"Includes salt, bonemeal, and limestone. tLots V and Vlll used 10 acres and 8 acres of native grass respectively, Lots VI and Vll used 5 and 4 acres of brome- alfalfa pasture respectively. ter rations, deferred and full feeding on tures at the Bureau of Reclamation native grass and a brome-alfalfa mixture, Huron Development Farm. The data are being used. obtained in 1949 are shown in the table The first phase of this experiment on the next page. compares wintering rations on four lots These data show that high cash re of calves. Three of these lots are re-di turns per acre can he obtained by con vided in the spring into four lots placed verting grass to beef. (Project 164. Lead on a summer grazing phase. The results er: William C. McCone, Animal Hus of the 1949 summer grazing phase are bandry Department.) given in the table above. Results show that it is possible to put Summer Grazing Rates and Systems on the cheapest gains by limited win'.er of Wintering Beef Cattle for Best feeding and then utilizing summer pas Long-time Results tures. The full-fed, dry lot cattle made The summer phase of this experiment greatest profits per head only when a is designed to defermine the most rlesir- considerable premium in price was re ahle rate of stocking native ranges for ceived. In 1947 greatest profits were ob maximum yield and greatest conserva tained from the dry lot cattle, hut, in tion. Three rates of stocking, namelv 8 1948 and 1949, greatest profits resulted acres, 13 acres, and 18 acres per cow for in feeding cattle on pasture. The dry lot a 7-month grazing season, have been cattle rec]uired about 60 bushels of corn used. The undesirahility of the heavier to produce a 900-pound market steer, rate of stocking showed up in the rela while equal weight steers were produced tively dry summer of 1949 when it was with 30 bushels of corn plus abundant necessary to remove cows from both the amounts of roughage and pasture. heavily grazed and medium grazed pas Another part of this experim.ent in tures before the end of the grazing sea volved pasturing cattle on irrigated pas son in order to save the cattle. For the Production Data of Irrigated and Non-irrigated Grass LandHarvested as Beef and Hay. Huron Development Farm. 1949. Non-irrigated pastures irrigaied pastures Native Native and nitrogen Alfalfa-brome Huntley mixture

Beef Cattie Picduc.ion Data Acres in pasture 13.() H-l J'o Number yearling steers and heifers usetl 5 5 J, , i rj-? i Average beginning weight, lbs. 538.0 .l! _ Average final weight, lbs. - 770.0 785.0 759.7 '.j'/? (iains V-r acre, lbs. 90.2 94.3 400.4 353.0 Acres per animal for 4 mo. grazing 2.00 2.62 .55 Hay Production Data Yield per acre (tons) - Current Grass Treatment Production Costs Seed per acre $0.00 $0.00 $3.10 $3.5 Fertilizer per acre 0.00 4.00 6.^h • Irrigation antl extra labor per acre 0.00 0-00 ^-^0 Returns per acre, exclu.sive of land rental, interest on investment, risks, and labor for harvesting hay and caring for cattle* Heef Cattle $l«-04 $14.«6 $66.60 $53.30 Hav 8-25 6.80 69.32 32.20 •Native hay. $15; tame hay, $1«; cattle gains at $20.00 per 100 pounds; fertilizer and seed at current costs. last three years cows on the heavily northwestern part of South Dakota, (2) grazed pasture had an average loss in to determine the advantages of joint use weight of 93 pounds, those on medium of range hy cattle, sheep, and antelope, grazed pasture lost 34 pounds, while and (3) to determine the interrelation those on lightly grazed pasture gained ship of parasites with the three hostspe 38 pounds. cies of animals mentioned. In the wintering phase the rations Until the spring of 1950, efforts had were; (I) grazing only, (2) grazing plus been directed at getting the range 1 pound daily of 20 percent protein sup fenced, developing water for stock, and plement, (3) grazing plus 8 pounds of acquiring equipment and livestock. A wheatgrass hay daily, (4) grazing plus carrying capacity survey was made as a windrowed hay, and (5) grazing plus 1 basis for laying out the various pastures. pound of 40 percent soybean oil meal In May, 1950, cattle and sheep were daily. Average losses percow during the placed on the various experimental pas winter of 1949-50 were 170.0,95.4, 146.4, tures, but first results will not be avail 151.7, and 43.8 pounds for rations in the able until later. (Project 177. Leader: R. order listed above. Thus the cows receiv O. Smith, Animal Husbandry Depart ing the 40 percent soybean oil meal sup ment, Mike House, Supt., Antelope plement showed the lightest loss in Range.) weight though at the highest wintering cost. (Project 121. Leader: R. O. Smith, Hay and Concentrate Rations for Animal Husbandry Department.) Wintering Bred Ewes A band of 240 bred range ewes is Joint Use of Range by Cattle, maintained each winter in 12 groups Sheep and Antelope with different feeding treatments to de The three primary purposes of this termine: (1) a desirable level for feeding project are: (1) To determine the op barley as a concentrate, (2) the value of timumcarrying capacity of ranges in the alfalfa hay as the only roughage in com- parison with a mixture of alfalfa and formance is measured in terms of ewe wheatgrass hay, and (3) whether chop gains and lamb and wool production. ping either alfalfa or mixed hay is eco The nutritional treatments are as nomical. The effect of treatment is mea follows: sured by ewe gains and lamb and wool 1. Low—1 pound alfalfa hay, 2 to 2.5 production. pounds wheatgrass hay. Although three winter feeding periods 2. Medium—1 pound alfalfa hay, 2 have been concluded, complete wooland pounds wheatgrass hay, one-third lamb production figures for 1950 will pound barley. not be available until later in the year. 3. High—I pound alfalfa hay, 1.5 to 2 On the basis of the wintering data pounds wheatgrass hay, two-thirds these conclusions are apparent concern pound barley. ing ewe gains: Results show that a high plane of nu 1. When long hay is fed, ewes receiv trition the first winter is more important ing a mixture of 1 pound of alfalfa and than a high plane the second winter. 2.5 pounds of wheatgrass hay make Feeding at medium or high levels the greater average gains than ewes fed 3.5 first winter followed by any of the three pounds of alfalfahay.When the haysare levels the second winter produces the chopped the above mentioned differ most satisfactory cumulative 2-year per ences do not occur, hut, on the average, formance. Maintaining the lambs on hay gains are greater than when long hay is alone the first winter, followed by feed fed. ing at medium or high levels the second 2. When comparing lots of ewes fed winter does not permit satisfactory de hay rations alone, both long and velopment and performance. chopped, with lots of ewes fed barley at Feeding ewes at the low plane both either of two levels in addition to the winters results in ewe gains the second hay, it is evident that the supplemental winter which are less than the weight of barley feeding produces greater ewe the lamb produced. The lambs average gains. lighter in weight at birth, than lambs 3. Preliminary data indicate that ewes from ewes maintained at higher levels. fed chopped hay produce more wool, At this level of feeding average fleece and lambs heavier at birth and at wean weight is not essentially different from ing than ewes fed long hay. However, that of ewes fed at higher levels. these differences are slight. A second group of ewe lambs has been 4. Including barley in the ration re carried through one winter. Production sults in slightly greater lamb weights records will he collected for this group and wool production. Feeding more as well as for older groups of ewes whiclj than one-third pound barley per head were used in this experiment. (Project daily does not appear to he profitable. 