DOCSLIB.ORG

Artificial Gravity Countermeasure Evidence Report

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Artificial Gravity Countermeasure Evidence Report Human Research Program Human Health Countermeasures Element Evidence Report Artificial Gravity Version 6.0 12 May 2015 National Aeronautics and Space Administration Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center Houston, Texas 77058 Artificial Gravity AUTHORS: Gilles Clément, PhD With contributions from: John B. Charles, PhD Peter Norsk, MD William H. Paloski, PhD 2 Artificial Gravity Table of Contents I. ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY FOR PROTECTION OF HUMAN HEALTH DURING LONG-DURATION SPACEFLIGHT ........................................................ 5 II. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .......................................................................................... 5 III. INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 6 A. Why Artificial Gravity? ............................................................................................... 6 B. Principle of Artificial Gravity ...................................................................................... 8 1. Definitions ................................................................................................................ 8 2. Gravity Level ........................................................................................................... 9 3. Gravity Gradient ....................................................................................................... 10 4. Coriolis Force ........................................................................................................... 11 5. Cross-Coupled Angular Acceleration ...................................................................... 12 IV. SPACEFLIGHT EVIDENCE ...................................................................................... 13 A. Summary of Existing Animal Flight Data ................................................................... 13 1. Artificial Gravity Animal Research prior to ISS Utilization ................................... 13 2. Science Plans for Rodent Research on board the ISS .............................................. 14 3. Benefits of Artificial Gravity Animal Research for Human Health Protection ....... 16 B. Summary of Existing Human Flight Data .................................................................... 17 1. Anecdotal Observations ........................................................................................... 17 a. Gemini ................................................................................................................. 17 b. Skylab ................................................................................................................. 18 c. Apollo ................................................................................................................. 18 d. Soyuz .................................................................................................................. 18 e. Shuttle ................................................................................................................. 19 f. International Space Station .................................................................................. 19 2. Vestibular Experiments using Centrifugation or Linear Acceleration in Orbit ....... 21 a. Motion Sickness .................................................................................................. 21 b. Threshold for Perception of Linear Acceleration ................................................ 22 c. Perception of Tilt during Linear Acceleration ..................................................... 23 3. Vestibular Experiments in Parabolic Flight ............................................................. 25 4. Loading in Space....................................................................................................... 26 a. Penguin Suit ........................................................................................................ 26 b. Subject Loading ................................................................................................... 27 c. Lower Body Negative Pressure ........................................................................... 27 V. GROUND-BASED EVIDENCE ................................................................................. 31 A. Animal Studies ............................................................................................................. 31 1. Hind Limb Suspension ............................................................................................. 31 2. Centrifugation .......................................................................................................... 33 B. Human Studies ............................................................................................................. 37 1. Long-Radius Centrifuges ......................................................................................... 37 2. Short-Radius Centrifuges – Continuous Exposure ................................................. 39 3 Artificial Gravity 3. Short-Radius Centrifuges – Intermittent Exposure .................................................. 42 a. Rationale .............................................................................................................. 42 b. Centrifugation during Bed Rest Studies .............................................................. 46 Orthostatic Tolerance Time ................................................................................ 46 Blood Volume ..................................................................................................... 47 Exercise Capacity ............................................................................................... 49 Muscle & Bone ................................................................................................... 50 Sensorimotor Performance ................................................................................. 51 Integrative Physiology ........................................................................................ 52 4. Human Powered Short-Radius Centrifuges ............................................................. 53 5. Partial Gravity Simulators ........................................................................................ 55 6. Models ...................................................................................................................... 56 VI. GAPS ............................................................................................................................ 