TravelTravel Demand Demand Management Management Options Options in in Beijing Beijing
RapidRapid urbanization urbanization and and motorization motorization combined combined with with high high population population density density have have led led to to serious serious congestion congestion andand air air quality quality problems problems in inthe the People’s People’s Republic Republic of of China China capital capital of of Beijing. Beijing. While While Beijing Beijing accounts accounts for for less less thanthan 2% 2% of of the the population, population, more more than than 10% 10% of of the the country’s country’s vehicles vehicles ply ply the the city’s city’s roads. roads. This This study study is ispart part of of thethe Asian Asian Development Development Bank’s Bank’s initiative initiative to to support support greener greener and and more more sustainable sustainable transport transport systems systems that that are are convenientconvenient and and lessen lessen carbon carbon dioxide dioxide emissions. emissions. Read Read how how congestion congestion charging, charging, vehicle vehicle ownership ownership quotas, quotas, andand progressive progressive parking parking reforms reforms can can improve improve Beijing’s Beijing’s approach approach to to travel travel demand demand management. management.
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TRAVELTRAVEL DEMANDDEMAND MANAGEMENTMANAGEMENT OPTIONSOPTIONS ININ BEIJINGBEIJING
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Printed on recycled paper Contents
Tablesª Figuresª and Boxes iv Foreword vi Acknowledgments vii Abbreviations viii Executive Summary ix
I Introduction « A¬ Background « B¬ Current Urban Transport Issues « C¬ Growing Congestion and Declining Accessibility ® D¬ Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gas Emissions ¯ E¬ Compatibility of Institutional Arrangements °
II Travel Demand Management Measures «± A¬ Types of Travel Demand Management «± B¬ Purposes of Travel Demand Management and Other Measures «² C¬ Classification of Measures Using the Avoid–Shift–Improve Framework «¯ D¬ Beijing’s Experience with Travel Demand Management «° E¬ Summary of Implementation E´ects ±«
III Assessment of Travel Demand Management Scenarios for Beijing ±® A¬ Bus Rapid Transit Network Plan Scenario Analysis ±® B¬ Charging for Road Use ±°
IV Future Policy Challenges and Improvement Directions for Travel Demand Management ®µ A¬ Challenges ®µ B¬ Directions for Improvement ²¶
References ²±
iii Tablesª Figuresª and Boxes
TABLES « Changes in Trip Distances in ¸¶¶²–¸¶«¶ and Trip Times by Modeª ¸¶«¶ ² ¸ Policyª Regulatoryª and Oversight Responsibilities «¶ ± Mapping of Main Transport Agency Functions in Beijing «¸ ® Travel Demand Management and Other Measures Classified by Main Purpose «¯ ² Classification of Travel Demand Management and Other Measures by Avoid–Shift–Improve Framework «¹ ¯ The ¸° Measures ¸« ¹ Current Parking Price Standard ¸± ° Average Speed of Road Network ¸¯ µ Average Speed of Roads at All Levels within the Fifth Ring Road (Including the Fifth Ring Road) ±¸ «¶ Model Test Result—Mode Share Changes within Sixth Ring Road ±¹ «« Model Test Result¼ Vehicle Kilometers and Bus Rapid Transit Passenger Kilometers in Morning Peak ±¹ «¸ Overview of First Set of Scenarios ®¶ «± Overview of Performance of Scenarios on Key Indicators ®¸ «® Changes in Congestion Index ®¸ «² Changes in Mode Shares (Trips) ®¸ «¯ Changes in Car Demand Levels for the Area Charging Scenario ®® «¹ Changes in Mode Shares for the Area Charging Scenario ®® «° Changes in Car Shares for Trips between Di´erent Areas ®®
FIGURES « Motorization and Car Availabilityª ¸¶¶¶–¸¶«® ¸ ¸ Changes in Modal Sharesª ¸¶¶¶–¸¶«± ± ± Sources of Particulate Matter (¿¸¬² microns) in Beijingª ¸¶«¸–¸¶«± ¹ ® Air Pollution in Beijing ¹ ² Days with Air Quality No Lower than Grade II Standard ° ¯ An Example of Bus Lanes in Beijing «± ¹ Monthly Changes in TraÁc Performance Index on Working Daysª ¸¶¶¹–¸¶«± «° iv Tables, Figures, and Boxes v