161. Leader: J. W. McCarty, Animal (Project 159. Leader: J. W. McCarty, Husbandry Department, Harry E. Animal Husbandry Department, Harry Weakly, Supt., Newell Substation.) E. Weakly, Supt., Newell Substation.) No Advantage in Feeding Thyro- Protein to Lactating Ewes Feeding Ewe Lambs During While the feeding of thyro-protein First Two Winters has at times caused increases in the Nutritional treatment of ewes during amount of milk and butterfat produced their first two winters is being studied to by dairy cows, tests with sheep at this determine how these treatments affect Station indicate that there is no advan the early development of the ewes as tage in supplementing the rations of lac well as their lifetime performance. Per tating ewes wtih thyro-protein. While thyro-protein was being fed, there was good, or better, gains as the ewes little difference in the rate of gains made receiving the simple soybean oil meal by the lambs nursing ewes receiving supplement, (2) supplements with thyro-protein as compared to the lambs three parts of alfalfa meal to one of soy nursing the control ewes. However, as bean oil meal produced gains greater soon as the thyro-protein feeding was than those obtained from supplements liiscontinued, the rate of gain made by with equal parts of alfalfa meal and soy the lambs in the thyro-protein lot was re bean oil meal, and (3) rations caused no duced materially. (Project 205. Leader: significant differences in fleece weights R. M. Jordan, Animal Husbantlry De or in weight, condition, vitality, and liv- partment.) ability of lambs at birth. (Project 200. Leader: R. M. Jordan, Animal Husband Factors Influencing Feedlot ry Department.) Fattening of Lambs Breedingof No-Tail SheepProgresses Six years of work have been completed in which various types of feed, forms of A considerableamount of progresshas feed (ground and unground), self feed been made in the breeding of No-Tail ing, frequency of feeding, number of sheep during the last 37 years at the Ex lambs per feedlot, and size of feedlots periment Station. From the data gath were compared in various combinations. ered during this period of time the fol The trials indicated that "corn was su lowing conclusions can be drawn: perior tobarley, and self-fed lambs made The No-Tail sheep are white-faced, more rapid gains than hand-fed lambs. have no wool on the face or on the legs However, frequency of feeding, number and are quite similar to Corriedales in of lambs per feedlot, and size of feedlot appearance, but the lambs usually are had little bearing on the average daily born without tails. Unlike the original rate ofgain, feed consumption, efficiency stock from which they descended, i.e. of feed utilization, or death loss of the from fat-rumped Siberian sheep, no ten lambs. The results are published in de dency to a fat rump isevident in any of tail in Bulletin 403, "Feeding Dakota the individuals in the flock. The No- Lambs." (Project 160. Leader: R. M. Tails are medium in size and shear about Jordan, Animal Husbandry Depart 7 to 10 pounds of three-eighths to quar ment, Harry E. Weakley, Supt., Newell ter-blood wool. Their prolificacy is only Substation.) fair, ranging from about 110 to 125 lambs born per hundred ewes lambing. Urea-Fortified Feeds Result in Gains Their milking ability is quite extraordi Many ranchers and livestock feeders nary and excels the breeds generally of South Dakota question the advisabil raised in the cornbelt area. ity of including urea-fortified protein The No-Tails compare favorably with supplements in their cattle and sheep the Cheviot in their ability to rustle their rations. In feeding tests with pregnant feed and in their general activity. The ewes on bromegrass hay, protein supple lambs are strong and healthy at birth, ments containing soybean oil meal and are born with little difficulty, and nurse alfalfa meal plus 5 and 10 percent levels in a shorter period after birth than is of urea were compared with soybean oil true of most breeds. Although the No- meal supplement. One-half pound of Tails are fine-boned and have small corn perewe was fed daily for the last 28 heads, their feedlot gainsare comparable days of the gestation period. with the general run of feeder lambs. The first year's work yielded the fol Cains of .3 to .45 of a pound per lamb lowing results: (1) Pregnant ewes re daily in the feedlot are not uncommon. ceiving urea-fortified feeds made as The exact mode of inheritance of the tailless characteristic has not heen deter sheep did, hut the sheep had higher di mined, but it does appear to be recessive. gestibility of ether extract and carbohy Consequently in a cross between No- drates. (Project 202. Leader: Paul Koh- Tails and normal long-tailed breeds the ler. Animal Husbandry Department.) lamb would be born with a normal tail. Lamb Feeding, Cobalt, Sec page 18 It would not be until further crosses were Lamb Feeding, Norghum, See page 40 made to the No-Tails or interbreeding of crossbreds was done that lambs with Lamb Feeding, Stilbestrol, See page 77 out tails would be produced. Norghum Sorghum and Feebar In the fall of 1949 some oi the No-Tail Barley Compared with Shelled ewes were transferred to the Antelope Yellow Corn for Fattening Pigs Range Station to be tested under range- conditions. Also some No-Tail rams In December, 1949, 40 weanling pigs were mated to range ewes at that station were selected from fall-farrowed litters for further tests of the usefulness of tbe and divided into four lots of 10 pigs breed under range conditions. (Project each. The first lot of pigs (Lot I) was 9. Leaders: J. W. Wilson and R. M. Jor fed shelled yellow corn. Lot II was fed dan, Animal Husbandry Department.) ground barley. Lot III was fed ground Norghum sorghum, and Lot IV received Sagebrush as a Feed for Sheep whole Norghum sorghum. All four lots and Antelope received the same protein and mineral Several million acres of western South supplemental mixtures. The grains, pro Dakota ranges have stands of sagebrush tein supplements, and mineral mixtures varying from light to heavy density. It is were self-fed, free choice in all lots, believed that sagebrush constitutes an (frains and protein supplements were important feed for antelope at all times. fed in outdoor concrete lots and the min Duringheavy snow in winter or drought eral feeders and self-waterers were in in summer, sheep and, to a lesser extent, doors. The Feebar barley and Norghum cattle consume this plant. A preliminary sorghum fed in Lots II and III were test was made to determine the palatabil- ground to a medium degree of fineness. ity, digestibility, and feeding value of Test weights on the grains were as fol this plant to sheep and antelope. The lows: corn, 53.5 pounds per bushel; bar South Dakota Department of Cfame, ley, 42 pounds per bushel; and sorghum, Fish, and Parks cooperated by supplying 54 pounds per bushel. the antelope, sagebrush, and prairie bay The data presented in the table on the required for the experiment. next page is a summary of this feeding It was found that sagebrush was more trial. palatable to antelope than any of the The greater feed requirement of the feeds normally used for livestock feed barley-fed pigs may be attributed partly ing. In fact they would not eat other to the fact that the barley had a test feeds, not even prairie bay.Sheepdid not weight of only 42 pounds per bushel. relish sagebrush, but consumed enough The pigs fed whole sorghum consumed during an experimental period of three the greatest amount of protein supple weeks to maintain their condition. ment (49.1 pounds) and the pigsfed the Chemical analysis of sagebrush cut in barley consumed the least (37.8 December and January showed a crude pounds). This low intakeof proteinsup protein content of 6.18 percent, which plement is true in most feeding trials compares favorably with fair quality where barley is compared with corn. prairie hay. In digestion trials it was The rate of gain per pig per day in the found that antelope digested dry matter sorghum-fed lots exceeded that in the and crude protein slightly better than corn- and harley-fed lots. Whole sor- Lot III Lot IV Lot 1 Lot II Ground Whole Shelled Feebar Norghum Norghum Items comp;ircd yellow corn barley sorghum sorghum

