A New Polarimeter to Study the Curl Component of the Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization

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A New Polarimeter to Study the Curl Component of the Cosmic Microwave Background Polarization UNIVERSITA` DEGLI STUDI DI ROMA \LA SAPIENZA" Facolt`adi Scienze Matematiche Fisiche e Naturali A new polarimeter to study the curl component of the Cosmic Microwave Background polarization Tesi di Laurea Specialistica in Astronomia ed Astro¯sica Anno Accademico 2005/2006 Author Supervisor Lorenzo Moncelsi Prof. Paolo de Bernardis Register: 1071681 Co-supervisor Dott. Federico Nati Contents Introduzione 6 Introduction 10 1 The Hot Big Bang Model and the Inflation add-on 11 1.1 Introduction . 11 1.2 The Standard Cosmological Model . 11 1.3 The Unsolved Problems . 17 1.3.1 The flatness problem . 17 1.3.2 The horizons problem . 18 1.3.3 The absence of magnetic monopoles . 19 1.4 The Solution: Inflation . 20 1.5 The Physics of Inflation . 22 1.5.1 Scalar Fields . 22 1.5.2 Slow-Roll Approximation . 25 1.5.3 Exact Solutions . 26 1.5.4 Hamilton-Jacobi Formulation . 28 1.5.5 Reheating . 29 1.5.6 Scalar Fluctuations . 30 1.5.7 Tensor Fluctuations . 34 2 The Cosmic Microwave Background 37 2.1 Introduction . 37 2.2 Earth's Absolute Motion: The Dipole Anisotropy . 39 2.3 The Last Scattering Surface . 42 2.4 The Temperature Power Spectrum . 44 2.4.1 Physical E®ects at Recombination . 44 2.4.2 Statistical Treatment . 47 2.4.3 The Shape of the Spectrum . 49 2.5 Polarization . 54 2.5.1 Thomson Scattering at Recombination . 54 2.5.2 Statistical Treatment . 56 2.5.3 Quadrupole Anisotropy From Scalar Perturbations . 65 I 2.5.4 Quadrupole Anisotropy From Tensor Perturbations . 70 2.6 B-modes angular scale . 73 2.7 CMB Observables . 74 3 Description of the Experimental Apparatus 77 3.1 Introduction . 77 3.2 Gunn Oscillator . 77 3.2.1 Gunn E®ect . 78 3.2.2 The Resonant Cavity . 82 3.3 Gaussian Optics and Beams of Radiation . 84 3.3.1 Fundamental Gaussian Beam Mode . 84 3.3.2 Higher Order Gaussian Beam Mode Solutions . 88 3.4 Waveguides ............................. 89 3.5 Feed Horns . 93 3.6 Detectors . 100 3.7 Ampli¯ers . 102 3.8 Modulation Electronics . 108 3.9 Reference Signal . 109 3.10 HDPE Lenses . 112 3.11 Data Acquisition . 114 4 Modulating the Polarization: An Innovative Approach 116 4.1 Introduction . 116 4.2 Wire-Grid Polarizers: Electromagnetic Approach . 116 4.2.1 Single Wire . 117 4.2.2 Wire-Grid . 122 4.2.3 The Reflecting Polarizer . 125 4.2.4 Grids and Beams of Radiation . 128 4.3 The New Polarizer . 129 4.3.1 Mueller Matrix Characterization . 134 4.3.2 Signal Extraction From Simulated Maps of the Polarized CMB Sky . 139 4.3.3 E®ect of Point Sources on CMB Polarization Measurements142 4.4 A New Modulation Technique For Polarization: The Reflecting Polarizer............................... 144 4.4.1 Plane Mirror and Fine Tuned Supporting System . 147 4.4.2 The Rotating Support . 150 4.4.3 Mueller Matrices Characterization: Expected Behaviour 150 4.4.4 Measurement Strategy . 154 4.4.5 Reflecting Polarizer: Results . 155 II 5 The Telescope 161 5.1 Introduction . 161 5.2 Description of the OLIMPO Experiment . 162 5.2.1 Small Scale Temperature Anisotropy of the CMB . 163 5.2.2 S-Z E®ect in Cluster of Galaxies . 164 5.2.3 FIR Background . 165 5.2.4 The Payload . 166 5.3 Angular Response Measurements . 169 5.3.1 Point Spread Function for a Cassegrain System . 169 5.3.2 Ground Attitude Control System . 170 5.3.3 Measurement Strategy . 171 5.3.4 Focal Plane and Beam Coupling to the Telescope . 172 5.3.5 Angular Response: Results . 174 5.4 Optics Box . 181 5.4.1 Optics Box Alignment: Laser Measurements . 182 5.4.2 Optics Box Alignment: Focal Plane Mapping at 140 GHz 183 Conclusioni 187 Conclusions 188 A Stokes Parameters and Mueller Matrices 189 B Spin-weighted Functions 199 C Gunn Oscillators 201 D Waveguides and Flanges 205 E Antennas and Beams 209 F Feed Horns 213 List Of Figures 222 List Of Tables 224 Bibliography 224 1 Introduzione Negli ultimi due decenni la cosmologia ¯sica ha subito uno sviluppo esponen- ziale, in particolare da un punto di vista osservativo e sperimentale. Il sub- strato teorico era stato gi`adelineato negli anni 60 e 70, costruito sulle solide fondamenta della relativit`agenerale. Gli ingredienti principali di quello che oggi viene comunemente indicato come Modello Cosmologico Standard del Big Bang caldo, erano gi`astati de¯niti a quell'epoca. Tuttavia questa prima for- mulazione presentava dei problemi concettuali irrisolti, che come vedremo non potevano essere ignorati. La soluzione per superare queste di±colt`aconcettuali fu proposta per primo dal ¯sico e cosmologo americano Alan Guth nel 1981 [1] e indipendentemente da Andrei Linde nel 1982 [2]: un breve periodo di espan- sione esponenziale dell'universo durante i suoi primi istanti, detto Inflation, `e in grado di risolvere i problemi del modello