Wisconsin t Magazine of History

The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters: A Centennial History MARY FI^OST KRONCKE

The Greeks of Mihvankee THEODORE SALOtlTOS

Tlie C.::cchs in Wisconsin History KARKL D. EICIIA

Red Kate O'Hare Comes to Madison STANLIiY MALLACH

How to Discm'oivcl a Charging Historian WENDELL TRIPP

Published by the State Historical Society of Wisconsin / Vol. 53, No. 3 / Spring, 1970 THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF WISCONSIN RICHARD A. ERNEY, Acting Director

Officers THOMAS H. BARLAND, President GEORGE BANTA, JR., Honorary Vice-President JOHN C. GEILFUSS, First Vice-President E. E. HOMSTAD, Treasurer CuiFOHD D. SWANSON, Second Vice-President RICHARD A. ERNEY, Acting Secretary

Board of Curators Ex-Officio WARREN P. KNOWLES, Governor of the State HAROLD W. CLEMENS, State Treasurer ROBERT C. ZIMMERMAN, Secretary of State FRED H. HARRINGTON, President of the University MRS. GEORGE SWART, President of the Women's Auxiliary Term Expires, 1970 THOMAS H. BARLAND MRS. EDWARD C. JONES HOWARD W. MEAD DONALD C. SLIGHTER Eau Glaire Fort Atkinson Madison Milwaukee JIM DAN HILL MRS. RAYMOND J. KOLTES FREDERICK I. OLSON DR. LOUIS C. SMITH Middleton Madison Wauwatosa Lancaster E. E. HOMSTAD CHARLES R. MCCALLUM F. HARWOOD ORBISON ROBERT S. ZIGMAN Black River Falls Hubertus Appleton Milwaukee Term Expires, 1971 ROGER E. AXTELL KENNETH W. HAAGENSEN MOWRY SMITH MILO K. SWANTON Janesville Oconomowoc Neenah Madison MRS. HENRY BALDWIN ROBERT B. L. MURPHY MRS. WM. H. L. SMYTHE CEDRIC A. VIG Wisconsin Rapids Madison Milwaukee Rhinelander HORACE M. BENSTEAD FREDERIC E. RISSER WILLIAM F. STARK CLARK WILKINSON Racine Madison Nashotah Baraboo Term Expires, 1972 E. DAVID CRONON MRS. ROBERT E. FRIEND MRS. HOWARD T. GREENE WAYNE J. HOOD Madison Hartland Genesee Depot La Crosse SCOTT M. CUTLIP ROBERT A. GEHRKE BEN GUTHRIE J. WARD RECTOR Madison Ripon Lac du Flambeau Milwaukee W. NORMAN FITZGERALD JOHN C. GEILFUSS MRS. R. L. HARTZELL CLIFFORD D. SWANSON Milwaukee Milwaukee GRANTSBURG Stevens Point

Honorary Honorary Life Members WILLIAM ASHBY MCCLOY, New London, Connecticut PRESTON E. MCNALL, Clearwater, Florida JOHN C. JACQUES, Madison DOROTHY L. PARK, Madison BENTON H. WILCOX, Madison Fellows VERNON CARSTENSEN MERLE CURTI ALICE E. SMITH

The Women's Auxiliary Officers MRS. GEORGE SWART, Fort Atkinson, President Miss MARIE BARKMAN, Sheboygan, Vice-Pre.^ident MISS RUTH DAVIS, Madison, Secretary MRS. RICHARD G. ZIMMERMANN, Sheboygan, Treasurer MRS. EDWARD H. RIKKERS, Madison, Ex-Officio VOLUME 53, NUMBER 3 / SPRING, 1970 Wisconsin Magazine of History

WILLIAM CONVERSE HAYGOOD, Editor WILLIAM C. MARTEN, Associate Editor

The Society's New Director 162 The Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Letters: A Centennial History 163 MARY FROST KRONCKE The Greeks of Milwaukee 175 THEODORE SALOUTOS The Czechs in Wisconsin History 194 KAREL D. BICHA Red Kate O'Hare Comes to Madison: The Politics of Free Speech 204 STANLEY MALLACH How to Disenvowel a Charging Historian 223 WENDELL TRIPP Book Reviews 227 Accessions 239 Contributors 240

Published Quarterly by The State Historical Society of Wisconsin

THE WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY is published by contributors. Second-class postage paid at Madison, quarterly by the State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Wis. Copyright© 1970 by the State Historical Society of 816 State Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. Distributed Wisconsin. Paid for in part by the Maria L. and Simeon to members as part of their dues (Annual membership, Mills Editorial Fund and by the George B. Burrows Fund. $7.50; Family membership, $10; Contributing, $25; Busi­ Wisconsin newspapers may reprint any article appearing in ness and Professional, $50; Sustaining, $100 or more an­ the WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY providing the nually; Patron, $500 or more annually). Single numbers, story carries the following credit line: Reprinted from the $1.75. Microfilmed copies available through University State Historical Society's Wisconsin Magazine of History Microfilms, 313 North First Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan. for r insert the season and year which appear on the Maga­ Communications should be addressed to the editor. The zine], Society does not assume responsibility for statements made WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

The Society's New Director

Dr. Smith has achieved an impressive record in several fields: teaching, research and writ­ ing, historical editing, and administration. He is a former editor of publications and acting director of the Institute of Early American His­ tory and Culture, an organization sponsored jointly by Colonial Williamsburg, Inc. and the College of William and Mary, and has also held the post of director of the Coe Foundation Institute in American Studies, at Hampton In­ stitute. He has published numerous articles and scholarly reviews and has been the recipient of many awards and fellowships, including a Guggenheim Fellowship (1960—1961). In ad­ dition to contributing to history textbooks, he is the author of Freedom's Fetters: The Alien and Sedition Laws and American Civil Liber­ ties; Liberty and Justice: A Historical Record of American Constitutional Development; Sev­ enteenth-Century America: Essays in Colonial Dr. James Morton Smith History; and George Washington: A Profile. He is now completing a three-volume work on the correspondence of Jefferson and Madison. EFFECTIVE July 1, 1970, the eighth director in He has also served on the Board of Editors of the Society's 124-year-old history will assume the Journal of Southern History, the Editorial his official duties. He is Dr. James Morton Committee of the Papers of John Marshall, and Smith, a specialist in the Colonial, Revolution­ as chairman of the Editorial Committee of the ary, and Constitutional periods of American George Mason Papers. history, who is currently on the history faculty During World War II Dr. Smith was a lieu­ of Cornell University. Born in Bernie, Missouri, tenant in the U.S. Coast Guard Reserve. He is in 1919, Dr. Smith was graduated from South­ married to the former Kathryn Hegler of Ben­ ern Illinois University in Carbondale in 1941, ton, Illinois, and the Smiths have two children, obtained his master's degree from the Univer­ Melissa Jane, eighteen, and James Morton, Jr., sity of Oklahoma, and was awarded the doc­ thirteen. Dr. Smith's hobbies include camping, torate by Cornell in 1951. He has taught at gardening, refinishing furniture, and collecting Butler University, Ohio State University, the American folk art. He is also an ardent jazz College of William and Mary, and Duke Uni­ buff. versity. In 1964^1965 he was a visiting pro­ In announcing the appointment Judge Thom­ fessor at the University of Wisconsin and the as H. Barland, the Society's president, said: following year joined the faculty at Cornell. "In addition to Dr. Smith's imposing scholarly He will succeed Dr. Richard A. Erney, who has achievements, he brings to Wisconsin a deep been acting director since Leslie H. Fishel, Jr.'s interest in and conviction of the need for popu­ resignation in June, 1969. lar presentation of history."

162 THE WISCONSIN ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, ARTS, AND LETTERS A Centennial History

BY MARY FROST KRONCKE

TITHEN CELEBRATING the fiftieth anni- Academy of Science.^ Furthermore, Lapham ' ' versary of the Wisconsin Academy of corresponded with such notables in American Sciences, Arts, and Letters, Thomas C. Cham­ science as Benjamin Silliman, Louis Agassiz, berlin jokingly attributed his survivorship to Asa Gray, and others, and shared these letters the fact that he was last on the list of original with Hoy.* Thus, along with their vast fund of signees.^ He along with the other one hundred information, they brought to Wisconsin's Acad­ and five men on that list, and especially those emy a working knowledge of other academies who attended the first meeting in Madison on and an acquaintance with the broader horizons February 17, 1870, can be given credit for of American science. While Lapham's role in launching the Academy. Nevertheless, special founding the Academy is only at best docu­ approbation can be given to Increase Lapham, mented in his cryptic diary statement, "Went Philo Romayne Hoy, and John Wesley Hoyt. to Madison and on the 16th assisted in organiz­ For Hoy and Lapham, as for many men of ing the Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, science in this era, nature was the main labora­ and Letters,"^ his presence certainly contrib­ tory, the naked eye the chief instrument, and uted prestige to the Academy's beginnings. Hoy the collection and comparing of specimens and for his part was a superb writer, and his elo­ natural phenomena the chief method of re­ quence and deep feeling for science must have search. Although Lapham—Wisconsin's most been a cohesive bond in the Academy's early renowned scientist—was from Milwaukee and days. Hoy was a medical doctor from Racine, they The actual task of bringing the Academy met frequently for nature hikes and discus­ into being fell to John Wesley Hoyt. Younger sions, filling their notebooks with observations than Hoy or Lapham, he had abundant energy and their storage sheds with collections of and organizational ability. His youth was spent birds, fossils, rocks, and small mammals.^ Both clearing and developing three Ohio farms, work were members of the American Academy for the Advancement of Science, and Lapham had published in the first journal of the Chicago ' Increase Lapliam to Julia Lapliam, August 11, 1871; Seneca Lapham to "Dear Father," April 11, 1867; Fred H. Hall to Dr. L A. Lapham, February 11, 1868, all in the Lapham Papers, Archives-Manu­ ^ Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Let­ scripts Division, State Historical Society of Wiscon­ ters, Transactions (1922), 20:696. sin. ^ P. R. Hoy, "Memorial of Increase Lapham," in ^Transactions, (1875-1876), 3:26. Transactions (1875-1876), 3: 266; Milwaukee Senti­ ° Increase Lapham Diary, February 15, 1870, in nel, January 27, 1880. the Lapham Papers.

163 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

February 16 and 17, 1870, a "large number," probably about one hundred men and women,^ met for a series of meetings to launch the Acad­ emy. Hoyt was well prepared, presenting favor­ able testimonials, a constitution, and a "Plan of Operations." Under a provisional chairman, elections were held. Hoyt was chosen president, Lapham, general secretary, and George P. Dela- plaine, the urbane former secretary to three Wisconsin governors, was elected treasurer. A department of sciences was immediately orga­ nized with Hoy as vice-president, S. V. Ship- man, the state architect, as secretary, and Thomas C. Chamberlin, then an instructor in natural science at Whitewater State Normal School, as a counsellor. Bylaws were adopted at the first meeting of the General Council. Thus organized measures were taken for incor­ poration by the legislature. On March 16, 1870, the charter for the Academy was granted.^ Only an editorial writer on the staff of the Madison Wisconsin State Journal offered any opposi­ tion to this smooth-flowing process. He criti­ cized the Academy's plans as "too broad, too pretentious and high sounding," and inveighed Society's IconoHraph.^ CIHI. i.i.()ns against state money to support "literary pre­ John Wesley Hoyt, as governor of Wyoming Territory. tenders" and "scientific quackery."^ That no one listened was a testimony to Hoyt's timing and assessment of the state's needs. Reportage which he felt demanded not only knowledge of following the summer meeting was head­ an infinite number of skills but also resource­ lined in the same paper as "A Brilliant Begin­ fulness to the point of sewing his own under­ ning for Scientific Work."^" wear. When he came of age he left home to That Hoyt's plans were broad cannot be study law under Salmon P. Chase. Then he denied. The praise he heaped upon those attend­ gave a year to medical studies. He found the ant at the preliminary meeting for accepting courts unappealing and the practice of medi­ a type of organization "which includes every cine too time-consuming. After a brief stint at class of searchers after knowledge" might sug­ teaching he filled out his occupational life in gest that he was trying to mollify opposition to myriad public service activities, including the an academy which included sciences, arts, and governorship of Wyoming Territory.^ At the letters in one organization. In the United time of the Academy's founding he was secre­ States at that time only the Connecticut Acad­ tary of the Wisconsin Agricultural Society and emy of Arts and Sciences and the American editor of the Wisconsin Farmer. His wide con­ nections enabled him to collect the signatures of prominent men in Wisconsin in support of an academy. These he affixed to a letter entitled ' See ibid, 216, for his account of the founding of "Call of a meeting to organize." In response on the Academy. See also J. W. Hoyt to Arthur Beatty, February 12, 1911. This and subsequent citations to personal correspondence are in the Wisconsin Aca­ demy Papers, Archives-Manuscripts Division, SHSW. " Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts, and Let­ ters, Bulletin No. 1, (April, 1870), 3-18. " John Wesley Hoyt, unpublished autobiography, ° Madison Wisconsin State Journal, February 16, pp. 1-46, in the Hoyt Papers, Archives-Manuscripts 1870. Division, SHSW. >° [bid., July 22, 1870.

164 KRONCKE: WISCONSIN ACADEMY

Academy of Arts and Sciences, located in Bos­ ton, were as broad in aspect. As Hoyt saw it the Academy, headed by a paid director, would be the aegis for all original research in Wiscon­ sin.'^ He considered the University and the colleges in the state as "primarily dependent on the discoveries and labors of men and asso­ ciations devoted to original investigation,"'^ an idea not unusual for his time. Hoyt hoped that existing societies such as the Agricultural Society, the State Historical Society, and the several natural history socie­ ties would co-operate, each keeping its own identity but each carrying out a function with­ in the Academy. So joined, these groups could lobby for a complex of buildings in one loca­ tion including a general museum, a general library, and an art gallery. He hoped that the Academy would receive an endowment of $100,000 from wealthy patrons. This along with financial contributions from the state and the intellectual contributions from the citizenry would support investigation into areas both mundane and philosophical — in the work of Society's Iconographic Collections artisans, economists, political scientists, indus­ Increase Lapham examining a specimen of ore. trialists, and philologists. Thus Wisconsin would be distinguished among the states, and its people would be advanced both socially and priority in Academy objectives, was inaugu­ intellectually.''' rated within three years of the Academy's founding. The meetings during the first year were held TT WAS a heady vision — but quickly and in the Agricultural rooms of Madison's Capitol -*• quietly forgotten. While immediate coopera­ building, and in the City Hall in Milwaukee. tion with the Historical Society and the State Out-of-towners came by rail with a 40 per cent Agricultural Society did ensue, it did not discount in fare, a privilege secured by Hoyt reach a point of procuring buildings or even and continuing at least until 1901.'^ Tbe papers forming arms of Academy research. The en­ read at these first meetings reflected optimism dowment fund made little progress; all admin­ in the new venture and anticipation of the istration remained volunteer work, and there fruits of research. While Chamberlin and Lap­ was no move to induce the legislature to finance ham argued for greater systematization in any building. Nevertheless, there was enough biology and zoology, the others extolled Wis­ tangible success to make Hoyt express satisfac­ consin's potential as a grape-growing state, as tion when he stepped out of the presidency a leader in the production of nut-bearing trees after six years in office.'"* The quarterly meet­ and ornamental shrubs, and as a rival with ings, the publication of the Transactions, and Saratoga in its mineral springs at Waterloo.'^ the development of an exchange library were Nativist and antisuffragette feeling prompted flourishing. In addition, a survey of the state's demands to exclude Catholics and women from resources, a program that Hoyt had given top

"Hoyt to "Dear Sir," July 4, 1871; Albert FHnt ^''Bulletin No. 1, p. 14. to James Gibson, November 26, 1897. See also Aca­ ^^ Ibid., 2. demy Papers for 1898 and 1901. " Ibid., 21-24. ^'Bulletin No. 3, pp. 44, 47; Bulletin No. 5, pp. ^''Transactions (1873), 1:225. 79, 80; Bulletin No. 3, p. 44; Bulletin No. 2, p. 31.

165 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 the Academy. Hoyt stood firm on the admission rangements with the academies abroad, a serv­ of Catholics while believing that it would not ice it has continued to perform. With one paid take long for feelings against the admission of clerical assistant the successive Academy libra­ women to subside.'' Six years later through the rians in the early period opened new exchanges, influence of Hoy and Lapham the Academy made three catalogs of accumulated material, met at Milwaukee Female Seminary (later and selected the best volumes for binding in called Milwaukee-Downer). Twenty-seven moroccan leather or sheepskin. By the turn of women were elected members and two women the century a total of five hundred and nine presented papers, one on "Mental Hospitality" exchanges was in operation. The Academy's and the other on "Scientific Housekeeping." A room in the Capitol had long since become in­ proclamation that "sciences and letters have adequate. No space was left in the glass book­ neither country, color, or sex" was issued and cases and a film of plaster dust covered the the "strait jacket of superstition and bigotry" books on the open shelves. Maintaining order set aside.'^ in these overcrowded quarters was next to im­ Increase Lapham was the first editor of the possible, and the Academy supported the State Academy's scholarly journal, the Transactions. Historical Society and the University in their For the first issue Hoyt had succeeded in getting bid for a new library building, with the under­ enough money from the legislature for a vol­ standing that a large room would be provided ume of two hundred pages in an edition of two for the Academy library.^' thousand copies. He advised Lapham to "deal generously" with all who submitted manu­ WTHEN THE BUILDING of the Historical scripts, but prompted him to achieve a high- ^^ Society was completed in 1900, a long quality volume that would win the respect of period of co-operation with the State Historical learned men around the world.'^ Lapham suc­ Society and the University of Wisconsin Li­ ceeded. In this and following volumes William brary was begun. An unusual amount of open- Francis Allen, generally conceded to be the mindedness characterized each institution, with founder of the University's renowned history emphasis on function rather than accumulation department, contributed a series of excellent for its own sake. Reuben Gold Thwaites, super­ articles on rural populations in medieval Eng­ intendent of the Historical Society, initiated land, France, and Germany. Thomas Chamber­ the co-operation by engaging his forces to lin began to publish on the geology of the move the Academy Library from the Capitol Kettle Moraine. Articles on Herbert Spencer, to the Historical Society one month before the Indian mounds, new species of insects and fish, October dedication ceremonies of the hand­ the role and rights of women, and on the treat­ some, newly constructed building on the Uni­ ment of the insane reflect the academic and versity's lower campus. Louis Kahlenberg, the social interests of the 1870's and 1880's. The Academy's elected librarian, was overwhelmed articles on road building, river improvement, by the task of organizing the collection in its iron and copper mining describe a state ready new home. When Walter McMynn Smith, the to harness its less accessible natural resources newly appointed University librarian, offered for industrial development. his assistance to the Academy, Kahlenberg Publication of the Transactions enabled the urged the Academy to accept. Smith then took Wisconsin Academy to receive the offerings of on the work of cataloging, binding, arranging, other societies in exchange. Hoyt directed the and circulation at no cost to the Academy other than some payment for clerical assistance.^^ Academy to publish annually in order to be eligible for exchanges on an equal basis.^'' The In 1904 the Academy initiated an exchange Smithsonian Institution made the mailing ar­ committee and elected as chairman George Wagner, then a young instructor in the Uni-

"J. W. Hoyt to Arthur Beatty, February 12, 1911. ^William Hobbs, "Report of the Librarian, Sep­ '* "Report of the President," in Transactions tember 1, 1893," in Transactions (1893), 9: viii- (1876-1877), 4: 268. Ixii. " Hoyt to Lapham, March 20, 1872, March 22, 1872. ^^ Louis Kahlenberg, "Librarian's Report, December '"Ibid. 1900," in Transactions (1901), 13: 657, 658.

166 KRONCKE: WISCONSIN ACADEMY

Society's Iconographic Collections Portraits sculptured by Leonard Crunelle for the medallion celebrating the Academy's fiftieth anniversary, 1870-1920: (top left to right) Roland Duer Irving; Philo R. Hoy; William F. Allen; (bottom) Increase Lapham; George W. Peckham; and Thomas C. Chamberlain. versity's zoology department. Until about 1912 a result of the annual publication of the Trans­ Wagner performed gratis prodigious labors in actions, the University Library has absorbed investigating potential exchanges, opening new thousands of volumes at a cost much cheaper exchanges, and filling out Academy sets, the than subscription rates. For its part the Uni­ most important of which were those of the versity Library has assumed the costs and labor Royal Society of London and of the Leipzig of preparing these volumes for circulation and Academy. Wagner aided other academies in also mails them to U.S. recipients. Such ar­ completing their sets of the Transactions and rangements have proven satisfactory even to purchased additional materials which he judged the present day when most of the Academy beneficial for the Academy library. The Univer­ exchange volumes are housed in the University sity and State Historical Society libraries readily Memorial Library. Eight years after the Acad­ turned over materials which they thought best emy's founding, Academy librarian W. A. Ger­ suited to the Academy's library and vice versa. main stated that academies in seventeen differ­ By 1909, in order to facilitate usage, and with ent countries received the Transactions. To­ Wagner acting as an advisor, Smith began day through the co-operation of the Smith­ work to incorporate the Academy library with sonian Institution the Transactions are sent to that of the University. Before the volumes en­ societies in approximately sixty nations. With tered the University collections they were the co-operation of the three institutions in marked with an Academy bookplate.^^ Thus, as Madison the volumes received in exchange have always been readily accessible to scholars.

^Transactions (1904), 15, part I: 1021, 1024, TN 1873 the Academy was successful in in- 1025; ibid. (1914), 17, part H: 1412; ibid. (1916), ducing the Wisconsin legislature to fund a 18, part II: 1364. See also Academy Papers, 1900- 1909, for correspondence to Wagner. geologic survey of the state, a work which had

167 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 been sporadically undertaken in the past. Lap­ served on various committees, and was elected ham became chairman of the survey. He chose Vice-President of Letters in 1895. Historians Roland Irving, W. W. Daniels, Moses Strong, of national reputation such as Dana Munro, and T. C. Chamberlin—all Academy members John L. Paetow, Louise Phelps Kellogg, Curtis —to work on the survey. Irving, a young Wis­ Nettels, and Solon Buck published in the Trans­ consin faculty member fresh from the Columbia actions. Charles Sumner Slichter and William University School of Mines, procured the assist­ Francis Allen both served as Academy presi­ ance of his student, Charles Van Hise. Their dents. Academic institutions within the state work centered on an unfruitful attempt to lo­ also made contributions to Academy leader­ cate iron in the Penoke Range. Their report co­ ship. A. L. Chapin, a president of Beloit Col­ incided with the election of Governor William lege, was the Academy's second president. Taylor, who shortly replaced Lapham with a George Peckham, the famed superintendent of political appointee who promised better for the Milwaukee public schools, served a presidential Range. Irving induced Daniels and Strong to term and assisted by his wife, Elizabeth Peck­ quit while Chamberlin stayed on to finish his ham, published a monumental collation of all work.^* Gradually the survey lapsed until twen­ work on Attidae (spiders) in the Transactions. ty-two years later when the Academy once Likewise, C. Dwight Marsh, then of Ripon Col­ again took up the cause. lege, was an Academy president and contrib­ With the exception of Lapham, who died uted primary work on plankton to the Trans­ shortly thereafter, the men who worked on tbe actions. survey participated actively in the Academy. One of the most constant of Academy mem­ Roland Irving, Thomas Chamberlin, and bers in the turn-of-the-century period was Charles Van Hise each served two-year stints as Edward A. Birge. The Academy minutes as far Academy presidents. Chamberlin and Van Hise back as 1878 show Birge, then a young faculty went on to become presidents of the University member and a former student and great ad­ of Wisconsin. As Academy presidents they did mirer of Irving, serving as librarian, secretary, not promote the Academy as the major insti­ attendant on committees, and publishing in the gator of research in Wisconsin, as Hoyt had Transactions. When William Francis Allen envisioned. Hoyt could hardly have foreseen died in 1889, Birge filled out his unexpired the national trends, seeded by the Morrill Act term as president. As chairman of the nomi­ of 1862, that would promote extensive re­ nating committee Birge saw to the election of search interests in American universities. In Charles Van Hise. When Van Hise was called keeping with these trends Chamberlin was an to Washington shortly thereafter, Birge took early promoter of a research faculty, and Van over the task that Van Hise had begun—the Hise, in putting the "Wisconsin Idea" into reinstitution of a physiographic and geologic practice, expanded the University's research survey. Van Hise had gotten in contact with facilities and placed them at the service of the Academy members in the state colleges; Birge state.25 in following this up found lack of enthusiasm As the University attracted renowned schol­ since the normal schools were pressing for ars, the Academy was enriched. Richard T. Ely money to expand at the time. The bill failed to from Columbia, Alexander R. Hohenfeld from make it out of the finance committee.^^ Leipzig, Carl Russell Fish from Harvard, and Birge persisted. Two years later the Academy John Merle Coulter from Indiana became par­ once again drew up a survey bill and presented ticipating members. Frederick Jackson Turner it to the legislature. Greater urgency in the need joined while he was a tutor at the University, for conservation was stressed.^' The bill passed and Birge was given the appointment as survey chairman. He drew heavily on Academy mem-

^ Lapham to C. C. Washburn, governor, April 29, 1873; Irving to Lapham, February 22, 1875; Irving, Chamberlin, Strong, and Daniels to Lapham, Febru­ ary 23, 1875; Irving, letter in Jf isconsin State Jour­ ^ See Van Hise copybook, in Archives-Manuscripts nal, February 19, 1875. Division, SHSW. ^ Maurice M. Vance, Charles Richard Van Hise, ^ "Report of Committee on Proposed Survey," in Scientist Progressive (Madison, 1960), 83, 89. Transactions (1894-1895), 10:595.

168 KRONCKE: WISCONSIN ACADEMY

t ^i

Society's Iconographic Collections Three Academy presidents who also became president of the University of Wisconsin (left to right): Thomas C. Chamberlain; Charles Richard Van Hise; and Edward A. Birge. Birge's portrait is from a pen-and-ink sketch by Max Otto.

bers as associates. Their pay was low, often tience with any delays, he did not show it.^^ only expenses. A study of building and orna­ Through the persistent efforts of both men the mental stones, a completion of a geologic sur­ resultant medaUion was one which Birge could vey in the north central part of the state, and a send aU over the world with pride. Honored study of forest conditions received early pri­ were T. C. Chamberlin, Increase Lapham, ority.^** The meager funds allotted to Birge also George Peckham, William Francis Allen, and enabled him to take summers off from teaching Roland Irving. At tbe last minute he included to pursue his work in limnology. As the work P. R. Hoy. Why Hoyt was left out is not docu­ of the survey was carried forward, the Trans­ mented. One criterion was "intellectual emi­ actions gave detailed reports. nence," and perhaps since Hoyt had long since In 1919 Birge came to the Academy presi­ left Wisconsin and did not specialize in one dency. The fiftieth anniversary was in the offing, particular field, Birge did not feel he could and he looked forward to promoting a worthy include him. celebration. The sudden death of University Chamberlin gave Hoyt his due in the keynote president Charles Van Hise and the subsequent address of the anniversary meeting. Certainly election of Birge to that demanding position as Academy members reminisced about long limited his time for Academy affairs. Much of friendships and continuing service in the Acad­ his personal effort went toward bringing out a emy they had a right to be proud. At its fiftieth medallion honoring six notable Academy mem­ anniversary the Academy was prestigious in bers. His Saturdays were given to taking the membership and achievement. Three Univer­ plates as far as Milwaukee and Oconomowoc sity of Wisconsin presidents had risen from its to gain the approval of families of the honored ranks, its library was growing, and the Trans­ members. If the designer, Leonard Crunelle, actions attracted papers from all fields. Even was chagrined at Birge's frequent criticism today many of the scientific articles are termed and requests for restriking and by his impa­ classic.''''

"•' Birge to L. Crunelle, October 6, 1919, December, ^ First Biennial Report of the Commissioners of 1919, September 20, 1920. the Geologic and Natural History Survey (Madison, "" Phillip B. Whitford, "A Race of Giants," in ff is­ 1899). consin Academy Review (Fall, 1958), 18.

169 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

The decade of the twenties was a period of problems, aroused the anger of contributors to continuing prestige under the secretaryship of the Transactions. Articles appeared long after Chancey Juday, Birge's friend and co-worker. they had been submitted and volumes came to Membership was well into the three hundreds; be dated not in the year in which they made the financial condition was moderately pros­ their appearance but in the year in which they perous; and successful meetings were held in were supposed to appear."'*'^ Pages had to be conjunction with the Wisconsin Archeological sheared by hand.^* For want of funds articles Society, the Museums Conference, the Wiscon­ had to be turned away, or shortened, or tabular sin Folklore Society, and similar groups. In material cut down.''**' Authors were asked to 1920 the Wisconsin Academy affiliated with the bear reprint costs and sometimes typing costs.^" American Academy for the Advancement of Volumes 31 and 33 were almost completely Science. The Wisconsin Academy had long financed by Birge and Juday and the fact that been indifferent to the AAAS.^' Even Birge they were heavily weighted with limnological could see no reason for joining.^^ But in the material brought some criticism.'" Legislative aftermath of World War I, the move for feder­ money was sporadic. Gas rationing restricted ation in Britain and the need to develop science travel to Academy meetings;*^ in 1941 a tea as a tool in increasing "maximum power and replaced the traditional banquet; in 1945 a ban efficiency" were persuasive arguments ad­ on conventions prevented any meeting at all. vanced to encourage the Academy's affiliation.^'* Through all of this Loyal Durand, the secretary- Later the AAAS, in remitting a certain percent­ treasurer, bore the brunt of dissatisfaction,''^ age of dues from Wisconsin members, enabled and did his best to procure funds from the the Academy to give an annual grant of about legislature and other would-be sources. His in­ $100 to one or two scholars. dustrious and methodical successor, Banner Bill Morgan, continued the search for funds IVrOT SURPRISINGLY, budgetary problems and at length brought some order into the -•- ' arose in the 1930's. These proved to be almost chaotic state of Transactions publica­ long in duration and had no little effect on tion.'''' A. W. Schorger helped out with several Academy affairs. Up to this time it was a matter donations, a loan, advice on investment, and of course for the legislature to provide money gained enough life members to make him what for publishing the Transactions. Two dollar he called a "gold star mother or papa.""*^ annual membership dues and $100 life mem­ berships formed a modest endowment fund. In 1933 the Schmedeman Administration cut the Academy out of the budget. Henry A. Schuette, '* Schuette to A. W. Peterson, February 23, 1945. ''Durand to Norman C. Fassett, July 23, 1941; a former pupil of Birge and an Academy stal­ Durand to N. E. Stevens, August 11, 1941. wart, entreated to no avail for a reappropri- "* Joseph G. Baier to B. B. Morgan, May 2, 1946. ation.^* For six years the Academy went with­ ^ B. B. Morgan to Edward Schneeberger, Decem­ ber 19, 1947; Durand to R. R. Shrock, October 16, out legislative money and was forced to dip 1940; Durand to Julia Grace Wales, January 13, into its endowment.^^ 1943. Difficulties compounded during the decade "Morgan to Louis F. Warrick, July 1, 1947; Mor­ gan to M. R. Carriker, September 27, 1947; Willis and into the 1940's. The "glacial speed" of the Van Horn to B. B. Morgan, March 17, 1948. state printer,^^ an Illinois firm having its own "Durand to Schorger, June 12, 1942; Walter Bub- bert to B. B. Morgan, May 11, 1944. "Berenice Cooper to Durand, May 17, 1942; Octo­ ber 24, 1942; R. M. Bragg to Muckenhirn, April 12, 1944. " See letters of AAAS to Wisconsin Academy, 1936. "R. R. Shrock to Durand, October 8, 1940; Ruth ^'^ Birge to John Coulter, February 22, 1919; Birge Marshall to Paul W. Boutwell, June 6, 1941; Lincoln to William Trelease, February 22, 1919. R. Thiesmeyer to Durand, June 10, 1941; W. C. ^^John Coulter, Record of Academy meeting, April McKern to A. W. Schorger, March 7, 1945. 23, 1920. " B. B. Morgan to Jacob H. Fischthal, July, 1947; ** H. A. Schuette to Governor A. G. Schmedeman, Morgan to A. W. Peterson, February 23, 1945. April 4, 1934; Schuette to J. 0. Carbys, March 13, «B. B. Morgan to Walter Bubbert, July 13, 1944; 1935; Schuette to Mrs. A. C. Neville, March 13, 1935; Schroger to Durand, December 23, 1942, May 27, Rufus M. Bagg to H. A. Schuette, January 31, 1935. 1943; Schroger to Morgan, January 3, 1945, De­ ^ Loyal Durand to H. K. Wilson, January 23, 1939; cember 15, 1947; Schorger to R. R. Dicke, September Durand to William C. Moss, February 21, 1939. 22, 1952.

170 KRONCKE: WISCONSIN ACADEMY

By 1947 the struggle reached a climax. Once again the legislature failed to appropriate mon­ ey to the Academy. With rising costs and rising discontent Academy President Lowell Noland felt the time had come to air a discussion of Academy procedures. The crux of his argument lay in the fact that the University, in housing the Academy's extensive library, was the chief beneficiary of the Academy's exchange pro­ gram. He felt that the University in some way ^^ should bear the costs of the Transactions—if not the University, then perhaps another aca­ demic institution in the state. If either the Uni­ versity or the Academy did not elect to do this, then he believed the Academy would have to choose between existing for the sake of its members or of its library. It could cut costs if it would drop its exchange program and issue the Transactions quarterly.*^ Gilbert Doane, librarian of the University, expressed willingness to include the Academy in the University library budget.*'^ Noland favored this approach because he felt the legis­ lature neglected the Academy not out of any ^..oiul> s Iconographic Collections antipathy to the Academy but because the Reverend Aaron L. Chapin, president of Beloit Academy's request was among those hundreds College and second president of the Academy. of smaller organizations which pressed for funds each session.** University President E. B. the legislature as Noland admitted himself to Fred was not eager to assume the Academy lack.^^ The Academy's financial situation then within the University's budget. He did not took an upward turn. Nevertheless, dependency want to presume upon the legislature for un­ on legislative appropriation caused consider­ limited funds.'"' Robert K. Richardson, Beloit able discomfort throughout the fifties and six­ College historian, offered to have Beloit ties. In late 1967 Harry Steenbock made the take over the expenses of the Transactions in Academy self-sustaining by a generous bequest return for the Academy's library. Noland in which approximated one million dollars. The the final analysis did not want to accept the men who out of sheer tenacity did not let the offer.^^ Banner Bill Morgan counseled the Transactions fail during the difficult years were Academy to remain independent of either insti­ faithful to the Academy's past tradition. Harry tution.^' Finally the Milwaukee Public Museum Steenbock, in presenting the Academy with a designated $2,000 for the forthcoming issue of large share of his estate, demonstrated his faith the Transactions.^"^ The crisis was over. in the current usefulness and future potential Otto L. Kowalke succeeded Noland as presi­ of the Academy. dent and proved to have as much talent with If a common theme runs through the Acad­ emy history of the mid-forties, the fifties, and the sixties, it seems to be revitalization of the «L. Noland to E. B. Fred, June 20, 1947; Wis­ organization. Efforts to achieve this were made consin Academy Publication Committee Report, De­ by active campaigns to increase membership; cember 15, 1947; Noland to Academy Council, Jan­ uary 5, 1948; Noland to B. B. Morgan, January 11, by broadening the scope of Academy activities; 1948. " Noland to Fred, June 20, 1947. «Ibid. ""Noland to Academy Council, March 23, 1948. " Noland to Gilbert Doane, January 11, 1948. =" Noland to 0. L. Kowalke, May 3, 1948; Noland ^° Noland to Robert K. Richardson, December 12, to J. G. Baier, February 11, 1948; 0. L. Kowalke to 1947. R. K. Richardson, May 21, 1949; Kowalke to Mor­ ""B. B. Morgan to Noland, December 9, 1947. gan, June 21, 1949.