59 A. Gravity Level ............................................................................................................... 59 B. Gravity Gradient ........................................................................................................... 60 C. Rotation Rate ................................................................................................................ 61 D. Exposure Duration & Frequency ................................................................................. 61 E. Centrifugation Combined with Exercise ...................................................................... 62 VII. CONCLUSIONS .......................................................................................................... 63 A. Physiological Requirements ......................................................................................... 63 B. Tests Needed to Close the Gaps ................................................................................... 63 C. Recommendations for Performing these Tests ............................................................ 65 VIII. REFERENCES.............................................................................................................. 66 IX. LIST OF ACRONYMS ................................................................................................ 81 4 Artificial Gravity I. ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY FOR PROTECTION OF HUMAN HEALTH DURING LONG-DURATION SPACEFLIGHT The most serious risks of long-duration flight involve radiation, behavioral stresses, and physiological deconditioning. Artificial gravity (AG), by substituting for the missing gravitational cues and loading in space, has the potential to mitigate the last of these risks by preventing the adaptive responses from occurring. The rotation of a Mars-bound spacecraft or an embarked human centrifuge offers significant promise as an effective, efficient multi-system countermeasure against the physiological deconditioning associated with prolonged weightlessness. Virtually all of the identified risks associated with bone loss, muscle weakening, cardiovascular deconditioning, and sensorimotor disturbances might be alleviated by the appropriate application of AG. However, experience with AG in space has been limited and a human-rated centrifuge is currently not available on board the ISS. A complete R&D program aimed at determining the requirements for gravity level, gravity gradient, rotation rate, frequency, and duration of AG exposure is warranted before making a decision for implementing AG in a human spacecraft. II. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY The urgency for exploration-class countermeasures is compounded by the limited availability of flight resources for performing the validation of a large number of system-specific countermeasure approaches. The notion of creating a substitute for gravity was introduced early in the conception of human space travel. The surest AG solution is clearly one that produces a gravitational environment close to that on Earth.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • EOOS Posters Abstracts
    Posters Submissions – EOOS Conference 21 23 November 2018 1. Sylvie Pouliquen Ifremer [email protected] Authors: "Gille Reverdin CNRS/INSU email: [email protected] , Pierre-Yves Le Traon Ifremer & Mercator-Ocean email: [email protected]) and the Coriolis 2014-2020 steering committee." Theme: From standalone to integrated ocean and coastal observing platforms Title: Coriolis: an integrated in-situ ocean observation infrastructure for operational oceanography and ocean/climate research "The Coriolis (www.coriolis.eu.org) structure gathers efforts of seven French institutes (CNES, CNRS, IFREMER, IPEV, IRD, Météo-France, SHOM, CEREMA) to organize the in-situ component of the French operational oceanography infrastructure. The objective is to organize the data acquisition and real- time/delayed mode data processing of in-situ measurements required for operational oceanography and ocean/climate research. Coriolis is focused on a limited number of physical and biogeochemical parameters that are acquired systematically and in real time or slightly delayed mode. Coriolis follows a fully open data policy. The framework of collaboration for Coriolis was renewed in 2014 and now covers the time period of 2014 up to 2020. By signing this new agreement, the eight directors of French institutes have clearly stated their willingness to sustain and consolidate further the Coriolis in-situ infrastructure. The new framework agreement strengthens the links between research and operational oceanography. The scope is also extended to integrate the main French contributions to the global and regional in-situ observing systems: Argo, gliders, research vessels, ship of opportunities, drifting buoys, marine mammals, tidal networks and high frequency coastal observatories.
    [Show full text]
  • Dod Space Technology Guide
    Foreword Space-based capabilities are integral to the U.S.’s national security operational doctrines and processes. Such capa- bilities as reliable, real-time high-bandwidth communica- tions can provide an invaluable combat advantage in terms of clarity of command intentions and flexibility in the face of operational changes. Satellite-generated knowledge of enemy dispositions and movements can be and has been exploited by U.S. and allied commanders to achieve deci- sive victories. Precision navigation and weather data from space permit optimal force disposition, maneuver, decision- making, and responsiveness. At the same time, space systems focused on strategic nuclear assets have enabled the National Command Authorities to act with confidence during times of crisis, secure in their understanding of the strategic force postures. Access to space and the advantages deriving from operat- ing in space are being affected by technological progress If our Armed Forces are to be throughout the world. As in other areas of technology, the faster, more lethal, and more precise in 2020 advantages our military derives from its uses of space are than they are today, we must continue to dynamic. Current space capabilities derive from prior invest in and develop new military capabilities. decades of technology development and application. Joint Vision 2020 Future capabilities will depend on space technology programs of today. Thus, continuing investment in space technologies is needed to maintain the “full spectrum dominance” called for by Joint Vision 2010 and 2020, and to protect freedom of access to space by all law-abiding nations. Trends in the availability and directions of technology clearly suggest that the U.S.