Niimhcr of 10 10 10 10 Average number days on fceil per pig .. 103.0 103.0 99.0 95.5 ... 55.2 53.4 55.8 56.1 .. 224.4 224.0 224.9 224.4 .. 169.2 170.6 169.1 168.3 ... 1.64 1.51 1.71 1.76 Feed consumed per pig: ... 5.81 6.10 6.11 6.25 Average daily protein supplement, Ihs.* ... .70 .57 .78 .86 y\verage daily mineral, Ibs.i .. .06 .04 .06 .05 ... 6.57 6.71 6.95 7.16 Feed consumed per cwt. of gain: ..354.3 1-eebar barley (ground), lbs. 403.9 NTorghum sorghum (ground), lbs 357.5 Norghum sorghum (whole), lbs 354.7 Protein supplement, lbs. 43.0 37.8 45.8 49.1 Mineral mixture, lbs. 3.7 2.9 3.7 2.7 Total lbs 401.0 444.6 407.0 406.5

*Fr().cin supplement consisted of two parts tankage, one part soyltean oil inea., and one part dehydrated alfalfa meal. One pound of vitamin A and I) oil (lOOOA—400D) was added to each 400 lbs. of the prctein supplement. tMineral mixture consi.sted of two parts steamed hone meal, two pans grtaind limestone, anti one part iodized salt. ghum produced the greatest average Wilson and H. Barnett, Animal Hus daily gain per pig (1.76 pounds). The bandry Department.) gains on ground sorghum (1.71 pounds) were nearly equal to those on the whole Improving Swine Production in .sorghum. The average daily gains per Irrigated Areas pig on corn and barley were .12 pounds This project is designed to improve and .25 pounds less, respectively, than swine production efficiency through the gains on the whole sorghum. breeding and feeding in irrigated areas. In this trial, it is apparent that the Due to insufficient rotation pasture, only grinding of Norghum sorghum did not breeding work has been carried on in increase its feeding value enough to pay recent years. for the cost of the grinding. Throughout The swine are an inbred line of the trial a noticeable amount of the Hampshires which show signs of excel whole sorghum kernels were observed lent production under good manage in the feces of the pigs fed whole sor ment. Cro.sses in commercial herds have ghum, but apparently this had little ef made very good performances. fect on either the rate of gain or the The results of the 1949 season show an economy of gain. average per sow of 10 pigs farrowed, 4.1 On the basis of this information, Nor pigs weaned, and 3.4 pigs raised to 154 ghum sorghum compares very favorably days of age. The average 56-day weight with corn for growing and fattening pigs was 24.6 pounds and the average 154- on the basis of feed efficiency and excels day weight was 136 pounds. The in corn slightly on daily gains produced breeding in the sows averaged 20.9 per per pig. Feebar barley, keeping in mind cent compared to 26.2 percent in the that this barley weighed 42 pounds per litters. Of the pigs farrowed, 77.9 per bushel and the standard weight of barley cent were eligible for registration. (Proj is 48 pounds per bushel, did not produce ect 132. Leader: Richard O. Smith, Ani as rapid gains or as efficient gains as did mal Husbandry Department, Harry E. the corn. (Project 85S. Leaders: R. F. Weakly, Supt., Newell Substation.) Comparing Spring, Summer, or Fall ing. An average of 1.3 pigs more per fe Farrowed Pigs for Greatest Profit male was farrowed in Lot 3 than in Lot 1; and the survival rate from farrowing The purpose of this project is to com to weaning in Lot 3 was 79.4 percent as pare the efficiency of raising pigs which compared to 53.6 percent in Lot 1. have been farrowed in spring, summer, or fall. Twelve gilts (their second litters In 1949 the returns per lot, with the were produced the following iall) and exception of Lot 1 ('49), dropped con twelve sows (their first litters had been siderably trom what they were in 1948. produced the previous fall) were bred to The greatest net returns were obtained farrow in late February and early March. in Lot 1 ( 49). The pigs in this lot were Another twelve gilts were bred to far farrowed by sows which had farrowed row in April, another twelve gilts were their first litters in August, 1948 (Lot 5). bred to farrow in June, and twelve gilts Feed costs per lot in 1949 were some were bred to farrow in the fall (their what lower than those in 1948. This was second litters were produced the follow caused partly by lower feed prices, but ing spring). Not all of the gilts and sows also in part by the proportion of weaned which were bred actually farrowed. pigs and pigs reaching market weight. Durocs are being used in this experi The average price received per hundred ment. weight per lot was considerably less for Presented in the table below are the some lots in 1949 than it was in 1948. data for the years 1948and 1949. The market pigs from the 1949 lots were sold on a gradually declining market, It will be noted that in 1948 the great $18.13 per hundredweight for Lot 1 est return per pig came from those pigs ( 49) to $15.23 per hundredweight for farrowed in June (Lot 3) under one-lit Lot 4 ('49). ter system, followed by those pigs far rowed in April (Lot 2). The lowest net Other costs such as labor, straw, hous return per pig was received from the lot ing, pasture, etc., were relatively the farrowed in March (Lot 1). The great same for 1948 as for 1949. difference in net returns per pig between Under the two-litter systems. Lots 1 Lots 1and 3 can in part be accounted for and 4, and Lots 5 and 1 ('49), there ap in the number farrowed per female in pears to be a slight advantage in favor of each lot and in the survival rate of the the system where gilts farrowed their pigsin each lot from farrowingto wean first litters in the spring and their second

Income,Cost,and Net Returns per Pig and per Hundredweight Pork

Lot number Month Total Total Total Total Total Total One-l'.tter and year Farrowed income cost net return income cost net return systems farrowed by per pig per pig per pig per cwt. per cwt. per cwt.

1 Mar. '48 (illts S58.87 $47.31 $11.56 $26.33 $21.15 $5.18 2 Apr. '48 Gilts 55.42 37.27 18.15 24.51 16.50 8.01 3 June '48 Gilts 48.92 29.71) 19.22 21.84 13.25 8.59 4 Sept. '48 Sows 48.46 31.06 17.40 21.97 14.09 7.88 5 Aug. '48 Gilts 49.76 34.66 15.10 22.54 15.69 6.85 1('49) Mar. '49 Sows 41.54 27.73 13.81 18.62 12.45 6.17 2 ('49) Mar.'49 (lilts 39.91 39.36 0.55 17.87 17.62 0.25 3('49) Apr.'49 Gilts 35.10 27.56 7.54 15.68 12.75 2.93 4649) June'49 Gilts 34.59 29.49 5.10 15.42 13.14 2.28 Two-litter systems 1 & 4 Spring and (lilts and Fall '48 Sows 52.72 36.43 16.29 23.78 16.43 7.35 5 & I Fall '48 Gilts and ('49) Spr. '49 Sows 45.55 29.99 15.56 20.52 13.52 7.00

119 litters in the fall. The poor survival rate sows. This study is being continued for of Lot 1 in the spring of 1949 has had several more years. (Project 168. Lead considerable influence on the over-all net ers: R. F. Wilson and T. Wright, Ani returns per pig for this two-littersystem. mal Husbandry Department.) It appears from these preliminary data that the principal factors which influ Breeding, Swine, See page 5 enced the net returns received perpigor per hundredweight were: the cost of Harvesting Prairie Hay, See jiage 88 feed, the number of pigs marketed of Heel Fly and CattleGrub Control,Seepage 43 those farrowed, and the income from the Meat, Deep Freeze or LockerPlant, Sec page 29

Dairy Production

Influence of Winter Housing Condi Milking Machine Sanitation tions on Growth Rates and Feed Investigations of methods of sanitiz Consumption of Dairy Heifers ing milking machines were continued. A This experiment was continued for the rinse technique was developed to deter third winter season. Sixteen heifers mine the number of bacteria which re were selected for this trial which began mained in the machine after these treat on November 1, 1949, and ended on ments, and it was possible to estimate the April 1, 1950. They were divided into relative amounts of bacterial contamina two groups so that the average ages and tion in different parts of the combine weights were as nearly alikeas possible. milker using this procedure. The surface One group was kept in an insulated barn cooler and the alternator-releaser jars, which had an average temperature of which permitted the milk to flow over 41° F. for the period; the other group the cooler, were found to be the sources was kept in an uninsulated barn having of greatest contamination. an average temperature of 27° F. During the past several years it has' Results of this trial were similar to been common practice to take the milk those secured during the two previous ing machine apart each day and wash seasons, (frowth rates as measured by each part with a brush in a suitable clean weight, chest circumference and height ing solution. A flush washing method at withers were more rapid for the heif was developed which made it possible ers housed in the warmer harii than for to eliminate the daily brushing of each those in the colder barn. The average part. Preliminary tests indicated that it differences in gains per animal for the was unnecessary to take the machine period were 61 pounds in weight, 4.4 apart more frequently than once a inches in chest circumference and 1.8 week. This system has been used during inches in height at withers. Records of the past ten months with satisfactory re feed consumption show that the heifers sults, its chief advantage being that it in the warmer barn ate 12.0 pounds of saves labor. It is probable that further hay daily ascompared to 17.2 pounds for research on methods of flush sanitiza- those in the cold barn. Each animal in tion will give additional improvement both groups was fed 20 pounds ofsilage and that brush washing will become less daily. No grain was fed during the trial. frequent. (Project 155. Leaders: D. F. (Project 153. Leader: Emery Bartle, Breazeale and G. E. Turner, Dairy Hus Dairy Husbandry Department.) bandry Department.) Manufacturing Cottage Cheese A New Possibility for Proving When this project was started a criti Dairy Cows cal milk shortage existed in many South There is an increasing need for more Dakota communities during the season rapid methods of proving the transmit from August to December. Due to this ting ability of our dairy sires and dairy shortage, products, such as cottage cows. Artificial insemination facilitates cheese, were not manufactured in suf the proving of a sire under many en ficient quantity to meet the demand for vironmental conditions. At the present them. When they were available only at time, however, there is no such means irregular intervals, the demand soon de for disseminating the germ plasm of the creased and potential sales were lost. If dam. cottage cheese of acceptable quality The possibility of increasing the could be manufactured from dry milk number of offspring per year per indi solids not fat, these markets might be vidual has been adequately demonstrat maintained during the season of low ed with laboratory animals. If a tech production. This project was designed nique for recovering fertilized ova and with the purpose of developing manu transplanting them into a host cow could facturing methods by which high qual be perfected and a means of increasing ity cottage cheese could be made out of the number of ova liberated per year milk reconstituted from dry milk solids stepped up, it seems that this should not fat and water. hasten the proving of good dairy cows. Pasteurized skim milk was used for A technique is being investigated for many batches of cottage cheese in an ef flushing the uterus to obtain fertilized fort to develop control methods which ova. To date a number of fertilized ova could be applied to the manufacture of have been recovered; however, as yet, the cheese from reconstituted skim milk. these techniques are in the experimental Some of the factors studied were (1) rate stage and are not ready for release as a of rennet coagulation of the milk, (2) means of improving dairy herds. strength of the curd, (3) efdects of added Fertilized ova recovered from one salts, such as calcium chloride and sod cow have been transferred to a host cow. ium citrate, (4) influence of the amount None of these implantations has resulted of acidity at the time of cutting and time in a full term pregnancy; however, fet of cooking, (5) relationship of titratable uses have been detected as late as the acidity and pH, and (6) variations in third month of pregnancy. Why these manufacturing procedure to determine pregnancies have terminated in this early optimum conditions. stage will require further investigation. The results to date indicate that: (1) (Project 189.Leader: A. E. Dracy, Dairy The control of acidity during the cook Husbandry Department.) ing process is very important. This seems to be more critical when reconstituted Improvement of Dairy Cattle skim milk is used than when fresh pas- Through Breeding turized skim milk is used. (2) A proper balance of salts is necessary for good This project was suspended during cheese. (3) Cottage cheese of acceptable the greater part of the past year. Per c]uality can be manufactured from re sonnel has been hired for next year to constituted skim milk with comparative collect data on the progeny of the sires ly little modification in manufacturing selected by three methods. (Project 184. Leader: P. L. Kelly (resigned Sept. methods. (Project 169. Leader: D. F. Breazeale, Dairy Husbandry Depart 1949) Dairy Husbandry Department.) ment.) Feeding, Dairy Calves, See page 12 Poultry Production Relative Values of Common Crop })lus corn and oats, or a 20 percent pro- Varietiesfor Poultry Rations tcin mash plus corn and oats ted free During the past year the work on this The average percent production project has been divided into three 2-percent for phases, which are as follows: a 9-month period. Utilizing as much 1.1 T-uthe efrect aof £feeding £ 1- 1large quanti- • whole^grain i .as possible • i is•therefore l of r , ^ • fo &M great advantage in reducing the cost of ties of oats to growing turkeys. i _• i • • i- 2. The effect£1-11of all-mash vs. mash and ^segglongproductionas the birdsby savinghave accessgrindingto a mashfees, grain mixtures fed to laying hens. containing the required supplementary 3. The effect of eliminating animal protein, minerals, and vitamins, proteins from the chick starter diet. Entirely eliminating animal proteins Briefly, the results show that: from the chick starter diet is not to be Oats, when relatively cheap, can be recommended. Even though all-vegeta- fed to growing turkeys up to 67.5 per ble diets are supplemented with com- cent of the total diet without reducing mercial Animal Protein Factor supple- the final weight ofthe birds at 28 weeks ment, growth is not as rapid as when of age. An all-mash diet was used, in animal proteins are also included in the contrast tomash-grain mixtures ofprevi- diet. Inaddition, it was again shown that ous years, but the results wereessentially when hens from which the chicks were the same. obtained were on a diet devoid of animal For New Hampshire pullets, a 15 protein, thechick's requirement for Ani- percent protein all-mash ration is nobet- mal Protein Factor is greatly increased, terthaneither a 26 percent protein mash (Project 52. Leaders: C. W. Carlson, Wm. Kohlmeyer, Poultry Department; liilM w"* '• i- A. L. Moxon, Station Chemistry Dept.) " "5 Effects of Inbreeding upon Economic ^ I Qualities ofChickens ^ ; Inbreeding work was continued on a ^H|H||||BH m fast-feathering strain of White Ply- mouth Rocks. Chick livability and