171 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 and by correcting the imbalances which had been created in tbe upheaval of the 1930's and 1940's.5'' The beginnings of Academy renaissance came in 1945 with the Brule River Survey and the founding of the Junior Academy. Spon­ sored by the Wisconsin Conservation Depart­ ment, the Brule River Survey engaged the work of Academy members who published their find­ ings in the Transactions. The Brule was famed for its trout, and the Survey's attempts to find out why yield patterns had decreased was re­ search with a great deal of popular appeal. The AAAS gave the impetus to the Junior Academy. During the 1930's the AAAS sent queries to Wisconsin's Academy as part of an effort on a nationwide scale to promote the Junior Academy of Science movement. These met with little response during the thirties but were received more positively during the early 1940's. Loyal Durand as secretary-treasurer investigated the subject and such Academy presidents as H. A. Schuette and A. W. Schor­ ger, and University President E. B. Fred gave active support.'^' A joint committee of the Academy and the University set up the final arrangements with the chairman on a part-time Society's Iconographic Collections University salary arrangement. John W. Harry Steenbock, whose princely bequest insured Thompson, Jr., was the co-ordinator of the the Academy's financial future, photographed in his Junior Academy for its first ten years. Under laboratory in 1925. his efficient direction high school students throughout the state were organized into re­ the Junior Academy have continually been a gional groupings on junior and senior high source of pride for the Academy. levels. Meeting regionally and at the annual The Academy Review was another effort to meeting of the Senior Academy the students revitalize the Academy. Sporadic newsletters present projects involving original scientific preceded the Review. Then to "build member­ research. The emphasis is not on handicraft ship, and provide public relations necessary to but on the quality of research and on the pres­ larger appropriations," a quarterly committee entation of the project. Prizes as incentives was formed.'^" In 1954 the first Review ap­ have varied from subscriptions to scientific peared in magazine form. Walter E. Scott, journals, membership in AAAS, recommenda­ assisted by his wife, Gertrude, were the un­ tions to college scholarships, and more recently flagging editors for the Review's first ten years. the Harry Steenbock award of $100. The high Then as now the Review contains short articles quality and promise exhibited by members of of general interest frequently about Wiscon­ sin's resources, institutions, and history. It serves to keep Academy members informed about current activities and to solidify mem­ bership. •^*See E. L. Bolender, Academy Newsletter, June The Review was also effective in increasing "" R. R. Shrock to Dr. Kerchival, February 13, Academy membership. In the Academy's first 1937; Durand to Otis Caldwell, December 1, 1938; Durand to Neil Martin, March 27, 1941; Durand to Paul Boutwell, May 18, 1942; Durand to Muckenhirn April 7, 1944. °" Walter E. Scott to Academy Members, November

172 KRONCKE: WISCONSIN ACADEMY

seventy years membership growth was not a matter of special concern. There was no policy either of exclusion or promotion with the ex­ ception of 1901 when the Academy sent out 1,000 membership invitations mainly to per­ sons involved in education. A 1937 tabulation listed a total of 373 members. Madison led with 136 members and Milwaukee, Appleton, Green Bay-DePere followed with respective member­ ships of fifty-four, sixteen and fourteen; twen­ ty-four Wisconsin towns had memberships of five or less. In the early 1940's desperately needed revenues prompted an active search for new members and began a trend which lasted for two decades. As editor of the Review Walter Scott included articles that tabulated and stimu­ lated membership growth. He stressed the state­ wide character of the Academy and encouraged membership in the smaller towns. Membership

jumped from 366 in 1956 to 671 in 1957. Pass­ Society's Iconographic Collections ing the thousand mark in 1958, membership Robert K. Richardson, Beloit College historian has since then hovered in the 1,300's. Such a and president of the Board of Curators of the State growth rate was not accepted without question. Historical Society, who tried to get the Academy's In comparing Wisconsin's Academy with that library transferred to Beloit. of Ottawa, Merrill Hughes concluded, "Such dors of the Academy in their respective insti­ aristocratic conscription of members is now tutions. Particular efforts have been made to impossible in Wisconsin; but something like it gain members from the state college system.°'' was once our practice in the Academy, and it The regional meetings of the Junior Academy may have served the purpose of democracy have created interest throughout the state. better than our present wide-open door can A more significant area of imbalance noted ever do."'"'^ in the Academy in the postwar period was that of dominance of science. This was a culmina­ N FOSTERING the growth of the Academy tion of the trend that began as early as J. W. I in the 1950's the members of the council Hoyt's urgings for scientific investigation of wanted to allay the impression that Madison Wisconsin's resources. J. J. Davis echoed this dominated. To prevent an imbalance of Madi­ theme in 1907.^" Consistent with this, geologi­ sonians on the council, which was made up of cal and biological sciences assumed prominent past presidents, a ruling was considered but not places both in the Academy's leadership posi­ passed that a president from Madison could be tions and in the Transactions. Birge and Juday elected every three years.®* Actually, through­ in bringing to a summary in the Transactions out the history of the Academy significant roles the work of University scientists in limnology have been played by non-Madisonians. In the no doubt unwittingly tipped the balance. The fifties W. C. McKern of the Milwaukee Public humanities gradually left the field not without Museum, Robert K. Richardson and Paul Bout­ complaining, "the author of a worthwhile piece well of Beloit College, Katherine G. Nelson of of humanistic research generally does not want Milwaukee-Downer, Raymond Reis, S.J., of it stuck in the Transactions where the emphasis Marquette, E. L. Bolender and Berenice Cooper is on science."®' The early J940's was tbe low of Superior State Teachers College performed " W. C. McKern to E. L. Bolender, 1951. leadership functions and have been ambassa- =°P. W. Boutwell to L. Durand, January 11, 1941; Durand to Polk, April 20, 1942; O. L. Kowalke to Bolender, July 17, 1951. ""Transactions (1904), 15, Part II: 895. "A. R. Hohfeld to Leila Bascom, February 26, '^isconsin Academy Review (Fall, 1960), 169. 1940.

173 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 point for the humanities. The 1945 Trans­ The election of Merritt Hughes as Academy actions did not carry a single humanities arti­ president in 1960 boded well for the place of cle. The meetings reflected the same imbalance. letters in the Academy. Addressing the Acad­ Both the 1942 and 1944 meetings were exclu­ emy he presented the germ of suggestions for sively scientific and in other years in this era improvement that were carried out in that the humanities were only scantily represented. decade.®^ Nineteen hundred sixty-five saw the Waking up to the crisis in 1946, the keynote formation of the Committee on the Encourage­ speaker of the annual meeting asked, "Where ment of the Arts headed by Frederick Logan is Social Science?"®^ and the Humanities Recognition Committee headed by Harry Hayden Clark. In 1966 the Transaction Articles by Fields, 1870-1960 Academy offered a prize to Alan Corre for his Humanities Science work in Semitic languages. In 1968 the Junior 1870-1932 30% 70% Academy Northeast District meeting at Lake­ 1933-1944 17% 83% land College in Sheboygan presented eleven 1945-1960 32% 68% scientific papers and eleven presentations of prose, poetry, dance, and instrumental solos.®® In spite of this a small but tenacious contin­ In addition, the character of the annual gent consisting of Harry Hayden Clark, Ruth meeting has changed. Once given solely to the Wallerstein, Julia Grace Wales, Merritt Y. reading of specialized papers, an attempt has Hughes, and Berenice Cooper held the fort for recently been made to have in addition to this the humanities. Harry Hayden Clark, perhaps a central theme on a contemporary issue and in making the best of the situation, directed his the inclusion of a speaker of national reputa­ study to the relationship of sciences to literature tion. Urbanism, population growth, humani­ in such Transactions articles as "The Influence tarianism, and the natural resources of North­ of Science on American Ideas from 1775 to ern Wisconsin have been some of the themes. 1809" (1943), "Role of Science in the Thought Fall gatherings in such places as Wingspread of W. D. Howells" (1953), "Influence of Science and in Door County have concentrated on the on American Literary Criticism, 1860-1910" environment and have proved to be refreshing (1955), and "Fenimore Cooper and Science" both for generalists and specialists. (1959, 1960). Gradually academicians became As the Academy approaches its centennial more aware of the unique role the Academy celebration an air of pride in accomplishment could play in mitigating the chasm between the once again characterizes its literature. A strenu­ humanities and science,^^ a topic that C. P. ous second fifty years did not weaken the in­ Snow had publicized as a contemporary issue. heritance left by Chamberlin, Allen, Van Hise, The arts, truly neglected in the Academy, were and Birge. War, depression, and financial promoted by the election of Frank Lloyd straits brought about greater emphasis on sci­ Wright as an honorary member.®'' The Review ence and on membership growth. As member­ was enhanced and Wisconsin artists encour­ ship increased there was need to broaden the aged when Aaron Bohrod, Alfred Sess- scope of Academy activities. As a result of the ler, Santos Zingale, Warrington W. Colescott, dominance of science, efforts were expended to and artists prominent on the local scene con­ correct the imbalance and to emphasize the role tributed their works for the magazine's cover. of the Academy as a mediator between arts, letters, and science. The Transactions repre­ "'"Proceedings," in Transactions (1945), 37; 351. sents a cache of valuable research. The great "" "Balance Between Humanities and Sciences," in amount of material now in the Memorial Li­ Review (Summer, 1966), 5, 54; Mark Ingraham, "On the Adjective 'Common'," in Review (Spring, 1967), brary as a result of the exchange of the Trans­ 1; William B. Sarles, "The Present Challenge," Re­ actions has been a significant contribution both view (Fall, 1968), 1; E. J. Drummond, S. J., "Edu­ to the library and to the needs of scholarship cation; The Humanities and the Sciences," Banquet Address, 86th Annual Meeting, May 4, 1956; Ralph in the state. A. McCanse, "Sciences, Arts, and Letters; A Plea for Parity," Review (Summer, 1954), 1. "Waker Bubbert to H. A. Schuette, October 25, 1945; Schuette to Bubbert, November 2, 1945; Min­ '^Transactions (1961), 50:3. utes of Annual Business meeting, April 12, 1946. ^Review (Summer, 1968), 17.

174 THE GREEKS OF MILWAUKEE

BY THEODORE SALUTOS

nPHE SETTLING of Greeks in Milwaukee is Greeks were attracted to Milwaukee by the -'- part of the broader picture of Greeks set­ opportunities it offered. The demand for tling in the United States, and their establish­ skilled labor was great, and unfamiliarity with ment in a city of a predominantly German the English language hardly was an obstacle population, if anything, displayed a willing­ in a land which needed men with strong backs ness and an ability on their part to root them­ and strong arms. There was no waiting as in selves in a community far different from what Greece for the annual harvest that often they had known at home and to commingle brought a small crop. Here a man worked for with people of diverse ethnic and cultural ori­ wages in the factory, a store or an industrial gins. Arriving in small numbers after the open­ plant; the pay, relatively speaking, was high ing of the twentieth century, and especially and he received it at the end of the week and after 1905, they chose to locate themselves in sometimes at the end of the day. The oppor­ the urbanized areas of Wisconsin's lakeshore tunity for saving money by retaining Old district. Small colonies emerged in Sheboygan, World living standards and receiving New which in the early years boasted of the largest World wages could be seized upon, and many Greek population in the state, Milwaukee, a Greek with the cost of passage, courage, and Kenosha and Racine; still others found them­ determination seized the chance to capitalize selves in Waukesha, Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, on these prospects.^ Green Bay, Madison, and La Crosse. But the Most of the Greeks in Milwaukee came from largest and most permanently rooted Greek the Peloponessus, especially from Arcadia and colony in Wisconsin was that in Milwaukee.^ to a much lesser extent from Sparta, Messenia, In part the reasons for coming to Milwaukee and Elias; they also came from Greece proper, are traceable to the general causes of emigrat­ especially Rumeli, and the islands of the ing from Greece and arriving in the United Aegean and Ionian Seas. Some came from the States. They were primarily economic, for political and religious oppression — except among the Greeks living in the Ottoman Em­ ^ Seraphim G. Canoutas, Hellino-Amerikanikos pire — was almost unknown in Greece. The Odygos (Greek-American Guide) (New York, 1907), 193-194. By all odds the best treatment of ethnic Greek immigrants more or less were pushed groups in Milwaukee is in Bayrd Still's, Milwaukee: out of their native land by the niggardliness The History of a City (Madison, 1948), 453^72. A of her soil, the periodic crop failures, the lack sketchy treatment is that of H. Russell Austin, The Milwaukee Story: The Making of An American City of opportunities, and a stratified class struc­ (Milwaukee, 1946), 147-153. A series of articles ap­ ture that made it difficult, if not impossible, for pearing in the Milwaukee Journal dealing with the various ethnic groups in journalistic fashion were them to escape from its repressive clutches. put together by Charles House, From Many Lands Some naturally sought to escape from military (Milwaukee Journal, 1966). service, a practice known to people of many ^ See Theodore Saloutos, The Greeks in the United States (Cambridge, 1964), 21-43, and They Remem­ lands, and also a practice that the more patri­ ber America (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1956), 1-10, otic Greeks would deny vehemently. on the general causes of emigration.

175 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

Dodecanese and Crete. But most numerous were those from Arcadia.'^ There is no specific evidence of who was the first Greek to reach Milwaukee or when he arrived. In all probability Lucas Miller, an orphan of the Greek War of Independence days, who was adopted and brought to Osh­ kosh and who in 1890 was elected as a Demo­ cratic Congressman for a single term from Winnebago County, visited Milwaukee on vari­ ous occasions even though be did not settle in the city.'' However, a pioneer, if not the first, settler was James Tsakona, who had estab­ lished himself in Milwaukee during the late J890's if not sooner, and became conspicuous in the affairs of the Greek community in its early years. The city directory lists him in 1897 and in subsequent years as a confec­ tioner.'' Once a small nucleus established itself in the city, relatives and friends from the same or Society's Iconographic Collections nearby villages joined them. As a rule, the Lucas Mitiades Miller, who was orphaned during newcomers planned their voyage with greater the Greek revolt against Turkey, adopted by an care than frequently was realized. Some came American fighting with the Greeks, and who was later elected to Congress from Wisconsin's Sixth direct from their home villages to brothers, District. sisters, cousins, uncles, aunts, fathers, and Statistics on the number who came to the friends. Others came to Milwaukee after work­ city are fragmentary and must be viewed with ing and living temporarily in other cities, be­ caution. In 1906 a special committee of the ing encouraged to come by the desire to be Greek Chamber of Deputies placed the number near friends and relatives or by the job oppor­ of Greeks in Sheboygan, a furniture-making tunities. The arrival of one or two from tbe center, at 410 and in Milwaukee at 314. Tripolis-Megalopolis area, for instance, trig­ Another report by a Greek Ministry stated gered the arrival of still others, especially after that in 1900 the state of Wisconsin had a it had become known their relatives or friends Greek population of sixty-three and in 1910 were established in the city. A Greek descrip­ of 2,810, while the City of Milwaukee had tion of Milwaukee in 1910 referred to it as twenty-six and 1,122 respectively in the same "a large city, beautiful, commercial and indus­ years. In all probability the Greek population trial . . . the acropolis of the socialists . . ." of Milwaukee, at its peak, never exceeded whose people spoke the language of the Kaiser 4,000 to 5,000.'^ and drank beer.® ° Saloutos, The Greeks in the United States, 45; interviews with George Poulos, Dionysios Dionysopou- " For information on the Greek community in gen­ los, and Harry Gianos, July, 1952; and Charles eral I am especially indebted to Stanley Stacy who Michalos, September 23, 1969. All these men came is well versed on the history of the greater portion to Milwaukee before 1907. For instance, according to of the community. Among the pioneer Greek resi­ Dionysios Dionysopoulos, more than eighty had dents of the city interviewed were: Harry Gianos, come to Milwaukee from the small village of Aspra James Georges, George Poulos, and Dionysios Dio- Spitia, near the historic site of Olympia. Of course, nysopoulos, July, 1952; and Charles Michalos, Sep­ all these people did not become permanent residents tember 23, 1969. of the city; but it does suggest the powerful pull that ' Dictionary ol If isconsin Biography (Madison, the presence of some villagers from the same village 1960), 254; Wisconsin Blue Book, 1890 (Madison, had on others from the same area. 1891), 573; Milwaukee Daily Sentinel, November 9, ^ E Ex Hellados Metanasteusis, E Ekthesis Tis Epi- 1876. tropis Tis Voulis Kai E Schetiki Protasis Nomou ' Wright's Directory of Milwaukee, 1897, p. 1077; (Emigration from Greece, The Report of the Par­ ibid., 1898, p. 1103; ibid., 1900, p. 1196; ibid., 1902, liamentary Committee and Proposed Legislation) p. 1286. (Athens, 1912), 6, 28.

176 SALOUTOS: GREEKS OF MILWAUKEE rj^EE TANNERIES which furnished employ- racetrack owner elsewhere, once was an em­ •*- ment for many of the early Greeks were ployee of a Milwaukee tannery.'® built, owned, and operated by members of Other Greeks found jobs in iron and steel pioneer German families such as Guide Pfister, mills; restaurants and hotels as waiters, dish­ Frederick P. Vogel, August T. Gallun, and washers, and handymen; shoeshining parlors Albert 0. Troestel. These men early had and hat-cleaning establishments; factories and gauged the potential of Milwaukee as a tan­ industrial plants of various kinds; and on rail­ ning center and helped convert it into one of road construction gangs. Their lack of tech­ the prominent industries of the city and na­ nical skills, formal education, and professional tion. In 1916 the manufacturer of leather, an training facilitated rather than handicapped end product of tanning, ranked third in the their occupational adjustment. For what was economic life of Milwaukee. Only iron, steel required was not culture and refinement but and heavy machinery, and packed meats physical endurance, patience, reliability, and a ranked ahead of it; leather-making even was willingness to work hard at any available more important than beer, which mistakenly labor. The Greek immigrant would have been was assumed to be the principal staple of the lost without these qualities. city.* A sizable number among the more enter­ The tanneries offered jobs the Greeks could prising Greeks displayed an ability to embark perform with a minimum knowledge of Eng­ on business careers with hope, energy, and lish and experience. The first ethnics employed resourcefulness which was remarkable in view in the tanneries were Germans; then came the of their peasant backgrounds. For the most Irish, a few Englishmen and Scotsmen, with part they arrived in Milwaukee without much the Germans predominating. By 1910 about liquid capital or experience in the restaurant, eighteen nationalities were working in the tan­ confectionery, and other lines of business they neries, including Poles (with whom the Greeks were to engage in. Few in fact had traveled far were at odds in the beginning), Russians, beyond their native villages or had much con­ Italians, Croatians, Slovaks, and Lithuanians; tact with people of other ethnic backgrounds. the Greeks who were employed in the industry The average Greek was an independent, in 1898-1899 were among the last to be hired.^ competitive, and freedom-loving individual Just what precisely attracted the Greeks to who thrived in an atmosphere that honored the tanneries of Milwaukee is hard to say. In these qualities. In a way his marginal existence all probability the availability of jobs — for in the mother country and his willingness for jobs in the tanneries were hardly choice ones a time to tolerate these conditions in the — and the tendency of those few Greeks who United States, where his earnings were con­ got jobs there to pull in more of their com­ siderably higher than in Greece, enabled him, patriots perhaps explains their presence. A especially if he was ambitious, thrifty, and de­ number of Milwaukee's Greek pioneers can be termined, to husband his resources. A natural- counted among the alumni of her tanneries. born competitor with a determination to suc­ William Helis, who later achieved fame and ceed, he reconciled himself to middle-class fortune as an oil magnate, horse breeder, and values. Business appealed to such a person for one or more reasons. One was his desire to acquire wealth and status, and then return to his na­ " Milwaukee Journal, October 16, 1917. For ac­ tive village and flaunt this in the face of a for­ counts of Pfister and Vogel Tanning Company, see mer detractor or female who had spurned him. 100 Years of Service (Milwaukee, 1948), 8-12; Mil­ waukee Sentinel, October 21, 1930, March 28, 1937, Perhaps another was his belief that this was April, 1965, June 3, 1969. For brief biographical the surest way to wealth and success, and cer­ sketches of Charles F. Pfister, the son of Guide, see tainly preferable to working for wages. Others Jerome E. Watrous (ed.). Memoirs of Milwaukee County, (Madison, 1909), II: 523-525; and ot August were attracted by the love of liberty as well as F. Gallun, ibid., 1010. On A. 0. Troestel, see Milwau­ of the dollar, for being in business for your- kee Sentinel, June 3, 1969. ^Abstracts of Reports of the Immigration Com­ mission (61 Congress, 3 session. Senate Document no. 747, serial 5865-5866, Washington, 1911), 530. ^° Milwaukee Journal, August 27, 1943.

177 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 self represented a form of freedom. Standing hire some compatriot or to invite a brother, a behind the counter as one's own boss instead nephew or a cousin to come from Greece and of as an employee for a monthly or weekly work for him. wage meant freedom from the domination of The number of owners and operators of others. Some even preferred working in their shoeshining parlors exceeded that of confec­ own shops at a smaller return than as a hired tionery stores. No Greek names were listed hand for someone else at a higher wage." among the bootblacks in the city directories of An appreciable but not an overwhelming 1900 and 1901, and in fact the first such name number of Milwaukee Greeks, estimated at makes its appearance in 1902. From then on about 130 at one time, were confectioners, the number listed in the directories increased restaurateurs, coffeehouse operators, small steadily, until in 1920 at least forty establish­ grocers, barbers, and saloonkeepers. In fact, ments were under Greek names, or were known this type of business enterprise was most com­ to have been operated by Greeks. Most of the mon among the commercial-minded Greeks of shoeshining parlors bore the names of the the city. Those who went into the laundry sup­ proprietors, but a number of them carried ply and wholesale tobacco business, especially Anglicized or commercial building names such the latter, usually did better financially. The as the Caswell Block, the Plankinton Arcade Milwaukee Greek community had in it men Hat Shop, the Mack Block, the London Hat who were in comfortable financial straits, but Shop and Shoe Repairing Parlor, the Busy not excessively wealthy.'^ Bee, the Pullman, and the Paris Shoe Repair­ Greeks were known as a people with a sweet ing and Hat Cleaning Shop. The affixing of tooth, and Greece as a country was overrun "Hat Shop" or "Shoe Repairing" to the name by small sweets shops and confectionery stores. of the business simply denoted that hat clean­ This taste spilled over into the United States, ing and shoe repairing were among the func­ for the Greeks of Milwaukee like those of the tions of the shop.'* other metropolitan communities got into the Unfortunately, the working conditions in confectionery business quite early. One Greek some of the shoeshining parlors were anything name was listed under confectioners in the city but ideal, and some of the less scrupulous directory in 1897, and by 1917 the number of owners shamefully exploited their employees names had grown to twenty-six.'^ by paying them low wages, cheating them out of tips, working them excessively long hours CHOESHINING, another business well in violation of the law, and sometimes ren­ ^ known to the Greeks, was rooted in most dered them helpless and dependent. Some, of communities, including Milwaukee, quite course, ran afoul of the law. When the supply early; for the skills and labor of the trade of Greek labor ran short, the owner turned to could be transferred very easily to this coun­ the American-born offspring of immigrants try, TTie capital requirements were small, cer­ who knew some English, had some knowledge tainly smaller than those of the confectioner, of tbe laws of the country, and were not as and the returns high. All one needed was a gullible or submissive as the freshly arrived good back, a strong pair of arms, an ability immigrants. Non-Greeks, including Negroes, to work long hours, and a capacity to with­ also were hired to meet labor needs.'^ stand the stench emanating from the various Once the oxford type of shoe became more cleaners, dyes, and shoe polish. If business popular the leather contents of the shoe di­ was good, and it appeared to have been that in minished, and as more Americans rode in the years immediately before and after World automobiles or street cars and buses, fewer War I, the tendency of the proprietor was to relied on shoeshining parlors for the polishing of their shoes. The popularity of the shoeshin­ ing parlor as a consequence declined and with " Saloutos, The Greeks in the United States, 258- 259. " Greek Business Directory of the United States and Canada, 1921-1922 (New York, 1921), 515. ''Ibid., 1900, p. 1104; ibid., 1901, p. 1196; ibid., ^''Wright's Directory of Milwaukee, 1897, p. 1077; 1920, pp. 1998-2000. ibid., 1917, pp. 1784-1785. " Saloutos, The Greeks in the United States, 48-56.

178 SALOUTOS: GREEKS OF MILWAUKEE

Relatively few Greek names are listed under shoe repairing in the city directory of 1920, which suggests that this highly competitive business requiring a large capital outlay, train­ ing and retooling was not invaded en masse by Greeks as was shoeshining. In the absence of specific evidence, a reasonable assumption is that the better-established operations such as the London Hat Shop, with its citywide repu­ tation for quality workmanship, embarked on this new capital venture earlier than the less successful shops. Evidence of the shifting and waning for­ tunes of the Greek-owned shoeshining parlor and confectionery store was in evidence by 1925. Then at least thirty-one of the fifty-two listed shoeshining establishments were known to have been operated by Greeks, and the likeli­ hood is that still more were operated by them than the city directory indicates. About nine­ teen confectionery stores were listed under Greek names or were known to have been operated by Greeks, while the list of the non- Greek owners had grown considerably.

Courtesy the author The crowding out of the Greek from the con­ fectionery business of Milwaukee, as in other The author's aunt and uncle, Mr. and Mrs. James Sariotis, photographed in Milwaukee about 1910. cities, may be attributed in part to the emer­ gence of the modern drugstore with its soda fountain, light lunches, and related sidelines it the need for shoe shiners. This meant the which ate heavily into the dwindling fortunes proprietors had to branch out and diversify of the smaller sweet shops. Often the drug­ their operations if they wanted to continue as stores' larger volume of business, their in­ small businessmen, and take in not only more evitably lower prices, and the opportunities hat cleaning, but shoe repairing, and the clean­ they offered patrons to make other purchases, ing and pressing of clothes. Shoe repairing in made it very difficult for the small marginal the United States historically has been identi­ confectioner to survive. Unless the proprietor fied with shoemaking: it was an ancient and came forth with a product of high quality that honorable craft; family names associated with was in demand by his patrons, his days as a either shoemakers or shoe repairers included confectioner were numbered. Prejudice and those of John Adams, Henry Wilson, Samuel whispering campaigns designed to discredit Clemens, and other distinguished personalities. tbe Greek proprietor also took their toll.'^ The Greek shoeshine parlor boss, on the other hand, could not make a similar claim; he had TT IS impossible to speak of the small Greek shoe repairing thrust upon him by the tech­ businessman without speaking in the same nological and economic changes of the day breath about the Greek as a restaurant man. with which he had to make his peace.'® It is not known who the first Greek restaurant owner in Milwaukee was, but it can be assumed that he got into the business very

" U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of For­ eign and Domestic Commerce, Industrial Series, No. 17, J. G. Schnitzer and Charlotte R. Budd, Establish­ ing and Operating a Shoe Repair Business (Wash­ " Wright's City Directory of Milwaukee, 1920, pp. ington, 1945), 1-2. 1998-1999; ibid., 1925, pp. 2500-2502, 2642-2643.

179 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 early and that he often catered to the culinary the proprietors retained their Greek family appetites of his countrymen who continued to names or historic Greek names such as Acro­ prefer the dishes of the mother country over polis, Panhellenion, and Kentron, but more those of the so-called American cuisine. At of them took on Anglicized names such as the first, Greek-owned restaurants appeared mostly Liberty Restaurant, American Restaurant, in the neighborhoods which Greeks patronized Boston Restaurant, Busy Bee Lunch, City Hall more so than in the outlying districts; then Lunch, Sanitary Lunch, and the like. The they began to fan out in various directions.'* prejudice toward the Greek restaurant pro­ Most restaurants were small enterprises that prietor was more fact than fancy. As a youth were the result of the pooling of the resources the writer remembers a short-order restaurant of two or three compatriots. Sometimes an on Third Street just north of Wells called ambitious waiter or a maitre de in a hotel, a Twentieth Century Lunch, which boldly an­ dishwasher or a cook who knew something nounced that it was "Operated By An Ameri- about the business and who husbanded his can."'8 resources or was able to get the necessary Greeks also became florists, bakers, grocers, financing, opened up a restaurant of his own. saloonkeepers, butchers, and barbers. The Rarely did a Greek form a partnership with a florists for some unexplainable reason were non-Greek; this was relatively unknown not as prominent among the Milwaukee Greeks among the first generation Greeks. And some­ as they were among the Greeks of other large times the restaurant was a family operation. cities. The Greek baker catered to the pre­ Besides being modest operations for the ferred needs of his compatriots who in the most part, the quality of the food and the early years wanted his product instead of that patrons they catered to varied. Relatively few of the local bakeries; he also roasted lambs were patronized by the members of the more for weddings, christenings, the Easter season, successful commercial and professional classes, and other special occasions. The Greek grocer and none gained the reputation that some of usually handled staple wares commonly used the older German restaurants acquired. Hot by his compatriots, but unavailable in the non- dog stands and short-order houses that re­ Greek store, such as Greek feta cheese, Greek quired small quantities of capital, fewer culin­ olives, Greek olive oil, and Greek bread, plus ary skills, and less experienced help were the a wide variety of other items including squid, more representative types of restaurants. pastries, origanum, special cuts of lamb, and Before the United States entered World War delicacies of the holiday season. The Greek- I it was common practice for the Greek-owned owned grocery store likewise was a clearing restaurant to be listed under the name or house of information about the community, names of the actual proprietors. In many cases and in a way was comparable to the Greek these names were difficult if not impossible to coffeehouse. Often the proprietor of the gro­ pronounce and remember. After the war when cery store vied with the Greek priest, the Greek antiforeign sentiment was at its peak, some of barber, and the Greek coffeehouse owner as a depository of community gossip. Often his store served as the mailing address of single males who changed jobs frequently or worked '* For the greater part of the earlier period there on railroad construction gangs that were con­ were several small Greek colonies, shifting in size, stantly on the move.^® but three of these stood out conspicuously. The prime colony in the general area of Fifth and Wells streets which fanned out in all four directions and served as the location of many of the first small rpHE MILWAUKEE GREEK COMMUNITY businesses owned by Greeks; the one in the general •*- attracted few members of the professional neighborhood of North Water and East Juneau that stretched as far south as State Street and east to North Broadway and Knapp streets, and the one " Wright's City Directory of Milwaukee, 1917, pp. closest to the Church of the Annunciation; and a 1893-1894; Greek Directory of 1923 (Chicago, 1923), third one in the general vicinity of Sixth Street and 443-445. National Avenue which also fanned out in all direc­ ™ On florists, see Wright's City Directory of Mil­ tions. By the outbreak of World War II these colo­ waukee, 1903, p. 1360; ibid., 1906, p. 1545; ibid., nies had disintegrated or were well on the road to 1915, p. 2078. On grocers, see ibid., 1907, pp. 1687- disintegration. 1688, 1690; ibid., 1917, pp. 1823, 1825-1826.