    [Show full text]
  • An Instrumented Centrifuge for Studying Mouse Locomotion and Behaviour Under Hypergravity Benjamin J
    © 2019. Published by The Company of Biologists Ltd | Biology Open (2019) 8, bio043018. doi:10.1242/bio.043018 METHODS AND TECHNIQUES An instrumented centrifuge for studying mouse locomotion and behaviour under hypergravity Benjamin J. H. Smith* and James R. Usherwood ABSTRACT (Alexander, 1984). Investigating the limitations of inverted Gravity may influence multiple aspects of legged locomotion, from the pendulum models of locomotion may lead to advances in robotics periods of limbs moving as pendulums to the muscle forces required and treatment of gait pathologies, as well as our fundamental to support the body. We present a system for exposing mice to understanding of legged locomotion. hypergravity using a centrifuge and studying their locomotion and The motion of an inverted pendulum can be described using u€ ¼ g u u€ activity during exposure. Centrifuge-induced hypergravity has the the equation L sin , where is angular acceleration, g is θ advantages that it both allows animals to move freely, and it affects gravitational acceleration, L is length, and is angular displacement both body and limbs. The centrifuge can impose two levels of from the equilibrium point; testing the predictions of inverted hypergravity concurrently, using two sets of arms of different lengths, pendulum-based models therefore requires the manipulation of either each carrying a mouse cage outfitted with a force and speed L or g. Differences in L are usually studied by comparing similar measuring exercise wheel and an infrared high-speed camera; both animals of different sizes (Gatesy and Biewener, 1991; Daley and triggered automatically when a mouse begins running on the wheel.
    [Show full text]
  • Guía De Instrumentos Y Métodos De Observación : Volumen IV
    Guía de Instrumentos y Métodos de Observación Volumen IV – Observaciones desde el espacio Edición de 2018 TIEMPO CLIMA AGUA OMM-N° 8 Guía de Instrumentos y Métodos de Observación Volumen IV – Observaciones desde el espacio Edición de 2018 OMM-N° 8 NOTA DE LA EDICIÓN METEOTERM, base terminológica de la OMM, está disponible en la página web: http://public. wmo.int/es/recursos/meteoterm. Conviene informar al lector de que cuando copie un hipervínculo seleccionándolo del texto podrán aparecer espacios adicionales inmediatamente después de http://, https://, ftp://, mailto:, y después de las barras (/), los guiones (-), los puntos (.) y las secuencias ininterrumpidas de caracteres (letras y números). Es necesario suprimir esos espacios de la dirección URL copiada. La dirección URL correcta aparece cuando se pone el cursor sobre el enlace o cuando se hace clic en el enlace y luego se copia en el navegador. OMM-N° 8 © Organización Meteorológica Mundial, 2018 La OMM se reserva el derecho de publicación en forma impresa, electrónica o de otro tipo y en cualquier idioma. Pueden reproducirse pasajes breves de las publicaciones de la OMM sin autorización siempre que se indique claramente la fuente completa. La correspondencia editorial, así como todas las solicitudes para publicar, reproducir o traducir la presente publicación parcial o totalmente deberán dirigirse al: Presidente de la Junta de Publicaciones Organización Meteorológica Mundial (OMM) 7 bis, avenue de la Paix Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 84 03 Case postale No 2300 Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 81 17 CH-1211 Genève 2, Suiza Correo electrónico: [email protected] ISBN 978-92-63-30008-9 NOTA Las denominaciones empleadas en las publicaciones de la OMM y la forma en que aparecen presentados los datos que contienen no entrañan, de parte de la Organización, juicio alguno sobre la condición jurídica de ninguno de los países, territorios, ciudades o zonas citados o de sus autoridades, ni respecto de la delimitación de sus fronteras o límites.