° Changes in TraÁc Performance Index Based on Flexible Working Hours ¸¸ µ Current Parking Zones in Beijing ¸® «¶ E´ect of Parking Policy Change ¸® «« Geographic Extent of Private Vehicle Use Restrictions ¸² «¸ Annual Growth in Car Fleet ¸¹ «± Locations of Public Bicycle Sharing Docking Stations ¸¹ «® Conditions Before and After Opening the Bus Lanes ¸µ «² Peak Period Bus and Passenger Flows on Beijing–Tongzhou Expressway Before and After Bus Lanes ±¶ «¯ Comparison of Changes in the Number of Passengers Using Batong Metro Line during Morning Peak Hours Before and After Opening the Special Lanes ±¶ «¹ Proportion of Road Network Congestion During Morning and Evening Rush Hours ±¸ «° Recent Trends in Bus Speeds ±± «µ Scenario «¼ One New Bus Rapid Transit Corridor ±² ¸¶ Scenario «¼ «¸ New Bus Rapid Transit Corridors ±² ¸« TraÁc Volume Change with Scenario « ±¯ ¸¸ TraÁc Volume Change with Scenario ¸ ±¹ ¸± Beijing Ring Roads ±µ ¸® Changes in Flows Using Distance-Based Charging Scenario ®± ¸² Relative Changes in Network Speeds Using Distance-Based Charging Scenario ®± ¸¯ Changes in Flows Using Area Charging Scenario ®² ¸¹ Changes in Speeds Using Area Charging Scenario ®² ¸° Cordon Charging Central Business District Area ®¯ ¸µ Changes in Flows for Cordon Pricing in the Central Business District Area ®¹
BOXES « Relevant Policies «µ ¸ Surveys of Public Biking Systems ¸° Foreword
eijingª the capital of the People’s Republic of China (PRC)ª is one of the most economically advanced Bcities in the PRCª with a population of ¸« million¬ Beijing symbolizes the country’s rapid economic growth and serves as a model of urban development¬ Its transport policy influences other large cities in the PRC¬ The magnitude of its transport-related problems—and the implications for other large cities and for global climate change—is also attracting considerable international attention¬
Rapid urbanization and motorizationª combined with high population densityª have led to serious congestion and air quality problems in Beijing¬ While Beijing accounts for less than ¸Å of the PRC’s populationª it has more than «¶Å of its vehicles¬ The number of registered vehicles grew by an average annual rate of «±¬°Å from «µµ¹–¸¶¶µª and the number of vehicles almost doubled in ¸¶«² compared to ¸¶¶µ¬
This study supports the Beijing Municipal Government (BMG) in finding suitable and sustainable solutions to its urban transport problems¬ The Asian Development Bank’s (ADB) technical assistance project—Beijing Urban Sustainable Transport—was designed to cooperate with the multiyear research project jointly administered by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) and the Beijing Transportation Research Center (BTRC)¬ Three policy challenges identified were (i) travel demand continues to growª (ii) continued improvements to public transport alone are insuÁcient in addressing Beijing’s transport challengesª and (iii) e´ective management of the directionª paceª and density of urban developments is critical¬
The current study identifies several directions for improving Beijing’s approach to travel demand management (TDM)¼ (i) a multipronged suite of measures continues to be necessaryª (ii) congestion charging o´ers the opportunity to manage demandª and associated congestion and emissionsª and (iii) retention of the vehicle ownership quota and progressive reforms of parking and other TDM measures is essential¬
This study is part of ADB’s initiative to support greener and more sustainable transport that aims to provide society with a transport system that will bring comfort and convenienceª and lessen carbon dioxide emissions¬
Ayumi Konishi Director General East Asia Department ADB
vi Acknowledgments
his publication was based on Beijing Sustainable Urban Transportª an ADB-financed technical assistance Tproject¬ Ki-joon Kimª senior transport specialistª led and managed the technical assistance¬ Robert Guildª directorª Transport and Communications Divisionª East Asia Departmentª provided overall guidance and supervision¬
The contributions of the following are acknowledged with gratitude¼ Beijing Academy of Social Science (BASS)¼ Benchao Qiª vice presidentÇ Yanmei Wangª project directorÇ Shihui Pangª associate researcherÇ Zhibin Liª assistant researcher¬ Beijing Finance Bureau¼ Yunhui Zheng¬ Beijing Municipal Government¼ Yue Maª division chiefÇ Jining Baoª deputy division chief¬ Deutsche GIZ¼ Shenyang Sunª Daniel Bongardt¬ Planung Transport Verkehr (PTV-AG) team¼ Udo Heidlª Martin Snethlageª Ping-Ping Tongª and Josef Janko¬ Philip John Sayegª independent consultant¬