180 SALOUTOS: GREEKS OF MILWAUKEE

classes. Except for one or perhaps two doctors, Family life among the early arrivals was such as Dr. James Countanis who had been conspicuous by its absence. Most immigrants active in the Panhellenic Union before the were unattached males and at first some were Balkan Wars of 1912-1913, and a chemist inclined to live under some co-operative house­ who in all probability was a pharmacist, medi­ keeping arrangement whereby they took turns cal doctors, dentists, and lawyers of Greek in washing, cleaning, cooking, and otherwise background failed to make their appearance sharing expenses. In fact, the ratio of males to until the late 1920's and early 1930's. But females among the Greeks was among the what the first generation was unable to attract highest of all immigrant groups. Marriages, in sufficient numbers in the beginning was when they took place, were arranged usually more than compensated for by the members by intermediaries who chose to do this of their of the second and third generations who were own volition or who had been asked to serve determined to elevate their occupational status. in this capacity by some matrimonially in­ One of the unanswered questions is why the clined individuals. As the Greek population of Milwaukee Greek community which had been Milwaukee increased and the community so devoid of members of the professional gained an aura of permanence, matrimonial classes and persons of wealth in later years matchmaking became more common. Prefer­ managed to produce a high percentage of sec­ ence often was expressed for a mate from the ond generation males who obtained advanced same village, district, or province. Some of degrees and attractive teaching assignments in course traveled to the mother country and to some of the nation's better-known institutions their own villages to obtain spouses, while of higher learning.^' others had prospective brides shipped to them. During tbe 1920's the picture bride became 'T'HE SOCIAL EQUIPMENT the immigrant more common. With the passing of the years -*- came with helped condition his experi­ Greek-born males who felt secure in their bus­ ences in Milwaukee. Usually he brought with iness or job, and usually older in years, took him the psychology of the social system of the in marriage daughters born in the United peasant society, despite the efforts of some to States to first-generation immigrants. Marriage conceal this and identify themselves with the outside tbe group to members of other nation­ largest city and town nearest to the village ality groups, although known to members of from which they originated. For the rural the first generation, became more common people of Greece were more numerous than among those of the second and third genera­ the people of the cities and the towns, and the tions. town population in large measure was of Family ties once forged became quite peasant origin. strong, and they were reinforced by frequent The social life of the Milwaukee Greek was family and social gatherings, baptismal cere­ conditioned to a considerable degree by the monies, the celebration of religious and name primary groups to which he belonged, that is, days, picnics, outings, and other occasions. by groups whose members knew him person­ Preference for a member of the immediate or ally or else knew about him. Such groups in­ extended family was always noticeable in mat­ cluded the larger family, relatives on the pa­ ters of employment, choice of office in soci­ ternal and maternal side usually up to the third eties, and business partnerships at least in the degree with their families; the community or earlier years. One could almost become a mem­ neighborhood, which took in one's village or ber of the immediate family by christening a hamlet as the nearest group and next the coun­ child or serving as best man at a wedding. try as far as personal acquaintances could Family pride was always strong. Nothing was reach; and, finally, the church parish and tbe quite as reprehensible as bringing shame to organizations under the leadership of the the family name. priest or church officials. The Greek family had a chain of command and discipline. Rarely was there any question ^ Canoutas, Greek-American Guide (New York, as to who was the head. Unquestioned author­ 1910), 403; Milwaukee Journal, October 14, 1912. ity was vested in the father who, in keeping

181 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

Courtesy the author The priest and members of the old Church of the Annunciation are shown in this photograph probably taken in 1914.

with the ancestral tradition, made the laws, IVrO TREATMENT of the Milwaukee com- carried them out, and upheld their validity. ^ ' munity would be complete without an ac­ The Greek father did not believe in the separa­ count of one of the most ubiquitous of Greek tion of powers; in theory he was all-powerful institutions, the coffeehouse, which appeared and he believed in exercising his prerogatives; wherever a sufficient number of compatriots his will prevailed especially when his children gathered. A coffeehouse could be patronized were young and manageable. He made deci­ by Greeks who came from the same village or sions often without consulting his wife who, province, shared common political or religious in turn, was expected to uphold them. His beliefs, or wanted a common meeting place major concern was with maintaining the in­ where they could gather with compatriots of tegrity, respect, and good name of the family, their own kind to talk, exchange gossip, play preserving the language, traditions, faith, and cards and games, and spend their hours of preventing any deviation from the norm that loneliness. The coffeehouse often was sought could create a crisis. The oldest son in theory out by the newly arrived Greek. was the crown prince, the heir apparent of the The life story of almost every Greek in the family; he was expected to be at the side of his community became known in the coffeehouse. father, and see to it that his commands were There the patrons discussed politics, the prob- respected. In its ideal setting, which rarely happened and then only among the tradition- bound, he served as the counselor and guide of the younger brothers and sisters, and tried '^''J. P. Xenides, The Greeks in America (New to make sure that they adhered to the family York, 1922), 47-49; Thomas Burgess, Greeks in America (Boston, 1913), 73-75; Saloutos, Greeks in code.^^ the United States, 311-317.

182 SALOUTOS: GREEKS OF MILWAUKEE

lems of the parish, the Greek school, the Greek nent figure in the Venizelos movement ;^^ the priest, the schoolteacher, the president of the Zappeion, named after Evangelelos and Con- board of trustees and 'the members, who was stantine Zappas, famous Greek benefactors; getting married and who died, who was going Kilkis, the scene of a famous battle; and the to Greece and who was returning. There they Synantesis, a Greek word for a meeting place. talked about the day's work in the factory or On the near east side adjacent to the intersec­ the store; there they quarreled and made up. tion of the then East Water Street and Juneau No subject was beyond their grasp. European Avenue were the Averoff, named after another problems were solved promptly and assuredly, Greek benefactor; and the Byzantium, a name and they all reached their forte when Greek rich in the Greek heritage and tradition. politics became the subject of conversation. In its heyday the coffeehouse also provided Little capital was needed to start a coffee­ amusement facilities for the male population. house. An enterprising compatriot could rent Silhouettes or "shadow shows," or what may a vacant store, a flat, or some small building be compared to puppet shows, strong-man ex­ and stock it with the requisite number of tables hibitions, occasional floor shows, and cinema and chairs. A potbellied stove, a few pounds productions were staged. The shadow shows of Greek coffee, several dozen packs of playing had a distinct Near Eastern flavor about them. cards, some coffee-making equipment, a small They were staged on a hastily improvised and stove burner, a couple of cases of soft drinks, elevated platform in the rear of the coffee­ an assortment of baklava, lukum, and other house. Stretched across the top of the platform delicacies, and the proprietor was ready for was a white sheet about three feet wide, be­ business. Some lithographs depicting historic hind which were burning either candles or battle scenes or events of some glorious phase electric lights. The characters usually were of Greek history or of one of the political handled by one performer, who stood behind favorites of the proprietors and patrons helped the white-sheeted screen and reflected them give the coffeehouse some decor. And it was against the sheet; hand gestures and rapid in­ amidst some such atmosphere that the patrons flections and modulations of voice gave them sat in choking clouds of smoke that ascended an animated appearance. The chief character, to the ceiling from the cigars, cigarettes, and Karagiozes (black eyes), frequently was por­ pipes of the vociferous and often gesticulating trayed as a crude barefooted, gruff-voiced patrons. In the pre- and post-World War I hunchback, possessed of a clever naivete and a days the Greek colonies of the downtown area, highly nationalistic flavor. He also packed a the lower east and south sides of the city, murderous punch. boasted of no less than thirteen coffeehouses. Shadow shows were of humorous and seri­ ous varieties, the most common being de­ Wells Street, the butt of many a comedian's scriptive of the spirit of Greek independence and vaudeville performer's jokes, in 1923 — a Greek always was the hero, and the Turk boasted of more coffeehouses than any other the villain. The various characters, "the armed street in the city. Between Fourth and Seventh Turks and the armed Greeks," would appear streets one could choose between the Elpis (Hope), the Parthenon, the Paradisos (Para­ dise) , the Constantinople, or the Verdun. If none of these pleased a potential patron there ''^ Eleutherios Venizelos (1864-1936) believed in was the Acropolis on Fifth Street off Wells or a parliamentary form of government for Greece, pat­ terned after that of the western nations, and also in the Lesche (Club) on Wells Street off Fifth lining up Greece on the side of the Allies during Street, better known as the "Aleveta," a cor­ World War I. He commanded great respect in Eng­ ruption for an elevator supposedly near the land and France. Constantine I, on the other hand, the grandfather of the present exiled King Constan­ coffeehouse which had gained some notoriety tine II, advocated a policy of neutrality for Greece, as a gambling place. believing that this would better serve the long-range interests of the nation. However, he was married to Nor were the coffeehouses in other neigh­ the sister of Kaiser William II and was accused of borhoods to be overlooked. On First Avenue harboring pro-German sympathies. These heated political battles were fought with great bitterness well in the near south side were the Koundouriotis, into the 1920's and did Greece irreparable damage named after a famous naval leader and promi­ on both the home and the foreign fronts.

183 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

"on the scene moving to and fro, gesticulating, The longest-lived of these mutual aid soci­ fighting, fleeing, singing, and dancing." These eties was that of the Stereoladiton or shows waned after the twenties, probably be­ Athanasios Diakos, named after a Greek revo­ cause of the growing appeal of American lutionary war hero burned at the stake by the forms of entertainment, the demoralizing Turks, founded in 1907 and dissolved in 1968. effects of the Greek defeat in Asia Minor, and By 1935 some 520 had joined the society, but perhaps the inability of the performers to after that date the membership began to de­ make a living out of their circuit-riding per­ cline for one reason or another. The Depres­ formances that took them from city to city.^'' sion, the death of some of the mainstays of the society, the dispersal of the members of the 'C'RATERNAL, benefit, and mutual aid so- Greek community, and the acquiring of bene­ •*- cieties made their appearances at various fits from other sources contributed to its de­ stages in the history of the Milwaukee com­ mise. In its lifetime the society collected about munity. Often embroiled in factional and per­ $460,000, the bulk of which was paid out in sonal disputes, the need for these societies the form of funerals, hospitalization, and doc­ originally was occasioned by the illness, in­ tors' fees. In 1968, after the membership had jury, or death of a compatriot who often was dwindled to forty-two members and its pro­ in destitute circumstances and far removed gram had become meaningless in the light of from home or the nearest of kin. At first the soaring medical costs and shrinking income, practice in such contingencies was to seek out it was decided to divide the $15,600 in the personal contributions from the closest of treasury among the members and disband.^'^ friends, especially those coming from the same Other comparable, but shorter-lived, soci­ village or province, to help defray the costs, eties were lera Altis, founded by immigrants and the burden often tended to fall on those from the province of Elias in the Peloponessus who were in a better financial situation. To in 1918 and which two years later claimed a say that this was a source of embarrassment, membership of 240; and Papaflessas, which as well as sorrow, would be an understatement. was named after another Greek revolutionary So in response to this felt need, the Milwaukee hero, and which was the society of those from Greeks organized societies to meet such emer­ the general area of Trifilias, had a treasury in gencies by levying monthly dues on each mem­ excess of $1,200 at the end of 1919. The lack ber who would in turn become eligible for of information about these organizations benefit payments if he met certain prescribed makes it impossible to draw any comparisons rules and schedules of payments.^^ with Athanasios Diakos.^^ Such societies appeared early. In 1907, ac­ Perhaps the most important Greek institu­ cording to one source, Milwaukee had three tion transplanted on Milwaukee soil was the such societies: the Gortinians, the Olympiakon, Greek Orthodox Church. Milwaukee's Greek and the Stereoladiton, names more or less laymen, like their compatriots in other com­ identified with the areas of Greece from which munities across the nation, took the initiative the founders came. The first, for instance, was in organizing the first church. They united that of the Greeks coming from Gortinia in themselves at first into a community which in the province of Arcadia, the second of those turn took the initiative in establishing a church from the Olympia-Pyrgos area in Elias, and in which they could worship in the faith of their the third of those from Greece proper or cen­ fathers and forefathers. In all likelihood the ear­ tral Greece.^® ly community leaders took it upon themselves to write to the Patriarchate or to the Church of

^Chicago Hellinikos Astir, April 8, 1908; New '^ Nick Anagnos to author, November 4, 1969. York Atlantis, January 3, 1913; Chicago Saloniki, Anagnos was secretary of the society at the time of November 1, 1913, August 8, 1914, September its dissolution in 1968. 18, 1915; Greek Directory of 1923 (Chicago, 1923), '"^ Panhellinion Hemerologion (Panhellenic Alma­ 444. nac) (New York, 1920), 249; New York National ^"Xenides, The Greeks in America, 103. Herald, January 14, February 5, 1920, March 19, '^ Canoutas, Greek-American Guide, 1907, 193-194. 1923.

184 SALOUTOS: GREEKS OF MILWAUKEE

Greece asking for a priest to serve the com­ The plans for the church which consisted of munity. This was common practice in those a sacristy on the east end, a gallery, and an days. The first priest of the newly formed auditorium were drawn by Carl Barhausen. parish of the Church of the Annunciation The facade was of an elaborate Byzantine (Evangelismos), was PartheniosKolonis (1863- colonial design finished with terra cotta; the 1933), "a short man with a red beard" and a wall, the costliest part of the church, divided native of the Island of Patmos, who had been the sacristy from the auditorium. The holy ordained a priest in 1904. He reached New pictures came from the monks of a Mt. Athos York City that same year from where he left monastery, and an expensive embroidered for Milwaukee to look after the needs of the sepulchral cover of the Saviour, imported from community. The first services of the Milwau­ Russia, was contributed by a group of Greeks kee Hellenic Community were held in a build­ from Tbessaly. Several others donated church ing on Third Street not too far from the down­ paraphernalia of silver.^® town area.^^ The Church of the Annunciation of the Mil­ A S IN THE OTHER CITIES, three rather waukee Hellenic Community was formally -^*- distinct periods stand out in the history of organized and incorporated in June, 1906. Its the Milwaukee Greek community. The first ex­ chief objective was to maintain a place of tended from about 1900 to 1922 when the worship for the Greeks of Milwaukee, pur­ preservation of Hellenism and the thought of chase and maintain cemetery grounds, estab­ returning to Greece haunted tbe minds of lish a Hellenic school, and care for the poor many. The second spanned the years from and distressed members of the community. 1922 to about 1940 when adjustment and The community further decided to erect a assimilation to the American scene was chip­ church building that would cost about ping away at Hellenism, until the latter almost $25,000; the members gave generously and became an extinct species. The third set began within a brief time about $8,000 was collected. in late 1940 and continues to the present. This Money had been collected in sufficient quanti­ marked the beginning of an era of respecta­ ties to acquire two lots on the corner of Broad­ bility for the Greek-Americans and of a re- way and Knapp on which to build the new surging brand of philhellenism, when sud­ church structure. Originally, the cost of the denly many emerged from obscurity, made property was quoted at $11,000 and later at known their Greek ancestry, and sought to $15,000. The church, later described as one reidentify themselves with a culture they once built by a community consisting of 85 per cent ivere on the verge of abandoning. The Hellenic males and bachelors, was completed in 1914. phase was to be reinforced by the fresh waves, The Greeks moved swiftly in erecting this small as they were, of Greeks arriving in the church because from a religious standpoint decades after World War II. they were united; almost all belonged to the In the first of these periods, from 1900 to Greek Orthodox Church instead of being split 1922, the spirit of Hellenism, especially that up into warring religious sects and denomi­ fiery brand of nationalism that sought, among nations; and this homogeneity was an advan­ other things, to annex the unredeemed parts tage. Furthermore, they expected to minister of Greece to the Greek nation, and the Greek to the religious needs of some of the other Orthodox Church, served as the umbilical ethnic groups of the same faith such as the cord that kept the immigrant attached to the Russians, the Roumanians, the Serbians, and mother country, nourished his patriotic appe­ even the Bulgarians. tites, and urged him to perpetuate the faith and language of his parents and grandparents.

°° Basil Zoustis, 0 En Ameriki Hellinismos Kai E Drasis Autou (Hellenism in America and Its Times (New York, 1954), 337; Greek Star, May 15, August 7, 1908; Milwaukee Journal, April 27, 1963; Canou­ ^° Milwaukee Journal, May 23, 1915; undated clip­ tas, Greek-American Guide, 1907, 193; Wright's Di­ ping in Greek Orthodox Church file, Milwaukee rectory of Milwaukee, 1905, 56; Patmos, March 31, County Historical Society, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 1958. Ibid., April 27, 1963.

185 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

The psychology of the immigrant was some­ sought to keep the fires of Hellenism aglow in thing like this. Absence from his ancestral the city. Youthful Greeks, professedly anxious home, the fear that he might never see it again, to display their faith in the institutions of the the thought of complete dehellenization and United States as well as to defend the mother even death in a strange land caused him to country from her enemies, formed a branch of embrace the faith, at least for a time, with a the Panhellenic Union somewhere between fervor and regularity unknown to him even in 1909 and 1912. On the surface the aims of his native village. The church reminded him the Union were to help the Greeks learn the of home and for this reason he attended, at English language and become citizens of the least at first. Neither a coercive government United States, but the underlying idea for all nor ecclesiastical decrees could have forced practical purposes was to have Greeks of mili­ him to contribute to the maintenance of the tary age in readiness to serve Greece in her church parish with the turbulent aggressive­ critical hour of need. A number thought that ness that characterized these earlier years. the hour was rapidly approaching and wanted The church, as indicated, became a pivotal to be prepared. Reminiscences of one who was center in the general affairs of the community. a member of the Union and of the sacred unit And the affairs of the church, apart from the of volunteers which had been formed to drill spiritual side, were handled in a forthright themselves and return to Greece to fight for and democratic manner. The lay tradition al­ her honor indicates that the unit was a loosely ways was strong in the community and it formed group that assembled periodically in spearheaded what progress was made. The Washington Park to drill amidst the jeers members of the board of trustees always took and taunts of onlooking compatriots. Accord­ their duties seriously. They represented the ing to another report, drills with actual rifles general membership that elected them, and as were held on the church premises. There were trustees they assumed undisputed control of about 300 members in the Panhellenic Union the administration, hired and fired priests, in 1912. That same year members of the Mil­ teachers, and janitors at will, and gave ample waukee Greek community joined hands with evidence of their determination to govern the the Italians in celebrating the victory of Italy affairs of the parish. The church was free from over a common foe, the Turks.^^ doctrinal disputes, but what it was spared from In early 1912 the Milwaukee Greeks found in these regards was more than compensated themselves in a flurry of excitement. "For for by other divisive issues. Much of the blame three days," observed Atlantis, "the shops of for these differences must be attributed to the many compatriots have been closed impa­ rank individualism of the average Greek, the tiently for additional information regarding inability to distinguish between lay and spiri­ the war." Shortly thereafter members of the tual matters, the injection of the spiritual and community gathered in the Frei Gemeinde lay leaders into the politics of Greece, the Hall to listen to patriotic appeals from the absence of an intelligent, effective central editor and publisher of a Chicago Greek lan­ ecclesiastical authority, and the distance that guage newspaper, and Dr. James Countanis separated the local parish from the influence of Milwaukee, a captain in the Greek Army of the mother church.^' reserves and a leader in the community. At The most significant early manifestation of this early stage about 100 were expected to an unbridled form of nationalism occurred in volunteer for service; the expenses of those 1912-1913. What happened in Milwaukee is unable to pay them were to be borne by the of more than passing interest. Before the out­ Panhellenic Union.^^ break of hostilities in 1912, agents of the Greek government, the parish priest, and other self-appointed "apostles of nationalism"

^^ Milwaukee Journal, August 18, 1912; Burgess, Greeks in America, 63-67; interview with Harry "^ See Saloutos, The Greeks in the United States, Gianos, July, 1952, 118-137, on the early church history in the United '''Atlantis, October 5, 1912; Milwaukee Journal, States. October 11, 14, 1912.

186 SALOUTOS: GREEKS OF MILWAUKEE

By late October, community leaders esti­ losing struggle, for the pull of the American mated that between 300 and 600 left the Mil­ environment was almost overpowering. At times waukee area for Greece to take part in the at the risk of antagonizing and browbeating his Balkan Wars. How many of these were from children he placed greater emphasis on the the city itself and how many were from other need for learning Greek than English. Greek communities in the state is unknown. The position of the immigrant parent is The likelihood is that the figure is exaggerated clear. Apart from the cultural value of knowing and a more reasonable estimate would be 200 something about the Greek language, the par­ to 300. Meanwhile, leaders of the Panhellenic ent needed an avenue of communication with Union had been advised not to send any more his children. The English language was a diffi­ volunteers and reservists to New York. More cult language to learn and many of them never than 30,000 Greeks reportedly had arrived in learned it. He also knew that his children could New York and were awaiting ships to take learn English in the public schools of Milwau­ them to Greece.^* kee, but where could they learn Greek except Reports of the Greek-Americans who re­ in the home or a specially created school for turned to Greece to fight gradually began to the purpose? With the immigrant parent, learn­ trickle into the city. F. T. Kent, an American ing the Greek language was a matter of neces­ correspondent attached to the Greek army of sity as well as of culture. invasion, wrote about the valiant stand that the candy store and shoeshine boys from the As a rule the community accepted the respon­ United States were making on the front lines. sibility of offering instuctions in the Greek They talked about politics in America, the language and heritage. The Greek school in World Series, and sang popular songs as they Milwaukee in 1915 reportedly had sixty-three marched to fight the Turks. They gave the pupils enrolled in it. In the earlier years, when Greek armies a "Yankee-Doodle touch." In enthusiasm ran high and enrollment was larger, the streets of Athens they sang and whistled: the lay teacher almost dominated the scene. "Everybody's Doing It," "Oh, You Beautiful The author recalls that in his day the pupils Doll," and "Waiting for the Robert E. Lee." first assembled in the church proper, and then One would have expected the public to re­ in the church basement, for classes which began act unfavorably to Greek-Americans becoming in the late afternoon and sometimes lasted well embroiled in the quarrels of Greece while they into the evening. Most pupils hated the school, were residents of this country, and over their for to them, after a long day in tbe public departure to fight in her armies. But little of schools, it represented more of a prison than a this expected antipathy was in evidence. On place of learning. It was a form of incarcera­ occasion and to the contrary, a sympathetic tion inflicted upon them by well-meaning but note was registered in the press with the publi­ not too understanding parents who were more cation of atrocity stories relating to the concerned with retaining control over their Turks.^'' children than in helping them adjust to a new environment. The curriculum in the early years PRESSURE TO PRESERVE and perpetuate was nationalistic in orientation and consisted •*- the Hellenic heritage continued unabated largely of Greek grammar, reading, geography, after the Balkan Wars. Perpetuation of the and history. Periodically drills were given by Greek language became a primary concern of a determined teacher reminiscent of a drill- the parents and community leaders. The immi­ master concerned more with discipline than grant parent faced the dual task of learning learning. Learning was by rote, and an ideal English himself and of instilling an appreci­ class recitation was one that flowed from the ation of the Greek language in his children. lips of the pupil in the fashion that water flows In this he faced an uphill and eventually a from a faucet. The examinations at the end of the school year, or "exetasis" as they were called, were to many a frightening and terrify­ ing experience; they were held in public at first and attended by members of the community at "* Milwaukee Journal, October 31, 1912. =« Ibid., November 8, 1912. large as well as by parents. One remembers the

187 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING. 1970

Courtesy the author Pupils of the Greek school conducted by the old Annunciation parish. The picture was probably taken in the period immediately following World War I.

embarrassing reprimands to which a pupil was patriots from being stigmatized as enemy exposed in the presence of his friends and par­ aliens.^' ents for not being able to give the proper The Church of Greece, which at the time was answer, or for his inattentiveness during the the immediate spiritual superior of the churches school hours and for his general lack of prep­ in the United States, found itself hopelessly aration. Although the schools were hardly involved in a bitter political controversy for models of instruction, and the atmosphere of which its leaders were largely to blame. Will­ the classroom certainly was not an inviting ingly or unwillingly, the Church of Greece as one, they nevertheless contributed in a minor the state church served as the right arm of the way to perpetuating some semblance of Greek political faction in power. Beginning in 1916 culture.^® either it was unable or unwilling to steer a The First World War provided the Milwau­ neutral course in the civil war raging between kee Greeks with their first opportunity to the "neutralist" followers of King Constantine identify themselves with the larger community. and the pro-Ally liberal forces of Eleutherios An unknown number served with the armed Venizelos, and this dispute gripped the Ameri­ forces of the United States; many purchased can communities, including the one in Milwau­ government bonds, worked long hours, and kee. Members of the board of trustees, parish- wrote glowing accounts to their relatives and friends in Greece of the opportunities this country offered them. For a time there was " The author attended one of the very first classes concern over the role of the mother country in given in the Greek language at the Church of the Annunciation, and later at Miller's Hall, and at the the war and how this would reflect on the war Church of St. Constantine and Helen. National efforts of this country, when much to the joy Herald, December 10, 1915. of all, Greece became an ally of the Western '"Xenides, Greeks in America, 25-27; Vesileos I. Chebithes, Ahepa and the Progress of Hellenism in powers and thus spared them and their com­ America (New York, 1935), 21-22.

188 SALOUTOS: GREEKS OF MILWAUKEE ioners, community leaders, brothers, and and reassure the American public that their friends were divided into voluble supporters of actions in no way alienated them from the basic Constantine or Venizelos. An uncommitted principles on which the United States was Greek was difficult to find in Milwaukee.^^ founded. But they thought they were obligated Tensions in the Milwaukee community wors­ to keep a close watch on the struggles of the ened in the years immediately after World War "barbarian-eating" (Varvarophagoi) Greeks.^" I as the festering differences between the Royal­ Matters reached crisis proportions before the ists and the Venizelists reached the breaking spring of 1922. Atlantis, the Royalist organ in point. The reasoning of the Royalists was this: the United States, reported that the Royalist- Since the Church of Greece was a state church Venizelist factions in Milwaukee had gone to and the churches in this country were under court over the control of the church properties the spiritual jurisdiction of the Church of and assets; that the Greek school affiliated with Greece, and since Constantine had scored a the parish had an enrollment of eighty pupils political victory over his arch rival Venizelos and another school on the south side had an­ and the Greek armies were in hot pursuit of other thirty; and that the National Union of their centuries-old objectives in Asia Minor, Greeks of America was making plans to pur­ it was incumbent on all Greeks to lend support chase a site on which to build a new church to Greece, the King, and the state church. and school or perhaps rent such facilities until However, the Venizelist-oriented members this could be accomplished.''® of the board of trustees of the Church of the Secession was quick in coming. The initial Annunciation thought differently: Venizelos services of the newly constituted parish of St. had gravitated toward the West where the fu­ Constantine and Helen were held on Greek In­ ture of Greece and the world lay, the idea of a dependence Day, March 25, 1922 in the Frei monarchy in postwar America was inconsistent Gemeinde Hall, the meeting place of the free­ with the spirit of democracy, and the fanatical thinkers, on Fourth Street near State on prop­ nationalism of the Royalists was harming them erty where the new Milwaukee Journal build­ in their relations with the American people ing was going to be constructed. The priest who were unable to comprehend these monar­ assigned to the new church on a more perma­ chial preferences at a time when antiforeign nent basis by Bishop Germanou Troianou, the sentiment was rising and the specter of immi­ spiritual leader of the rival archdiocese in the gration restriction stared them in the face. In United States which was to guide the destinies short, the liberal Venizelists, in control of the of the Royalist cause, was George Sakellariou. church properties and the administration of St. Constantine and Helen was founded, accord­ them, believed that the Greeks of Milwaukee, ing to its leaders, by the National Union of as well as of the United States, would benefit Greeks for the purpose of combating the anti- far more from the policies of Venizelos' than canonical teachings of Patriarch Meletios, an of the King's. Each faction showed its dis­ ardent Venizelist and a fellow Cretan, who had pleasure with the other vociferously, persist­ been elevated to the patriarchal throne of Con­ ently, and sometimes physically. stantinople in the autumn of J92J.'" The Royalist cause was furthered by the Na­ As a means of demonstrating their unity and tional Union of the Greeks in America, formed strength the members of St. Constantine and in 1921, whose pronounced aims were educa­ Helen staged a Good Friday procession at a tion and the development of unity among its time when public opinion was clamoring for members in support of the policies of the King. conformity and Americanization. More than Since the Union came into existence when the 1,500 followed a replica of the bier of Christ, King was in power, its members thought it wise banked with flowers contributed by the women to reaffirm their faith in democratic institutions of the new parish, from the church on Fourth

"" See Doros Alastos, Venizelos (London, 1942), "Atlantis, March 23, 1922. 175-176, on the role of the Greek clergy in Greece. '^ Atlantis, April 11, 21, 25, 1922; 35th Anniversary, ''"Chicago Kathimerini (Daily), September 21, S.S. Constantine and Helen Greek Orthodox Church, 1921. October 27, 1957 (Milwaukee, 1957), 46.

189 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

Illus. Monthly Herald, Dec., 1915 A Milwaukee musical group of 1915.

Street to Sixth and State streets and back again. bility to take an active part in the civic affairs The parishioners of the new church either were of Milwaukee.''^ less sensitive or less concerned with the antifor­ These divisions apart from the personal ill eign sentiments broadcast across the country.''^ will they engendered had a paralyzing effect on The Greek Independence Day celebration the greater Milwaukee Greek community. They took on a different complexion at the older reflected themselves in family and social rela­ parish of the Annunciation. More than 600 tions, the Greek language school, the coffee­ residents of the community packed the church houses, fraternal societies, and the business to celebrate the 101st anniversary, which ac­ community. No phase of life was left unscathed. tually fell on a Friday but was celebrated on Matters became even more complicated when the following Sunday as a matter of conveni­ the Church of the Annunciation adopted the ence. A Greek Independence Day parade was new-style calendar, while the new parish of St. not held as in previous years because it was Constantine and Helen adhered to the old-style considered unwise. The leaders of the parish calendar.*'' were far more sensitive to the antiforeign senti­ The postwar decade, however, saw a steady ments of the city and nation and wished to weakening in the nationalistic spirit of the avoid any unnecessary exhibition of alien affili­ earlier years. The rising tide of antiforeignism ations. This theme was stressed in the sermon and the crushing defeat of the Greeks in Asia of Reverend Simeon Metatakis who urged his Minor had their effects, but there were other parishioners to make it their sacred responsi­ more telling reasons. Before the war came to an end many had made known their intentions

" For a Greek account of the division within the 'Milwaukee Sentinel, April 15, 1922. church see Monthly Illustrated National Herald, XI: 'Ibid., April 10, 1922. 284-301 (April 1925).

190 SALOUTOS: GREEKS OF MILWAUKEE

ing in the city. The two rival churches, the late afternoon Greek schools, the fraternal and benefit societies, the scores of small shopkeep­ ers, and the growing tendency to become nat­ uralized citizens reflected permanency. The

. J Greek population of Milwaukee in 1922, placed at between 4,000 and 5,000, consisted largely of wage earners and not businessmen.*^ ,^:. Perhaps no organization better reflected the rising new spirit than the American Hellenic Educational Progressive Association (AHEPA). Organized officially in 1922 in Atlanta, Geor­ ?*^'g>-.^*' gia, the order first attracted members in the H f- states of the South before it spread into the

" . 1-, 1 . North and West. Reflecting to an extent the spirit of conformity that was sweeping the country, the AHEPA proved a mighty force in encouraging use of the English language, nat­ Illus. Monthly Herald, Dec., 1915 uralization, and assimilation. A chapter of the Anniversary celebration at the old Church of the Annunciation, AHEPA was formed in Milwaukee in 1924. Broadway and Knapp Street. Middle class in orientation and appeal, its members for the most part consisted of restau­ rateurs, confectioners, salesmen, and college of remaining in Milwaukee instead of return­ and university students embarking on profes­ ing to the mother country. Service with the sional careers. armed forces of the United States on the part of many males plus the fact that Greece had The more tradition-bound members of the been an ally of this country, and success in the Milwaukee community, as was true in other business world or steady employment had given American cities, were repelled by the AHEPA many a sense of security and a feeling of be­ program. They saw nothing wrong with the longing which they did not have before. Many American features of the AHEPA, but there had acquired wives — mostly Greek and some was something repulsive about denying mem­ non-Greek — and were raising families, and bers the right to speak Greek in the meetings their children were attending the elementary and about espousing a nonsectarian religious and some secondary schools in their respective philosophy; this was reprehensible, a subver­ neighborhoods. Even those retaining lingering sion of Hellenic ideals, a form of treason. Fi­ hopes of returning to the old country began nally, on June 3, 1927, the Odysseus chapter of realizing that children born and educated in the Greek American Progressive Association the United States would be extremely unhappy (GAPA), whose avowed purpose was to pre­ in Greece, and decided that in the long run serve the Greek Church, the Greek language, their families would be better served if they and the Greek tradition, was formed. This remained here. Meanwhile, many slowly began would suggest that the rival AHEPA was op­ succumbing to the pleas that they become citi­ posed to the Greek Church, the Greek language, zens of the United States and take a more active and the Greek tradition which as subsequent interest in the affairs of the larger community.''^ events showed was misleading. The GAPA program was idealistic, roman­ T^HUS by the early 1920's when the second tic, and impractical in an age that demanded -"• cycle in the history of the Greek-Americans conformity and was intolerant of foreign cul­ began its course, they had aquired a solid f oot- tures and ideals. It appealed to the rank and file who felt ill at ease in a non-Greek society and who believed that an unintelligent brand " Saloutos, Greeks in the United States, 232-257. of Americanism was robbing the Greek-Ameri­ •" Greek Business Directory of the United States and Canada, 1921-1922 (New York, 1921), 515. cans of a heritage that was worth preserving.

191 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

By the very same token it made slight appeal to those middle-class members who realized that a closer identity with the greater American community would best serve the interests of all. The one thing that the AHEPA and GAPA had in common was that their members were in the United States to remain permanently; the great disagreement was over the emphasis they would place on things Greek. The most laudable argument in defense of the GAPA is that its members refused to be placed in the strait jacket of conformity by purging them­ selves of their cultural heritage. Tribute must be paid to a courageous group who waged a relentless but ineffective campaign in combat­ ing the tidal wave of intolerance that was sweeping the country.''^ Society's Iconographic Collections By the early 1930's the serious ruptures of The magnificent new Church of the Annunciation, designed the 1920's were beginning to heal. The oncom­ by Frank Lloyd Wright. ing of the Great Depression, the healing of the breach within the church, the passing from the scene of some of the old factional leaders, the was with American issues, American programs, dispersal of population into various parts of and the future of American democracy in the the city, the emergence of new issues and inter­ face of totalitarian advances.''** ests, and the lapse of time helped erase much of the rancor of old. The one thing that stands OEGINNING in the fall of 1940 the Milwau- out during these years is that more of the nat­ -'-^kee Greek community entered the third ural leaders of the greater Milwaukee commu­ phase of its history, that of a new philhellenism. nity, more of the successful small businessmen, The invasion of the Greek homeland by the and more members of the rising professional forces of Mussolini had a profound effect on classes retained their identity with the Annun­ them; they prayed for a victor)' in their ciation parish. churches; they wrote letters of encouragement Reconciliation to the idea of living in the to their relatives in Greece; they collected United States and gradual assimilation had money for war relief; and women began knit­ weakened ties with the Old Country to the point ting socks and scarves for the soldiers of the where fewer and fewer corresponded even with beleaguered land. Old differences were forgot­ ten, and by late 1940 representatives of the their closest relatives in Greece. The Milwau­ various Greek organizations came together to kee Greeks were deeply engrossed with educat­ form a Milwaukee chapter of the Greek War ing their children, helping their daughters get Relief Association.''^ married, and struggling to maintain what sem­ blance of Old World culture they could. The Once the United States entered World War II problems of the average Greek family were be­ this enthusiasm and willingness to contribute coming the problems of the average non-Greek was fused with American war needs, but at no family. By the late 1930's the major concern time was the cause of Greece, one of the most heroic allies, forgotten. Members of the com­ munity bought and sold United States Govern­ ment Bonds, collected food, clothing, and shoes, '" The only account of the early history of AHEPA is that by Chebithes, Ahepa and the Progress of and donated their blood to the Red Cross. Hellenism in America. For a severe criticism of AHEPA and its basic philosophy see Seraphim Ca­ noutas, To Neon Provlema Tou Hellenismou Tis Amerikis (The New Problem of Hellenism in Ameri­ '" Very little is available in print on this phase. ca) (New York, 1927) ; American Hellenic World, Suggestive perhaps is Chapter 16 on "The Thirties," 1:5 (October 17, 1925) ; The Ahepa, HI:6 (May, in Saloutos, The Greeks in the United States. 1929), VII:22 (January-February, 1933). "Milwaukee Journal, November 17, 20, 1940.