    [Show full text]
  • PHYSICS of ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY Angie Bukley1, William Paloski,2 and Gilles Clément1,3
    Chapter 2 PHYSICS OF ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY Angie Bukley1, William Paloski,2 and Gilles Clément1,3 1 Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, USA 2 NASA Johnson Space Center, Houston, Texas, USA 3 Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Toulouse, France This chapter discusses potential technologies for achieving artificial gravity in a space vehicle. We begin with a series of definitions and a general description of the rotational dynamics behind the forces ultimately exerted on the human body during centrifugation, such as gravity level, gravity gradient, and Coriolis force. Human factors considerations and comfort limits associated with a rotating environment are then discussed. Finally, engineering options for designing space vehicles with artificial gravity are presented. Figure 2-01. Artist's concept of one of NASA early (1962) concepts for a manned space station with artificial gravity: a self- inflating 22-m-diameter rotating hexagon. Photo courtesy of NASA. 1 ARTIFICIAL GRAVITY: WHAT IS IT? 1.1 Definition Artificial gravity is defined in this book as the simulation of gravitational forces aboard a space vehicle in free fall (in orbit) or in transit to another planet. Throughout this book, the term artificial gravity is reserved for a spinning spacecraft or a centrifuge within the spacecraft such that a gravity-like force results. One should understand that artificial gravity is not gravity at all. Rather, it is an inertial force that is indistinguishable from normal gravity experience on Earth in terms of its action on any mass. A centrifugal force proportional to the mass that is being accelerated centripetally in a rotating device is experienced rather than a gravitational pull.
    [Show full text]
  • Research Priorities for NASA Mission Directorates and Centers
    Appendix H - Research Priorities for NASA Mission Directorates and Centers Note: This information is current as of 6/28/2019. H.1 Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate Research Aeronautics Research Missions Directorate (ARMD) conducts high-quality, cutting-edge research that generates innovative concepts, tools, and technologies to enable revolutionary advances in our Nation’s future aircraft, as well as in the airspace in which they will fly. ARMD programs will facilitate a safer, more environmentally friendly, and more efficient national air transportation system. Using a Strategic Implementation Plan, NASA ARMD sets forth the vision for aeronautical research aimed at the next 25 years and beyond. It encompasses a broad range of technologies to meet future needs of the aviation community, the nation, and the world for safe, efficient, flexible, and environmentally sustainable air transportation. Additional information on ARMD can be found at: http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov. Areas of Interest Researchers responding to solicitations that address the needs and/or priorities of the ARMD shall propose research that is aligned with one or more of the ARMD programs. Proposers are directed to the following: ñ ARMD Programs: http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/programs.htm ñ The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Headquarters, Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate (ARMD) Current Year version of the NASA Research Announcement (NRA) entitled, "Research Opportunities in Aeronautics (ROA)” has been posted on the NSPIRES web site at http://nspires.nasaprs.com (select “Solicitations” and then “Open Solicitations”). Detailed requirements, including proposal due dates are stated in appendices that address individual thrust areas. These appendices will be posted as amendments to the ROA NRA and will be published as requirements materialize throughout the year.
    [Show full text]
  • The Space-Based Global Observing System in 2010 (GOS-2010)
    WMO Space Programme SP-7 The Space-based Global Observing For more information, please contact: System in 2010 (GOS-2010) World Meteorological Organization 7 bis, avenue de la Paix – P.O. Box 2300 – CH 1211 Geneva 2 – Switzerland www.wmo.int WMO Space Programme Office Tel.: +41 (0) 22 730 85 19 – Fax: +41 (0) 22 730 84 74 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.wmo.int/pages/prog/sat/ WMO-TD No. 1513 WMO Space Programme SP-7 The Space-based Global Observing System in 2010 (GOS-2010) WMO/TD-No. 1513 2010 © World Meteorological Organization, 2010 The right of publication in print, electronic and any other form and in any language is reserved by WMO. Short extracts from WMO publications may be reproduced without authorization, provided that the complete source is clearly indicated. Editorial correspondence and requests to publish, reproduce or translate these publication in part or in whole should be addressed to: Chairperson, Publications Board World Meteorological Organization (WMO) 7 bis, avenue de la Paix Tel.: +41 (0)22 730 84 03 P.O. Box No. 2300 Fax: +41 (0)22 730 80 40 CH-1211 Geneva 2, Switzerland E-mail: [email protected] FOREWORD The launching of the world's first artificial satellite on 4 October 1957 ushered a new era of unprecedented scientific and technological achievements. And it was indeed a fortunate coincidence that the ninth session of the WMO Executive Committee – known today as the WMO Executive Council (EC) – was in progress precisely at this moment, for the EC members were very quick to realize that satellite technology held the promise to expand the volume of meteorological data and to fill the notable gaps where land-based observations were not readily available.