Livestock Diseases, Parasites and Poisoning

Sporadic Bovine Encephalitis chick embryos. Penicillin, streptomycin Diagnosed and aureomycin have been investigated and only aureomycin shows promise of Sporadic bovine encephalitis was diag being effective against the virus by pre nosed on five additional farms in South venting infection of chick embryos. One Dakota during the past year. This now yearling heifer was treated with aureo makes a total of nine farms where this mycin and showed general improve disease is known to have occurred since it ment within three days. (Project 171. was first recognized in this state in 1946. Leader: G. S. Harshfield, Veterinary Inasmuch as the symptoms may he con fusing, it is probable that additional Department.) cases have occurred but were not recog nized as resulting from a new disease. Sheep Parasite Control Both young and mature animals have For the second year, monthly counts been affected,but the greater number of of intestinal parasite eggs in fecal sam cases have been among cattle less than ples were made of the sheep and cattle one year old. There has been no recur maintained at the Antelope Range in renceof the disease at a later date on any Harding County. This procedure is farm, nor has there been any spread to being used to follow the course of worm neighboring farms during an outbreak. infestations during the year. In the outbreaks so far studied, the The sheep had abundant range and disease has occurred in the months from were not herded. As had been noted in October to May. To date, no clue can he earlier studies a heavier infestation of given as to the manner by which animals worm parasites in the ewes occurred in become infected. early spring (May). This was followed In the laboratory, the virus of sporadic by a marked drop and a continued low bovine encephalitis has been recovered level during the remainder of the sum from three of the outbreaks and the mer. The lambs of the flock also went strains are maintained by growing in through the summer without develop- A cablc-typc back rubber used in connection with an experiment at Reed's Ranch. This back rubber is constructed with burlap-wrapped strands of barbwire cable and moistened with DDT solution.