192 SALOUTOS : GREEKS OF MILWAUKEE

Members of one of the provincial organizations bench and another to the state legislature. Still planned to march to the blood donor station en others aspired for public office which at one masse as a means of demonstrating their loyalty time was considered beyond their reach. The to this country, but the overwhelming response professions most sought after were law, medi­ of the members made the idea impractical. Im­ cine, engineering, business, and education. migrant parents gave one, often two, and some­ The reasons for the upward climb of the times three and four sons to the armed forces members of the second generation are easy to of the United States. Greece's heroic stand detect. Most of them accepted and adhered to against the Axis Powers unleashed an unparal­ middle-class values. Parents seldom permitted leled wave of sympathy for the Greek people, them to forget that one of the big requisites of and this had a healthy psychological effect on life was to learn to assume responsibilities at the Milwaukee Greek community as it had on an early age, and an unemployed son could be Greek communities across the country.^" made to feel he was committing a mortal sin The post-World War II era saw a continua­ by not being occupied with something gainful tion of the progress of the prewar years. The and constructive. Children constantly were ex­ lush war years brought new wealth to members horted to achieve better and more prestigious of the older generation who were in business, stations in life than their parents. and sons of immigrants returned from the war to continue their education or to resume pro­ But there were other elements at work, too. fessional and business careers that had been The compactness of the Greek family was a interrupted by the fighting. More prestige came formidable influence. There was authority, a to the Greek name when President Harry Tru­ healthy respect for hard work, and a high de­ man designated Greece as one of the two coun­ gree of family pride. The discipline might have tries worthy of assistance in the campaign appeared severe, but it was not repressive to against communism. Later the Archbishop of the point of stifling the resourcefulness or en­ the Greek Orthodox Church of North and South terprising nature of youth. Rarely was the America was flown in the President's private youth shielded from the hard realities of life. plane to Istanbul where he was enthroned as Marriage and the family were viewed as life­ the Ecumenical Patriarch.''' long responsibilities. The rise of members of the second generation Perhaps one of the crowning points in the to professional, commercial, and intellectual history of the community was the completion status is part of the American success story. in the early 1960's of the new Church of the Virtually all were of humble origins, minus Annunciation designed by Frank Lloyd Wright. wealth and influence, motivated by the desire To many of the parishioners the new church to succeed. In growing numbers they became was a mighty symbol of progress, community identified with civic, educational, and profes­ spirit, faith, and a blending of some of the sional projects, and a relatively high percentage most original work in architectural beauty of of young people born of Greek parents obtained the New World with the culture of the Old. In college and university degrees. At least five a still broader sense it was an expression of raised in the city were the holders of the Ph.D. appreciation of what the city and nation had degree and taught in institutions of higher meant to the Greek immigrant, his children, learning across the country. Others were found and grandchildren.'"'^ For here the immigrant in the legal, dental, and medical professions. found opportunities denied him at home. Here By the 1960's the Milwaukee Greek community he labored honestly, amassed savings, provided had contributed at least one member to the for his next of kin in Greece, planted the most cherished of his Old World institutions and watched them thrive in the healthy environ­ ment of the New, reared his family, educated "° Ibid., March 12, June 8, 1943, March 25, Novem­ his children, and prepared them for the pro­ ber 17, 1944, April 19, June 8, 15, 1945. "'' Saloutos, The Greeks in the United States, 367- fessional, commercial, and cultural life of the 370. city and nation. Rare was the Greek who did '^Milwaukee Journal, August 20, 1960, April 30, June 30, July 2, 1961; Milwaukee Sentinel, August not express an appreciation of what the United 6, 1962, March 21, 1966. States had meant to him.

193 THE CZECHS IN WISCONSIN HISTORY

BY KAREL D. BICHA

/"^ F ALL of the national and ethnic groups distribution of American propaganda in the ^-^ who came to Wisconsin during its first Habsburg lands and directed by Wisconsin's half-century of statehood, probably none was active immigration commissioner in New York, as consequential for the subsequent develop­ Gysbert Van Steenwyk of La Crosse, the state ment of their group's "national life" in America became the first center of Czech-American rural than were the Czechs. Czech-speaking immi­ life.^ Within a generation, however, the once grants from Bohemia and Moravia, most of pre-eminent attraction of Wisconsin was whom settled in Wisconsin between 1848 and eclipsed by the prairie lands to the west and 1880, were both pioneers of Wisconsin farm­ southwest. land and primary instruments in shaping the Czech settlement in Wisconsin (and else­ contours of the Czech-American institutional where in America) was the earliest of any of life which flourished from the 1880's through the Slavic-language peoples, roughly contem­ the 1920's. porary with the main body of German rather Bohemians of the mid-nineteenth century, than Slavic immigration. It consisted largely first accorded the right to migrate by the Habs- of farmers and skilled tradesmen, as well as a burg authorities in 1848, found much in the considerable number of refugee intellectuals, well disseminated image—and future potential and in terms of skiUs represented an abler —of tbe new state to attract them. Low taxes, group than the more numerous Czech immi­ liberal residence requirements, inexpensive grants who arrived later and settled in other land, a climate of political and religious free­ states. It was, however, a geographically repre­ dom, and similarities in soil and physiography sentative movement, consisting primarily of attracted both the unobtrusive peasants and persons from southern Bohemia, the most village artisans of southern Bohemia and the Slavic, least Germanized portion of the old vociferous, visionary refugees of the Prague kingdom. If the numerous reminiscences of old uprising of 1848.' Attracted by the assiduous settlers in the Czech-American press and the almanac Amerikan may be regarded as approx­ imately definitive, the regions of Plzen (Pilsen) and Ceske Budejovice (Budweis) contributed the bulk of the immigrants.^ NOTE; The author is indebted to the American Philo­ sophical Society and the Canada Council for assist­ ance in the preparation of this article. EDITOR'S NOTE: Because of the impossibility of pro­ " Ibid., 36-39. curing a font containing Czech diacritcs, many words 'Amerikan; Narodni Kalendar (American; Na­ and names in both the text and in the footnotes are tional Calendar) was a yearbook published from 1878 rendered as English characters. to 1957 by the Chicago Svornost (Concord). The reminiscences in Amerikan constitute a major body * Thomas Capek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in Amer­ of primary material concerning Czech immigrants in ica (Boston and New York, 1920), 37. the United States.

194 BICHA: CZECHS IN WISCONSIN

founded specifically for agricultural purposes, and Czech farmers in Wisconsin were the earli­ est of their ethnic derivation in the United States. While the earliest Czech arrivals came to Milwaukee in 1848, the first of the farming communities was the township of Caledonia, which lay along the lakeshore just north of the town of Racine, a little settlement which early Czechs in the area knew as the Ceska Betlemska (Bohemian Bethlehem).'' The original settlers came to Caledonia in 1850, and family groups followed in 1851 and 1854, though no perma­ nent homes were erected until 1855. Later the Caledonia area inherited the name "Tabor," so called after the famous south Bohemian fortress of the Hussite Wars.^ Caledonia-Racine proved economically viable from its inception, and it provided something of a developmental model for later settlements in the lakeshore area. Farms were deliberately established in heavily wooded country and settlers cut hardwood to secure the cash neces­ Soti' t\ ^ iLonouraphic Collections sary for taxes and flour. The Chicago and Gysbert van Steenwyk, Wisconsin's immigration North Western Railway provided something of commissioner stationed in New York. a guaranteed market, but the sharp drop in wood prices in 1857 occasioned considerable Like German settlement in Wisconsin, the hardship. For the most part the wood-selling location of early Czech settlements was quite device worked well, however, and by the time disparate and widely diffused throughout the the railroad converted to coal (1870) the forest southern half of the state. Though there was gone.® were valid historical reasons to avoid the asso­ Most Czech settlers in Caledonia purchased ciation, most of the Czech settlements were heavily mortgaged plots of forty to sixty acres associated with, or contiguous to, German at prices ranging from $5 to $10 per acre. settlements. In reality, a rationale for the sites Business establishments appeared in 1854, and chosen is difficult to discern, except perhaps in by the 1860's the Czech farmers were amply terms of the proximity to water transportation supplied with saloons. The Civil War provided or of soil-terrain similarities with areas of a major stimulant for the little settlement, southern Bohemia. assuring profitable markets for lumber, pota­ As a generality, Bohemian immigrants lo­ toes, and corn, and allowing the settlers for the cated in two widely separated parts of Wis­ first time to look outward.'^ Racine, with a few consin—the eastern lakeshore area, especially Czech families, provided its "urban" focus, and in the counties of Racine, Milwaukee, Manito­ woc, and Kewaunee, and in the bluff and coulee country of the west-central and southwest parts of the state, in the counties of La Crosse, Ver­ "J. W. Mikulesky, "Notes on Early Days in the non, Grant, and Crawford. All of the major Bohemian Settlement, Caledonia Township," unpub­ lished manuscript (1940) in the Archives-Manu­ settlements were established by 1857, although scripts Division, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. toward the end of the nineteenth century new ° Ibid. groups, often after previous residence in Chi­ " Capek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in America, 39- 40; Jan Mikulecky, "Ze Zivota Jana Mikuleckeho v cago, sought land in the cutover from Antigo Caledonii, 'Wis." (From the Life of John Mikulecky to Ashland. in Caledonia, Wis.), in Amerikan, IX;181 (1886); With the possible exceptions of Milwaukee Nan Mashek, "Bohemian Farmers of Wisconsin," in The Charities, XIII:212 (December 3, 1904). and La Crosse, the Czech communities were '' Mashek, "Bohemian Farmers of Wisconsin," 212.

195 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 in 1860 a Czech newspaper was established Czechs, three-quarters of the number who there, followed in 1861 by a library and lyce- would ever come, were settled in the county by um.* Taking a strong stand against the rebelove 1870. Median date of settlement was 1863,'^ (rebels) of the Confederacy, the Czechs of and the subsequent history of Czech life in the Caledonia, only recently freed from serfdom villages of the county was quite uneven. In themselves, loyally supported the Union cause some communities, notably Two Creeks, resi­ and commenced their rapid Americanization. dence was often short-lived, owing to the fail­ During the war a Czech-language school was ure of local enterprises.''' Tisch Mills, on the established in Racine as well as Nova Skola other hand, became a solidly Czech community (The New School), founded to teach English of 170 families, supporting a small brewery, language and composition, with the assistance brick factory, cheese factory, and most of the of a Czech-English dictionary prepared in Ra­ basic trades." Kossuth demonstrated its faith cine for that purpose." in the future by sponsoring in 1856 the first Czech-American political rally — in honor of IMULTANEOUSLY, Bohemians began to John C. Fremont—and staged the first amateur S filter into Milwaukee, creating one of the theatre production in the same year.'^ In gen­ two oldest Czech urban quarters in America. eral, Czech life in Manitowoc County was self- Many soon moved on to rural Manitowoc contained, with marked cleavages along reli­ County. The best known of the early Milwau­ gious lines dividing the small communities and keeans was Vojta Naprstek, refugee of 1848, forcing an exaggerated degree of parochialism. who edited and published a German-language The same features characterized the town paper, the Flug-Bldtter (Leaflets) between 1852 and county of Kewaunee, although Czechs in and 1854.'" Evidently the paper was so radical Kewaunee were from the beginning the largest in tone that some members of the state legisla­ ethnic group in the county, comprising slightly ture endeavored to keep it out of the hands of less than half of the population. Settlement in their colleagues. Naprstek returned to Prague Kewaunee began in 1854, with a small exodus in 1857, and later established there the Napr­ of settlers from Milwaukee constituting the stek American Museum, but Milwaukee be­ original Czech population. The village of Ke­ came a Czech community of some size and an waunee and the hamlets of Stangelville, Krok, important publishing center." Pilsen, and Slovan in the middle and southern More diffuse and numerous were the Czech portions of the county represented the areas of settlements in Manitowoc County, to which the principal concentration.'^ Like the Caledonia first settlers came in 1851. The environs of the and Manitowoc settlements, the first founda­ small hamlets of Kellnersville and Greenstreet tions of Kewaunee were in heavily forested were first occupied, but by 1855 Czech farmers country, and wood secured by clearing poten­ had settled, and in some instances created, the tial farmland was sold to various lake steamer villages of Kossuth, Cooperstown, Francis companies. The economic downturn of 1857 Creek, Melnik, Tisch Mills, and Two Creeks, drove some of the early residents out of the founding farms, churches, and social institu­ settlement, and one of them recalled in later tions in the original effort.'^ More than 2,000 life that as he made his way circuitously toward

" Glen L. Taggart, "Czechs of Wisconsin as a Cul­ " Copy of library and lyceum application under ture Type," (unpublished Ph.D. thesis. University of date March 3, 1861, in the Charles Jonas Papers, Wisconsin, 1948), 17. State Historical Society of Wisconsin. " J. F. Wojta, "Town of Two Creeks, From Forest " (Racine) Slavic, January 12, 1865. to Dairy Farms," in the Wisconsin Magazine of His­ '"Jan Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych (His­ tory, XXVII: 421 (June 1944). tory of American Czechs) (St. Louis, 1910), 462-463. '" Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 480. '^ Capek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in America, "Ernest Zizka, Czech Cultural Contributions (Chi­ 126-127. cago, 1942), 105. " Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 467, 469- " V. F, Mashek, "Bohemian Settlements in Kewau­ 474, 475-477, 478; Louis Falge (ed.), History oj nee County," (unpublished manuscript, 1889), p. 2, Manitowoc County, Wisconsin (2 vols., Chicago, in the John Roeseler Papers, State Historical Society 1912), I: 321, 326, 336. of Wisconsin.

196 BICHA: CZECHS IN WISCONSIN

St. Paul he learned his first effective word of of La Crosse, a settlement which later took co­ English, "work."'^ Kewaunee became home for hesive shape around the society and church of some of the most notable members of the early St. Vaclav. In the late 1870's a major influx of Czech-American community—Vojta Masek, a immigrants from the region of Ceske Bude­ prominent merchant; John Karel, influential jovice increased the number of Bohemian-born in banking and active in Wisconsin politics un­ in the city to nearly 500. By the end of the til his appointment as United States Consul in century Czech life was well developed, and the Prague; and Vaclav Pohl, one of the organiza­ community possessed a weekly newspaper, tional luminaries of early Czech-American fra- Vlastenec (Patriot), a Catholic church and ternalism.'^ By the 1880's some 5,000 Czechs school, lodges and social clubs, dramatic facili­ of the first and second generation in America ties, eight stores retailing "mixed goods" (gro­ resided in Kewaunee County.^" ceries) , ten taverns, a butcher, baker, saddler, Less numerous and more widely separated barber, furrier, tinsmith, plow maker, cigar were the settlements of the 1850's in western maker, tailor, several coopers, and artisans Wisconsin in Grant, Richland, La Crosse, and specializing in grave markers and billiard ta- Crawford counties. The earliest of these settle­ bles.25 ments was at Muscoda in Grant County, to Contemporary with the La Crosse founda­ which the first Czech settlers came in 1853. tions, Czech families from the Plzen (Pilsen) Muscoda was a small colony, dividing very region began to occupy the isolated ridge and early along Catholic-evangelical Protestant valley country of northern Richland and south­ lines, an uncommon fragmentation for a Wis­ ern Vernon counties, establishing themselves consin Czech community.^' A larger settlement around the village of Yuba in Richland Coun­ was commenced a few years later at Castle ty. Their principal settlement. Champion Val­ Rock. Much of the prime land in both areas ley, attracted other immigrants and by 1861 had already been acquired by German and nineteen Czech family names were represented Scandinavian farmers, and the Bohemian set­ in the valley. As an isolated outpost, household tlers were forced to occupy the ridges and manufacture was employed for most purposes, rougher lands sold by speculators.^^ Neverthe­ and the men of the community made an annual less, both settlements prospered sufficiently, and journey to Lone Rock to mill the year's wheat by the early 1870's Czech names were promi­ and to convert surplus corn, maple sugar, and nent among the town officers of Muscoda and some butter into tools, coffee, and cloth. Dairy Castle Rock.^' In the late 1880's farmers of products posed a major disposal problem for Czech extraction comprised about 60 per cent the community, and until the Yuba cheese fac­ of the Castle Rock area and 40 per cent of tory commenced operations in 1892 the prod­ Muscoda.^* ucts of the butter churn often served as a lubri­ The largest of the western Wisconsin estab­ cant for machinery. Yet the colony flourished, lishments was commenced in 1855 in the town and by 1900 some 233 families of the first and second generations farmed the ridges, bluffs, and valleys of the Yuba area.^^ The last of the sizable Czech settlements in '" Kewaunske Listy, January 27, 1892. western Wisconsin was founded in Crawford ^"Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 481, 484; County, especially in the village of Prairie du Josef Martinek, Stoleti Jednoty CSA (One Hundred Years of the C.S.A.) (Cicero, Illinois, 1955), 8, 20- 21. '•" Louis Bruemmer to Rueben Gold Thwaites, March 20, 1889, in the Roeseler Papers. '^' J. A. Thomas to John Roeseler, December 20, ^'Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 495; 1889, in the Roeseler Papers. Thomas was county Vilem Siller et al, Pamatnik Ceskych Evanjelickych clerk of Grant County. Cirkvi v Spoj. Statech (Memorial of the Czech ^ Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 508, 510, Evangelical Churches in the United States) (Chicago, 516-518; see also A. H. Sanford and Louis Hirsch- 1900), 30-42. heimer, A History of La Crosse, Wisconsin, 1841- ^^ Joseph Schafer, The Wisconsin Lead Region 1900 (La Crosse, 1951), 208. (Madison, 1932), 220, 230. '^ Julia Janecek Britts, "A History of the Bohe­ ^" Castello N. Holford, History of Grant County, mians of Champion Valley" (1948), in the Archives- Wisconsin (Lancaster, Wisconsin, 1900), 689-692, Manuscripts Division, State Historical Society of Wis­ 778. consin; Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 497.

197 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

Chien and the townships of Eastman, Bridge­ was perhaps most affected, but Manitowoc port, Mariella, and Wauzeka. Except for iso­ County also experienced some losses.^" The lated cases, the earliest of the main bodies of Nebraska prairie became the magnet for Wis­ immigrants arrived in 1857, settling on federal consin Bohemians intent on using the new land, and coming principally after a brief resi­ Homestead Act. dence in Chicago. Crawford County Czechs Saline County, Nebraska, especially the vil­ acquired a reputation for exclusiveness and lages of Crete and Wilber, received the first of parochialism, even in the broader Czech-Amer­ the exodus of Wisconsin Czechs just as the area ican community. These attitudes were later re­ of the county had received its first settler, a flected in secessionist tendencies from Catholic Czech from Watertown, Wisconsin, a decade fraternal bodies. Nonetheless, the colonies ex­ earlier. Large-scale settlement, however, dates perienced considerable growth, and by 1890 from 1867 when Wisconsin Czechs laid the about 1,400 immigrants and their children agricultural foundations for Saunders, Butler, lived in the vicinity of Prairie du Chien.^'^ Colfax, Douglas, and Knox counties.^' In summary, all of the major Czech settle­ The federal censuses demonstrate with clarity ments in Wisconsin were founded in the 1850's, the inability of Wisconsin to remain a major and by 1880 the bulk of Czech immigrants who attraction for newly arrived Bohemian immi­ would come to Wisconsin had already arrived. grants. According to the Ninth Census (1870), Increased demands on the immigrant lines 10,570 Bohemian-born persons lived in Wis­ operating from Hamburg and Bremen permit­ consin, with 2,360 in Manitowoc County, 2,011 ted a drastic drop in fares, and by the 1870's in Kewaunee County, 1,524 in Milwaukee an immigrant could come on a single ticket County, 703 in Racine County, 547 in Grant from Prague to Racine, Milwaukee, or Kewau­ County, 489 in La Crosse County, 402 in Craw­ nee for fifty dollars or less.^^ Other Czech ford County, and 281 in Vernon County.^^ In immigrants, after unsatisfactory experiences 1880, the Tenth Census listed 13,848 Bohemian- in the mushrooming Chicago Czech commu­ born in the state, with 2,408 in Manitowoc, nity, filtered after 1876 into the newly cutover 2,660 in Kewaunee, 1,611 in Milwaukee, 800 areas to establish farms. Small settlements in Racine, 637 in Grant, 783 in La Crosse, 557 were made near Phillips in Price County, and in Crawford, and 446 in Vernon.^^ And the many of the early arrivals reflected the success Eleventh Census (1890) listed only 11,999 Bo­ of unscrupulous Chicago land promoters. A hemian-born, with 1,958 in Manitowoc, 2,200 larger number located, with greater advance in Kewaunee, 1,517 in Milwaukee, 800 in Ra­ knowledge, near Antigo in Langlade County.^" cine, 463 in Grant, 506 in La Crosse, 567 in Crawford, and 414 in Vernon.^* Thus, while ^ET THE DOMINANCE of Wisconsin as Bohemian immigration to the United States ••- the principal attraction of immigrants from exceeded 75,000 between 1870 and 1890, Wis­ Bohemia and Moravia was at an end by the consin experienced a net decrease from death 1870's. Though little is known of the internal and departure. Inclusion of the second genera­ mobility of immigrants in the United States, tion—designated by the census as "persons it is a certainty that even in the 1860's out- with both parents natives of Bohemia"—alters movement was commonplace among Wisconsin Czechs. Grant County, owing to the relatively unfavorable conditions of initial settlement. '" Ferdinand F. Doubrava, "Experiences of a Bo­ hemian Immigrant Family," in the Wisconsin Maga­ zine of History, VIII: 404 (June, 1925). "Rose Rosicky (comp)., A History of Czechs (Bo­ '"Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 504-506; hemians) in Nebraska (Omaha, 1929), 70-97, 97- Emily G. Batch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens (New 115, 195-205, 137-168, 175-182, 182-195, 47-63; York, 1910), 222-223; Frank Brady to John Roeseler, Capek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in America, 47. undated (probably 1890) ; C. E. Alder to Roeseler, '^ Ninth Census of the United States, 1870, Vol. I, February 6, 1890, both in the Roeseler Papers. Population (Washington, 1872), 336, 376-377. ^ (Racine) Slavie, February 5, 1879. "' Tenth Census of the United States, 1880, Vol. I, ^ Taggart, "Czechs of Wisconsin as a Culture Population (Washington, 1883), 468, 534-535. Type," 7, 14; Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, *• Eleventh Census of the United States, 1890, Pt. 498-499. 1, Population (Washington, 1895), 608, 668.

198 BICHA: CZECHS IN WISCONSIN the picture significantly, and provides, in 1900, for 31,074 Wisconsin Czechs of the first and second generations.^^ By 1900 Wisconsinites of KODIN Bohemian birth or antecedents lived in some 187 communities and in all but three counties I llHUl|IBdV ••>•* of the state.^^ More consequential than the numerical or productive contribution to the growth of the state, however, were the contributions of the Wisconsin Czechs to the distinctive "national life" of the Czech immigrant community in America, especially in the realms of journal­ ism, religion, and fraternalism. Czech-Ameri­ can journalism, which experienced a prodi­ gious growth in the half century between 1860 and 1910, had its birth in Milwaukee and Ra­ cine, beginning in 1852 with Vojta Naprstek's radical little weekly, Flug-Bldtter. Owing to the scarcity of potential Czech subscribers and the tw inability to acquire a Czech-alphabet press, the paper appeared in German throughout its brief history.^'^ Publication in the Czech language itself commenced in January, 1860, with the appearance in Racine of Slowan Amerikansky (American Slav), a paper turned out by one Frantisek Korizek, an immigrant from Mora­ via, on an old German hand press purchased leaiMtaimmfitus^v^m'm from a Milwaukee priest for $40 and a mort­ Society's Iconographic Collections gage on his cottage. Korizek went on to more Frank (Frantisek) Korizek, founder of the first significant editorial work elsewhere, and by Bohemian press in America, pictured on the cover October of 1861 Slowan Amerikansky gave of a Czech-language magazine published in Racine in 1885. way to the Racine Slavie (1861-1918), the dean of American Czech-language papers.^* mid-1864, and the distribution of the paper Slavie, a weekly of (usually) eight pages, was revealing of the areas of early Czech con­ served a list of national subscribers which never centration: Wisconsin 500, Iowa 180, Illinois exceeded 4,000. From its inception the paper 150, Missouri 80, Ohio 80, Michigan 75, New was a national rather than a Racine or Wis­ York 75, and Minnesota 45. Only one Kewau­ consin-oriented organ, and its original patrons nee Czech of mature years failed to subscribe were located in Wisconsin, Iowa, Chicago, because, as the editor observed scornfully, "He Cleveland, New York, and St. Louis. Its adver­ is illiterate," and another in Manitowoc was tising was national in coverage, and its news singled out as similarly disadvantaged.^" content was national and largely international, By the end of 1861 Slavie had established with news sections devoted to all major Euro­ local news contacts in Manitowoc, Kewaunee, pean nations. The number of subscribers to Francis Creek, Two Creeks, Muscoda, Yuba, Slavie grew from 750 in mid-1863 to 1,200 in La Crosse, Prairie du Chien, and a few smaller settlements. Its format was quite formalized by 1861, and much space was devoted to serialized fiction, especially novels on a Hussite theme. ^ Cited in Batch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens, 261. Slavie rendered more than literary service, ™ Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 520-521. however, for it operated a message service, its ^ Capek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in America, 125. °* Thomas Capek, Padesat let ceskeho tisku v Americe (Fifty Years of Czech Letters in America) "Ibid., 94; see also list of early patrons of Slavie (New York, 1911), 1-33. in the Jonas Papers.

199 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

ican Czechs Jonas' position was pre-eminent, and he was called upon to arbitrate many of the disputes which racked the immigrant com­ munity until his departure in 1894 for consular service in St. Petersburg, Prague, and Krefeld, Germany.''^ Jonas was largely responsible for the deter­ mination of norms and techniques in Czech- American journalism. His other ventures — Pozor Americky (American Attention) in J865 and Amerikan in J872—were intended for re­ ligious liberals and took a pronounced anti- church position. These organs, among the first in the freethought movement, were intended to provide outlets for these views without disturb­ ing the readership of Slavie, which he held to scrupulous neutrality.''* A second fruitful source of Czech periodical publications and newspapers was the well- Society's Iconographic Collections diversified firm of Antonin Novak, who arrived Charles (Karel) Jonas, from a faded portrait by an in J866 and settled in Milwaukee. Some of the unknown artist. longest-lived Czech-language papers came from his offices, notably Domacnost (Household), published semi-weekly from J879 to J930, and Mala Posta (Little Post Office), and it endeav­ Rovnost (Equality), which appeared daily in ored inconsistently to acquaint its readers with 1892 and weekly from J896 to J9J9. His other American federal and state politics.'"' In addi­ efforts—Cech (J876), Besidka Detska (Chil­ tion, the paper carried detailed comparative dren's Arbor, J884), Hospodyne (Housewife, price information for staple foods and firewood 1889), and Vlastimil (Homeland, J896-1897) for the cities in which its readers resided.'" —had much briefer histories.''^ Novak's ven­ Occasionally Slavie also provided substantial tures reflected curious tastes, emphasizing do­ analyses of specific American states. An 1871 mesticity on one hand and religious liberalism report on Wisconsin was especially noteworthy, on the other. Finally, Novak laid the ground­ for, in addition to a detailed examination of work for a distinctive Czech contribution to the state's population and resources, informa­ American immigrant life, the foreign-language tion was provided about library facilities, espe­ farm press, by undertaking in 1879 the publi­ cially the 45,500-volume holdings of the State cation of the short-lived Hospodar Americky Historical Society.*^ (American Husbandman), edited from Coop­ For nearly thirty years Slavie was edited by erstown in Manitowoc County by a former Charles Jonas, a young refugee intellectual who priest, Thomas Juranek.*^ assumed control of the paper in 1863. Jonas, Besides Racine and Milwaukee only Kewau­ the "first [i.e., leading] Czech in America," nee and La Crosse sustained Czech-language entered actively into Wisconsin Democratic papers. Kewaunee was served by Kewaunske politics, weaned a sizable proportion of his readers from their original Republican sympa­ thies, and was elected lieutenant-governor in the Democratic upsurge of J890. Among Amer- " Thomas Capek, American Czechs in Public Of­ fice (Omaha, 1940), unpaged. ''' Capek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in America, 170, 180, 183-184. '° (Racine) Slavie, December 11, 1861; December '' Ibid., 166, 193; Capek, Padesat let ceskeho tisku 18, 1861. V Americe, 259-268. '^Ibid., June 22, 1870. '"Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 464; Ca­ ''Ibid., January 25, 1871. pek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in America, 130.

200 BICHA: CZECHS IN WISCONSIN

Listy (Kewaunee Paper) from 1892 to 1917, 1848 and the 1860's, provided the arena, the a paper edited with considerable skill until 1904 ideas, and much of the initial leadership for by Jaroslav Lunak, who had worked on the staff the struggle which polarized American Czech of Dennice Novoveku (Morning Star of the life. In Bohemia itself, anti-Catholicism and New Age) in Cleveland, a paper unequalled in anti-Austrianism were synonymous by 1850. its literary taste among Czech-American publi­ Both were employed as agents of national re­ cations. Listy was supplemented briefly in 1902 birth, especially by a young and enormously by Kewaunsky Ohzor (Kewaunee Horizon). influential Prague journalist, Karel Havlicek, La Crosse was home for Vlastenec (Patriot), writing in his Narodni Noviny (National published from 1898 to 1909 and again briefly News). Havlicek's v/ritings turned up in Vojta in 1927, and Svata Rodina (Holy Family), Naprstek's Flug-Bldtter of the 1850's, and the which appeared briefly in 1904.*^" connection of Bohemian and American radicals was early established.^" W/'ITH THE EXCEPTION of agricultural In America Freethought had dual if not ' ' and family - oriented publications, Wis­ multivarious origins. The Flug-Bldtter opposed consin Czech journalism was involved on one the Catholic Church as an institution, but as a side or another of the growing cleavage of the formally organized movement Freethought Bohemian immigrant community along reli­ dates from the arrival in 1869 of Ladimir gious lines. This religious dichotomy became Klacel, a former Augustinian monk, an invet­ the predominant element in Czech-American erate dreamer and prolific writer, who edited life, and by the 1870's the small immigrant in Iowa City Slovan Amerikansky (1869) and community was split into two hostile and ex­ later, in 1872, undertook the publication of clusive camps, the Roman Catholics and the Bias Jednoty Svobodomyslnych (Voice of the partisans of Svobodomyslene (Freethought) .** Freethinkers' Union).'''' Klacel subsequently Freethought was a sort of intellectual posture, resided in several Wisconsin communities, and a set of attitudes sustained by a philosophy in 1873 and 1874 dire poverty drove him to which represented the working out, in a free perform priestly functions in rural Manitowoc and unstructured social climate, of certain County.'^^ The groundwork for Freethought had facets of the Czech historical character deter­ been well laid, however. All of the leading Wis­ mined by the Hussite tradition and the unfortu­ consin Czechs—Jonas, Korizek, Naprstek, No­ nate relationship of the recatholicized Bohemi­ vak, Pohl — were of Freethought disposition ans with the control mechanism emanating and unhestitatingly entered religious combat. from the alliance of the Habsburgs and the All of them contributed to the specific and com­ Church. The Habsburgs and their clerical allies plete departure of many Czech immigrants produced a bitter fruit, not in Bohemia but in from their old world faith, a phenomenon America. In freeing themselves from Vienna, which has had no parallel among other immi­ Czech immigrants were not hesitant to free grant groups.^^ themselves from Rome as well. Ultimately a Freethought in Wisconsin was also propa­ major proportion of Czech immigrants—esti­ gated in journals established for that particu­ mates varied from 50 to 70 per cent—defected lar purpose. Bodlak (The Thorn) commenced from the Church and found meaning in orga­ in 1876 in Milwaukee, and Ruch (Stir), which nized fraternalism and a highly ritualized followed in 1893, graphically expressed the agnosticism.''" views of the religious liberals.^'' In spite of its The intellectual origins of Freethought are frequent degeneration into tasteless material­ irrelevant here, but the leaders of Czech life in ism, however, Freethought evinced a spirit, a Wisconsin, political and religious radicals of

' Capek, Nase Amerika, 364f-366. "Ibid., 486, 513-514, 755; Capek, Padesat let ce­ ^ Capek, Padesat let ceskeho tisku v Americe, 33- skeho tisku V Americe, 263, 267, 268. 43. ^''Tomas Capek, Nase Amerika (Our America) •'^ Capek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in America, 192. (Prague, 1926), 370-373. '^ Zizka, Czech Cultural Contributions, 70. " Capek, Padesat let ceskeho tisku v Americe, 33- '^ Capek, Padesat let ceskeho tisku v Americe, 259, 42; Capek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in America, 119. 267.