cosmologico, senza modi¯carne gli aspetti pi`uriusciti e di successo. L'Inflation `eperci`oun'aggiunta molto potente al modello cosmologico, che permette di tracciare una struttura teorica auto- consistente: il capitolo 1 `einteramente dedicato alla descrizione del Modello Cosmologico Standard del Big Bang caldo e della ¯sica dell'Inflation. A±nch¶el'Inflation possa essere considerata una teoria valida, `echiaro che essa deve fornire delle predizioni osservabili. Negli ultimi due decenni molti sforzi sono stati indirizzati da ¯sici e cosmologi sperimentali alla ricerca di evidenze indirette che riconducessero ad un periodo primordiale di espansione esponen- ziale dell'universo, raggiungendo un livello di accuratezza nelle misure tale da poter de¯nire la cosmologia \di precisione". Un'evidenza sperimentale impor- tantissima `edata da misure molto stringenti delle piccole anisotropie di temper- atura della radiazione cosmica di fondo (CMB), che `eun fondo quasi perfetta- mente isotropo di radiazione di bassa energia che riempie in maniera omogenea il cosmo, residuo ormai freddo delle epoche primordiali dell'universo. Ad esem- pio l'esperimento BOOMERanG [10] ha fornito mappe ad alta risoluzione di una porzione di cielo, che evidenziano inequivocabilmente la natura puramente Euclidea della geometria del nostro universo, generica predizione di tutti i mod- elli inflazionari. La predizione pi`ustringente di un generico modello di Inflation `etuttavia la creazione di un fondo stocastico di onde gravitazionali (pertur- bazioni tensoriali della metrica). Non c'`emodo di rivelarle in maniera diretta, visto che tipicamente sono di ampiezza estremamente piccola; inoltre, dopo 14 2 miliardi di anni di diluizione a causa dell'espansione dell'universo, una misura diretta della loro presenza `eda considerarsi impossibile. D'altra parte la teo- ria standard prevede che la presenza di queste onde gravitazionali primordiali debba manifestarsi nella sua interazione con la radiazione cosmica di fondo, lasciandovi un'impronta inequivocabile. Circa 3 ¢ 105 anni dopo il Big Bang, quando l'universo `ediventato trasparente alla radiazione (ricombinazione), i fotoni hanno subito globalmente la loro ultima interazione con gli elettroni; questo processo `estato chiaramente non istantaneo. La presenza di onde grav- itazionali durante questo processo ha generato un'anisotropia di quadrupolo nell'interazione dei fotoni con gli elettroni (nel sistema di riferimento di quiete degli elettroni). A causa di ci`o, `eprevisto che i fotoni della CMB presentino un certo grado di polarizzazione lineare. Il campo di polarizzazione lineare della CMB pu`oessere formalmente suddiviso in due componenti: la componente gra- diente (o modi E della polarizzazione), irrotazionale, e la componente rotore (modi B), rotazionale. Anisotropia di quadrupolo alla ricombinazione `ean- che generata dai campi di velocit`a,ovvero le perturbazioni scalari (di densit`a) della metrica. La peculiarit`adei modi B della polarizzazione della CMB sta nel fatto che essi possono essere stati generati alla ricombinazione solamente dalle onde gravitazionali primordiali, mentre i modi E hanno avuto origine da perturbazioni sia scalari che tensoriali. Pertanto il rivelare in cielo il trac- ciato di polarizzazione tipico dei modi B signi¯ca ottenere una prova indiretta dell'esistenza delle onde gravitazionali, cos`³come un forte vincolo sull'e®ettiva espansione esponenziale dell'universo primordiale. Nel capitolo 2 descriviamo in maniera dettagliata la radiazione cosmica di fondo e il suo campo di polar- izzazione. In ogni caso una misura del genere `eestremamente di±coltosa, a causa delle piccolissime proporzioni dell'e®etto in questione rispetto alle molteplici emis- sioni di luce polarizzata nello stesso intervallo di lunghezze d'onda di nostro interesse (millimetriche e sub-millimetriche), da sorgenti di natura galattica ed extragalattica, sia estese (nubi di polvere) che puntiformi (nuclei galattici at- tivi). Una caratterizzazione accurata dei tracciati di polarizzazione di queste sorgenti contaminanti `eperci`oassolutamente necessaria, se si vuole estrarre il segnale di polarizzazione di nostro interesse da un fondo dominante che deriva dalle molteplici emissioni polarizzate contaminanti. In questo lavoro non trat- teremo esplicitamente i dettagli delle sorgenti polarizzate contaminanti, che sono principalmente costituite dall'emissione termica dei grani di polvere in- terstellare, allineati secondo una direzione preferenziale a causa dell'azione del campo magnetico galattico. I seguenti lavori sono completamente dedicati alla caratterizzazione e alla costruzione di un modello teorico di quest'emissione polarizzata contaminante, e facciamo ad essi riferimento per una descrizione dettagliata della fenomenologia: [63],[64],[65],[66],[67] e [68]. Ai ¯ni del nostro lavoro `esu±ciente riepilogare
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