ing any significant infestation. The in analyses of residues on hair samples has festations in the cattle on the same range been accomplished, but a final, work have been consistently at a very low able method has not yet been established. level. Work has been started on an evalua Beginning with the grazing season tion of cable-type back rubbers as a tech- this year, the sheep and cattle have been nic]ue for horn fly control on range cat allotted to four fenced grazing areas on tle. Back-rubber units have been set up the range. This will provide for com for observation at Reed's Ranch in parisons of the worm levels in sheep Lyman County. Observations are being under overgrazing, undergrazing, nor made on various private herds that are mal grazing and rotational grazing con being exposed to this promising method ditions of management and also in sheep of treatment. Hair and fat from treated which are using the same range as cattle. and untreated animals have been sub (Project 139. Leaders: Ct. S. Harshfield, jected to chemical anaylsis for DDT res Veterinary Department; R. (). Smith, idues. Five different analytical methods Animal Husbandry Department, Mike have been explored and an apparently House, Supt., Antelope Range.) reliable method has been adopted. Pre liminary data indicate that DDT is de Insects, Mites,and Ticks Affecting posited, but in small amounts, in sub- Cattle, Sheep and Swine dermal shoulder and back fat of cows ex Attention has continued to be directed posed to back rubbers for an entire sea toward solution of the problem of ab son. Patch tests for dermal toxicity of normal loss of toxicity of DDT on live DDT solutions used on back rubbers stock during midsummer. Improvement have been performed. Application of of techniques for obtaining chemical DDT in mineral oil solution, at a rate exceeding the amount normally obtain continuously. The other two lots have able from a back rubber cable, has pro had plain salt. To date, there has been no duced skin lesions, but no similar lesions apparent detrimental effectof the arsenic have yet been seen under field con on reproduction or other animal physio ditions. logic processes. Fly control in barns has been investi In the laboratory, two more experi gated, using insecticides such as lindane, ments designed to determine the effect dieldrin and DDT. Fly populations be of dietary methionine supplementation fore and after spraying were evaluated on selenium toxicity in the rat were com by means of the modified Scudder grille. pleted during the year. The experiments, Especially good control of bouse flies four in all, have shown that this amino and stable flies was obtained with diel acid is ineffective in the protection drin. against selenium toxicity in the rat. Several thousand sheep infested with Another point of attack on the me keds (sheep ticks) have been sprayed chanism of selenium poisoning has been with toxaphene, sprayed and dipped in started by trying to identify the chemical lindane. Final data are not yet available. compounds excreted by selenized ani A cooperative investigation of chemi mals. It has been found that approxi cal control of swine mange has been pur mately 30 percent of the selenium of an sued with Dr. I. H. Roberts of the Zo injected sub-lethal dose of selenite was ological Division of the Bureau of Ani excreted by the lungs of the rat within 24 mal Industry, U.S.D.A. Tests of low hours. Isolation and characterization of concentrations of lindane and cblordane the selenium product(s) as well as the have been evaluated. Pre-spraying scrap effect of arsenic on this process are to be ings, and repeated post sprayings have investigated. It is hoped that some been made for each experiment conduct knowledge of selenium reactions within ed. (Project 186. Leader; Wm. M. Rog- the animal body might be gained from off. Entomology Department.) this work. Recent publicity concerning the Ani Methods of Alleviating Selenium mal Protein Factor (APF) has been of Poisoning in Farm Animals Studied much interest to the farmer. This mate During the past year, considerable ef rial was included as a supplement to fort has been made to complete some, various protein feeds to see what effect, and correlate all, of the various phases of it would have on animals receiving a the selenium toxicity study. Most of the toxic diet. Although the APF did help to data of the past three years have been increase the growth rates of the rats, it published and will be available to those did not prevent the liver damage caused who are interested in technical reports. by the selenium. The following summary covers the ex Another interesting phase of this perimental work of the past year. work is the protective effectthat is noted The use of arsenic, when fed with salt when linseed meal is fed to animals that to farm animals, still remains the only are eating selenized grain. It appears practical way to alleviate the effects of that the protective factor(s) of the meal selenium poisoning in farm animals. At is in the berry of the flax seed, and fur the Reed ranch, two lots of 5-year-old ther separation in an attempt at isolation cows and two lots of 2-year-old heifers of this factor is now underway. have been used to determine what effect Further work with enzymes still the continued use of arsenic might have places the succinoxidase system as the on animal reproduction. One lot of cows most selenium-sensitive enzyme studied and one lot of heifers have had salt con to date. In an effort to explore enzymic taining 37.5 parts per million of arsenic systems other than those involved in carbohydrate breakdown, experiments determined during the past year, using are now in progress with enzymes in the starch column technique of Stein and volved in protein metabolism. It is felt Moore, that not all of the amino acids that the enzyme experiments have fur increase in proportionate amounts. The nished the most promising guides in the main increase in amino acids of the roots problem of selenium toxicity and fur of corn plants is attributable to alanine, ther work will emphasize this part of glutamic acid, aspartic acid, arginine, the research. (Project 19. A. L. Moxon, and so-called "underglutamic" acid; in H. L. Klug and D. F. Petersen, Chemis the green tops of the corn plant arginine, try Department; R. Smith, Animal Hus alanine, glutamic acid, and valine in bandry Department, cooperating on crease at rates above or equal to the over work with cattle at the Reed Ranch in all increase in amino acid content. Lyman County.) A plot of flint corn was planted at the Central substation, Highmore, last year Corn Plants Analyzed to Discover and cattle were turned into the plot in Causes of Cornstalk Poisoning the fall. To evaluate the changes in the com No symptoms of cornstalk disease position of corn plants which are asso were observed in the cattle. Highmore is ciated with cornstalk poisoning of cat located in a general area in which cattle tle, it is necessary to obtain considerable losses from cornstalk disease occur al basic information on the chemical com most every year. Last year, however, no position of corn plants and also of certain losses were reported from that general changes in these chemical constituents area. A plot was planted in flint corn which occur in response to particular again this year. Samples of the corn will treatments. be taken for analysis and cattle will be The changes occurring in the water- turned into the plot this fall for observa soluble amino acids of young corn plants tion. (Project 130. Leaders: E. I. White- fed ammonium nitrogen in excess as head, A. L. Moxon and Frances L. compared with corn plants starved for Moyer, Station Chemistry; G. S. Harsh- nitrogen have been explored. This treat field, Veterinary; C. M. Nagel, Plant ment, in experiments conducted at this Pathology.) Station, has been previously reported to result in about a five-fold increase in Newcastle Disease, See page 66 water-soluble amino acid content of the fertilized set of corn plants. It has been Fowl Cholera, Sec page 54 Farm Engineering Farm Building Materials Evaluated Combines proved to handle all bean A farm building material and design crops satisfactorily. Cylinder speeds need project was set in motion during the past to be greatly reduced to prevent cracking year. Information on service and design of the large seed. Weed growth in the for future plans has been secured on a rows of low-growing bean plants proved number of buildings on the South Da to be more of a problem than the thresh kota State College farms and on a few ing procedures. other individually owned farms. Items Soybeans can be direct combined late under study on which information was in the fall, after frost, and prove to be secured include farm building roof cov much more suited to the existing ma erings, foundations, long span rafters, chinery and farming practices of South and wall coverings. Existing records and Dakota farmers. Only the very early, buildings are being investigated, re low-growing varieties showed a notice corded, and evaluated. able shattering loss at the cutter bar after special canvas reel flaps were installed. During the past fiscal year a survey has been made of farm building materi A field baler, with its complement of als on 30 farms in eastern South Dakota wagons and tractors, was observed in in cooperation with the North Central the 1945 harvest season. A special wagon Regional Project NC-4, "Selection and hitch was made to trail wagons back of Utilization of Materials for Farm Build the baler so that bales could be loaded ings." The survey collected field data on and hauled to the barn immediately. various phases of the project which were Man power required to keep such a ma also included in the regional study. chine group operating was as follows: Two specific findings on materials to Three men in the field with baler and loading, two men hauling, and two or date are: (1) A large percentage of gal three at the barn unloading and piling. vanized metal and aluminum roofing in Labor costs were fixed at $35 to $45 per use today has been improperly nailed. (2) Approximately 50 percentof asphalt day in 1945. Fuel costs were $9 per day roofing encountered in the survey for all tractors and baler motor. When other items of machine depreciation and showed improper application. (Project interest are added, total daily costs 203. Leader: Dennis L. Moe, Agricul amount to $66 per day, $1.40 per ton, or tural Engineering Department.) about $0,088 per bale. There is a great variation in bale size and density, how New Harvest and Threshing ever, depending on machine adjust Machinery for South Dakota ments. The above costs are for bales de Harvesting and threshing of a variety livered to tbe barn. Custom operators of bean crops was made necessary by the who bale only, and drop the bales in the need of planting beans as a war-time field have less than one-half of the labor emergency crop. Low-growing varieties, cost, a little more than one-half the ma such as navy beans, pinto, teppary, great chinery cost, and about one-half the total northern, etc. required vine cutting and daily cost. Operation speeds can be fast windrowing before the vines would dry er, as fewer stops are required. properly. Vine-cutting machinery was A field ensilage cutter and comple not available during war time, and there ment of hauling and elevating machines fore a cutter was made in the experiment were observed during the 1947 silo fill station shops. A combine with pick-up ing season. Average field travel with a was used to thresh the windrowed beans. heavy duty field ensilage cutter was 1^ mph; a wagon loaded with corn silage mercial), and titanium lead-oil (com averaged one in 14 minutes. (When the mercial). All of the paints were applied held is located long distances from the by hand brushing. silo, it is an advantage to use trucks for On a few galvanized posts, small pin higher road speeds.) Unloading time at head size blisters could be noticed after the silo where tractor and blower were a period of 12 years. After 25 years many used averaged 7 minutes, thus giving small blisters were found on all the gal more than adequate time for changing vanized posts. However, just a very wagons and cleaning around the blower. small number of the blisters were broken Two men, at least, were needed during showing a small rust spot within. This the unloading process, even though small blister rusting did not in any way dump-trucks, or wagons with unloading decrease the value of the post itself. mechanisms were used. There is real Some discoloration, but no rusting, of need for a wagon equipped with a uni the posts was present where an ungal- form unloading device which will re vanized woven wire fence was used. duce the number of men needed to do Some very decisive conclusions were the unloading. The held ensilage cutter drawn from the fence post study: has eliminated the very laborious pro 1. Common paint on new steel posts cedure of handling bundles from the may be expected to fade in three years, corn binder. (Project 136.Leader: H. H. definitely fail in five years, and be black DeLong, Agricultural Engineering De with rust after 12years. partment.) 2. Repainted steel posts with lead-oil paints may be expected to be badly Test Galvanized and Painted faded, dull, and blotchy in appearance Steel Fence Posts after 10 years. The purpose of this fence post study 3. Applying lead-oil paints by brush is was to determine from the standpoint of far superior to dipping the posts in paint. appearance and length of lifeof the post, 4. The four paints used could be rated if it would be better to purchase gal in the following order for durability and vanized steel fence posts rather than appearance: common painted steel posts. Metallic zinc- One thousand Banner, 6'A-foot, drah Commercial lead-oil gray steel posts of the studded "T" type Hand mixed lead-oil Commercial titanium lead-oil were set out at various places on the 5. Metallic zinc paint was the best South Dakota State College farms. All paint by a wide margin, being in good the posts were set 2 feet in the soil, 15 feet apart.Fivehundredofthe steel posts condition after 18 years. 6. Galvanized posts may be expected were galvanized at the factory. The ad ditional 500 were not galvanized hut to be very good in both appearance and were dipjoed in a common paint.A heavy serviceability after 25 years. woven wire fence, 48 inches high, was 7. In the North Central States, metal lic zinc painted posts will give as good uesd on all the posts. service as galvanized posts, and in addi In 1932, seven years after the posts tion may he purchased at a lower first were set, approximately one-half of the cost. (Project 15. Project Leader: Dennis paint was missing on the painted posts L. Moe, Agricultural Engineering De and considerable rusting was taking partment.) place. Therefore,400 of these posts were repainted in lots of 100 with four differ Farm Electrification, See page 80 ent types of paint, namely: metallic zinc, Septic Tanks, See page 7 lead-oil (hand mixed), lead-oil (com Sprinkler Irrigation, See page 98 Methods of Water Application on up[ier 4 feet, and moisture measure South Dakota Lands Tested ments were accomplished in the labora tory on these samples. In the development of practical meth 3. Water measurements were made on ods of water application on South Dako 40 rows. The water was measured on ta soils, the following accomplishments and off volumetrically while small were completed the first year: Parshall flumes and 90-degree notch 1. Nine small Parshall flumes were weirs were checked against volumetric constructed and used for measuring measurements. permeabilities on the "in place" soil 4. Apparent specific gravity measure samples. ments were made on 41 "in place" soil 2. Four irrigations were accomplished samples, taken with the Pomona soil on 24 plots (12.4 acres) throughout the sampling device. These samples were growing season for the barley and taken throughout the upper 4 feet at Hubam clover. All irrigation water was various locations on 24 plots. measured with Parshall flumes, and the 5. Thirty-five"in place" samples were over-all runoff was measured with a taken with the Pomona soil sampler Parshall flume equipped with a Friez throughout the upper 4 feet on 12.4 recorder. Time rates of movement of acres. Samples were taken to the labora irrigation waters were observed and soil tory and permeability measurements moisture measurements were made be were made. (Project Cooperative Lead fore and after each irrigation. Moisture er; Leonard J. Erie, Agricultural Engi samples were taken throughout the neering Department.)