201 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 sincerity, a concern for social well-being and fifty-year Wisconsin career.^" Many parishes a ritualization which marked the movement as were wracked by dissension in the early years, decidedly religious.^" Since Freethought be­ and in La Crosse, to cite one example, one of came the dominant feature of Czech-American the early pastors was forced out by the parish­ life by 1880 it is difficult to accept as common­ ioners.^" In some localities the refusal of clergy­ place such simplistic explanations of the phe­ men to permit burial of freethinkers in parish nomenon as that offered by Vaclav Pohl of Ke­ cemeteries reacted against the church. For this waunee, one of its early leaders, who indicated reason, it was alleged, "By 1877 Catholicism that irreligion came easily to him, for as a boy died in Caledonia."^' in a Bohemian village school the catechism was The fracturing of the Czech immigrant com­ one book too many to manage on the long walk munity along religious lines was principally home.^^ responsible for the profusion of fraternal socie­ In Wisconsin the task of freethinkers seeking ties and the flowering of lodge life in Czech to decatholicize their expatriated countrymen America. Wisconsin Czechs were instrumental was made easier by clerical shortages, prob­ in this process, particularly in the establish­ lems, ineptitude, and hesitancy within the Cath­ ment of the Slovanska Lipa (Slavic Linden olic community. Wisconsin Czechs, owing per­ Tree) chain of societies. Slovanska Lipa, a haps to their ruralness, were probably the most social organization named after a revolution­ heavily Catholic group of Czech immigrants in ary society established in 1848 in Prague, was America. But they were tardy in organization brought to Racine in 1861.^^ It was the prime and lost the initiative to the liberals, and they mover in the creation of Slavie, and later the produced numerous converts to Freethought by various lodges became part of the Sokol move­ an unhappy parish history. In part, the Catholic ment.^^ The society opted for religious liberal­ problem was the commonplace one of owner­ ism at the outset, and it set in motion a move­ ship of physical facilities, a problem which ment to institutionalize immigrant life, creating split many immigrant communities in America. language schools in Racine and Milwaukee, Since many church facilities were constructed burial societies in smaller settlements, and by devout laymen before the coming of the amateur theatrical groups.** The idea of non- clergy, there was considerable reluctance—and religious brotherhood was given a major impe­ often absolute refusal—to surrender property tus by Slovanska Lipa. Stangelville, a mere to church authorities. Perhaps of equal conse­ hamlet, sustained five societies,®' and by 1884 quence, however, was the alienation wrought Caledonia boasted four associations of note— by the behavior of immigrant priests, especially Slovanska Lipa, Osveta (Culture), a burial so­ the inability of many of them to perceive the ciety, and an organization called simply Cesko- religious realities of a nation in which the MoravstiBratri (Bohemian-Moravian Brother­ authority of the church was not buttressed by hood).«» the strong arm of the state.^'' The first organized Czech parish in Wiscon­ sin was established in 1859 in Greenstreet, Manitowoc County, and other chapels were "^Ibid., 9-12. built shortly afterward in Cooperstown, Tisch •^Ibid., 17. Mills, and Kewaunee. Parishes in most Wis­ " Mikulesky, "Notes on Early Days in the Bohe­ consin Czech communities were founded in the mian Settlement, Caledonia Township." "'' Thomas Capek, The First Czech Society in Amer­ 1860's.^^ Father Josef Maly, who arrived in ica (Chicago, 1950), 13. 1855, served as the first clergyman and worked '"Sokol (Falcon) was a gymnastic-physical culture movement with patriotic and liberal religious over­ in some twenty localities in the first half of a tones. It was the equivalent of the German Turnve- rein. The movement was founded in Bohemia and introduced among American Czechs in the 1860's. *" Mikulesky, "Notes on Early Days in the Bohe­ mian Settlement, Caledonia Township"; Capek, The ^ Batch, Our Slavic Fellow Citizens, 391. Cechs (Bohemians) in America, 241. ^Kewaunske Listy, June 29, 1892. "' Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 493. "'' Joseph Cada, Czech-American Catholics, 1850- °° Jan Novak, "Ze Zivota Jana Novaka v Tabore, 1920 (Lisle, Illinois, 1964), 24-25 et passim. Wis." (From the Life of John Novak in Tabor, Wis­ "^Ibid., 9, 11-12, 30-31. consin), in Amerikan, IX: 170 (1886).

202 By the 1880's Slovanska Lipa became im­ bedded in the Sokol movement, and fraternal and benefit functions largely devolved upon Cesko-Slovansky Podporujici Spolek (Czech- Slavic Benevolent Society), a fraternal body which originated in St. Louis and ultimately became the major Czech society in the United States. C.S.P.S. expanded slowly from St. Louis and its first Wisconsin lodge was established in Milwaukee in 1877. A state lodge was founded in 1878, followed by local branches in La Crosse (1879), Prairie du Chien (1879), Ke­ waunee (1881), Francis Creek (1883), Racine (1884), Antigo (1885), Manitowoc (1886), and Caledonia (1892) .^'^ Toward the end of the century the Western Bohemian Fraternal Union, an Omaha-Cedar Rapids based body represent­ ing a secession from C.S.P.S., became promi­ nent in Kewaunee County."^ The fraternal bodies, Sokol, and supporting women's and children's societies were well represented by 1900, and all of the organizations were tinged or dominated by freethinkers. Wisconsin's Czech Catholics were slow to evolve parish-oriented fraternalism to compete with the freethinkers. Milwaukee Catholics had no organization until 1871; Racine Catholics remained unorganized until 1896.*" Parish so­ cieties in La Crosse, Watertown, and Milwau­ Society's Iconographic Collections kee, however, were among the nine founders in Jonas' grave in Prague, photographed in 1906. i ,' ; i 1877 oi Ceska Rimsko-KatolickaPrvni Ustredni Jednota ve Sp. St. Americkych (First Bohemian Catholic Central Union in the United States), tendency which renders the designation "Wis­ the principal Catholic benefit society.^" In 1891, consin Czech" meaningful and useful. More­ Czechs in Prairie du Chien inspired a "seces­ over, just as Wisconsin became the first major sion" from the Catholic Central Union, leading center of Czech-American life, its Czech resi­ ultimately to the separation of twenty-one Wis­ dents were also the first to succumb to the im­ consin parish lodges and the creation of a rump mutable processes of assimilation. Undoubtedly body, the Czech Roman Catholic Union in the their exclusiveness and separatism, as well as State of Wisconsin, which claimed all of 900 the decline of the state as a major attraction members.'^' for newly arrived immigrants, were major con­ This kind of exclusiveness was not untypical tributing factors in the assimilation process. of Wisconsin Czechs, and it was this separatist There were, of course, new additions to the immigrant stock after 1890,'^ and the years of World War II even witnessed a revival of Czech-language journalism in the state. But the •"Martinek, Stoleti Jednoty CSA, 83, 93, 87, 105, creative role of the Wisconsin Czechs in Czech- 109, 110, 130. C.S.P.S. was the major constituent of the post-World War I fusion which produced Czecho­ American life was fulfilled by 1890. slovak Society of America. ™ Habenicht, Dejiny Cechuv Americkych, 486. "»Ibid., 454, 465. '"Joseph Cada, The Catholic Central Union (Chi­ cago, 1952), 10, 86. ™ See Konrad Bercovici, On New Shores (New '^ Ibid., 23-24; Capek, The Cechs (Bohemians) in York, 1925), 44-50 and Joseph Auslander and Audrey America, 263. Wurdeman, My Uncle Jan (New York, 1948).

203 RED KATE O'HARE COMES TO MADISON:

The Politics of Free Speech

BY STANLEY MALLACH

A FEW University of Wisconsin students stood draft. The alleged obstruction had occurred in -^~*- at the railroad station in the early after­ a speech in Bowman, North Dakota, on July 17, noon of a cold and rainy Thursday, March 30, 1917, in which she supposedly had said in sub­ 1922, watching a train rumble in from the west stance "that the women of the United States and stop. When a small, gray-haired woman were nothing more nor less than brood sows to stepped from one of the cars, tbe group moved raise children to get into the army and be made to meet her. She was Kate Richards O'Hare. into fertilizer."^ She had served only one year She had come to Madison to lecture that night and a few days of her five-year term, because in the state Capitol on "Crime and Criminals" on May 30, 1920, the Wilson Administration under the sponsorship of the Social Science had commuted her sentence. Even while incar­ Club, a campus organization to which the wel­ cerated in the Missouri State Penitentiary Mrs. coming students belonged.' O'Hare had participated in radical politics, It was odd that "Red Kate" O'Hare should having been a leading contender for the Social­ be speaking in the statehouse on any subject, ist party vice-presidential nomination in 1920. because for several reasons she was held in con­ And after leaving prison she had continued her tempt in many parts of Wisconsin and the na­ tion. Before and during 1917 she had been a vigorous and successful Socialist organizer and " For the prepared speech Mrs. O'Hare claimed evangelist on the Great Plains and a militant she delivered at Bowman, which contains a "brood opponent of America's drift toward involve­ sow" remark about European, but not American women, see Kate Richards O'Hare, Socialism and ment and then participation in World War I. the World War (St. Louis, 1917 [?]), especially 20. For her drumfire of criticism the federal gov­ On the trial and the circumstances surrounding it, ernment had indicted her for violating the see W. E. Zeuch, The Truth about the Kate Richards O'Hare Case (St. Louis, 1918), 14-19; National Espionage Act, and in a kangaroo-court-like Civil Liberties Bureau, The Conviction of Mrs. Kate trial in Bismarck, North Dakota, in December, Richards O'Hare (New York, 1918), passim; Ze- 1917, she had been convicted of obstructing the chariah Chafee, Free Speech in the United States (Cambridge, Mass., 1954), 76, 142; Walter Nelles (comp. and ed.), Espionage Act Cases . . . (New York, 1918), 45-47; O'Hare v. United States, 253 Fed. 538 (8th Cir. 1918) ; Capital Times, April 24; Charles T. Olson to John J. Blaine, April 10, 1922, '^ Wisconsin State Journal (Madison), March 30, in the John J. Blaine Papers, Archives-Manuscripts 31; Capital Times (Madison), March 30. Unless Division, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Un­ otherwise indicated, the year of all newspaper cita­ less otherwise indicated, all manuscript collections tions is 1922. cited are in this location.

204 MALLACH: KATE O HARE political activities, become prominent in the fight for amnesty for wartime political prison­ ers, and had begun lecturing and writing on the •W'^ -"^ need for prison reform in reaction against the conditions she herself had seen and experi­ enced.^ The story of "Red Kate's" appearance in Madison is filled with conflict. For several years before her visit students had been wrangling with University officials over who might lecture on the campus. Unable to obtain a University platform for Mrs. O'Hare and wanting to hear her, the Social Science Club had acquired the assembly chamber in the state Capitol and thereby carried their fight for what they con­ sidered freedom of discussion outside the acad­ emy. The club's action provoked a week of furious debate and activity in Madison. On one side were the American Legion, some members of the business community, and the Wisconsin State Journal. On the other were Governor John J. Blaine and the Madison Capital Times. The students, as well as University President Edward A. Birge and the Board of Regents, were helplessly caught in the middle, all cat's- paws in a game of politics, words, and power. The dissension in the city grew out of difficul­ ties on the campus; and though freedom of speech was the basic problem in both cases, other issues dominated. On the campus they William R. Perkins Library, Duke "University were students' rights within the University and Kate Richards O'Hare. the institution's unwilling but inevitable en­ tanglement in state affairs. In the city they were Free speech, if the spirit of the First Amend­ radicalism and the state's position on Mrs. ment is taken literally, means that any person O'Hare's wartime activities, both of which be­ has the right to express any opinion in any came entangled in bitter political and personal place where he has the right to be, without fear feuds which had haunted the state since at least of harassment or subsequent punishment.'' For the outbreak of World War I in Europe. Beyond good or ill, people have not usually taken the being illuminating incidents in the annals of spirit literally, but have interpreted it to suit Wisconsin, the controversies in both places their own purposes, fears, and prejudices. The raise fundamental questions about the nature interpreters have normally circumscribed com­ of free speech in America. plete freedom of expression by limiting what people may say or by effectively excluding some speakers from certain platforms. With regard

' David A. Shannon, The Socialist Party of Ameri­ ca: A History (Chicago, 1967), 25-27, 94, 112, 156; H. C. Peterson and Gilbert C. Fite, Opponents of ' This definition is an extension of principles set War, 1917-1918 (Madison, 1957), 9, 35-36, 257- forth in two dissents by Associate Justice Hugo 258, 273; New York Times, May 14, 30, 1920. For Black: Barenblatt v. United States 360 U.S. 109 Mrs. O'Hare's prison experiences and her ideas on (1959) ; Konigsberg v. State Bar of California 366 prison reform, see Kate Richards O'Hare, In Prison U.S. 36 (1961). See also John P. Roche, "Ameri­ (New York, 1923) ; Kate Richards O'Hare, Letters can Liberty: An Examination of the Tradition of from Kate Richards O'Hare to Her Family from Freedom," in Shadow and Substance: Essays on the April 20, 1919 to May 27, 1920 (Girard, Kansas, Theory and Structure of Politics (New York, 1964), 1921). 3-38.

205 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

to platforms, if a person, either independently new phase of the academic freedom question," or under the sponsorship of some group, cannot their petition did articulate issues which agi­ find a safe spot to speak, for him free speech tated a vocal minority of students and plagued is a mere paper freedom. In every locality indi­ University officials in the future. The Forum viduals and groups exercise legal control over declared that students were increasingly inter­ available secure places by their ownership of ested in controversial events and ideas, and the property or effective control by their influence president should allow any outside speaker to over persuasive instruments of force, like the discuss them freely. It realized that in exercis­ police or a mob. They have the power, if the ing his power of censorship Van Hise was courts do not interfere, to deny people the use trying to protect the institution from the criti­ of buildings and protected open-air forums and cism that it approved certain points of view. thereby to abridge the freedom of an individual However, the Forum stated, if the University or group, regardless of the spirit of the First allowed everyone to speak on the campus, it Amendment. The controversies over free speech could not be accused of giving support to any at the University and in the city are case studies particular ideas. The students asked the Re­ in the way property rights and control over gents to set aside space where they might bring instruments of force may be used to fulfill or any lecturer, with the University having no negate the principle of full freedom of speech. responsibility for what was said. The Board They demonstrate that outside the courts, where took no action on the petition, and the students most struggles for freedom of expression occur, let the issue drop.^ the will of men and the intricate institutional When he died in November, 1918, Van Hise circumstances and ideological climates in which left his successor, Edward A. Birge, a contested they live determine the actual meaning of the policy of arbitrary censorship, as well as a Uni­ First Amendment.^ versity bylaw—adopted at Van Hise's request— which passed on to the president the Regents' rpOR A NUMBER of years before 1922 the statutory power to control the use of University -•- University had been unable to formulate and facilities.'^ implement a satisfactory policy on which out­ From the beginning of his administration side speakers might use University property. Birge was forced to make decisions on outside President Charles Van Hise arbitrarily allowed speakers. Between December, 1918, and early and excluded speakers with radical, liberal, and 1922 he granted lecture space to the leader of conservative views, for which he was attacked the bloody steel strike of 1919, William Z. by both the right and the left in the state. Stu­ Foster; an executive of the Standard Oil Com­ dents seem to have passively accepted his cen­ pany who came to praise his firm's labor poli­ sorship, except on one occasion, in 1916, when cies; the Italian leftist, Bruno Rossetti; ex- he barred the antiwar radical publicist Max President William Howard Taft, who lauded Eastman. In a truncated rehearsal of what occurred in 1921-1922, a student organization, the Wisconsin Forum, on January 28, 1917, protested against Van Hise's decision in a peti­ " Merle Curti and Vernon Carstensen, The Uni­ versity of Wisconsin: A History, 1848-1925 (2 vols., tion to the Board of Regents. Though the stu­ Madison, 1949), II: 62-76, passim; Milwaukee dents falsely believed they were launching "a Evening Wisconsin, February 1, 1917; Wisconsin State Journal, January 19, March 14, 1917; Series 1/1/3, box 30, folder/April 24, 1917, in the Divi­ sion of Archives, University of Wisconsin (herein­ after cited as University Archives). ° Examples of controversies in which freedom of ' Curti and Carstensen, University of Wisconsin, speech hinged on other issues and control of prop­ II: 123; Wisconsin State Journal, December 9, 1921; erty and instruments ot force are legion; for exam­ [Edward A. Birge], undated, untitled typescript, ple, see Russell B. Nye, Fettered Freedom: Civil (hereinafter cited as Untitled Typescript) series Liberties and the Slavery Controversy, 1830-1860 4/10/1, box 126, folder/Social Science Club, (East Lansing, Michigan, 1963), 110-114, chap. 5, in the University Archives. The Regents' power over passim; Theodore Schroeder, Free Speech for Rad­ the use of University property, which they delegated icals (Enlarged ed.; New York, 1916), 15-16, 116- to the president, is set out in Wisconsin Statutes 190; Jerold S. Auerbach, Labor and Liberty: The (1921), c. 36.03, .06, .12, .13, .14; State ex rel. Priest La Follette Committee and the New Deal (Indiana­ V. The Regents of the University of Wisconsin, 54 polis, 1966), passim. Wis. 159 (1882).

206 MALLACH: KATE O HARE the locally unpopular Versailles Treaty and The president vetoed the two radicals over League of Nations; and former Senator Albert a rising clamor for a clear policy on outside Beveridge. During the same period he barred speakers and around the time of a Regents' Lincoln Steffens, Scott Nearing, and Oswald meeting on December 7, 1921. Frederick Doer- Garrison Villard, all of whom had opposed fler, a Club member and son of a Wisconsin America's participation in the war and were Supreme Court Justice, appeared at the meet­ considered radicals. For these decisions Birge, ing purportedly to present the students' case like Van Hise, was belabored by the right and for an "open forum," a scheme to abolish all the left around the state, as well as by students.* restrictions on outside speakers. Doerfler ar­ The campus group which pressed Birge the gued that the state constitution granted free­ hardest was the Social Science Club, which dom of speech to all Wisconsinites, and the counted among its members friends and fami­ University should not deny it to students. Then, lies of state and local political leaders. The he apparently contended that the outside organization's official purpose was to bring speaker issue was not really one of free speech, about "a more intelligent understanding by col­ but of "the nature of censorship." The Regents lege men and women of socio-economic prob­ could best protect students' rights by passing a lems, and to the [sic] end we endeavor to bring statement of principles for accepting and reject­ before them prominent speakers who actively ing speakers and by delegating some of the represent various movements of importance." power to censor to representatives of the stu­ In carrying out its purpose the Club claimed dents.'" to be "non-political and non-partisan." How­ A few days later in a letter to the student ever, some, probably most, of the members newspaper, the Daily Cardinal, Birge accurate­ practiced highly partisan politics and felt com­ ly reported that the Club, through Doerfler, had mitted to bring only leftist speakers to the not requested an open forum and had affirmed campus. A list of proposed lecturers submitted the University's right to control the use of its to Birge apparently in late 1921 exhibited the buildings for public lecturers. The next day group's public and private stances. Included members of the Club denied that Doerfler had were nonleftist speakers, but ones unlikely to been their representative. The truth was that accept the Club's invitation: John D. Rocke­ the Club was split over whether it should press feller, Jr.; the investment banker. Otto Kahn; for more liberal censorship, Doerfler's position, and Vice President Calvin Coolidge, who in or whether it should fight for no censorship at 1921 had denounced the organization in a all. Probably most members favored the open national magazine article entitled, "Enemies of forum idea, which local newspapers had publi­ the Republic." Leftists who might accept in­ cized extensively and which was actively sup­ cluded the black civil rights leader, W. E. B. ported by such state and local luminaries as DuBois; the pacifist and social worker, Jane Theodore Kronshage, recently appointed pro­ Addams; the muckraking radical journalist gressive regent, William T. Evjue, editor of the and novelist, Upton Sinclair—and Kate Rich­ Madison Capital Times, and Mayor Milo Kit- ards O'Hare. Birge approved everyone on the telson." list, except Sinclair and "Red Kate" O'Hare.** Birge attended the December 7 meeting pre­ pared to defend his actions. His principal point

" [Notes of Miss Hannan on the remarks of ° Curti and Carstensen, University of Wisconsin, Frederick Doerfler to the Regents, December 7, II: 141-156, passim; G. C. Sellery, E. A. Birge: A 1921], series 4/10/1, box 126, folder/Social Science Memoir (Madison, 1956), 64-67; Capital Times, Club; Minutes of the Regents' Meetings, Record K, December 8, 1921; Wisconsin State Journal, Decem­ 134, both in the University Archives; Wisconsin ber 4, 1921. Sellery and Curti and Carstensen dis­ State Journal, December 4, 8, 1921; Capital Times, cuss the details of the controversy between Birge December 8, 10, 1921. and the students from a different point of view and ^ Daily Cardinal, December 11, 13, 1921; Wis­ arrive at different conclusions. consin State Journal, December 11, 12, 13, 1921; " Wisconsin State Journal, December 4, 1921; The Capital Times, February 4, 7, December 13, 1921; New Student, June 7; interview with Tom Amlie, Petition to Birge and the Board of Regents, Novem­ May, 1968; Curti and Carstensen, University of Wis­ ber 30, 1921, series 4/10/1, box 126, folder/Social consin, II: 143-144, 152; Capital Times, June 3, 1921. Science Club, in the University Archives.

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was that students' freedom of speech, as em­ ents and that his decisions had to have their bodied in the outside speaker question, was approval. From his long experience he had intertwined with other problems and was sub­ learned that parents did not want to bundle ordinate to them. "Propaganda" organizations their children "in a sort of intellectual cotton of all sorts, he told the Regents, had mush­ wool"; however, they did want a protective roomed in the upheavals of tbe war and its shield against "the extremer types of propa- aftermath, and they all sought the allegiance of gandism." Birge realized that this was an am­ students. Since "propagandists" were every­ biguous standard, since people could legiti­ where, there was no way completely to insulate mately disagree over what or who was extreme. students from them. The issue was whether the But ambiguous or not, he considered it a decent University should give propagandists space. standard, certainly better than an open forum.''^ Birge understood that the maintenance of free Besides violating the trust of the public and expression required access to platforms. Yet, parents, an open forum might lead to a con­ he contradictorily contended, in allowing and traction, rather than an expansion, of freedom excluding speakers he was not dealing with an of expression on the campus. Free speech, issue of free speech, because "any agitator Birge told the Regents, was like any other free­ [could] find a place to speak without let or dom: It must be used "with due regard ... to hindrance"—except he would not give some a the community in which it is exercised." The place on the campus. When the University gave prevailing opinion on student freedom, which the use of its property to propagandists, the Birge shared with people in Wisconsin and public took for granted that the institution was throughout the nation, was that they possessed endorsing them, though not necessarily their few rights. They might elect a few courses and ideas. Because the public contained both radi­ accept or reject many of the activities offered cals and conservatives the University would be by the University. But their freedom of ex­ damned no matter what it did. His problem, pression, including the right to invite any out­ therefore, was to select among prospective side speaker, was limited.'* If, Birge contended, speakers to protect the students and the institu­ the University instituted an open forum, the tion from cranks and undesirables, to devise people of the state might think it had over­ "the wise method of administering the trust stepped the boundaries of freedom and through which the state has placed in the hands of the the legislature impose intolerable restrictions. regents" and which the Regents had passed on The Wisconsin academic freedom tradition of to him.'^ "sifting and winnowing" — for the faculty — Birge's administrative point of view was had prospered, he pointed out, because teachers justifiable not only by the public trust argu­ in the classroom had not abused their privilege ment, but also by another ancient, widely held by wantonly spreading propaganda. Implicitly, doctrine: that in its relations with students the Birge was saying that to maintain maximum University stood in loco parentis. In allowing freedom of student expression it had to be and rejecting various speakers he believed that abridged by sifting and winnowing some speak­ he was acting in the place of the students' par­ ers out of their immediate eyeshot and earshot.

" On the in loco parentis idea, see Jurgen Herbst, "Birge's remarks are contained in two documents: "On the Relationship between Civil and University [Birge], Untitled typescript and "Summary of State­ Jurisdiction" (unpublished manuscript in the posses­ ment by President Birge to the University Regents— sion of author) ; E. G. Williamson and John L. Co­ December 7, 1921," both in series 4/10/1, box 126, wan, The American Students' Freedom of Expression folder/Social Science Club, University Archives. For (MinneapoHs, 1966), 5. criticisms of Birge's decisions, see Curti and Car­ " On the status of students, see Richard Hofstadter stensen, University of Wisconsin, II: 142-145, 147- and Walter Metzger, The Development of Academic 149; H. E. Andrews to Birge, December 21, 1921; Freedom in the United States (New York, 1955), James D. Pringle to Birge, December 8, 1921; Wil­ 397-398; Howard Mumford Jones, "The American liam Henry Ferber to Birge, January [?], 1922, all Concept of Academic Freedom," in AAUP Bulletin, in series 4/10/1, box 126, folder/Social Science 46: 66 (March, 1960); Laurence R. Veysey, The Club, in the University Archives; "Resolutions Emergence of the American University (Chicago, Unanimously Adopted by University of Wisconsin 1965), 269; Curti and Carstensen, University of Wis­ Club of Duluth, January 9, 1922, series 1/1/3, box 35, consin, I: chap. 23, II: 127-128, 139-141, 301-302, folder/January 18, 1922, in the University Archives. chap. 15; [Birge], Untitled typescript.

208 MALLACH: KATE O HARE

Unfortunately for Birge, his defense was not ironclad. He did not state clearly who could and could not speak on campus. He asked the Regents for "any rule or statement of princi­ ples" to guide him, but he got none for another six months. Nor did he explain why he had been so erratic in his policy—why he had given space to a Standard Oil executive and William Z. Foster, but not to Scott Nearing. Nor did he resolve his own apparent confusion as to how much free speech was involved in the outside speaker question. On one point, however, there was no confusion: as in the past, either the president or the Regents should control the use of University facilities by outside speakers. Undoubtedly Birge believed this policy would best serve the interests of the University. Given his personal situation and the political climate of the state, he had good reasons for his opinion.

RESIDENT BIRGE'S personal situation P was perplexing. After almost forty-three years of dedicated and brilliant service as a Society's Iconographic Collections teacher, scholar, and administrator at Wiscon­ President Edward Asahel Birge. sin, he was named president. He accepted the appointment mainly from a sense of duty. He was old and tired. "No one at my age," he wrote lette progressives and then into an uneasy and a friend, "desires to undertake the duties of a opportunistic friendship with Governor Eman­ new and arduous position." He took the job uel Philipp and other enemies of the Senator. with an understanding that he was a stopgap Van Hise's political maneuverings brought the and with a determination to leave to his suc­ blessings of large appropriations and inter­ cessor the critical task of overhauling and ex­ national fame, but at a cost of turning the panding the University's operations. The Re­ University into a political prize. Just before, gents stretched out his interim appointment to during, and after the war it became more and six years. But Birge never wavered from his more clear that University activities could be personal commitment to maintain the status major issues in state politics and that the wel­ quo insofar as forces inside and outside the fare of the institution depended on how well it institution permitted.'^ adjusted to political forces. One action in this Even if he had desired to lead innovatively, period had a particularly significant impact on Birge's lack of aggressiveness and shrewdness its long-term well being: the faculty's denunci­ — and, most of all, political conditions — ation of La Follette for disloyalty—a deed in would have hindered him. During the Van which Birge played a part. This, as well as Hise era the president plunged the University other actions, alienated La FoUette's legion of more deeply than ever into the jungle of Wis­ followers and many others; once ardent cham­ consin politics, first on the side of the La Fol- pions became tardigrade sympathizers or vengeful punishers. The return of the Senator's friends to power in the elections of 1920 and the presence at the University of what they con­ " Cf. Curti and Carstensen, University of Wiscon­ sidered a reactionary Board of Regents made sin, II: 123-129; Sellery, Birge, 3-83; E. A. Birge, "Edward A. Birge," in Arthur Beatty (ed.), "The a bad situation worse. Caught in a tight squeeze University of Wisconsin; Its History and Its Presi­ between allegedly conservative Regents and dents," in The Wisconsin Alumnus, 44: 10-17 (No­ vember, 1942). frequently hostile and stingy progressive state

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officers and legislators, and with the financial needs of the institution soaring, for Birge the outside speaker problem was a stinging nui­ sance. Though he knew he would be damned by one or another part of the political spectrum no matter how he handled it, he must have hoped that maintaining the old policy of allow­ ing some lecturers on campus, but not others, would help him win back old friends and attract new ones. However, his actions satisfied very few in the state.'^ Events in March, 1922, dem­ onstrated that his policy could be circum­ vented, and what then happened helped the University not at all. After Birge vetoed Mrs. O'Hare's appear­ ance, the Social Science Club had no feasible way to pressure him into changing his mind. They could have appealed to the courts or to public opinion, but neither course offered much hope of success, for against the Club were numerous court decisions and the conventional wisdom of the day, which assigned students to a strictly subordinate status.'^ In order to pro­ tect Mrs. O'Hare's and what they considered their own freedom of expression, the students Society's Iconographic Collections had to find a safe platform off-campus, and to Lieutenant Governor George F. Comings.

do this they had to have help from friends out­ "Sellery, Birge, 53-54, 59, 61-62, 64, 146-149; Curti and Carstensen, University of Wisconsin, II: side the University. Students had received such 71-72, 101, 127-128, 157, 203-204, 213, 215, 216; assistance before, having obtained a high school Herbert F. Margulies, The Decline of the Progres­ auditorium or some other building for lecturers sive Movement in Wisconsin, 1890-1920 (State His­ torical Society of Wisconsin, Madison, 1968), 130- barred from University facilities. For Mrs. 133, 143, 145, 147-148, 164-167; Chester C. Platt, O'Hare the Club was able to secure space in the What La FoUette's State Is Doing (Batavia, New York, 1924), 33; Robert S. Maxwell, Emanuel L. most unlikely place in town—the state Capitol; Philipp (Madison, 1959), 79-80, 96-101; Maurice and it persuaded Lieutenant Governor George M. Vance, Charles Richard Van Hise, Scientific F. Comings to introduce her. The precise rea­ Progressive (Madison, 1960), 116-117, 120, 128, 129, 176-181; "Statements Made by E. L. Phibpp at sons the Club went to Comings are a mystery, Various Times in Regard to Freedom of Speech but he certainly was a logical choice. He was a at the University of Wisconsin, 1915," unpublished typescript, in Legislative Reference Bureau, Wiscon­ forceful supporter of leftist politics, and he sin State Capitol; Capital Times, February 4, 7, 1921. himself had once been involved in a free speech " On students and the courts, see Edward C. Elliott incident at the University. After the war Com­ and M. M. Chambers, The Colleges and the Courts: ings was a lecturer in the University Extension. Judicial Decisions Regarding Institutions of Higher Education in the United States (New York, 1936), In November, 1919, at a meeting of the Wis­ 7-37; George E. Sloan, "Discipline and State Owned consin Society of Equity he had introduced a Educational Institutions, in Central Law Journal, 97; 187-194 (June 5, 1924) ; Roy Robert Ray, "Powers resolution calling for amnesty for political and Authorities of the Governing Boards of State prisoners and for repeal of all laws which inter­ Colleges and Universities," in Kentucky Law Journal, fered with freedom of speech and the press. 17:15-30 (November, 1928) ; American Civil Liber­ ties Union, What Freedom for American Students? The resolution was tabled. But opponents of (New York, 1941) ; Wilbam Van Alstyne, "PoHtical these proposals, people who usually equated Speakers at State Universities: Some Constitutional Considerations," in University of Pennsylvania Law support for them with disloyalty and radical­ Review, 111:328-342 (January, 1963). ism, wrote to Birge, the Board of Regents, and

210 MALLACH: KATE O HARE

Harry L. Russell, dean of the College of Agri­ out; and all sorts of tyrannies, great and small, culture, to protest against Comings' presence were perpetrated against organizations and on the faculty. The University fired him after people who had the bad luck to be branded he refused to appear before the Regents to be "dangerous radicals." The adjutant of the Wis­ rebuked for his action. The affair was widely consin Department of the Legion in an attack publicized, especially in the pages of the Capi­ on socialists expressed well the mood of the tal Times, and was one of several powerful times and of an unknown number of Legion­ springs which catapulted him into the lieuten­ naires when he wrote: ant governorship. His willingness to introduce Mrs. O'Hare indicates that in March, 1922, he "To my mind the Socialist is our worst ene­ still believed in free speech — and his belief my in this country as well as the enemy of all dovetailed nicely with his sympathy for leftist countries. . . . Socialism is a world wide politics.'* movement by certain smart men in each When a local newspaper announced the ar­ country to get control of government by hook rangements for Mrs. O'Hare's visit to Madison, or crook, and by dishonest methods. The So­ cialist is the man who puts out all this fine a stormy attempt to prevent the meeting erupted spun literature about dividing up the prop­ and shook the city during the last week of erty and arraying the working people against March, 1922. As at the University, the funda­ those who do not work with their hands and mental question was whether public property who own property. They institute the depart­ should be used to promote or suppress freedom ment of anarchy, the department of commu­ of speech. However, the problem became en­ nism and I.W.W.ism, support them morally trapped and sometimes lost in a labyrinth of and with their funds, and then deny they ideas and personal and institutional aims, so have any affiliation with them when they are that in the end protection of free speech was put on trial for the difficulties." only one corridor out of the maze, and to some people not the best one. Such ideas being popular with some leaders, The effort to prevent "Red Kate" O'Hare it is not surprising that posts in Madison and from speaking in the Capitol was spearheaded throughout the state should have protested by Madison American Legion posts, which was against the coming of Kate O'Hare, a Socialist unusual; local posts in the state were generally and also a ferocious critic of the war in which apolitical in the years immediately after the Legionnaires had patriotically and proudly organization of the Wisconsin Department in fought.^" September, 1918.'^ When Legionnaires did en­ gage in politics, some fell easily into a "para­ T^ HE PROTEST seems to have been initiated noid style" of thinking which seized the nation -•- by Colonel Joseph W. Jackson, Legion during the Red Scare of 1919-1920 and per­ sisted for many years. Devotees of the style " [History of the American Legion in Wisconsin], fixed their attention on a number of individuals unpublished typescript, box 1, in American Legion, and groups as enemies of the republic and made Wisconsin Department Papers; American Legion the postwar years a nightmare for leftists, many Review, 1922, 4, 65-160, 177, passim; R. M. Gibson to H. S. Crosby, March 13, 1920; Lyman Howe to of whom had opposed American participation Gibson, March 13, 1920; Lyle Paine to Gibson, in the war. February 29, 1920; Walker Sanborn to Gibson, Feb­ ruary 27, 1920; Gibson to James Frear, March 26, During this period throughout the nation 1920, all in box 16, American Legion, Wisconsin De­ authentic and suspected radicals were deported; partment Papers; Report of the Proceedings of the physical and legislative attacks were mounted Fourth Annual Convention of the American Legion, Department of Wisconsin, 1922, 20-21. against socialists. Nonpartisan Leaguers, and '^° On the Red Scare, see Robert K. Murray, Red labor unions; the Palmer raids were carried Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919—1920 (Minneapolis, 1955) ; Stanley Cohen, A. Mitchell Palmer, Politician (New York, 1963), chaps. 11-12. The quotation is from R. M. Gibson to Frank E. Samuel, March 20, 1920, box 16, in American Le­ ^' Upton Sinclair, The Goose-Step: A Study of gion, Wisconsin Department Papers. The "paranoid American Education (Rev. ed.; Pasadena, 1923), style" is defined in Richard Hofstadter, The Paranoid 232; Platt, La FoUette's State, 14-16; Milwaukee Style in American Politics and Other Essays (New Sentinel, November 22, 1919. York, 1966), 14.