    [Show full text]
  • Quarterly Newsletter
    National Space Biomedical Research Institute Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetuer adipiscing elit. Nulla lectus mi, sodales ac, consectetuer sed, luctus sit amet, risus. Mauris tempusSociety quam sit amet mi. Mauris of sagittis Fellows augue nec augue. Fusce ipsum. Quarterly Newsletter Information for First Award Fellows Winter 2015 Cool Research Corner Measuring Intracranial Pressure aboard the Weightless Wonder VI Justin Lawley, Ph.D. 2013 NSBRI First Award Fellow In August of 2014, NSBRI investigators took to the sky in order to help identify the reason for visual impairments in astronauts. The current working hypothesis is that microgravity causes pressure inside the brain to increase, which causes deformation of the optic globe and thus changes in vision. To answer this question, Dr. Benjamin Levine of the Institute for Exercise and Environmental Medicine at UTSouthwestern Medical Center and his First Award Fellow, Dr. Justin Lawley, performed experiments onboard NASA’s C-9 aircraft (Weightless Wonder VI). Continued on Page 4 Thoughts from the Top: Interview with Dr. Jeffrey Sutton ……………… 2 2014 Summer Bioastronautics Institute Recap …………………………… 5 In This Issue: Fellow Spotlights: Allison Anderson and Julia Raykin ………………….. 7 Space Fun: Orion EFT-1 Quiz ……………………………………………. 10 Thoughts from the Top Interview of Dr. Jeffrey Sutton by 2013 NSBRI First Award Fellow Torin Clark, Ph.D. QN: Students and postdocs always wonder what the CEO does. Describe your “average day” at work. Dr. Sutton: The CEO is responsible for leading the development and execution of NSBRI’s strategy, in accord with our NASA cooperative agreement and to the benefit of all stakeholders. As CEO, I have daily management decisions, oversee the implementation of our plans, and am authorized to move funds, including those from the lead consortium institution (Baylor College of Medicine) to >60 recipient institutions in support of our science, technology, career development, and outreach programs.
    [Show full text]
  • Continuous-Flow Centrifugation to Collect Suspended Sediment for Chemical Analysis
    1 Table 6. Compounds detected in both equipment blank samples and not in corresponding source blank samples or at concentrations greater than two times the corresponding source blank sample concentration. Prepared in cooperation with the National Water Quality Monitoring Council and [Source data: Appendix A, table A1; Conn and Black (2014, table A4); and Conn and others (2015, table A11). CAS Registry Number: Chemical Abstracts Service Washington State Department of(CAS) Ecology Registry Number® (RN) is a registered trademark of the American Chemical Society. CAS recommends the verifi cation of CASRNs through CAS Client ServicesSM. Method: EPA, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s SW 846; SIM, select ion monitoring. Unit: µg/kg, microgram per kilogram; ng/kg, nanogram per kilogram. Sample type: River samples were from the Puyallup River, Washington. Q, qualifi er (blank cells indicate an unqualifi ed detection). J, estimated, result between the Continuous-Flow Centrifugationdetection level and reporting level; toNJ, result Collect did not meet all quantitation Suspended criteria (an estimated maxiumum possible concentration is reported in Result column) U, not detected above the reporting level (reported in the Result column); UJ, not detected above the detection level (reported in the Result column). Abbreviations: na, not Sediment for Chemicalapplicable; Analysis PCBs, polychlorinated biphenyls] Sample type Chapter 6 of CAS River River Commercial Commercial Section D, Water Quality Parameter name Registry Method Unit source equipment
    [Show full text]
  • Gas Centrifuge Technology: Proliferation Concerns and International Safeguards Brian D
    Gas Centrifuge Technology: Proliferation Concerns and International Safeguards Brian D. Boyer Los Alamos National Laboratory Trinity Section American Nuclear Society Santa Fe, NM November 7, 2014 Acknowledgment to M. Rosenthal (BNL), J.M. Whitaker (ORNL), H. Wood (UVA), O. Heinonen (Harvard Belfer School), B. Bush (IAEA-Ret.), C. Bathke (LANL) for sources of ideas, information, and knowledge UNCLASSIFIED Operated by Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the U.S. Department of Energy's NNSA Enrichment / Proliferation / Safeguards . Enrichment technology – The centrifuge story . Proliferation of technology – Global Networks . IAEA Safeguards – The NPT Bargain Enrichment Proliferation Safeguards U.S. DOE Centrifuges – DOE / Pres. George W. Bush at ORNL B. Boyer and K. Akilimali - IAEA Zippe Centrifuge – Deutsches Museum (Munich) briefed on seized Libyan nuclear Safeguards Verifying Spent Fuel in www.deutsches-museum.de/en/exhibitions/energy/energy-technology/nuclear-energy/ equipment (ORNL) Training in Sweden (Ski-1999) UNCLASSIFIED 2 Operated by Los Alamos National Security, LLC for the U.S. Department of Energy's NNSA The Nuclear Fuel Cycle and Proliferation Paths to WMDs IAEA Safeguards On URANIUM Path Weapon Assembly Convert UF6 to U Metal Pre-Safeguards Natural Enriched DIVERSION Material (INFCIRC/153) Uranium Uranium PATH “Open” Cycle WEAPONS PATHS Fuel – Natural Uranium or LEU In closed cycle – MOX Fuel (U and Pu) “Closed” Cycle IAEA Safeguards On PLUTONIUM Path Convert Pu Plutonium Compounds to Pu Metal DIVERSION PATH To Repository
    [Show full text]
  • Basics in Centrifugation - Eppendorf Handling Solutions Page 1 of 5
    Basics in Centrifugation - Eppendorf Handling Solutions Page 1 of 5 Menu • Home • Sample Handling • Centrifugation • Safe Use of Centrifuges • Basics in Centrifugation Basics in Centrifugation • Biosafety • Safe Use of Centrifuges • Centrifugation Applications • This and That • Braking Ramps • Thermal Conductivity • Centrifuge Maintenance • Ergonomics • share • tweet • share • mail Basics in Centrifugation Centrifugation is a technique that helps to separate mixtures by applying centrifugal force. A centrifuge is a device, generally driven by an electric motor, that puts an object, e.g., a rotor, in a rotational movement around a fixed axis. A centrifuge works by using the principle of sedimentation: Under the influence of gravitational force (g-force), substances separate according to their density. Different types of separation are known, including isopycnic, ultrafiltration, density gradient, phase separation, and pelleting. https://handling-solutions.eppendorf.com/sample-handling/centrifugation/safe-use-of-cent... 10/24/2018 Basics in Centrifugation - Eppendorf Handling Solutions Page 2 of 5 Pelleting is the most common application for centrifuges. Here, particles are concentrated as a pellet at the bottom of the centrifuge tube and separated from the remaining solution, called supernatant. During phase separation, chemicals are converted from a matrix or an aqueous medium to a solvent (for additional chemical or molecular biological analysis). In ultrafiltration, macromolecules are purified, separated, and concentrated by using a membrane. Isopycnic centrifugation is carried out using a "self- generating" density gradient established through equilibrium sedimentation. This method concentrates the analysis matches with those of the surrounding solution. Protocols for centrifugation typically specify the relative centrifugal force (rcf) and the degree of acceleration in multiples of g (g-force).
    [Show full text]
  • Human Adaptation to Space
    Human Adaptation to Space From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Human physiological adaptation to the conditions of space is a challenge faced in the development of human spaceflight. The fundamental engineering problems of escaping Earth's gravity well and developing systems for in space propulsion have been examined for well over a century, and millions of man-hours of research have been spent on them. In recent years there has been an increase in research into the issue of how humans can actually stay in space and will actually survive and work in space for long periods of time. This question requires input from the whole gamut of physical and biological sciences and has now become the greatest challenge, other than funding, to human space exploration. A fundamental step in overcoming this challenge is trying to understand the effects and the impact long space travel has on the human body. Contents [hide] 1 Importance 2 Public perception 3 Effects on humans o 3.1 Unprotected effects 4 Protected effects o 4.1 Gravity receptors o 4.2 Fluids o 4.3 Weight bearing structures o 4.4 Effects of radiation o 4.5 Sense of taste o 4.6 Other physical effects 5 Psychological effects 6 Future prospects 7 See also 8 References 9 Sources Importance Space colonization efforts must take into account the effects of space on the body The sum of mankind's experience has resulted in the accumulation of 58 solar years in space and a much better understanding of how the human body adapts. However, in the future, industrialization of space and exploration of inner and outer planets will require humans to endure longer and longer periods in space.
    [Show full text]