Farm Economics and Community Welfare Improving the Crop-Share Lease available for general distribution. Work Insecure tenure, due largely to the one on this lease will be continued during year, or year-to-year lease, is a serious the next year and data from a field sur obstacle to good farm management and vey will be analyzed. (Project 147. Proj desirable family living.This is especially ect Leader: Russell L. Berry, Agricul true in those areas where a shift from tural Economics Department.) cash grain to grass and livestock farming is needed. Tenants are reluctant to seed Land Price Movements Studied legumes and grasses and make improve Land price movements constitute one ments on buildings and fences when of the important factorsin South Dakota they may haveto leave next year.Asa re agriculture. A thorough study is being sult, both the landlord and tenant suffer. made of all land transactions in seven Landlords appear to be reluctant to selected counties for the period 1941- make long-term leases, perhaps because 1950 inclusive. From this information they are afraid that the tenant will farm will come facts useful to buyers and sell in such a wayas to reduce the landlord's ers of farms over the state. A 10-year crop-share rent. If this is true (it needs summary bulletin is planned. further testing), then a lease which has A general summary of recent econom the advantages of a crop-share lease but ic trends has been published entitled, removes the "partnership" aspects of it "Graphic Views of Changes in South needs to be devised. Dakota Agriculture." (Project 157. Such a lease has been prepared, but Leader: Gabriel Lundy, Agricultural needs further work before it is made Economics Department.) Changes in Methods of Farming sugar beets, potatoes, beans and corn a Studied for Irrigation Areas definite place in crop rotations of areas Farmers living in areas proposed for suitable to their production, but a careful irrigation can eliminate the drought appraisal of market prospects and mar hazard that has plagued them since this ket facilities will be essential to sound state was first settled. But to pay for irri development. gation water may require drastic In this project data has been assem changes in methods of tanning. What bled concerning production and con crops and livestock will be best suited to sumption of the various crops which can pay the costs of dam construction, ditch be produced under irrigation. A survey ing, and water charges? Will weeds and of present marketing and processing fa insects pose new problems? What is the cilities has also been undertaken in order best method of making the payments? to obtain datafor use in determining the What share of the benefits of dam con need for added facilities under irriga struction and irrigation do farmers re tion. (Project 197. Project Leaders: O. ceive? How should costsof irrigation de Nervik and E. Feder, Agricultural Eco velopment be divided among those who nomics Department.) benefit? How can the land be most eco nomically developed and settled? What Marketing Slaughter Lambs by credit and tenure arrangements will Carcass Grade and Weight need to be made? These are a few of the Producers and others have gradually questions that are beingasked in a study realized that the class and grade terms just started this year. used to describe a particular slaughter It is hoped that these questions can be animal should be directly related to its answered in time to be of material bene carcass. A choice lamb should produce a fit to farmers in the areas proposed for choice carcass, and a good lamb a good irrigation. (Project 198. Leader: Russell carcass. Official United States standards L. Berry, Agricultural Economics De for slaughter livestock and carcasses are partment.) defined in subjective or descriptive terms rather than on the basis of objective tests Market Potentials of Crops Produced or measurements. in Irrigated Areas Appraised This study is concerned both with the Because of its size, prospective pro desirability and practicability of market duction from the Missouri Basin devel ing slaughter lambs by carcass grade opment might well disrupt the market and weight. More attention is given in for established production areas unless it the study to problems relating to the is planned in the light of its competitive practicability of the method. (Project and complementary relationships with 156. Project Leaders: O. Nervik, Agri other areas. For example, if the same cultural Economics Department, and percentage of sugar beets were grown Ellis A. Pierce, Animal Husbandry De under proposed irrigation as isgenerally partment.) utilized in existing irrigated areas of the Creat Plains states, the acreage of sugar Methods of Marketing Feeder Cattle beets produced in the continental United in South Dakota States would be increased by more than The production and marketing of 50 percent. Obviously, the prospective feeder cattle and lambs is one of the effects of such an increase in production more important agricultural enterprises should be appraised. The demand for in South Dakota. According to informa row crops in crop rotations in order to tion obtained in this study 53 percent of control weeds will give crops such as the farmers and ranchers consider either the production of feeder cattle, or the Reorganizing School Districts on a feeding of such livestock, to he their Community Basis major livestock enterprise. The major problem of public school The purpose of the study is to obtain education in South Dakota today is how basic information about the methods in to merge our separate town and country which feeder livestock is marketed in the administrative units into natural com state. It was found that transportation is munity school districts. In effect this one of the more important problems fac would eventually combine rural school ing South Dakota ranchers and farmers. districts in the surrounding trade and A number of case studies of livestock service areas with that of independent shipments show that losses through districts, located in the town center. shrinkage in transit are very high, caus It should he noted that the school dis ing considerable loss to shippers. (Proj trict is an administrative unit, but may ect 176. Project Leader: O. Nervik, Ag contain a number of rural schools or ricultural Economics Department.) town grade schools with at least one high school for the entire community. Maintaining and Expanding the The main purpose of re-organizing Market for Dairy Products school districts on a community basis is This research concerns itself at present to: with the efhciency of the price iormation 1. provide a more adequate tax base process and with the relationship be 2. improve the quality of education for tween prices, price formation, and mar all pupils in the community ket outlets for butter. The methods by 3. produce greater solidarity in com which the prices for butter are estab munity life for both town and country lished at local creameries, their adequacy people and possible improvements are being 4. increase the size of the school dis evaluated. trict and schools so as to have larger en An important aspect of the price anal rollments thus reducing cost per pupil ysis concerns the grades of butter to 5. provide transportation for country which the prices apply. Data have been children to the community center. obtained from creameries on grades and Under the present school law the legal quality of butter shipped in bulk. term for combining town and country Information on local creameries has in one district is called, "An Independ been obtained on their marketing and ent-consolidated School District." In the pricing practices, such as the relationship bulletin, we have preferred to change the between local butter sales and out-ship- name of the school district from "Inde ments, their pricing procedures, their ar pendent-Consolidated" to a "Communi rangements with buyers, their process ty District" as it implies a much greater ing equipment. Results of this research solidarity between town and country. may reveal possible ways and means for A joint committee of the Department South Dakota processors to improve of Rural Education, National Education their competitive position. (Project 201. Association, and a similar committee Leader: E. Feder, Agricultural Econom from the American Rural Sociological ics Department.) Society, have suggested the 14 points below describing what the characteristics Egg Marketing Losses, Sec page 85 should be of a successful consolidated Farm Income, Sec page 71 school district. The 14 points have been modified briefly to adapt them to South Wheat, Overproduction, See page 21 Dakota conditions. Adaptations are in Transferring the Farm, See page 95 dicated within the parentheses. Criteria for a Successful Community H. The transportation of pupils from School District outside the town should be both ade In South Dakota, the term, consolidat quate and economical. ed schools, is used interchangeably with 9. A consolidated school district may inde^^endent-consolidated schools. have more than one elementary attend 1. Such a school district should coin ance center, but at least one high school. cide quite closely with the composite (It may be desirable, especially in the trade and service area of a village, town, more sparsely settled areas of the state, or city in which a 4-year high school is to retain certain elementary rural located. (The minimum sized commu schools until roads are much improved.) nity town center should have at least 400 10. The school plant should be ade population and good prospects for quate and reasonably modern. It may growth.) also be desirable to accumulate a reserve 2. The reorganized school district building fund for future construction should have a reasonably complete ele until building costs are stabilized. mentary and high schoolcurriculum, in 11. The school plant should not be too cluding special provisions for adult dependent upon funds from outside the education. country where the school is located. 3. Each school should have a program 12. There should be good town-coun of well-balanced, extra-curricular activi try cooperation. Both town and country ties. groups should be represented on the 4. It should also have at least 25-30 pupils per grade, and preferably a mini school board. mum enrollment of 100 pupils in high 13. The school should also have a well school. balanced pupil-teacher ratio. 5. The school should be the center of 14. The school district should have an many community activities. adequate tax base for school operation. 6. The teachers should be well-trained (Project 64. Leader; W. F. Kumlien, and experienced. Rural Sociology Department.) 7. School attendance should be con sistently high at all age levels. Belle Fourche Irrigation Project, Sec page 36