211 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 member and local businessman.^' He had had the bad name it was giving the institution. As an interest in Mrs. O'Hare's visiting Madison one whose family had gone there for many long before March, 1922. On December 14, years, he did not want to see the University's 1921, he had written two letters, one to the reputation sullied. commander of the University of Wisconsin Jackson told Birge that he was writing Uni­ Legion post and one to President Birge, to pro­ versity Legionnaires about the proposed ap­ test against her proposed appearance on a Uni­ pearance of Mrs. O'Hare, which he did. His versity platform. In his letters Jackson pro­ letter to the Legion differed from the one to pounded ideas which others uttered with tedi­ Birge in containing a proposal for immediate ous regularity during the next few months. action and a more vituperative attack on Mrs. Particularly significant were his strictures O'Hare. Jackson repeated the story that she against student radicalism and his passion to bad "told the mothers of North Dakota soldiers keep alive the memory of the war and to invest . . . that they were no better than brood sows." it with an antiradical meaning. He skirted the Conjuring up the specter that she provoked barbed wire of the free speech question; it was turmoil wherever she went, he charged that only a nuisance in a landscape of larger issues. "throughout the West the bitterness and dis­ In his letter to Birge, Jackson said that as a gust with her Socialistic agitation has resulted member of the Chamber of Commerce and the in more or less violence, in which she has been Rotary Club he had carried out a study which egged, kidnapped, tarred, and driven out of had convinced him and other local businessmen town after town." He considered it a scandal that the Social Science Club was "the one real that she should be allowed to come to Madison Americanization problem in Madison." The to speak: "To invite that convicted criminal, Club was associated with a number of faculty and near-traitress," he wrote, "to come to Mad­ members who were parlor bolsheviks and whose ison to speak under any auspices is ... a delib­ loyalty during the war was suspect; also, they erate insult to every man and woman who wore did not hang out the flag on patriotic days. As the uniform, and to every man, woman and for the student members, Jackson told Birge child who upheld the government in any way, that their patriotism was reproachable; that shape or manner during the war." It was espe­ some belonged to an ethnic group which pro­ cially an "insult" that this woman should speak duced a large number of dangerous radicals on the campus under the sponsorship of a Uni­ across the country; that they invited radical versity organization. "If we forget or fail to speakers to the campus and would invite non­ expose this shame, and to protest and oppose radicals only at the insistence of the adminis­ it to the limit of our ability, we fail in our tration; that they were champions of the Non­ solemn vow to carry on the work they died for." partisan League and advocates of socialism and To promote opposition Colonel Jackson en­ class warfare; and that they were supported by closed a petition against Mrs. O'Hare's appear­ organizations and a local newspaper, presum­ ance which he thought might be circulated ably the Capital Times, which advocated un- among ex-servicemen and sent to Birge.^^ American ideals. The Legion post's only response was to write After revealing these facts, Jackson attacked a letter of protest to the president on January Mrs. O'Hare. She was, in sum, a dangerous 19, 1922. It denounced Mrs. O'Hare as a radi­ agitator. If she were given a campus platform cal "who contended for the triumph of passion on the principle of free speech, then the Social over principle and a government by men in­ Science Club would be able to invite other foes stead of by law"; the University could not of the republic, which would arouse ever in­ "afford" to lend its prestige to this woman's creasing anger and hostility among Madisoni­ ans and friends of the University. Colonel Jack­ son concluded his letter with the suggestion "" Joseph W. Jackson to Commander, American that the Club might be suppressed because of Legion Post, University of Wisconsin, December 14, 1921, in the Joseph W. Jackson Papers; Jackson to Birge, December 14, 1921, series 4/10/1, box 126, folder/Social Science Club, in the University Archives. Jackson also suggested purging the library ' Capital Times, March 29. of dangerous books.

212 MALLACH : KATE O HARE views by giving her a campus platform. On the stimulus of Colonel Jackson's agitation and in a quest for power similar to that of some of the members of the Social Science Club, the Legion asked that it be informed when someone of her stripe was invited to speak and afforded an opportunity to present its "position on the question."^^ While Colonel Jackson and University Le­ gionnaires were opposing Mrs. O'Hare's ap­ pearance on the campus, at the suggestion of Elaine Eschweiler, whose father sat on the state supreme court, the Social Science Club had obtained a platform for her in the Capitol. The first public announcement of the event seems to have appeared in the Wisconsin State Jour­ nal on Sunday, March 26. On Monday a group of ex-servicemen, including Colonel Jackson, descended on Governor John J. Blaine and demanded that Mrs. O'Hare be barred from speaking in the statehouse, though they "had no objection to the socialist speaking in Madi­ son." Blaine was noncommittal. One member of the party said that talking to him was like trying to hit a punching bag, "There is no getting results." Jackson took to the meeting a pamphlet condemning Mrs. O'Hare. When he offered it to the governor, Blaine politely re­ jected it and told him it was "pure political propaganda." At the end of the meeting he said he would give the group an answer the follow­ ing day.^* On Tuesday Blaine made an announcement: he would take no responsibility for how his appointee. Superintendent of Public Property Society's Iconographic Collections J. D. Morrissey, was allowing public property Governor John J. Blaine. to be used—nor would he reverse Morrissey's action. The governor sent a notice of his de­ publicly that the Club had "put one over on cision to the executive committee of the Social him" by not telling him who their speaker was. Science Club, but apparently not to any of the He had found out only on Sunday from the veterans who had visited him Monday. Morris­ State Journal. All he had known, he said, when sey, like Blaine, tried to avoid responsibility he had given the Club the use of the assembly for starting what was beginning to look like a chamber was that Lieutenant Governor Com­ political tempest. The superintendent stated ings was to preside at a meeting of a University student organization; he had "presumed . . . that they wanted it for a right purpose." Mor­ '^ John Fritschler to Birge, January 19, 1922, series rissey regretted that his action was raising a 4/10/1, box 126, folder/Social Science Club, in the row. But, he added, since no one had protested University Archives. The Jackson Papers also con­ to him directly, he "could not rescind" his tain a copy of this letter. ^ Wisconsin State Journal, March 26, 27; Capital decision.^^ Times, March 29; [Notes on the March 29 protest meeting], box 16; Samuel Sygman to Blaine, May 20, 1922, both in the Blaine Papers. ® Wisconsin State Journal, March 28, 29.

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Tuesday afternoon the Capital Times re­ home, and had persevered after the Armistice. ported that on Thursday night Mrs. O'Hare Wisconsinites had suffered their fair share, would deliver her lecture on prison reform especially during the war, when many people which had already helped bring about im­ across the nation had doubted the state's loyalty proved conditions in jails throughout the coun­ and "Americanness" because of peculiar local try. At the same time the president of the Club, circumstances: the enormous German popula­ Elaine Eschweiler, announced that Mrs. O'Hare tion; La FoUette's violent attacks on the war would stick strictly to her subject. Meanwhile, and noisy sympathy for leftist antiwar groups; several civic and women's clubs met and passed the power of the Socialists in Milwaukee; the resolutions against her using the Capitol. And rise of the radical Nonpartisan League; and that evening a group met to plan the next move the activities of the I.W.W. in the state. To in the protest.^^ erase the doubts and prove Wisconsin was On Wednesday the situation became balkan- loyal, some self-proclaimed patriots and officers ized when Blaine, after spending four hours of the law had mounted a campaign against Tuesday night with representatives from four individuals and groups they considered dis­ Madison veterans' organizations, announced loyal or un-American. The patriots had em­ his full support of Superintendent Morrissey's ployed social pressure, boycotts, physical vio­ decision. He said that in the past the Junior lence, and legal action against real or suspected Prom, businessmen's conventions, the military opponents of the war and authentic or supposed ball, and the like, had used rooms in the Capi­ radicals. Local committees had calculated the tol. The Social Science Club was a legitimate amount of liberty bonds each person in a com­ University organization containing members munity should buy and coerced many to meet from all parts of the state; it was entitled to the their quota. Between 1917 and 1921 one Wis­ same consideration and privileges as other consin federal court district had ranked ninth groups. Neither he nor Morrissey could "sit as out of eighty-seven in prosecutions under the a board of censors" so long as the Club obeyed Espionage and Sedition Acts. And the state all the regulations concerning the use of the press had mercilessly flayed Senator La Fol­ building.^'^ As Birge's control over University lette. After the war, the turbulence of economic property had allowed him to negate the princi­ readjustment, the Red Scare, spectacular politi­ ple of free speech, so Blaine's ultimate power cal factionalism in the election year of 1920, over use of the Capitol permitted him to pro­ and many other problems had all intensified mote it. Wisconsin's agony.^* The governor's decision to put the prestige of his office behind Morrissey was an outgrowth N 1920 Germans, presumed radical farmers, of his background and opinions on civil liber­ I organized labor. Socialists, and La Follette ties. Blaine was closely identified with Senator Robert La Follette and his causes. He gained office with the Senator's support and on the up- thrust of the new progressive coalition of 1920, ^ Margulies, Decline of the Progressive Movement, which he helped build from the political wreck­ 174-178, 189, 242-253, 258-265, 275-282, chap. 6; Maxwell, Philipp, 207-208, 163-169; Henry A. Hu- age left by the war and its aftermath. During ber, "War Hysteria," 2 vols., unpublished manuscript, the war, while the military had supposedly box 15, in the Henry Huber Papers; Harry N. Scheiber, The Wilson Administration and Civil been sowing seeds of democracy abroad, some Liberties (Ithaca, 1960), 46-48; Alfred Slatin, "Wis­ patriots had reaped a whirlwind of tyranny at consin Progressivism in Transition: A Study of Progressive Concepts" (unpublished master's thesis. University of Wisconsin, 1961), 20; Lorin Lee Cary, "Wisconsin Patriots Combat Disloyalty: The Wis consin Loyalty Legion and Politics, 1917-1918" (un^ '^Capital Times, March 28; Wisconsin State Jour­ published master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, nal, March 28. 1965), passim; Belle Case and Pola LaFollette ^ Wisconsin State Journal, March 29; Capital Robert M. LaFollette (2 vols.; New York, 1953) Times, March 29; Press release, March 29, box 16, H: 808-810, 826, 837; Charles D. Stewart, "Prus­ in the Blaine Papers. For a full statement of Blaine's sianizing Wisconsin," in Atlantic Monthly, 123 policy on the use of the Capitol, see Blaine to 99-105 (January, 1919) ; Theodore Saloutos and George J. Fiedler, April 17, 1924, in the Blaine John D. Hicks, Agricultural Discontent in the Middle Papers. West, 1900-1939 (Madison, 1951), 142-145, 209-212.

214 MALLACH: KATE O HARE

men—all recently victims of some sort of eco­ statements there was an implicit approval of nomic dislocation or persecution or both—had the students' "liberalism," and he objected to voted Blaine into the governor's office. During the University's preventing them from using the campaign he had appealed to their interests campus buildings for speakers with unpopular and anxieties by, among other things, calling economic and political opinions, some of which for repeal of the Espionage and Sedition Acts were like his own. Blaine, members of his ad­ and championing the cause of civil liberties: ministration, and many of his progressive allies wanted and were working for an immediate "The same influences [repressive laws] change in the University's arbitrary exclusion have been at work since the war, and our of some speakers, and some of his supporters liberties and our institutions are threatened desired an open forum. It is not improbable with the intolerance and repression of an that Blaine and they believed that allowing the autocratic official and money power which Club to use the Capitol would embarrass Birge desires forever to silence the voice of protest and the Regents and pressure them into a more and prophecy. satisfactory policy. This conflict over outside "In Wisconsin we must stand for that speakers was not, however, the only quarrel freedom of expression, that free assemblage between Blaine and the University. He intended of a free people. . . . "That nation lives longest which is free, to go down in the annals of Wisconsin as a that people is the happiest which is unshack­ "tightwad governor" who had lightened the led, that country is the most prosperous people's tax burden, and he was therefore an­ which is tolerant." noyed by the University's constant pressure for more money, some of which would pay for During his first administration he continued courses he tended to scorn as impractical. Also, speaking out for freedom of expression and Blaine and his progressive allies were almost assembly, especially for his supporters.^^ vengefuUy antagonitsic toward the Board of Blaine's decision to uphold the right of the Regents, which many thought was not in sym­ Social Science Club to use the Capitol was pathy with La Follette and progressive ideals, rooted in his undoubtedly sincere, but also which was sluggish on civil liberties, and which politically useful commitment to civil liberties. contained no representatives of farmers or Evidence for other motives is circumstantial, organized labor, two vital groups in the pro­ though quite compelling. One probable motive gressive coalition of the 1920's. Finally, though was his relations with the University. He had there is no tangible evidence, it is unlikely that long been cool toward it and had several times Blaine had forgotten what the University had publicly criticized the institution for abridging done to La Follette during the war, and certain­ the Club members' freedom of speech. In his ly many of his allies had not.^"

"" "Statement on Freedom of Speech . . .," Decem­ ^ Margulies, Decline of the Progressive Movement, ber 4, 1921, in Freedom of Speech (a book of clip­ 242-248, 250, 252-253, 259-265, 276-282; Blaine pings and miscellaneous documents). Legislative Scrapbooks, III: 11 (the scrapbooks are in the Reference Bureau, Wisconsin State Capitol; The State Historical Society of Wisconsin Library, not New Student, June 7; Wisconsin State Journal, De­ the Division of Archives-Manuscripts) ; Bound vol. cember 4, 1921, January 24; Blaine Scrapbooks, HI: I: 35-36, and Blaine to Richard Lloyd Jones, No­ 37; Curti and Carstensen, University of Wisconsin, vember 5, 1917, both in the Blaine Papers; James 11:157, 212-216; Slatin, "Wisconsin Progressivism H. Daffer, "Progressive Profile: John James Blaine in Transition," 12, 78, 92; Capital Times, February from 1872 to 1918" (unpublished master's thesis. 4, 7, 1921, February 28, March 29; Samuel Sygman University of Wisconsin, 1951), 142: Capital Times, to Theodore Kronshage, March 3, 1922, Ira Cross October 21, 1920; Milwaukee Leader, September 25, to Kronshage, May 27, 1922, both in the Theodore 1920; Milwaukee Journal, September 25, 1920. Blaine Kronshage Papers; Ralph M. Immel to J. S. Reeve, did not, however, always follow his civil liberties March 31, 1922, Immel to 0. B. James, March 31, principles, as when he waged war against the free­ 1922, both in box 16, in the Blaine Papers. Immel doms of the Ku Klux Klan; Slatin, "Wisconsin Pro­ was Blaine's executive clerk and wrote a great deal gressivism in Transition," 87-90; Norman F. Wea­ of the governor's correspondence. By 1925 Blaine ver, "The Knights of the Ku Klux Klan in Wiscon­ had by his appointments made over the Board of sin, Indiana, Ohio, and Michigan" (unpublished Regents into a body more compatible with his and doctoral dissertation. University of Wisconsin, 1954), progressive ideals; Curti and Carstensen, University 104, 117. of Wisconsin, 11:157; Sellery, Birge, 75.

215 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

Daughters of the American Revolution, the Catholic Women's Club, and the Madison Fed­ eration of Labor. Members of Blaine's admin­ istration were there, too.^^ The fundamental issue before the meeting was whether the state Capitol should be used to support Mrs. O'Hare's and the sponsoring students' freedom of expression. Undoubtedly all the protesters thought it should not. Some had a more radical idea, which was embodied in a resolution passed on Tuesday by the Asso­ ciation of Commerce and read at the meeting by its president, Emerson Ela; the Association opposed allowing Mrs. O'Hare to speak any­ where in Madison.^^ Though free speech was the basic question the protesters faced, they ignored it. In their minds it was subordinate to other, closer prob­ lems. They were disturbed by the politics of the students and Mrs. O'Hare, but they were deeply troubled by her opposition to the war, and this dominated the discussion. The ubiquitous Colonel Jackson read to the meeting a telegram from the governor of North Society's Iconographic Collections Dakota asserting that the people of his state William T. Evjue, editor of the Madison Capitol were convinced that in her antiwar speech at Time.s. Bowman she had "likened the mothers of American soldiers to brood sows and also stated that American fathers and mothers were On the day the governor announced his sup­ not going to submit to having their sons aspir­ port for the students' freedom of speech, and ing to a no more glorious destiny than being on the following day, Thursday, he received at fertilizer for French sofl."^* The "brood sow" least sixty-five telegrams, most of them from remark had been bruited about in the local Legion posts around the state, opposed to Mrs. newspapers during the week, so probably every­ O'Hare's speaking in the Capitol. Only a few one at the meeting realized that the telegram called on him to stand fast in favor of freedom confirmed that during the war Mrs. O'Hare had of expression.^' been a traitress. The seriousness of her offense On Wednesday the opponents of Mrs. O'Hare allowed many, including Jackson, to skip over launched their final attack. In the morning the the free speech issue and jump to tbe position State Journal announced that at Madison High that she should not be allowed to lecture in the School that night there would be a protest Capitol. meeting of "service men and women, civic, One man charged that Mrs. O'Hare incited commercial and patriotic societies." Three to her auditors to riot wherever she spoke; if a four hundred people, including many women, row occurred Thursday night, he said darkly, braved a hail and snow storm to attend. Accord­ "We will give her a warm reception."^^ Several ing to the State Journal, numerous local organi­ zations were officially represented, including Legion posts, the Association of Commerce, the ^'Wisconsin State Journal, March 29, 30; Capital Times, March 30. ""[Notes on the March 29 protest meeting], box 16, in the Blaine Papers. '^ Wisconsin State Journal, March 30. " Box 16, in the Blaine Papers. The telegram "= [Notes on the March 29 protest meeting], box campaign was organized by the state commander of 16, in the Blaine Papers; Wisconsin State Journal, the Legion. Wisconsin State Journal, March 29. March 30; Capital Times, March 30.

216 MALLACH: KATE O HARE people urged the protesters not to go to the and her right to the name of an American citi­ lecture at all, but if they did, not to start trou- zen has no claim to the hospitality and consid­ ble.'^^ Such warnings seemed necessary, because eration of the state of Wisconsin." That she the tempers of some at the meeting were like was being allowed to speak in the Capitol was coiled springs. Violence almost erupted when an insult to the people of the state and "a dese­ Philip Voltz, an ex-serviceman and a Club cration [of] . . . the building wherein are en­ member, rose to speak. He stated that the Club shrined the colors and preserved the casualty had the same right to use the Capitol as the lists of Wisconsin regiments. . . ."^^ Legion or the Association of Commerce. He then read the section of the state constitution rpHURSDAY ARRIVED, the day of Mrs. which guaranteed freedom of speech to all and -^ O'Hare's scheduled performance. Through­ emphasized the seldom mentioned fact that out Wednesday people had talked fearfully of Mrs. O'Hare was going to lecture on prison violence at the lecture. The tension increased reform—not on the war or socialism. While on Thursday because of the angriness of the Voltz spoke people hissed, booed, and jeered. protest meeting and the spreading rumor that When he made the apparently abrasive point the lecture would be broken up. Concerned about the subject of her lecture, some members individuals and patriotic, civic, and service or­ of the audience roared for him to sit down, and ganizations, some participants in the protest, several men rushed and seized him. The inter­ urged that no one start trouble on Thursday vention of Colonel Jackson, Emerson Ela, and night. Blaine, who was out of town on Wednes­ several others saved Voltz from being pum- day and Thursday delivering speeches for La meled. Jackson put his arm around the student Follette and against "the money power," on and said, "If Kate O'Hare were to say the Wednesday night had called the commander of Lord's prayer in the state house it would be a the state national guard and directed him to desecration." Voltz was then allowed to con­ take all necessary actions to maintain law and tinue. He said that the protest meeting was "a order. The governor was prepared to use an defiance of [the] authority" of the governor, instrument of coercion to enforce free speech.^" and that be believed the Legion was "being The local newspapers partially nullified all used as a football—as a political football." The attempts to ease the tension. As they had latter remark almost provoked another attack, throughout the week, on Thursday, with bold but it never came. He finished speaking to a headlines, slanted news, and biting editorials, serenade of jeers and sat down.^'^ they waged a war of words which was calcu­ At the end of the evening the meeting passed lated to shape opinion and sell papers—not to a resolution, to be sent to Blaine and Morrissey, salve raw nerves and soothe angry tempers. On in which the memory of the war engulfed the Thursday the two papers featured reports of issue of free speech. The protesters declared the protest meeting on the front page; the State their belief in complete freedom of expression; Journal's was slanted toward a condemnation they did not deny Mrs. O'Hare's right to say of Blaine, and the Capital Times' toward a con­ whatever she wanted anywhere she wanted. Nor demnation of the protest meeting. The Capital did they deny the governor's power to give her Times also printed two other stories which a platform in the Capitol. "But," they resolved, could hardly have pleased the protesters. One "it is undenied and undeniable that Kate Rich­ impugned the importance of the meeting by ards O'Hare opposed and thwarted, in time of reporting that the Madison Federation of La­ war, the government which we sought to sustain. bor, the Knights of Columbus, and a Catholic THE ENEMIES OF OUR COUNTRY ARE NOT OUR women's organization had been falsely repre- FRIENDS. The woman who forfeited her liberty

"" "Resolution Adopted at a Public Meeting Held "° [Notes on the March 29 protest meeting], box in the High School Auditorium in the City of Madi­ 16, in the Blaine Papers; Capital Times, March 30; son, Wednesday Evening, March 29, 1922," box 16, Wisconsin State Journal, March 30. in the Blaine Papers; Wisconsin State Journal, "' [Notes on the March 29 protest meeting], box March 30. 16, in the Blaine Papers; Capital Times, March 30; ™ Wisconsin State Journal, March 29, 30, 31; Wisconsin State Journal, March 30. Capital Times, March 30.

217 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

sented Wednesday night and that the last two been an energetic friend of servicemen,''^ he groups resented the protesters' use of their or­ would not stretch his support so far as to lose ganizations. The other story was an interview "the 'red' vote." The paper was toughest in with a student and veteran who sharply criti­ dealing with the Social Science Club. In De­ cized the protesters' manhandling of Voltz and cember it had supported the Club's right to denounced the "intolerant and over-zealous have all kinds of speakers on campus, though 'patriotism' " of the Legion and other organiz­ it had disagreed with the organization's selec­ ers of the protest.'"' tions and urged the students to pick less contro­ The inflammatory newspaper war on Thurs­ versial lecturers; they should, said the paper, day and throughout the week reflected the dif­ respect the University's desire to avoid offend­ ferent political positions of the two papers. Tbe ing taxpayers and parents who objected to hav­ State Journal before and during the war had ing their children "exposed to more or less been superpatriotic and, after about 1916, anti- revolutionary propaganda." Now, in March, La Follette. In the postwar years the paper had the paper doubted whether the Club intended added antiradicalism to its list of causes.'" to fulfill its announced commitment to present During the week of controversy the State speakers on both sides of sticky issues, and it Journal supported the protesters both in hard deplored the "sneaky" way the organization news stories and in the editorial column, where had obtained the Capitol. The paper thought the paper explained why it opposed Mrs. O'­ the Club's action suggested "a studied purpose Hare's appearance. The Capitol, it said, was to commit the state to official vindication of the the property of the 100,000 Wisconsin soldiers, woman," and to identify Wisconsin "with living and dead, who had fought in the war. things which patriotic Americans hold in con­ Should "the state . . . give space and light and tempt." If the organization continued to be official recognition" to someone who had made "irresponsible, or responsive to bad influences, their defense of American ideals more hazard­ [it] should be disbanded." ous? The question was not free speech. The The Capital Times vociferously supported paper was a stout supporter of the principle. Mrs. O'Hare's appearance and roasted the pro­ The students could rent any place for Mrs. testers. Anyone who had ever read this evan­ O'Hare to spread her propaganda, and they gelistic progressive paper would have expected were perfectly free to do so. The question was nothing less. William T. Evjue had founded it whether "this woman" should be given a plat­ in December, 1917, to champion the causes of form in the Capitol or on the campus. The State Robert La Follette. In its early years the paper Journal's opinion was an adamant no.*^ had been boycotted by advertisers and hounded The paper scored the supporters of Mrs. by local antiprogressives because of the editor's O'Hare's appearance. It criticized Lieutenant crusades for the Senator and organized labor Governor Comings for introducing her and and against war profiteers and the suppression thereby adding luster to the already implicit of civil liberties. After the elections of 1920 the official approval of her views during and after future of the paper had become secure as the the war. The paper accused Governor Blaine of herald of triumphant Wisconsin progressivism, playing politics. Though in many ways he had and Evjue had sharpened his already obvious talent for using fiery language in treating sub­ jects which few other papers would touch.''*

'"Wisconsin State Journal, March 30; Capital Times, March 30. " Norman Weissman, "A History of the Wisconsin "^ Blaine had shown his friendliness toward ex- State Journal since 1900" (unpublished master's servicemen by being an advocate of a soldiers' bonus thesis. University of Wisconsin, 1951), chaps. 5-7, and by pardoning an enormous number of men who passim; Margulies, Decline of the Progressive Move­ had been jailed for criminal behavior which was ment, 246. clearly linked to their wartime and postwar experi­ '" This paragraph and the next are based on ences. Antigo Journal, July 6, 1922; Janesville Ga­ items, mainly editorials, which appeared in the zette, July 6, 1922. Wisconsin State Journal, March 28, 29, 30. See also •" Kenneth Cameron Wagner, "William T. Evjue Wisconsin State Journal, November 3, December 4, and the Capital Times" (unpublished master's thesis. 11, 1921. University of Wisconsin, 1949), chaps. 4-11, passim.

218 MALLACH: KATE O HARE

Evjue supported Mrs. O'Hare in part be­ cause he saw in the week's events a recurrence of La FoUette's wartime ordeal. He especially recalled for his readers that the Senator had suffered most when he had been misquoted. And so had Mrs. O'Hare. His paper ran a story on a study done by her friend W. E. Zeuch in Bowman, North Dakota, which established that she had never made the "brood sow" remark for which she had been convicted. Mrs. O'Hare, the study demonstrated, had been framed; she had been a victim of political factionalism, North Dakota war profiteers, antiradicals, and perjurers.''^ Evjue used tough and sometimes crudely mocking language in denouncing the protest leadership of "Generalissimo" Jackson, "First Lieutenant Generalissimo" Ela, and the "Asso­ ciation of Commerce Zouaves." He excoriated what he considered theirs and other protesters' phony patriotism. Why, he wanted to know, didn't they all support a soldier's bonus, and why didn't they demand the removal of the rich and influential member of the Board of Re­ Society's Iconographic Collections gents, Alexander J. Horlick, who had been fined Rostrum of the assembly chamber, from which $50,000 for hoarding during the war? Mrs. O'Hare spoke. Evjue understood the way other issues im­ pinged on people's attitude toward free speech lectured on prison reform in the statehouse. —especially in the case of un-friends. He be­ A huge crowd came to listen. About 1,500, lieved the protesters were not at all motivated, mostly students, managed to get sitting or as they claimed, by patriotism, but rather by standing room within earshot of the speaker, antiprogressive politics, and politics were not while an estimated 2,000 were turned away."*^ going to take precedence over freedom of The meeting began with a member of the speech and assembly. "Mrs. O'Hare is going to Social Science Club and future Wisconsin Con­ speak here in Madison," Evjue wrote on gressman, Tom Amlie, introducing Lieutenant Wednesday. "A few busybody reactionaries in Governor Comings. When Comings stood to this town are not going to tell the people of speak, he was treated to a round of "hoots, Madison who can speak here and who can't hisses, jeers, and boos." When the clamor sub­ speak here. Governor Blaine has properly esti­ sided, he began his introductory remarks. At mated the opposition—about 95 per cent stal­ one point he stated that Mrs. O'Hare "had been wart—and has refused to accede to their re­ falsely convicted and had been given a full par­ quest" to bar Mrs. O'Hare from speaking in don by President Wilson." Before he could the Capitol. finish his sentence some members of the audi­ ence roared their disbelief and disapproval. lyHE CAPITAL TIMES was right and on Tliis outburst brought the commander of the -*- Thursday night Kate Richards O'Hare state national guard to the rostrum; he de­ manded that the audience not interrupt again. When Mrs. O'Hare stood to speak there were a few scattered noises, but these quickly died

•" This paragraph and the next two are based on items, mainly editorials, which appeared in the Capi­ tal Times, March 29, 30, 31; see also Capital Times, •" Capital Times, March 31; Wisconsin State Jou May 1. nal, March 31.

219 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

Club, the paper condemned the "incendiary" students who had tried to disrupt the lecture; they were unrepresentative of "the great mass of students" and had only hurt the reputation of the University all over the state. Second, the paper thought the Thursday night meeting "ought to indicate to the scheming stalwarts of this city and their newspaper organ the need for a study of the rudiments of psychology." If they had not raised a "rumpus," probably lew would have attended the lecture. As events fell out, the protest had provided Mrs. O'Hare with abundant free publicity and a huge audi- ence. During the next week in two front-page stories the Capital Times continued its crusade. One claimed that the Justice Department in Washington had on file "one hundred and fifty- one statements, many of them affidavits," which denied that in her Bowman speech Mrs. O'Hare had "likened American women to brood sows." St. Louis Post Dispatch Because of these statements, the paper said, she 'Newspaper drawing of Thomas R. Amlie in 1935. had been released from prison. The other story charged that Emerson Ela had induced the YMCA to fire its desk clerk because during the down, and she was able to deliver her lecture protest meeting he had criticized the conduct without any trouble. After she finished, she of the protesters.''^ offered to answer a few questions, if they were While the Capital Times was ventilating such strictly related to the subject of the talk. When information, some of the protesters were mov­ one student began questioning her in an insult­ ing against the Social Science Club. On the ing manner, the crowd, which had been hostile night of the lecture the University post of the toward Mrs. O'Hare at the beginning of the Legion and a student organization of disabled evening, hooted him down. By 9:30 the ques­ veterans, the Gun and Blade Club, met to con­ tion period had ended and people were leaving demn Governor Blaine for playing politics and the Capitol.*^ the Social Science Club for existing. At the The next day the stories on the lecture in the meeting one irate Gun and Blade member local papers were reasonably similar. Other blurted out the widely held view that "free items related to the events of the week were not. speech has its limits." Americans believed in In its editorial column the State Journal scored Governor Blaine for giving Mrs. O'Hare a plat­ form in the Capitol, and in a front-page box it printed a letter from Attorney General Harry "^ Capital Times, March 31; Wisconsin State Jour­ Daugherty to the University post of the Legion nal, March 31. Another Madison paper, the student- run Daily Cardinal, on Friday ended a week of which stated that Mrs. O'Hare had not been timid silence. The paper said that the Capital Times pardoned. On its editorial page the Capital and State Journal, with their sensational, plenteous, Times had two important comments. First, and slanted "news" stories, had stirred up most of the trouble and that most of the students "knew or borrowing some thunderbolts from the week- cared nothing about the whole matter." The follow­ long storm of words against the Social Science ing week the Cardinal criticized the Social Science Club for not bringing speakers on both sides of con­ troversial issues. To rectify this the paper wanted the creation of some sort of organization to pass on outside speakers which would represent the will of the entire student body. Daily Cardinal, March 31, *" Capital Times, March 31; Wisconsin State Jour- April 4. nal, March 31. " Capital Times, April 4.

220 MALLACH: KATE O HARE free speech but "the Social Science Club has Statutory power over the use of buildings. And taken advantage" of it "by making it too broad, they had satisfied civil liberties advocates by and having people who should have followed obliquely instructing Birge to institute an open Emma Goldman to Russia come here to speak." forum or something close to it. The civil liber­ The two groups, in identical petitions to the ties part of the settlement was apparently what Regents, denounced the Club as a minority of the governor wanted; he later claimed that he students who constantly irritated the majority. had "made it possible to establish the principle The veterans assailed the organization as a of freedom of speech at the university," pre­ group of "un-American radicals and extrem­ sumably by putting pressure on the Regents ists, who are continually inciting unrest among and by appointing new ones. If anyone doubted the Student Body," and called on President what the new bylaw meant, the Regents clarified Birge and the Regents to abolish it. In accord­ their intention in 1923 when at Birge's request ance with their interpretation of the spirit of for instructions they voted to give Eugene Debs the First Amendment, the veterans also re­ a campus platform. Unfortunately, the compro­ solved that University officials should not insti­ mise turned out to be an impermanent solution tute an open forum plan. The Legion also peti­ to the problem of free expression for students. tioned the Student Senate to withdraw its rec­ Birge's successor, Glenn Frank, nullified it at ognition from the Club. On April 5 the Senate least once by reinstating the previous policy of refused, but it did censure the organization for arbitrary censorship.^' its "indiscretion" in bringing Mrs. O'Hare to But on May 2 the Social Science Club seemed Madison.so to have won its fight to open the campus to all After the passions and the repetitious and outside speakers — a fight which students in contradictory charges of late March and early 1917 had called "a new phase of the academic April had subsided, the Regents met on May 2, freedom question." Students on other campuses 1922, to consider a large variety of suggested were waging the same battle, and, as at Wis­ policies on outside speakers. They had been consin, the conflict in most places was over manfully struggling with the issue since De­ leftist speakers. The 1920's was hardly a decade cember. Preventing a settlement were Birge's of widespread and intense student interest in opposition to giving the students control over politics of any sort, much less radical politics. outside speakers and a deep split among the But at the same time there were some who did Regents, but finally they were able to work out have an interest in radicalism, and they wanted a compromise. The president was to retain con­ University officials to indulge their interest by trol over the use of University property by out­ giving radical lecturers a campus platform. side speakers. Anyone who was unhappy with The issue, they declared, was free speech.^^ his decisions could appeal to the Regents. At the same time the Board placed in the Univer­ sity bylaws the "sifting and winnowing" dec­ "^ Curti and Carstensen, University of Wisconsin, II: 149-156; Series 1/1/3, box 35, folder/January 18, laration on academic freedom, with the folder/March 1, folder/May 2, in the University addition that it should apply "to the use of Archives; Minutes of the Regents' Meetings, Record university halls for public addresses." It ap­ K, 148-150, 167-168, 180-181, in the University Archives, Capital Times, January 19, 27; Milwaukee peared that the Regents had simply ratified the Daily Journal, May 3; Lawrence H. Larsen, "Glenn status quo and stuck on it a veneer of free Frank: The Boy Wonder from Missouri" (doctoral dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1962), 123- expression for students. But, contrary to ap­ 124; Blaine to George J. Fiedler, April 17, 1924, in pearances, at least for the rest of Birge's admin­ the Blaine Papers. istration, they had done something different. '^^ The small and pathetically weak "student move­ They had saved face for the University by ment" of the 1920's centered around a periodical called The New Student, which praised the Social keeping for the president and themselves their Science Club for all its activities and Blaine for up­ holding the students' freedom of speech. On the "student movement," see Hal Draper, "The Student Movement of the Thirties: A Political History," in Rita James Simon (ed.). As We Saw the Thirties: =" Series 1/1/3, box 35, folder/May 2, in the Uni­ Essays on Social and Political Movements of a Decade versity Archives; Capital Times, March 31, April 4, (Urbana, 1967), 153-154; Series 4/10/1, box 126, 6; Daily Cardinal, March 31, April 6; Wisconsin folder/Social Science Club, in the University Ar­ State Journal, March 31. chives.