Home Economics Serviceability of Fabrics Containing the effect of dry cleaning without wear. New and Reused Wool Another set of swatches was stored and In an effort to determine some of the has been sampled and measured along effectsof blending reused wool with new with the worn and dry cleaned fabrics. wool, flannels of various combinations Since cloth essentially is composed of were made into skirts and worn for fibers, measurements of the fibers them three periods of 1000 hours each. The selves are now being made. When all of third wear period has been completed the data is complete it should be possible and the garments cut into samples and to make comparisons between new and subjected to laboratory measurements. reused wool fiber, and also show the These skirts were dry cleaned 15times in changes in fabrics which occur as a re the course of three periods of wear. sult of wear, dry cleaning and storage. Swatches of the same materials were dry (Project 140. Leaders: Lillian O. Lund, cleaned an equal number of times and Home Economics Department, in co likewise tested in the laboratory to serve operation with Ethel L. Phelps, Minne as a basis for comparison in determining sota Agricultural Experiment station.) Measuring the Heat Transfer of lated, but a few observations stand out: Wool Materials (1) that many of the women, especially In temperate and cold climates, espe those in the 5th, 6th, and 7th decades of cially during the winter, wool clothing life, are more than 15 percent over serves to protect the individual against weight, (2) about 11 percent of the losses of heat from the body to the sur women were judged to be in poor health, rounding air. The rate at which heat 44 percent in fair health and another 44 passes through the fabric is a major fac percent in good health. tor in evaluating such clothing from the During the past year, 31 Brookings' standpoint of efficiency, comfort and sat women, ranging in age from 30 to 84 isfaction to the wearer. years of age, have cooperated in the study, which began in 1948,of the nutri Considerable work has been carried on by the South Dakota and Minnesota tional status and dietary needs of women stations using wool flannels and all wool in South Dakota. This makes a total of serge in serviceability studies. Plans are 60 Brookings' women who have been being set up to use samples of these same studied since the beginning of the proj fabrics to measure the heat transfer of ect. Each of these women weighed and recorded the amount of each food eaten wool materials. Fabrics which are new and those which have been subjected to during one week, and came to the nutri the conditions encountered during wear tion laboratory at the college for a series will be used to determine changes in of nutritional status measurements. heat transfer which may result from The nutritive value of the diets has wear and also from dry cleaning. (Proj been calculated and is being studied in ect 196.Leaders: Lillian O. Lund, Home relation to the health and nutritional Economics Department, in cooperation status of the women. A comparison with with Ethel L. Phelps, Minnesota Agri the recommended allowances of the Na cultural Experiment Station.) tional Research Council showed that there were many deficiencies. For exam ple, only a few of the women were get Food Habits of Women Over ting the recommended amount of cal 30Surveyed cium and only about half of the group Field work for a Food Habit and were getting the recommended amount Health History survey of women over 30 of ascorbic acid. In the case of ascorbic years of age in South Dakota was com acid, the blood levels were correspond pleted in early November 1949. A total ingly low. of 322 women, ranging in age from 30 All of the women were judged to be to 92 years, were interviewed. Of these, in good or fair health. 168 were farm women; 84 lived in towns Work on this phase of the project will of less than 2,500 population; and 70 continue during the coming year to se were women living in cities of over 2,500 cure observations on more women in the population. 8th and 9th decades and to restudy some A record of the food eaten during the of the women studied in 1948-49. (Proj 24 hours preceding the interview was ect 178. Leaders: Lida Burrill and Beth secured from each woman along with Alsup, Home Economics Department; her answers to questions concerning her Alvin Moxon, Chemistry Department; household, her activities and her health. in cooperation with other stations in the The nutritive values of these 1-day diet North Central Region and the Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home Eco recalls have been calculated and are being studied in relation to the health of nomics.) the women. The data is still being tabu Frozen Fruits and Vegetables, Sec page 32 Publications

Bulletins

Norghum Sorghum. Bulletin 397. By C. j. Franzke. Keeping Your Farm in the Family. Bulletin 398. By Max Myers. Rations for Wintering Breeding Ewes. Bulletin 399.By R. M. Jordan. Steel Fence Posts—Galvanized or Painted. Bulletin 400. By Dennis L. Moc. James Hulless Oats. Bulletin 401. By J. E. Cirafius and V. A. Dirks. Electric Light and Power Systems for the Farm, Bulletin 402. By H. H. DeLong. Feeding Dakota Lambs. Bulletin 403. By R. M. Jordan and Harry E. Weakly. Community School Districts in the Making. Bulletin 404. By W. F. Kumlien. Circulars

Graphic Viewsof Changes in S. Dak. Agriculture.Circular 78. By Gabriel Lundy. Corn Performance Tests—1949.Circular 79. By D. B.Shank. Head Lettuce Varieties and Cultural Practices. Circular 80. By S. A. McCrory. Grasses and Legumes for S. Dak. Circular 81. By M. W. Adams, J. G. Ross, W. W. Worzella and A. N. Hume. Sheep Production in S. Dak. Circular 82. By R. M. Jordan. Journal Articles by Staff Members Agronomy J-228 D. W. Lambert, W. W. Worzella, R. C. Kinch, and J. N. Cheadle. Devital- ization of Cereal and Weed Seeds of High Frequency. Journal of American Society of Agronomy, 1949. J-229 D. L. Thompson, J. E. Grafius. Cytological Observations of the Fi and Two Back-cross (lenerations of Triticum Vulgare x Agropyron Trichopborum. Journal of American Society of Agronomy, 1949. J-231 J. E. Grafius, E. R. Hehn. Factors Associated with Grasshopper Resistance in Four Spring Wheat Crosses.Journal of American Societyof Agronomy, 1949. J-238 L. M. Stabler, E. I. Whitehead. The Effect of 2,4-D on Potassium Nitrate Levels in Leaves of Sugar Beets.Journal of American Societyof Agronomy, 1950. J-240 L. M. Stabler, D. E. Kratochvil,J. R. Hay. SaferEstersof 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T, Crops and Soils, 1950. 135 Animal Husbandry J-232 R. M, Jordan, W. E. Di nusson. Effect of Stilbestrol on the Cirowth Rate of Suckling Lambs, journal oj Animal Science, 1950. J-233 L. E. Johnson, (b S. Harshfield, Wm. C. McCone, "Dwarfism," A Heredi tary Defect in Hereford Cattle, journal oj Heredity, 1950. J-235 R. M. Jordan. Effect of Stilbestrol on Fattening Lambs, journal oj Animal Science, 1950. J-237 C. 1. Iverson, L. E. Johnson, T. Wright. The Effect of Age ofGiltonSize of Her First Litter, journal oj Animal Science, 1950. J-244 R.M.Jordan. The Feeding Value of Norghum Sorghum when Fed to Lambs, journal oj Animal Science, 1950.

Chemistry J-230H. L. Klug, V. R. Potter, A. L. Moxon, D. F. Petersen. The In F/Vo Inhibi tion of Succinic Dehydrogenase by Selenium and its Release by Arsenic. Archives oj Biochemistry, 1950. J 234H. L. Klug, A. L. Moxon, G. P. Lampson. (jlutathione and Ascorbic Acid Values in Selenium Poisoning. S. Dal^. Academy oj Science, 1950. J-236 H. L. Klug, A. L. Moxon, D. F. Petersen. The Effect ofSelenium, Cystine, and Low Protein Diets on Tissue Glutathione and Ascorbic Acid Levels. S. Da\. Academy oj Science, 1950. J-239 H. L. Klug, G. P. Lampson, A. L. Moxon. The Distribution of Selenium and Arsenic in the Body Tissuesof Rats Fed Selenium,Arsenic, and Selen ium Plus Arsenic. S. Dal{. Academyof Science, 1950. J-241 R. D. Harshfield, H. L. Klug. The Effect of Selenium on Anaerobic Gly- colysis of Rat Liver Homogenate. 5. Dal{. Academy of Science, 1950. J-242 D. F. Petersen, Robert M.Pengra. The Effect of A.P.F. Supplementation of Some Protein Feeds on Selenium Toxicity in the Rat. S. Da\. Academy of Science, 1950. J-243 D. F. Petersen, H. L. Klug, R. D. Harshfield, A. L. Moxon. The Effect of Arsenic on Selenium Metabolism in Rats. S. Dak. Academy of Science 1950. Experiment Station Staff