221 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

University officials did not see the problem would have done nothing more. The problem with such stunning clarity. Rather, to them the in the O'Hare incident was that University free speech issue was caught up in a whirlwind buildings and the statehouse were different of other dilemmas such as the right of the insti­ from other places in Madison. They were sym­ tution to control its property, the status of stu­ bols of the state. They belonged to the citizens dents within a university, and the institution's of the state, or so some protesters believed, and relations with and dependence on the world off- some citizens did not want a woman who had campus. Officials plucked free speech from the opposed the war and who spread political and whirlwind only when they believed that their economic ideas different from theirs speaking decisions would not damage them or their insti­ in "their" buildings. It did not matter that she tutions. Before May 2 Birge and the Regents was going to lecture on prison reform. She was believed protecting other interests more impor­ still a Socialist who had opposed the Great tant than full freedom of discussion for stu­ Crusade. She challenged ideas and a cause dents, but then they changed their minds. The which they thought were fundamental to the coming of Kate O'Hare was the most dramatic glory and survival of the nation. People and and perhaps the most important single episode organizations could believe in one or all these in bringing about the shift. things and find reason enough to try, within the limits of peaceful pressure group protest, nPHE O'HARE INCIDENT developed into a to prevent her from speaking on the people's -*- tempest because the students took their property. fight outside the University, where Governor Another reason Mrs. O'Hare's appearance Blaine and the Capital Times upheld their generated so much heat was that students were cause of free speech. What both did converged sponsoring her. In Colonel Jackson's letter to conveniently with their political commitments, Birge, in the pages of the State Journal, and in their sentiments about the University, and, it remarks at the protest meeting there was a seems in retrospect, their desire to demonstrate vague assumption that students had to conform the progressive stand on civil liberties, espe­ to some sort of role, and sponsoring radical cially for leftists. As so often happens in human speakers and getting involved in state and local affairs, they found championing a high social politics was not part of it. The specter of stu­ ideal easier when it dovetailed with their per­ dents not fully accepting their presumed role sonal interests.^^ and being interested in more than the patriotic What is curious about the O'Hare episode, and antiradical conventional wisdom of the day which was not an endlessly ramifying event in helped make the controversy a bitter one. the history of the state or nation, is that it aroused such passion. There were several inter­ In the minds of the protesters and Blaine and related reasons. Ranking above all is the fact Evjue, as in the minds of officials at the Univer­ that Mrs. O'Hare's appearance was impressed sity, free speech was tangled up with other into the continuous and acrimonious feud be­ problems. During one week in March, because tween progressives and local antiprogressive he had ultimate legal control over the use of leaders like Colonel Jackson and Emerson Ela. the Capitol, Blaine was able to cut through the The antiprogressives and antileftists generally tangle and give the spirit of the First Amend­ would probably have grumbled more than a ment a literal meaning in practice. He was able little if the Social Science Club had obtained a to provide Mrs. O'Hare with a platform, and he platform for their speaker anywhere other than was willing to use a persuasive instrument of the University or the Capitol, but they probably force to make sure she would not be harassed. If, after the University had barred her from using space on the campus, Blaine had not given her a place in the statehouse and the °^ After the O'Hare incident was over, Blaine's students had not been able to obtain another satisfaction with having served the cause of free safe place, then in March, J922, in Madison speech was mixed with great anger at the students the First Amendment would have been a null for dragging him into such a situation without fore­ warning; Samuel Sygman to Blaine, May 20, 1922, hypothesis in the logic of American liberty. in the Blaine Papers.

222 HOW TO DISENVOWEL A CHARGING HISTORIAN

By WENDELL TRIPP

T T IS a dirty little conflict. It smoulders in the thing to say." The intent of his thrust was not •*• jungles of the historical profession like an lost upon the audience, which laughed nervous orthological Huk insurrection. Quarter is often ly. He quickly changed the subject and returned asked for, but seldom given. On one side are to his prepared talk. Though the conference the an historians, on the other the a historians. lasted another week, the matter was not men­ The former group is comprised of those who tioned again, not even in informal bull sessions. believe that the words "historian" and "histori­ The unspoken consensus clearly held that some cal" take the article an. The latter insist that a topics are not discussed in public—or in private. is the proper article. The contending factions, eschewing all con­ The tactics employed by these adversaries are tact with the explicit, have nothing to fall back characteristic of guerrilla warfare, with empha­ upon but the implicit. Thus, a champion for one sis upon stealth and subterfuge. There are no side or the other either riddles his books and pitched battles in open terrain, no orderly bat­ articles with the usage of his choice, or, more talions advancing through bomb blast and likely, sneaks one or two into a monograph, grapeshot against stout palisades. Indeed, only forcing anyone interested in labelling him to individuals of particular sensitivity are aware read the whole darn thing. The late Arthur M. that a conflict exists, for the foemen in their Schlesinger, in a rare act of explicit implica­ stealth avoid explicit statement. No historian, tion, boldly took his stand on the title page of however courageous he may be in other re­ his 1946 opus. Learning How to Behave, A spects, has ever stood in open forum and said, Historical Study of American Etiquette Books.^ "Only the usage 'a historian' is correct, and Avery 0. Craven fired off an implicit rebuttal anyone who says different is a d d fool!" eighteen years later in an article entitled, "An No historian has ever interrupted a scholarly Historical Adventure."^ Interestingly enough, lecture to state forthrightly, "Professor Dough Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., also favors the use (John Dough, an hypothetical name) has used of a, which suggests, perhaps, that heredity the expression, 'A historical event.' He should plays a role in this business. Arnold J. Toynbee be horsewhipped." Or some such statement. recently offered further food for thought when The most egregious challenge, to my knowl­ he stated, "I am an historian because my mother edge, was offered two years ago at a conference on historical publications in Nashville, Ten­ nessee, by Savoie Lottinville (not an hypotheti­ cal name) of the University of Oklahoma Press. ^Macmillan, New York, 1946. Mr. Lottinville, after noting the use of the term ''Journal of American History, LI;5-20 (June, "an historian," remarked, "That's an hell of a 1964).

223 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

was one."^ At the present writing, Professor nation's law enforcement agencies, the answer Toynbee's mother's use of a or an has not been is that they are completely silent on the subject. determined. But authorities on English and American usages Toynbee studied Greek and Latin for a num­ have long been in a state of flux about it. Wilson ber of years as a young man, and this perhaps Follett's Modern American Usage (1966) ob­ offers a clue to one of the influences upon the serves, "Some very Anglophile or very bookish an users. The words "historical" and "histo­ Americans, and others influenced by them, are rian" (not to mention the word "history") are addicted to an before historical . . . and other derived from Greek—a language which, through words with a formerly silent h. . . ."^ Aside some ancient oversight, has no letter h. The from its oblique support ("formerly silent h") aspirate sound is indicated instead by a spiritus for the cockney theory, the volume takes no asper C-) placed in front of opening vowels explicit stand on the question. Some ati histo­ where necessary. Thus, "history" in Greek is rians have described the above statement as "*Lo"yopia." If the English, when they first "snide." In modern America it is no joke to be borrowed the word, had simply written it labelled an addict. "lotopia" we should have been spared a great H. W. Fowler, in A Dictionary of Modern deal of anguish. Only the most perverse indi­ English Usage, states more definitely; ". . . an vidual would say, "I am an lotopian." How­ was formerly usual before an unaccented sylla­ ever, early transliterators employed the words ble beginning with h (an historical work), but "history" and "historian." Then, not really now that the h in such words is pronounced knowing what to do with the spiritus asper the distinction has become pedantic, and a his­ (always a problem), they simply ignored it and torical should be said and written. .. ."'^ Fowler, quite logically established the usage, "an who was probably English, inasmuch as he was istorian." By the time the s.a. crept back into born, raised, and educated in England, was use in the guise of an h the damage had been clearly not influenced by the very Anglophile done.* or very bookish Americsms and their spineless Another theory holds that the first important satellites mentioned by Follett. English historiographers were cockneys who Margaret Nicholson, whose A Dictionary of had a tendency to drop their spiritus aspers. American-English Usage is based on Fowler, The English-speaking peoples (or gringo dogs is a bit more sentimental: "Since the h is now as they were known in my old neighborhood) pronounced, an is usually nostalgic or pedan- unanimously followed the example until some­ tic. one began sounding the h, at which time the H. L. Mencken, in The American Language, conflict began.^ Clearly, there is still much work made reference to "cockney vulgarism" but de­ to be done before the definitive history of the clared, "It is still good English usage to write problem can be written. . .. an historical."^ In The American Language, Supplement II he cites a study by Louis N. OMEONE at this point may say, "The deuce Feipel who dealt in part with the British and S with the historians. What do the authorities American uses of an historical and a historical. say?" If the term "authorities" refers to the Feipel found little difference in usage on either side of the Atlantic, and Mencken declared the contest a "sort of stalemate."'" The language

" Toynbee, "Why, and How I Work." Saturday Review (April 5, 1969), 24. Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr., "Sources of the New Deal," in Arthur M. Schle­ singer, Jr., and Morton White (eds.). Paths of " Wilson Follett, Modern American Usage, A Guide, American Thought (Boston, 1963) 372. edited and completed by Jacques Barzun, in collabo­ ' I am indebted to Mr. Gerald M. Dugan of Orchard ration with Carlos Baker et. al. (New York, 1966), 34. Park, N.Y., for an explanation of the spiritus asper. ' H. W. Fowler, A Dictionary of Modern English Since I have been kind enough to acknowledge his Usage (Kingsport, Tenn., 1950), 1. assistance it seems fair that he share with me re­ * Margaret Nicholson, A Dictionary of American- sponsibility for the shortcomings of this essay. English Usage (New York, 1957), 3. ° Daniel Webster was evidently sounding the h as " H. L. Mencken, The American Language (New early aj 1852. See An Address Delivered Before the York, 1931), 75. New York Historical Society, February 23, 1852, by ^" H. L. Mencken, The American Language, Sup­ Daniel Webster (New York, 1852), 28. plement H (New York, 1948), 92.

224 TRIPP: HOW TO DISENVOWEL authorities therefore seem to be of little help in coupled with the snide fiat of authority, the an the matter. This no doubt explains the mysteri­ historians resemble a remnant of Custer's cav­ ous silence of the nation's law enforcement alry, unhorsed and surrounded by a closing agencies. circle of painted warriors—all making horrid Someone at this point may say, "The deuce vowel sounds. But the careful scholar, before with the authorities. What do the historians writing the an historians off, will note the pres­ say?" They say very little, as has already been ence of a rub. In fact, there are two rubs. First pointed out; they merely imply. Arnold J. the research presented here, though truly im­ Toynbee and Avery 0. Craven—a pedantic or pressive in scope, is not exhaustive. Further nostalgic Englishman and an Anglophile or investigation could well change the findings bookish American, respectively—have already to put the an historians, who are now behind been cited as an historians. The Schlesingers 9 to 6, ahead by, say, 10 to 9. (In history, as pere and fils have been noted among the a his­ in baseball, the game is not over till the last torians. Years of research in the sources have man is out.) Secondly, there is a basic weak­ produced, in addition, the following lists of ness in the argument of the authorities, who noteworthy champions for either cause. base their position on the supposition that the Those historians who have used the term a initial h in the words historian and historical, historian or a historical at least once (they once silent, is now universally pronounced. might have used it more often, but as soon as I They present not one bit of empirical evidence found an example I stopped reading) include: to prove that such is the case. Perhaps they Charles A. Beard, Henry Steele Commager, pronounce their initial h sounds; this does not Lawrence Henry Gipson, Richard Hofstadter, mean that everyone does. Quite probably the Michael Kraus, Allan Nevins, and Frederick an historians do not, and one can therefore use Jackson Turner." the authorities' own reasoning to prove that Those historians who have used the terms an an is not merely proper in these cases, but historian or an historical at least once include: actually preferable. John Higham, Cecelia M. Kenyon, Arthur It has, unfortunately, been impossible to Mann, and Samuel Eliot Morison.'^ determine the pronunciation of leading an his­ An examination of the works of Richard torians. A series of anonymous phone calls Morris and Harvey Wish reveals a neutral posi­ merely revealed that an historians tend to be tion. They apparently prefer to use the definite shrewish. (One need be called "a drunken article — the historian, the historical — and crank" very few times before one gives up com­ thereby take no part in the conflict.''^ pletely.) Some years ago, however, I did attend It seems then that the a's have it, 9 to 6 to 2. a course offered by a famous historian whose And when the evidence of actual usage is opening lecture began, "The study of istory is tough. Gawd knows, and I can't elp you. You must elp yourselves. You must it the books till it urts." Here surely was a man whose example ^"^ Beard (ed.), Whither Mankind; A Panorama of Modern Civilization (New York, 1938), 15; Com­ could fly in the face of authority. But when I mager, The American Mind (New Haven, 1950), drew him out (in a clever letter asking for an 284; Gipson, "Letter to Editor," in The Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, LXXV;354 explanation of Grimm's law) he replied tersely, (July, 1951) ; Hofstadter, Anti-Intellectualism in "Hl'm ban istorian, nothing more." Realizing American Life (New York, 1963), 7; Kraus, A His­ that a han istorian (or is it an lian istorian?) tory of American History (New York, c. 1937), 11; Nevins, "The Place of Franklin D. Roosevelt in would only cloud the investigation, I dropped History," in American Heritage (June, 1966), 12; the course, despite my straight C average. Turner, "Dr. Von Hoist's History of the United States," in Wilbur R. Jacobs (ed.), Frederick Jackson Turner's Legacy (San Marmo, Calif., 1965), 90. ^^ Higham, "The Construction of American His­ tory," in John Higham (ed.). The Reconstruction '" There seems to be little point in listing works of American History (Harper Torch Books, New in which 1 couldn't find anything. I am very grateful York, 1962), 12; Kenyon, The Antifederalists (In­ to Mrs. Marion Brophy of the New York State His­ dianapolis, 1965), xcv; Mann, "The Progressive torical Association library staff for checking some of Tradition," in Higham (ed.), The Reconstruction of these titles. As in the case of Mr. Dugan, it seems American History, 174; Morison, By Land and By only fair that she share the responsibility for short­ Sea (New York, 1954), 7. comings in this essay.

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At this point someone may say, "The deuce school." Scholars will soon know that such with the historians and the authorities. Can't words have no pejorative, or other, intent; they some brillant person find a modus vivendi that are merely selfless helper words like good old will end the conflict?" Of course he can. Pro­ "have" and "has." fessors Morris and Wish by avoiding the indefi­ Individuals who prefer to use an must insert nite article altogether (according to my re­ an adjective whose initial letter is a vowel. The search anyway) have hinted at the solution. sentence, "It is without question an historical But their method is actually too extreme, if not study" may be put "It is without question an supine. A genuine solution lies only in a com­ obese historical study," or "It is without ques­ promise that will leave both sides either per­ tion an equinoctial historical study," or "It is fectly satisfied or imperfectly dissatisfied. without question an orange historical study." Fortunately, such a solution is at hand and The possibilities are near endless, and some is so obvious that many historians will wonder even make sense. It is a simple matter of dis- why it was not discovered years ago. The hero envowelment. of the compromise is the lowly adjective. Judi­ This should be the last word on the subject, ciously inserted between article and noun, it but one would be naive to expect all partisans can be manipulated in a manner to satisfy both to accept any solution, no matter how noble the a and the an schools. Those who insist upon and ingenious. The very admission that a con­ the former may simply insert between "a" and flict exists may, in fact, have deep consequences. "historian" an adjective that begins with a So, though the compromise is offered in good consonant. Thus the statement, "He was a conscience and without fear, it is nevertheless historian of the old school," may be written, offered in clear expectation that some will mock "He was a shapely historian of the old school," it, that one day some wag at a pickled historical or "He was a clean-shaven historian of the old convention will say, "Now that's an brown hell school," or "He was a dirty historian of the old of a solution to come up with!"

1969 TAX REFORM ACT RAISES CONTRIBUTION CEILING

Certain provisions of the 1969 Tax Reform Act should be of inter­ est to anyone contemplating his gift schedule for 1970. Effective January 1st the law raises the ceiling on deductions for contributions from 30% to 50% of adjusted gross income for cash gifts to qualifying institutions such as the State Historical Society and its recipient agency, the Wisconsin History Foundation. If you are preparing your gift schedule for 1970 and you wish to contribute to the State Historical Society, you may obtain additional information and assistance by writing or calling William H. Apple- gate, Assistant Director, State Historical Society, 816 State Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. Telephone (608) 262-3266.

226 1%. E w i M WW ^w

Racism in the Progressive Era: An Essay Review

By WILLIAM M. TUTTLE, JR.

J'he "bulk" of the northern progressives, David minded progressives," among them politicians, W. Southern has written in this award-winning old abolitionists, liberal intellectuals and social essay, "wore the garb of racism just as surely scientists, and muckrakers who subscribed to as did the southern white supremacists." His­ theories of racial inferiority and "the corollary torians have indicted southern progressives for of Negro criminality and indolence"; who were their demagogic race-baiting and blatant ex­ indifferent to lynchings and riots and sympa­ ploitation of the fears and anxieties of insecure thetic to disfranchisement and segregation; whites. Yet racism was "the supreme blind spot who hailed the "peculiar institution" of slavery of the progressives, North and South alike. . . ." as a kind of settlement house and school and "Yankee" reformers, confident of their Anglo- who denounced Reconstruction as the degra­ Saxon and/or Teutonic superiority in life's dation of democracy and a crime against civili­ Darwinian struggle between the races, erected zation; and who envisaged blacks as a servile the color bar to social justice, an equitable caste, which, along with southern and eastern distribution of wealth, and the fruits of civic European immigrants, blighted "the promise virtue. "Humanitarian" progressives there of American life." were — the "new abolitionists," Southern has The purpose of the annual William P. Lyons labeled such reformers as Oswald Garrison Master's Essay Award given by Loyola Uni­ Villard, W. E. B. DuBois, Moorfield Storey, versity is to recognize an exemplary piece of Mary White Ovington, William English Wal­ original research and writing by a master's de­ ling, and Jane Addams; but they constituted gree candidate. In the past this purpose has a minority. More numerous were the "tough- been admirably fulfilled. Yet few historians familiar with the writings of Rayford Logan, C. Vann Woodward, I. A. Newby, Thomas F. Gossett, Guion Griffis Johnson, and others The Malignant Heritage: Yankee Progressives would seriously question Southern's conven­ and the Negro Question, 1901-1914. By DAVID tional thesis, although some might dispute his W. SOUTHERN. (Loyola University Press [Wil­ relativistic frame of reference. Not only is there liam P. Lyons Master'sEssay Award],Chicago, little that is "interpretatively significant" about 1968. Pp. X, 116. Notes, bibliography, index. The Malignant Heritage, it is not "based solid­ $3.50.) ly" on primary sources, and even the list of

227 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 secondary works consulted is far from com­ namic process, involving both whites and plete. Certain factual errors also mar this study. blacks, and to view it only from a white per­ DuBois was born "a free Negro," according to spective can be both condescending and pater­ Southern; this is hardly surprising, since he nalistic. Moreover, although suffering does help was born in 1868. The relationship between to create group attitudes such as race con­ Theodore Roosevelt's "black-and-tan" political sciousness, individuality also persists, and this organization in the South and Mark Hanna's is a fact of which the scholars who write of "the "lily white" machine is confused and inverted, Negro" or "the Negro problem" seem to be and the influence of Herbert Croly upon Roose­ unaware. Is it not time to study the develop­ velt's "New Nationalism" is exaggerated. ment of black institutions and to investigate the Doubtless it was a subconscious impulse that attitudes that blacks have had about themselves resulted in the renaming of Arthur Mann's and the society in which they lived? August study as Yankee Reformers in the Urban Meier, Elliott Rudwick, and a few others study­ League. Southern's sprightly prose makes for ing the twentieth century have made excellent enjoyable reading, but he has a tendency to be beginnings in this direction, but so much re­ too categorical and to overgeneralize. He states, mains to be done that one wonders at times if, for example: "Temperamentally and philo­ indeed, the study of race relations during the sophically, DuBois and Booker Washington progressive era is not the "supreme blind spot" differed as day and night." Would this state­ of some historians. ment withstand even a cursory examination of Another weakness in the literature is that the facts? Moreover, the contention that Ray scholars have been practically mute regarding Stannard Baker was "the archetype muckraker the racial implications and even origins of pro­ and full-fledged progressive" or that John R. gressive reforms. For example, several signifi­ Commons was "truly representative of the Pro­ cant reforms fall under the rubric of direct gressive era" would require reams of definition. democracy. Could one intent of the direct pri­ It would be possible to identify other weak­ mary have been to eliminate the political power nesses in this book. One would not be just to that black politicians had been able to wield in Mr. Southern in doing so, however, for these party conventions and caucuses — to make it would be criticisms not merely of the manner difficult if not impossible for the race to bargain in which he has handled the subject of race with the white bosses to get its candidates on relations during the progressive era: they the ballot? Whether or not this was a motive of would be criticisms of the entire historiography the direct primary's champions, it seems to of this field. American historians have too have been a result in Cook County, Illinois, narrowly conceptualized the study of race re­ elections after the passage of Illinois' Primary lations. Many scholars studying the early twen­ Law of 1910. Intermittently since 1872, Negroes tieth-century United States, for example, have had served as county commissioners. "In each defined race relations as either the racial poli­ case," according to Harold F. GosnelL "the cies of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow Wil­ nomination was secured in the Republican son or the white man's image of the black man county convention and the election was facili­ and his world. Historians are in the debt of tated by the straight-ticket provision of the Emma Lou Thornbrough, Kathleen Wolge- Illinois Ballot Law."' Even in 1912, two years muth, Seth Scheiner, Dewey Grantham, Henry after adoption of the primary, a Negro was Blumenthal, William Gatewood, and George C. among the ten men elected to tbe Commission. Osborn for their inquiries into Roosevelt's So­ This latter event prompted a black lawyer to cial Darwinism, his racial appointment policy exclaim that the "fear that in the Illinois pri­ and his notorious dinner with Booker T. Wash­ maries the rights and political opportunities of ington, the Brownsville cause celebre and seg­ colored citizens would be jeopardized by the regation in the federal bureaucracy under Wil­ rule of the people has been emphatically proven son. groundless." Blacks' faith "in the justice and fairness of the plain white people," he added, But perhaps it is time to move on to other "has been considerably strengthened and in­ fruitful areas of research. Perhaps, too, there creased here."^ His faith in white majoritarian are for the present enough studies of the hostile rule was misplaced, however, for this appar- beliefs whites have had about "the hapless Ne­ gro," to use Southern's phrase. For too long, it seems, historians have viewed blacks as anony­ '-Negro Politicians: The Rise of Negro Politics in Chicago (University of Chicago Press, 1967), 83. mous, faceless figures either to be praised, ° George W. Ellis, "The Negro in the Chicago Pri­ pitied, or damned. Yet race relations is a dy­ mary," in Independent, LXXII:891 (April 25, 1912).

228 BOOK REVIEWS ently was the last Negro elected for several coincidental that such events as political reform decades. and disfranchisement, the prohibition and anti- Historians might also join Charles Crowe in vice crusades and racial violence, and direct inquiring into the relationship between racism democracy and segregation were occurring and the impulse to elevate public morality. In contemporaneously—and it seems to have been Georgia at the turn of the century, reform —then historians should describe the connec­ crusades against the liquor traffic, vice, civic tion and explain the relationship. corruption, and vagrancy could and did lead not only to disfranchisement and segregation but even to lynchings and the bloody Atlanta (The reviewer, a professor of history at the riot of 1906.^ In Chicago, too, it is likely that University of Kansas, is currently doing reformers who worked to close black-and-tan research on a fellowship at the Institute of cabarets did so not only because of their desire Southern History, The Johns Hopkins Uni­ to elevate morals but also because of their dis­ versity.) dain for the interracial "mingling" they wit­ nessed as black men and white women and white men and black women imbibed and frol­ icked together.'* Perhaps there is, as Crowe has suggested, a sexual dimension to progressivism. Admittedly, these examples are speculative; there is little or no evidence as to the actual racial intent of the reformers. There is, how­ GENERAL HISTORY ever, the case of the initiative and referendum in St. Louis. For years the advocates of racial residential segregation in St. Louis had tried to persuade the city council to enact such legis­ When Workers Organize: New York City in lation. Time and time again the council had the Progressive Era. By MELVYN DUBOFSKY. been unwilling; so the realtors and homeowners (University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, who were fearful of a black "invasion" became 1968. Pp. xi, 225. Notes, bibliography, index. leading supporters of the devices of direct $7.50.) democracy. St. Louis adopted a new city char­ ter containing these features in 1914. The first The second decade of the twentieth century vote conducted as a result of the initiative pro­ is a period of enormous interest to the historian vision was to adopt ordinances which would of labor in any western country. During that designate all blocks in the city as either "white," period direct industrial action involving whole "colored," or "mixed"; Negroes would be industries or whole cities became a chronic legally unable to move into "white"blocks, and feature of social life. From Liverpool and whites into "colored." The people voting in Dublin to New York and Pittsburgh the "gen­ referendum adopted the ordinances by an over­ eral strike" was transformed from a revolu­ whelming margin of more than 3—1, and one- tionary myth to the trade unionists' ultimate half of those voting against them were black. weapon. The "labor question" became an ob­ For years, both the friends and enemies of the session in government offices, and with good race had predicted that residential segregation reason. Before the decade was out the United would be one of the first propositions submitted States alone would see four million workers on under direct legislation, and indeed it was.^ strike in a single year and Soviets of armed These are possible directions in which re­ workmen would be wielding state power in search into race relations during the progres­ several parts of Europe. sive era should be heading. If it is more than Such a milieu made the cautious craft union­ ism the American Federation of Labor had sponsored since the mid-1890's hopelessly archaic. Neither the scale of the industries con­ ' Crowe, "Racial Violence and Social Reform— fronting the labor movement nor the temper of Origins of the Atlanta Riot of 1906," in Journal of the workers favored skilled tradesmen sepa­ Negro History, LIII:234-256 (July, 1968). rately seeking "sacred contracts" with indi­ ' See Chicago Defender, September 14, 1918. vidual "fair" employers. The hallmark of the " "A Popular Vote on a Black Ghetto," in Survey, XXXV:627 (February 26, 1916) ; "Negro Segregation era, argues Melvyn Dubofsky, was the "organi­ Adopted by St. Louis," ibid. (March 11, 1916), 694. zational strike"—the abrupt halting of a large

229 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 industrial complex, provoking governmental to add significantly to our knowledge of the mediation, and leading to a master agreement socialist movement and of the general charac­ unionizing tens of thousands of workers at one ter of working-class thought at the time. His stroke. In this book he provides a close analysis account of the transport workers' struggles, of a series of such confrontations in New York furthermore, is based on remarkably thinner City between 1909 and 1916. source material than he brings to bear on the Two aspects of these strikes are of special needle trades. But such flaws are truly dwarfed concern to Dr. Dubofsky: the interaction be­ by the contribution Dubofsky's contrast be­ tween striking workers and middle-class re­ tween the experiences of the needle trades and formers, and the contrast between the trade the transport workers has made to our under­ unions' success in the largely Jewish needle standing of this critical period. trades and their bitter failure in the largely Irish transport industry. Among the garment DAVID MONTGOMERY workers the industry-wide "general strike" University of Pittsburgh strategy unveiled by the shirtwaist girls in 1909, employed with supreme skill by the cloakmakers in 1910, and a standard practice in all parts of the city's clothing industry there­ The First and Second American Empires: Gov­ after, not only enjoyed able leadership from ernors and Territorial Government, 1784— the cadres of the Socialist party, but also 1912. By JACK ERICSON EBLEN. (University of meshed with efforts of prominent community Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh, 1968. Pp. xi, 344. and industry leaders (like Judah P. Magnes Tables, diagram, map, index. $8.95.) and Julius H. Cohen) to impose economic or­ der on a chaotic sweated industry. The result This book is written in the new style of was the Protocol of Peace, a formula which, in historical-administrative analysis pioneered by Dubofsky's view, deprived the workers in the Leonard D. White and Earl Pomeroy and per­ short run of important objectives (like the haps best represented by James Sterling closed shop and protection against discharges), Young's Washington Community, 1800-1828 but permitted the infant unions to grow to the (1966). It seeks to reconstruct the constitu­ point where they could dispense with the Pro­ tional and legislative framework of govern­ tocol in 1916 and emerge from fourteen weeks ment, but also to develop well-reasoned hy­ of striking able to regulate their own condi­ potheses about how men used the powers of tions without outside intervention. government. Typically such works define with The teamsters and rapid transit workers en­ care their "unit of analysis." For Professor joyed neither such leadership nor such outside Eblen, a student of Vernon Carstensen and now assistance as their Jewish brothers. Consistently teaching at the University of Connecticut, the betrayed by their "friends" in Tammany Hall, "unit" under study is the territorial governors lacking the elan which Socialists infused into as they interacted with the American official­ the garment workers' ranks, and restrained dom and with the institutions created under the from capitalizing on the working-class support Northwest Ordinance. they did enjoy by other unions' fears of break­ Eblen is a meticulous researcher, and he ing (and losing) their own hard-won contracts, provides careful analysis of the formal insti­ these express drivers, sanitation workers, and tutions and offices of territorial government. streetcar men staggered from defeat to defeat. As counterpoint, he provides a stimulating set The climax was the AF of L's city-wide general of assertions concerning the real uses of power. strike call of September, J916. To support the His main concern is to prove that in the nine­ embattled I.R.T. strikers, 173,000 workers teenth-century territories, on the continent, downed tools. But the building trades balked, formally centralized institutions were effec­ and the other unions, anxious for their own tively transformed under pressure from "local contracts, scurried back to work, abandoning oligarchies" and from the constituencies that the I.R.T. workers to hopeless isolation. demanded "local autonomy." Typically, in the Unfortunately Dr. Dubofsky's treatment of first stage of territorial government there was the ideological currents of the city's labor "rapid deterioration of executive power." Gov­ movement does not measure up to his analysis ernors let power slip away, either out of care­ of these strikes. Content with some hurried less disregard or out of inability to withstand generalizations about socialists and "conserva­ tbe challenges of groups that Eblen labels "the tives" in the AF of L, he misses an opportunity bourgeoisie" and "the existing oligarchies."