Regents of Education Animal Husbandry Honokablk E. M. Mum ford Howard Leslie E. Johnson, Ph.D. Honorable Mrs. H. T. Dory . Watertown Animal Husbandman Honorable Frank Cundill Isabel Karl Rasmussen, Ph.D. Honorable E. Y. Berry McLaughlin Animal Husbandman Honorable Eric Heidepriem Custer J. W. Wilson, M.S., LL.D An. Husb., Emeritus Executive Turner Wright, B.S A.ssociate Honorable Mrs. H. T. Dory R. M. Jordan, M.S Assistant Regent Member J. Walters McCarty, M.S. Assistant Honorable Frank Cundill George E. Staples, M.S. Assistant Regent Member Ellis A. Pierce, M.S. Assistant Fred H. Leinbach, Ph.D. President Richard O. Smith, M.S Assistant A. M. Eberle, M.S. Dean of Agriculture Wm. C. McCone, M.S Assistant I. B. Johnson, M.Agr. Director R. F. Wilson, Ph.D. A.ssistant R. A. Larson Treasurer Wm. E. Dinusson, Ph.D. Nutritionist Elva O. Feuf.rhelm Secretary Chemistry A. L. Moxon, Ph.D Chemist Agricultural Economics H. L. Klug, Ph.D. Associate Biochemist Cabriel Lundy, M.S Agr. Economist E. 1. Whii ehead, M.S Assoc. Biochemist Max Myers, Ph.D. Associate George Gastler, M.S. Assistant Ottar Nervik, M.A. Assistant A. W. Halverson, Ph.D. A.ssoc. Biochemist Ernesi Feder, Ph.D. Assistant Frances L. Moyer, M.S. ... Asst. Biochemist Russell L. Berry, M.S. Assistant Donald F. Petersen, M.S Res. Associate Russell O. Olson, M.S Assistant Robert Wilcox, B.S Asst. Biochemist Maurice McLinn A.ssistant Dairy Agricultural Engineering Philip L. Kelly, Ph.D. Dairy Husbandman H. H. DeLonc, M.S Agr. Engineer Geo. E. Turner, Ph.D Associate John L. Wiersma, M.S. Assistant D. F. Breazeale, Ph.D Associate N. B. Anderson, B.S... Assistant Arthur E. Dracy, Ph.D A.ssistant Dennis L. Moe, M.S. Assistant E. H. Bartle, M.S. Assistant Leonard J. Erie, B.S. Agr. Engineer (SCS) R0.SC0E J. Baker, Ph.D. Assistant Entomology Agronomy H. C. Severin, M.A Entomologist W. W. WoRZELLA, Ph.D Agronomist Gerald B. Spawn, Ph.D. Associate A. N. Hume, Ph.D. Associate Wm. M. Rogoff, Ph.D... Associate Leo F. Puhr, Ph.D. Associate John A. Lofgren, M.S Assistant J. E. Grafius, Ph.D Associate Wayne L. Berndt, B.S Assistant D. B. Shank, Ph.D. Associate Home Economics C. J. Franzke, B.S. Assistant Alice Rosenberger, M.S. Home Economist M. W. Adams, Ph.D. Assistant Lida Burrill, Ph.D. Associate L. O. Fine, Ph.D. .. Assriciate (Coop.USDA) Lillian Lund, M.S Assistant P. L. Carson, M.S Assistant Elsie Beth Alsup, M.S. Assistant V. A. Dirks, M.S Assistant J. G. Ross, Ph.D. Assistant Horticulture F\ C. Westin, M.S. Assistant S. A. McCrory, M.A Horticulturist Burton L. Brace, Ph.D Assistant N. E. Hansen, S(d). Horticulturist, Emeritus A. J. Klincelhoets, M.S As.sistant Marcus A. Maxon, M.S. Assistant... (Jerhard B. Lee, M.S Assistant Solomon Cook, Ph.D. Assistant C. W. Moldenhauer, B.S Assistant Plant Pathology D. E. Keti erinc, B.S Assistant C. M. Nagel, Ph.D. Plant Pathologist Lyle a. Dersc;heid, B.S. Assistant L. T. Richardson, Ph.D. Associate Donald Kratochvil, B.S Assistant John T. Slykhuis, Ph.D Assistant Glenn Avery, B.S. Siril Survey Supervisor George Bruehl, Ph.D Associate (BPl) (SCS) Poultry Ralph Cline, B.S. Project Supervisor (SCS) Wm. Kohlmeyer, M.S L. M. Stahler, Ph.D. .... Associate (USDA) - -Poultry Husbandman E. J. Williamson, B..S. Lab. Soils Technical! D. G. Jones, Ph.D ... Associate (HR) C. W. Carlson, Ph.D Assistant Publications Substations Mrs. Marjorie R. King Station Editor Carl B. Larsen Superintendent Rural Sociology Range Field Station, Cottonwood W. F. Kumlii N, Ph.D. Rural Sociologist Albert Dittman Superintendent North-Centra! Substation, I'^ureka Veterinary Wade R. Pringle - Superintendent G. S. Harshmkld, D.V.M., M.S. Central Substation, Highmore -Veterinarian Harry E. Weakly Superintendent J. B. Taylor, D.V.M -AssistantAssistant U. S. Newell Field Station, Ncwell Mrs. J. W. McCarty, B.S. - Mike House Superintendent Veterinary Technician Antelope Range, Buffalo

RESIGNATIONS Date Agricultural Economics Russell O. Olson, Assistant Economist — - Oct. 24, 1949 Agricultural Engineering Niels P. Anderson, Assistant Agricultural Engineer Mar. 13, 1950 Animal Husbandry Wm. E. Dinusson, Nutritionist Aug. 1, 1949 Leslie E. Johnson, Head of Depaartment Sept. 1, 1949 Dairy P. L. Kelley, Head of Department Sept. 1, 1949 Geo. E. Turner, Assistant Dairyman Sept. 11, 1949 Station Chemistry Robert Wilcox, Biochemist - Sept. 10, 1949 Veterinary Mrs. j. W. McCarty, Lab. Technician - Apr. 18, 1950 Substation Gerald Keehn, Superintendent, Highmore. Oct. 1, 1949

APPOINTMENTS

Agricultural Economics Russell L. Berry, Assistant Economist Aug. 15, 1949 Max Myers, Associate Economist Sept. 26, 1949 Ernest Feder, Assistant Economist Sept. 20, 1949 Agricultural Engineering Dennis L. Moe, Assistant Agricultural Engineer Oct. 1, 1949 Agronomy Gerhard B. Lee, Soil Surveyor July 1, 1949 Ambrose J. Klingelhoets, Soil Surveyor July 1, 1949 Calvin W. Moldenhauer, Assistant Agronomist July 1, 1949 Dwayne I. Kettering, Assistant Agronomist July 1, 1949 Burton L. Brage, Assistant Agronomist June 1, 1950 Animal Husbandry Karl Rasmussen, Head of Department .. Oct. 12, 1949 Richard F. Wilson, Assistant Animal Husbandman Sept. 16, 1949 Dairy Roscoe j. Baker, Assistant Dairyman Jan. 1, 1950 Home Economics Elsie Beth Alsup, Assistant Nutritionist Sept. 15, 1949 Horticulture Solomon Cook, Assistant Horticulturist Apr. 25, 1950 Poultry C. W. Carlson, Assistant Poultry Husbandman Oct. 15, 1949 Station Chemistry Andrew W. Halverson, Associate Biochemist Sept. 15, 1949 Substation Wade R. Pringle, Superintendent, Highmore. Mar. 20, 1950 138 Financial Report—Agricultural Research Funds—July 1, 1949 to June 30, 1950

FEDERAL RESEARCH FUNDS STATE RESEARCH FUNDS

Bankhead Research Experiment Experiment Hatch Adams Purnell Jones and Marketing Station Substation

Appropriation $15,000.00 $15,000.00 $60,000.00 $27,733.01 $58,817.76 $181,161.00 Balance on Hand, 7/1/1949 8,704.48 $ 27,926.10 Sale Proceeds 93,869.92 Rentals 5,474.97 TOTAL $15,000.00 $15,000.00 $60,000.00 $27,733.01 $67,522.24 $181,161.00 $127,270.99

EXPENDITURES

Personal Services $ 6,543.16 $13,628.17 $42,738.15 $18,398.14 $31,638.56 $151,791.00 $ 13,708.06 Travel 650.75 328.55 2,683.62 729.77 4,157.14 1,630.74 2,988.05 Transportation 67.92 52.35 120.01 116.11 20.26 321.98 193.05 Communication Service . - 13.80 3.76 171.93 31.90 15.00 600.71 464.20 Rents and Utilitv Services 6.00 186.52 .75 513.02 752.58 Printing and Binding 2,912.83 3,905.12 481.10 839.06 2,606.67 1,987.16 Other Contractual Services 269.11 74.02 800.91 373.63 253.00 993.83 1,777.03 Supplies and Materials 3,006.24 913.15 6,836.13 5,323.70 5,961.62 14,747.99 61,160.50 Ecjuipment 1,530.19 2,557.61 2,277.91 8,662.60 7,955.06 13,662.34 TOTAL $15,000.00 $15,000.00 $60,000.00 $27,733.01 $51,547.24 $181,161.00 $ 96,692.97 Unexpentled balance, 6/30/1950 —. 15,975.00 30.578.02

GRAND TOTAL $15,000.00 $15,000.00 $60,000.00 $27,733.01 $67,52224 $181,161.00 $127270.99