230 BOOK REVIEWS

The veto power of governors was, formally Merk, or other historians of this theme. Then, speaking, a powerful weapon; but in reality, asserting that his attention is given mainly to its exercise redoubled local pressures and led the First Empire "because of its transcendent to immediate demands for removal of the importance," the author promptly drops the offending governor. Preoccupation of top-level whole subject and gets down to the real busi­ officials with Indian affairs (which are deline­ ness of his book. The central issues that Pro­ ated carefully in a separate chapter) and simi­ fessor Eblen does explore are treated with lar concerns of high statecraft, and simple thoroughness and some degree of verve. On the indifference, permitted the "locals" to step in merits of its central concerns, the book will and effectively seize power. Consequently "lo­ stand as a valuable monograph. cal officials defined their powers to suit them­ selves, and acted as they pleased." The seat of HARRY N. SCHEIBER control was at the county level in the early Dartmouth College phases of territorial development, as a result, and the experience in the Jeffersonian period led Congress to "transform and standardize" territorial government to accommodate the political realities. American Odyssey: The Journey of Lewis and In painstaking analysis of the congressional Clark. By INGVARD HENRY EIDE. (Rand Mc- legislation and in presentation of such back­ Nafly & Co., Chicago, 1969. Pp. xxiv, 246. ground data as demographic and biographical Illustrations. $17.95.) profiles, Eblen provides much grist for the mill of a cavilling reviewer. At the risk of seeming "Their journey became my journey. The to cavil, then, I will say first that the "bour­ vast land, their new land, opened itself to my geoisie" and the various "locals" who appear eyes as it did to the eyes of the Expedition. as villains (or is it heroes?) of the piece are Their wonder was mine, their vision mine." usually presented as nameless abstractions. So writes Ingvard Henry Eide, photographer There is little care given to documenting how and editor, in the preface to this magnificent they allegedly used their power, wrested from pictorial re-creation of the Lewis and Clark the executive, for self-interested purposes. Expedition. Mr. Eide spent two years and trav­ Second, it seems difficult to take at face value eled 50,000 miles, from central Indiana to the Eblen's assertion that the Northwest Ordinance Pacific Ocean, making photographs of the was "a rather ordinary piece of noncontrover- thousand landmarks, campsites, and crossings sial legislation" in light of his own evidence, of Lewis and Clark. His guidebook was the let alone what is available elsewhere in an Reuben Gold Thwaites edition of the Original abundant literature. Third, many of the exam­ Journals, and so closely did he adhere to the ples cited of Congress's enactment of amenda­ text that he largely succeeded in photographing tory restrictive legislation and of restrictive a given site not only during the proper season, administrative or judicial interpretations are but also under similar conditions of weather not given sufficient weight in measuring "real and light. The pictures selected for this book, decentralization"of power. Moreover, the ex­ arranged chronologically and interspersed with hortation to historians to "look more closely entries from the Journals, therefore represent at the real role of the average people and seek a significant and useful addition to the litera­ to determine more precisely the class structure ture of the Expedition. and power relationships" that prevailed, might But Mr. Eide operated as an artist as well as better have been incorporated as part of the a chronicler, and his pictures go far beyond agenda for research on this study. the mere documentation of terrain and wildlife. Finally, one must enter a caveat in respect For example, he evokes distance and desolation to the author's contention that lines of conti­ with great sweeps of pine forests and prairie, nuity and discontinuity that carry from the but he counterpoints this epic theme with close- First Empire (Mississippi Valley) and the Sec­ ups of some camass roots and a homely nota­ ond (Trans-Continental) to the Third (Ocean­ tion by William Clark that he "is verry sick ic) and fourth (Global) need revaluation. to day and puke" from eating the Indian fare. The theme is stated in an ex cathedra manner Finally, because his pictures are well printed in the introduction, without sufficient attention in black and white, they resemble neither the to or attribution of sources such as Roy Nich­ pastel romances of American Heritage nor the ols, William Appleman Williams, Frederick dazzling calendar art of the Sierra Club. They

231 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING. 1970 are somber and almost painfully honest; and provocation written by two racists who hoped they bring to mind Robert Frost's observation to discredit the Lincoln ticket. The cry of that we were the land's before the land was ours. miscegenation exploited the mystique about Few picture books are worth $17.95, and the sanctity of white women and the fear that fewer yet promise much pleasure beyond a cur­ the white race would be "mongrelized." Yet as sory skimming. This one is, and does. Wood makes clear the miscegenation issue did not really catch fire. To act on the basis of PAUL H. HASS racist propaganda seemed to contradict sup­ The State Historical Society of Wisconsin port of patriotic war policies and then too in 1864 "it would have taken much more than an abolitionist mandate to bring tbe races to­ gether—and most whites knew it." The Repub­ lican leaders were generally careful and pro­ Black Scare, The Racist Response to Recon­ vided tbe racist spokesmen with little ammu­ struction. By FORREST G. WOOD. (University of nition. The evidence of this book supports the California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, view that the general prevalence of racism in 1968. Pp. ix, 219. $6.00.) American society did not in itself assure the triumph of racist policies. This book provides a useful account of the racist response to the equalitarian movements The book has less to offer with regard to the of the 1860's. Throughout the years of Civil Reconstruction era. Assimilated is some of the War and Reconstruction the Radicals con­ revisionist scholarship that views the Radicals fronted a vehement opposition that catered to in a new perspective, stressing the significance a crude and obvious race prejudice. Professor of their efforts to extend citizenship rights to Wood details the arguments the racists Negroes. We also are given a persuasive re­ employed, their reliance on white sexual anxie­ statement of the view that the Jim Crow system ties, and their manipulation of fears of the really had its roots in institutionalized segre­ black man as an economic competitor. It was gation that antedated the J880's. Noted, as during this period that several of the racist well, is the scholarship that finds respectable slogans that still influence modern American whites to have been at least partly responsible history were first seriously advanced. Negro- for the atrocities of the Ku Klux Klan. Recent baiters attempted to sway popular opinion by scholarship on Reconstruction is neatly sum­ railing against "mongrelism" and "miscegena­ marized although there is now little that is new tion." During the Reconstruction years they in all this. On a few points the argumentation condemned the supposed "africanization" of seems somewhat careless. Reporter James S. the South and sought to capitalize upon fears Pike is accepted as an objective observer of of "Negro domination." A careful distinction South Carolina Reconstruction although Rob­ is made between the general racist tenor of ert Durden has bared Pike's anti-Radical in­ American public opinion and the active racism clinations. It is doubtful that the emergence of of militants who campaigned for anti-Negro Liberal Republicanism in J872 reflected the policies. The point is also stressed that the dwindling importance of the race issue. It is racist outburst that followed Emancipation more likely that it was anti-Negroism that uni­ came from a minority fringe that had little fied the disparate Republicans and Democrats popular base. who supported Greeley. Perhaps the problem is that Professor Wood occasionally loses track Black Scare adds particularly to our knowl­ of his central theme in the interest of presenting edge of the racist propaganda disseminated an overview of the entire period. during the Civil War. Attention is called to such journals as John Van Evrie's Weekly Day We are in the author's debt for reminding us Book that set an extreme standard in racist of George Clemenceau's observation that "With invective. The anti-Negro press was closely the ratification of the Fifteenth Amendment the identified with the Democratic party and was American revolution is over." It should be a focus of opposition to such Unionist meas­ added that the revolution was over but also ures as Emancipation and the recruitment of incomplete. The trouble was that the Republi­ black troops. Quite worthwhile is the chapter can leadership saw tbe issue of equality only on the 1864 miscegenation controversy which in political terms and never seriously grappled centered around a pamphlet that urged sys­ with the social and economic roots of racism. tematic race-mixing as the solution for the In bringing the revolution to a close with the racial crisis. The pamphlet was actually a enactment of formal guarantees of political

232 BOOK REVIEWS rights the door was opened to the victory of has given equally careful and illuminating white supremacy. attention to the role of Negro protest in bring­ Black Scare is an uneven book. We are fur­ ing about the changes he describes. Even nished with considerable evidence that sheds though he was hampered by the fact that the light on the genesis of contemporary white NAACP archives for the period he covers were racism. But the evidence is not adequately set not open to scholars, he indicates clearly the in a broad context. The treatment of the public growing and dynamic thrust of black militance, response to racist propaganda is quite sketchy and the way in which government policy and surprisingly there is practically no con­ changed in response to it. I would personally sideration of the intellectual climate that con­ argue with Professor Dalfiume over his em­ ditioned racist ideology. The theme of this phasis on tbe Second World War as a forgotten volume is an important one and hopefully turning point or watershed in the history of scholars will continue to explore it. tbe Negro protest movement: all periods are periods of transition in one degree or another. HERBERT SHAPIRO Negro protest during the Second World War University of Cincinnati is no more a forgotten phenomenon than Negro protest in other parts of the twentieth century, and it would be hard to establish any real turning point or watershed in the Negro protest movement since the historic conflict between Booker T. Washington and his critics. But if Desegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces: such a turning point does exist I would regard Fighting on Two Fronts, 1939-1953. By RICH­ the New Deal period as more of one than ARD M. DALFIUME. (University of Missouri World War II. Perhaps we should view the Press, Columbia, 1969. Pp. ix, 252. Notes, whole Roosevelt Era—encompassing both the bibliography, index. $6.00.) Depression and War years—as a unit in this regard. Nevertheless, Dalfiume has made some In this well-researched, clearly written ac­ illuminating observations in his discussion of count. Professor Dalfiume has traced the his­ Negro protest and its role in the desegregation tory of the armed forces policies toward the of the armed forces. use of black personnel from the eve of the With its bifocal approach of attacking his Second World War to the end of the Korean subject through studying in detail both white War. He sets the stage with an introductory policy and black protest, Professor Dalfiume's chapter on historical patterns of exclusion and volume should set a model for future research subordination practiced against Negroes in the in the history of American race relations. army and navy, and then proceeds to describe the World War II policies of segregation and discrimination—policies which were defended AUGUST MEIER as necessary for efficient prosecution of the war Kent State University but actually proved dysfunctional to the pursuit of that task. With this as background Dalfiume makes a careful presentation of the steps taken toward integration — from the use of black Big Bill Haywood and the Radical Labor Move­ troops in the Battle of the Bulge, through the ment. By JOSEPH R. CONLIN. (Syracuse Uni­ work of the Gillem and Fahy committees, to the versity Press, Syracuse, 1969. Pp. xii, 244. breakthrough during the Korean War. Illustrations, notes, index. $6.95.) The basic outline of this succession of events is not new. What Dalfiume has done is to dig This study of William D. Haywood is a deeply into the relevant manuscript and archi­ useful addition to the growing literature on val sources, revealing much of the complexities American labor radicalism. Big Bill Haywood and dynamics of the struggle for integration of holds high rank in the left-wing generation be­ the armed forces that would otherwise be un­ fore pre-World War I, and clearly stands first known. among those springing from the western min­ This book is a significant and welcome con­ ing fields. His career spanned a remarkable tribution for a second reason. In addition to range, from miner to leader of the Western his thorough research in numerous collections Federation of Miners in its most militant phase, which produces a definitive picture of what a founder of the IWW and later its leader, was going in in government circles, Dalfiume famous defendant in two notorious legal strug-

233 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970 gles, and, finally and sadly, exile in Soviet eration of Miners, the IWW, and the Socialist Russia. Despite his evident importance, Hay­ party. At certain points, too—for example, the wood has remained a shadowy figure. Histori­ extensive account of the Steunenberg murder ans have hesitated to rely on the major source, trial—the focus of the study becomes blurred. Haywood's own autobiography. One of Pro­ Still, Conlin has done a competent job, and he fessor Conlin's principal findings, in fact, is has added to our knowledge of Big Bill Hay­ that Bill Haywood's Book is authentic and wood and the radical union movement. essentially accurate. Ironically, this diminishes somewhat Conlin's own contribution, since his DAVID BRODY book depends very heavily on the autobiogra­ University of California, Davis phy, and one might well be advised to go first to the latter to learn about Haywood the man. What Conlin adds is the perspective and the setting. He provides a useful summary of the sources of western radicalism, a sensible treat­ Everyone Was Brave: The Rise and Fall of ment of the IWW and of Socialist party poli­ Feminism in America. By WILLIAM L. O'NEILL. tics, and interesting accounts of Manhattan's (Quadrangle Books, Chicago, 1969. Pp. xi, 369. pre-war fashionable radical circle and of the Index. $7.95.) wartime hysteria that struck down the IWW. By skillfully placing Haywood's career in its The history of women in the United States setting, Conlin enhances our understanding of has rarely been blessed with the high quality his significance. There are also aspects of his of historical analysis that has distinguished career about which Conlin has something new writing about tbe South, for example. Women to say, most notably, on Haywood's skill as an who have written about their sex often have administrator, on his moderation on the ques­ been overly defensive or uncritical, though tion of violence, and on his flight to Russia and Eleanor Flexner and Aileen Kraditor are nota­ his years there. Especially interesting is Con­ ble exceptions. On the other hand, men who lin's claim that, under Haywood's centralizing write on the subject are often overly detached leadership in 1914-1916, the IWW was be­ or unsympathetic. Mr. O'Neill is of a different coming a strong and stable organization that and welcome variety. Indeed, in my view his held the promise of becoming a major radical book is the most challenging and exciting book force in the country. Unfortunately, the evi­ on the history of women to appear in many dence submitted on this key point is slender, years. He has delved into a number of manu­ and the implications are not pursued very far. script and printed sources in trying to account One would have appreciated an answer here to for the rise and fall of feminism, though the the argument, made long ago in David Saposs' book actually concentrates on the years between Left Wing Unionism, that the IWW aimed at 1890 and 1930. There are parts of the book, to industrial upheaval, not membership or stable be sure, which are weak, such as his chapter on organization, and that, for example, the unions ten leading feminists which adds little to our built up at Lawrence died out not (as Conlin knowledge, though his sympathetic sketches are suggests) because the IWW overestimated the certainly interesting. In fact, despite his use of administrative capacity of the immigrant work­ manuscript and other sources, the principal ers, but because it was indifferent to maintain­ contribution of the book lies in its interpre­ ing the organization once the strike was over. tation. Conlin goes on to suggest that tbe increasing True to his subtitle, O'Neill takes as his pur­ power of the Wobblies triggered the brutal pose nothing less than an explanation of the federal suppression of the IWW during the reason why feminism failed. That it did fail World War. But no direct evidence is offered he has no doubt. As he rightly points out, one to substantiate that hypothesis. has only to look around modern America to Much of the story proceeds on a rather thin see that women have remained on the periphery layer of supporting evidence, in fact. The diffi­ of things, far from the levers of economic, culty is, of course, that little survives of Hay­ political, or social power. That situation was wood's personal papers. Given Haywood's or­ not what the feminists intended, but it is what ganizational associations and Conlin's empha­ their movement reaped. Since Mr. O'Neill re­ sis on Haywood's official career, however, one grets that failure his book is mildly polemical, wonders whether better use might not have though he generally writes with balance, wit, been made of the records of the Western Fed­ and understanding. (He cannot,however,bring

234 BOOK REVIEWS

himself to call a woman writer by her last period meant making a choice between family name alone.) and career; in the circumstances there was little The burden of his explanation is an elabora­ real choice for most women and therefore no tion of a point he made in an essay published possibility of a true feminist movement. They in 1968 in a collection of essays on radicalism worked instead for the half loaf of the suffrage, edited by Alfred Young. Feminists, O'Neill as a symbol of their aspiration. In short, contends, were of two kinds. The first kind O'Neill's analysis may well be correct, but his were the old-line feminists of the mid-nineteenth assigning of the blame for the failure to the century who dedicated themselves above all feminists may be misplaced. Under the circum­ else to opening opportunities for women. They stances the feminists could do no other. were prepared to put the cause of women on a I also have some reservations as to whether par with, if not above, that of the black slave. social and old-line feminists break into two The second group he calls "social feminists," categories as neatly as he contends. Oilman, among whom he includes Jane Addams, Lillian for example, emphasized the special character Wald, and Florence Kelley. These women be­ of women, yet O'Neill sees her exemplifying the lieved in and worked for women's rights, but old-line feminists. Despite these reservations, primarily because if women were permitted to however, his book will undoubtedly be the work in the world, they would, by virtue of starting point for a new and much-needed their feminine nature, do good for humanity. examination of the nature of the feminine These social feminists did not question the experience in America. nature of the family, from which women's in­ equality stemmed. Old-line feminists like Stan­ CARL N. DEGLER ton, Victoria Woodhull, and Charlotte Perkins Stanford University Oilman at least dimly recognized that the fam­ ily was the point where the attack must come if the feminist goals were to be realized. Ques­ tioning of the family, however, was smothered in the late nineteenth century after WoodhuU's extremism frightened feminists and public Essays in the History of Early American Law. alike. Thus O'Neill's conclusion is that femi­ nism did not succeed because the feminist lead­ Edited by DAVID H. FLAHERTY. (University of North Carolina Press, Chapel HiU, J969. Pp. x, ers, great as he readily acknowledges them to 534. Notes, glossary, index. $12.50.) be, did not recognize how truly revolutionary they had to be if women's equality was to be achieved. (He rather lamely falls back upon It has become axiomatic to state that Ameri­ "socialism" as the kind of social revolution he can legal history is an impoverished field. Yet thinks was needed.) As O'Neill rightly points this volume demonstrates that, during the past out, suffrage was not and could not be the half century, a number of talented historians panacea the social feminists made it out to be, have produced a thin stream of distinguished so that when it was achieved women neither studies of early American law. David Flaherty's gained full equality nor retained a feminist collection presents eighteen essays representing impulse. the work of twelve authors as well as his own fine survey of the literature on early American Actually, nowhere in his book does Mr. legal history. This is not a compilation of re­ O'Neill ask whether women really wanted the cent articles. A majority of the selections were revolution that was necessary to fulfill feminist first published in the J930's and 1940's. Eleven goals. Surprisingly, he does not even ask how of the essays deal with the New England colo­ and why the mass of women were aroused in nies, and four with New York. None of the behalf of the suffrage. It is possible that the essays focus on the development of law in a very position of women in nineteenth-century southern colony, and Joseph Smith's analysis society precluded their asking for more than of "Administrative Control of the Courts of the they did. For unlike that of any other social American Plantations" is the only article which minority, the solidarity of women is divided attempts the difficult task of dealing with Eng­ by class and weakened by sex. Furthermore, in land's American colonies as a whole. The em­ Victorian society, in which birth control was phasis on New England and the neglect of the not widely known, much less popularly accept­ southern colonies are, as Flaherty notes, reflec­ ed, a radical restructuring of the family seemed tions of the present state of writing on early out of the question. To be a feminist in that American legal history.

235 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

The essays cover a variety of topics, yet the onstrates that some lawyers and historians are reader will discern some common problems capable of illuminating colonial history through which attract the attention of many of the an investigation of early American law. authors. Chief among these is a preoccupation with the reception of English common law in ALAN M. SMITH the American colonies. The questions of when California State College, Hayward and to what extent English common law was incorporated into the law of the colonies have long stood as points of dispute among histori­ Newcastle's New York: Anglo-American Poli­ ans, and many of the authors of this collection tics, 1732-1753. By STANLEY NIDER KATZ. (The address themselves to these problems. An excel­ Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, lent summary of the arguments is included in Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1968. Pp. xiv, 285. Zechariah Chafee's essay on "Colonial Courts Notes, appendixes, bibliography, index. $6.95.) and the Common Law." Chafee points out that most modern scholars have rejected the "ortho­ The purpose of this book is to stress the cru­ dox legal theory" that English common law cial impact of English political jobbery upon "was substantially in force in the colonies from colonial public life during the years when the the time of their settlement." Chafee and other Duke of Newcastle was the secretary of state recent writers also reject what Julius Goebel for colonial affairs and also the chief dispenser contemptuously labels the " 'frontier theory' of government patronage. Posts in the colonies, of American law," which maintains that the as in England, were obtained through family colonials created an entirely new law deviating "connections" and personal "interest" at West­ from and even rejecting English common law. minster. Any American who wished to unseat But in dismissing these extreme views, modern a colonial officeholder or to acquire an office historians have not arrived at any general for himself had to go to England and cultivate agreement on the degree or chronology of whatever interest and connections he could American reception of common law. Goebel muster in order to outmatch his rival's influ­ offers a creative approach to the problem, argu­ ence. A few years ago, John A. Schutz studied ing convincingly that in seventeenth-century the ablest English spoilsman in America during Plymouth the settlers founded their legal prac­ tbe Newcastle era [William Shirley: King's tices on the local English law with which they Governor of Massachusetts. Chapel Hill, 1961), were familiar rather than on the common law. in order to show what creative use Governor Chafee attempts to cover all bases by suggesting Shirley made of his patronage at home and in that Americans developed an "elastic common America. In this parallel study, Stanley N. Katz law" composed of "several possible factors— examines two of the least competent English generalized common-law principles; English spoilsmen of this era — Governors William case-law; English local law; English legal re­ Cosby and George Clinton of New York — in forms during the Cromwellian period; home­ order to show how these men were eventually made law, with specific reference to colonial outsmarted by their American adversaries, conditions; continental law." A number of the with significant results for New York politics. essays deal with this problem more narrowly by analyzing the sources of a particular law. Under Newcastle's system of aristocratic George L. Haskins's investigation of the ori­ jobbery, Katz argues, "executive ability was an gins of the Massachusetts partible inheritance unanticipated dividend in a colonial governor. law is a masterful example of this approach. In fact, the royal governors of New York during this period were inexperienced, ill-informed, Another theme which is sounded in Flaher­ poorly motivated, and generally unsuited to ty's introduction and echoed throughout the hold public office." Governor Cosby (1732- book is the necessity for more research and 1736) was such an irresponsible bungler that writing in this long neglected field. The careful he quickly plunged New York into factional reader will, I think, come away convinced of strife, yet he survived because his connections Flaherty's contention that "legal history can... in England were better than those of his Ameri­ serve as the focal point for understanding a can critics. His leading opponent, Lewis Morris, society." He is also likely to be convinced that went to England and lobbied against Cosby for writing legal history is a very difficult business, nearly two years, but all he got was a post for but perhaps Goebel's view that lawyers will not himself (governor of New Jersey) without and laymen cannot write good legal history is damaging Cosby in New York. When Cosby too pessimistic. At any rate, this volume dem­ died, Lieutenant-Governor George Clarke

236 BOOK REVIEWS

(1736-1743) pursued a cautious policy in New tics mirrored the factionalism and confusion of York and avoided creating dangerous enemies early Georgian England," Katz ignores the tell­ in America or England. Governor Clinton ing psychological and structural differences (1743-1753), however, quickly got into a between American and English politics in this power struggle with James DeLancey, the most period which Bernard Bailyn has recently potent politician in New York, and lost control delineated in The Origins of American Politics of the province to DeLancey's faction. DeLan­ (New York, 1968). Of course Katz is really cey did to Clinton what Morris had been unable aware of these differences. He does not attempt to do to Cosby. Making use of his own excellent to maintain Sir Lewis Namier's detached irony English connections, DeLancey obtained the while presenting the quadrilles of his gentle­ lieutenant-governorship of New York for him­ man jobbers. Morris and DeLancey may have self, and led the provincial assembly on a cam­ been myopic and selfish place-hunters, but they paign which harried Clinton out of his job. were also builders of America, and Katz clearly DeLancey, incidentally, also used his English sides with them — as he should — when they influence to help unseat Shirley in Massachu­ challenged their grasping and small-minded setts. Throughout this twenty-year span, neither English governors. Secretary Newcastle nor the Board of Trade had a policy for the administration of New RICHARD S. DUNN York beyond balancing placemen off against University of Pennsylvania one another. The Board wrote Clinton six un­ helpful letters in ten years. As a result, the royal governor of New York was in a much weaker position in 1753 than he had been Republicans and Labor, 1919-1929. By ROBERT in 1732. H. ZIEGER. (University of Kentucky Press, Katz's book is a healthy corrective to previ­ Lexington, 1969. Pp. x, 303. Notes, biblio­ ous discussions of colonial New York politics graphical note, and index. $8.25.) which have dwelt too narrowly on the rising power of the assembly, or anachronistically on In this study of Republican policy toward the issue of aristocracy versus democracy. Katz labor during the New Era Robert H. Zieger shows convincingly that the factional squab­ demonstrates that in the face of divided but not bling in this province — as elsewhere in mid- indifferent attitudes the Harding and Coolidge eighteenth-century America—was largely non- administrations recognized and neutralized the ideological, that all politicians were spoilsmen, labor problem as an effective national political and that success in American public life de­ issue. This was both their triumph and their pended to a great degree on English connec­ tragedy, but as Zieger concludes "the eclipse of tions. He is by no means the first scholar to the labor issue in 1928 represented a remark­ make these points, but he pursues this interpre­ able political achievement of the Republican tation more systematically than his predeces­ party." Basically the book identifies the major sors. Probably be would admit that his Namier- challenges which the labor problem presented ite approach works better in New York than to Republican power and iflustrates how the elsewhere in America. This colony functioned party dealt with them. more like a Venetian oligarchy than its neigh­ While no startlingly new interpretation of bors because it had such an exceptionally labor's political treatment by New Era Republi­ narrow power base. A handful of landed and cans emerges from this study, what does result mercantile families jostled for seats in the tiny is a much needed, and until now missing, legislature and competed for the few appointive description and evaluation of that policy, its posts. Petty personal rivalry was endemic and evolution, and its impact. Zieger reminds the inevitable. reader that the seeming disappearance of the Just the same, political jobbery does not labor issue during the twenties was no mere explain everything, even in New York. By con­ accident, and that the Republican approach to centrating so much on personal interest and labor was not monolithic but rather the product private connections, Katz becomes as one- of diverse opinion. He identifies four major dimensional as the institutional historians who options which the party considered—the pro­ have traced the rise of the assembly, as partial gressive approach, the open shop, efficiency- as Carl Becker and his followers who have engineering, and the political approach. These dwelt on class conflict between aristocrats and interacted, but in the end the political solution democrats. By assuming that "New York poli­ dominated.

237 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

Warren Harding vacillated between posi­ he deserved much credit. Although the issue of tions. Sometimes he followed the advice of his labor injunctions was potentially dangerous, antilabor Attorney General Harry M. Daugh­ the party was able to oppose them in theory and erty, but at other times he listened to Secretary rest secure in the belief that labor could not of Commerce Herbert Hoover who wished to agree on a viable means of limiting their use. use the government's influence to obtain a vol­ Hoover's role in this story looms large, and, untary labor peace. Harding remained a man as Zieger suggests, the irony is that Hoover was of good will whose views were confused, but one Republican who desired to achieve more abolition of the twelve-hour day in steel, enact­ than a political solution. He hoped to employ ment of immigration restrictions, and failure the principles of efficiency-engineering to recti­ to support the open shop movement saved the fy the socioeconomic problems of labor in the President and bis party from turning the entire interest of economic growth. In this effort he labor vote against them. Coolidge, by contrast, and his party failed. It was left to the New Deal overcame his image as a strikebreaker, for he eventually to confront these issues and enact was a skillful politician who managed to avoid basic labor legislation. One might wish that direct action. Through this policy of patience Zieger had carried his study through the Hoover he reaped the benefits of the anthracite coal presidency, since Hoover was so intimately in­ settlement while he escaped blame for a sub­ volved in both the pseudo - settlement of the sequent rise in prices. twenties and its consequences in the early thir­ Thus the labor problem, which threatened ties. But Zieger rejected this on the quite both parties during the 1920 election, failed to reasonable grounds that such an expansion re­ cause Republican defeat during the twenties. quired and deserved separate treatment. As it In its one partisan national political effort the stands, however, this is a valuable book, well American Federation of Labor bypassed both researched in primary sources and fully read­ parties in 1924 in favor of the Progressives, a able, and it will repay careful attention. group with whom labor failed to achieve accommodation. Hoover faced the 1928 cam­ paign with the knowledge that the labor prob­ CARL RYANT lem was fairly well neutralized, a fact for which University of Louisville

BOOK REVIEWS: Flaherty, Essays in the History of Early American Law, reviewed by Alan M. Smith 235

Conlin, Big Bill Haywood and the Radical Labor Kiitz,Newcastle's New York: Anglo-American Pol­ Movement, reviewed by David Brody 233 itics, 1732-1753, reviewed by Richard S. Dunn 236 Dalfiume, Desegregation of the U.S. Armed Forces: Fighting on Two Fronts, 1939-1933, reviewed O'Neill, Everyone Was Brave: The Rise and Fall l^y August Meier 233 of Feminism in America, reviewed by Carl N. Degler 234 Dubofsky, When Workers Organize: New York City in the Progressive Era, reviewed by David Southern, The Malignant Heritage: Yankee Pro­ Montgomery 229 gressives and the Negro Question, 1901—1914, reviewed by William M. Tuttle, Jr 227 Eblen, The First and Second Empires: Governors and Territorial Government, 1784—1912, re­ "Wood, Black Scare: The Racist Response to Recon­ viewed by Harry N. Scheiber 230 struction, reviewed by Herbert Shapiro 232

Eide, American Odyssey: The Journey of Lewis Zieger, Republicans and Labor, 1919—1929, re­ and Clark, reviewed by Paul H. Hass 231 viewed by Carl Ryant 237

238 written by Howard Jay Graham, 1968, pre­ sented by Mr. Graham, Los Angeles, Calif; ACCESSIONS typescript of the 1864 diary of Charles G. Harris, Co. E, 19th Regiment Wisconsin Vol­ unteers, presented by Mrs. Doris E. Travis, Manuscripts Stevens Point; miscellaneous papers, 1900- 1925, of William D. Hiestand, including letters from Charles K. Adams, a World War I letter Services for microfilming, photostating, and from Lt. Conrad M. Fox, and papers concern­ xeroxing all but certain restricted items in its ing timber land owned by Hiestand in Florence manuscripts collections are provided by the Society. For details write Dr. Josephine L. County, presented by William A. Hiestand, Harper, Manuscripts Curator. Lafayette, Ind.; letter, 1845, from John Hodg­ son to his parents in England discussing immi­ gration procedures and his new home in Iowa County, presented by the Mazomanie Historical Miscellaneous Small Collections. Two letters Society via Werner Thiers, Mazomanie; per­ (1944 and 1945), written by John R. Commons' sonal recollections of conservationist Aldo Leo­ son John A. discussing his experiences of the pold by Edwin A. Hunger, presented by Mi­ preceding years and his return to his family, chael Nadel, Washington, D.C; miscellany, presented by Hazel F. Briggs, Madison; tran­ including election literature of New York Local scription of two tape-recorded interviews, Au­ 143, International Union of Electrical Work­ gust and December, 1964, with Samuel T. Dana, ers; plan of work and activity of the Oakland, an authority on forestry, purchased by the Calif., branch, Young Communist League, Society; license, 1846, allowing Francis Des- 1940; proposal for a Bay area section, Ameri­ noyers to trade with the Indians at Green Bay, can Youth Congress; and address by the Rev. transferred from the Museum; English trans­ Robert Whitaker on California's Criminal Syn­ lation by Malcolm Rosholt of "A Journey dicalism Law, 1934, presented by Newell John­ Among the Norwegian Emigrants in the United son, New York City. States of America" by Lutheran minister /. W. C. Dietrichson and published in J846 in Nor­ Portions of the book, Stockbridge, Past and way, lent for copying by Mr. Rosholt, Rosholt; Present or Records of an Old Mission Station, letter, J909, from W. E. B. DuBois to the guar­ by Electa F. Jones, J854, including biographies antors of the proposed periodical New Horizon, of leaders of the Oneida, Brothertown, and lent for copying by Lucile Miller, Madison; Stockbridge Indians and of white men who an unpublished essay originally written for taught them Christianity in New York, pre­ Esquire magazine by Negro sociologist Harry sented by Earl J. Tower, St. Petersburg, Ela; Edwards, in which he discusses his contempt portion of a diary, 1793, kept by Morgan Jones, for subservient Negroes, presented by Paul who worked with a Pennsylvania surveying Hass, Madison; German military documents, party along the Sinemohoning and Allegheny 1869-1871, of Anton Eschrich, presented by rivers, lent for copying by Mr. and Mrs. James Edwin Eschrich, Milwaukee; pocket diary, K. Hudson, Milwaukee; letter, 1960, from John 1862, of Pvt. Willard W. Felton, Co. F, 18th F. Kennedy inviting Carlton B. Goodlett, San Regiment Wisconsin Volunteers, presented by Francisco civil rights leader, to participate in Mrs. Philip Rosen, St. Paul, Minn.; personal the National Conference on Constitutional recollections by Lydia A. Flanders, a Wiscon­ Rights and American Freedom, presented by sin resident of the mid-nineteenth century, of Mr. Goodlett; correspondence, speeches, min­ the Winnebago Indian, Chief Yellow Thunder, utes, and biographical information, J943—J962, presented by Mrs. Ruth Taylor, Portage. of Victor E. Kimball, an assistant Wisconsin Scrapbook of doctors' prescriptions, 1899- state superintendent of public instruction, pre­ 1902, filled at a Fort Atkinson, Wis., drugstore, sented by Mrs. Kimball, Madison; three letters, source unknown; a speech concerning the 1864, from Sgt. George Yeldham King, Co. K, United States' political and economic future, 20th Regiment Wisconsin Volunteers, in Tex­ 1935, by University of Wisconsin President as, to his wife in Oshkosh, lent for copying by Glenn Frank, presented by Mrs. Thomas E. Ethel M. King, Eau Claire; manuscript en­ Coleman, Madison; additional documentation titled "Indian Primmer [sic] in the Seneca for Everyman's Constitution: Historical Essays Tongue," compiled by Delia Gazelay Knight on the Fourteenth Amendment, the "Conspira­ sometime before 1836, presented by Jocelyn W. cy Theory," and American Constitutionalism, Knight, Racine.

239 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY SPRING, 1970

ciety, the Guggenheim Foundation, and held Contributors Fulbright Research Awards to the University of Athens in J952-1953 and again in 1966- MARY FROST KRONCKE, whose 1967. He also was Visiting Fulbright Professor biographical sketch of William at the University of Freiburg in West Germany S. McCormick appeared in the in 1959-1960. Mr. Saloutos still maintains an Spring, 1968, issue of the Mag­ active interest in Milwaukee and the state of azine, grew up in Madison and Wisconsin. was graduated from Edgewood High School. After being grad­ uated from Clarke College in STANLEY MALLACH was born Dubuque, Iowa, she received her master's de­ in 1940 in Greenwood, South gree in history from Creighton University and Carolina, and attended public for three years taught history at Villa Maria schools in Atlanta. He received College in Erie, Pennsylvania. With her hus­ his B.A. at Rutgers, his M.A. band, Charles, an assistant professor of finance in the Winterthur Program in in the University of Wisconsin's School of Busi­ Early American Culture at the ness, Mrs. Kroncke lives in Madison with their University of Delaware, and an two small children. additional M.A. in American history from the University of Wisconsin. Since 1964 he has KAREL D. BICHA was born and been a student assistant and staff member first ll^ reared in La Crosse. He re­ in the Society's museum and later in the re­ ceived his B.A. in 1958 from search division. For the last year he has been the University of Wisconsin research assistant to Paul Glad, who is writing and his Ph.D. in 1963 from the the fifth volume in the History of Wisconsin University of Minnesota. He is Project. Beginning in September Mr. Mallach the author of The American will be bibliographer of the Morris Fromkin Farmer and the Canadian West, Memorial Collection on the history of social 1896-1914 and of articles on the American justice and lecturer in the history department experience in western Canada, on Populism, of the University of Wisconsin—Milwaukee. and other reform movements. He has taught at At present he is at work on his doctoral disser­ Carleton University in Ottawa and at present tation at the University of Wisconsin on the is an associate professor of history at Mar­ rise of modern city planning before World War quette University. I. He has been a regular contributor of book reviews to the Magazine. THEODORE SALOUTOS was edu­ cated in the public schools of his native Milwaukee and at WENDELL TRIPP was born in the University of Wisconsin, Walden, New York, and was from which he received his educated in the public schools doctorate in 1940. He has been of that village. After three teaching at the University of years of naval service he at­ California, Los Angeles, since tended Drew University where 1945 and served as chairman of the department he majored in English litera­ from 1962 to 1965. He is co-author, with John ture. He received a master's degree in history from the University of Hicks, of Agricultural Discontent in the Middle Michigan, taught in Middletown and Port West, 1900-1939, and author of Farmer Move­ Jervis, New York, high schools, and for sev­ ments in the South, 1865—1933; They Remem­ eral years was a member of the history de­ ber America; The Greeks in the United States; partment at Hobart College. He is now Edi­ and Populism: Reaction or Reform? Currently torial Associate of tbe New York State he is engaged in writing a book on The New Historical Association in Cooperstown. Among Deal and the American Farmer. He has had other duties, he edits the Association's quar­ awards from the American Philosophical So­ terly journal. New York History.

240 ;Mmwm

IBi&j.^v'^

Villa Louis Don't Let the Summer Co By Without Seeing Historic Wisconsin

Summertime is the perfect time for traveling through Wisconsin's past. Your travel card is a Circus World Museum family membership in the State Historical Soci­ Old Wade House & Carriage Museum ety. It costs just ten dollars and provides half- price admission for parents and children to the Stonefield Village & Dewey Home five historic sites. Members also receive a year's subscription to Badger History, Then and Now, Villa Louis and the Wisconsin Magazine of History plus Madeline Island Historical Museum many other benefits. For more information write to the State Historical Society, 816 State Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. *JtJ=:.H

To promote a wider appreciation of the American heritage The Purpose with particular emphasis on the collection, advancement, of this and dissemination of knowledge of the history of Wisconsin Society shall be and of the Middle West.

State Historical Society of Wisconsin 816 State Street Second-class postage paid at Madison, Wisconsin 'i3706 Madison. Wisconsin, and at Return Requested additional mailing offices.