Special thanks to the peer reviewers¼ Gloria Gerilla-Teknomoª senior transport oÁcerª East Asia DepartmentÇ Andri Heriawanª transport specialistª South Asia DepartmentÇ Stefan Rauª urban development specialistª East Asia DepartmentÇ and Toshiyuki Yokotaª senior evaluation specialistª Independent Evaluation Department¬
vii Abbreviations
ADB Asian Development Bank ASI avoid–shift–improve BMG Beijing Municipal Government BRT bus rapid transit BTRC Beijing Transportation Research Center CBD central business district CNY yuan DMC developing member country GDP gross domestic product GHG greenhouse gas GIZ Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (German International Cooperation Agency) HOV high occupancy vehicle ITS intelligent transportation system km kilometer kph kilometer per hour LEZ low emission zone MOC Ministry of Construction MOT Ministry of Transport MRT mass rapid transit (rail) NMT nonmotorized transport PBS public bicycle sharing
PM¸¬² particulate matter (¿¸¬² microns)
PM«¶ particulate matter (¿«¶ microns) PRC People’s Republic of China TDM travel demand management TPI traÁc performance index µ unit of mass equal to one millionth (« È «¶–¯) of a gram viii Executive Summary
he Beijing Municipal Government (BMG) implemented “¸° Measures to Relieve TraÁc Jams” in TDecember ¸¶«¶ which provided traÁc support for the comprehensive promotion of a “culture-enriched Beijing¬” This publication evaluates the current TDM measuresª and suggests suitable and sustainable solutions to Beijing’s urban transport problems¬
Longer term measures examined included studying the potential for congestion chargingª optimizing the usage of existing infrastructureª and providing good quality public transport to accommodate passengers diverted from private vehicle use¬
Three key policy challenges can be determined from Beijing’s extensive experience with the expansion of multimodal transport infrastructureª introduction of TDMª and changes in the organizational arrangements for urban transport¼
(i) Travel demand and motorization continue to grow rapidly. Current TDM measures appear to be fairly e´ective as they tackle both the ownership and use of vehicles but much more remains to be done. (ii) Continued improvements to public transport alone are insucient in addressing Beijing’s transport challenges. The quadrupling of subway length and bus services since has been extremely beneficial in providing an alternative to private vehicle use and acts as a “relief valve” to congestion. Nevertheless, while combined subway and bus usage has increased by more than É, a large component of this growth was apparently diverted from bicycle usage. With the introduction of the vehicle quota and the one-day-a-week driving restriction and other measures, car use seems to have peaked and declined slightly, as the proportion of daily trip making is growing. (iii) Eective management of the direction, pace, and density of urban development is critical. While population and household income growth have been key drivers of travel demand, the demand for a´ordable housing and modern commercial oÁces has driven much new development to the edge of the expanding urban area. The building of new large roads on the fringes of the urban area too far in advance of urban development may contribute to urban sprawl. The current institutional responsibilities for urban development, transport infrastructure provision, TDM, and provision of public transport have improved in recent years at city level, but there is room for further coordination improvements.
The current study identifies several directions for improving Beijing’s approach to TDM¼
(i) A multipronged suite of measures continues to be necessary. Beijing has already demonstrated that a comprehensive approach to addressing congestion, accessibility, road safety, and emissions is essential to merely keep pace with growing demand. This has involved provision of public transport infrastructure and services, enhancement of conditions for walking and cycling, restrictions on car ownership and use, and pricing measures for parking and public transport. Greater research and careful planning of measures is needed to ensure the most beneficial are implemented. In the past, not all TDM measures were subject to detailed study prior to being proposed. ix x Executive Summary
(ii) A comprehensive approach to congestion charging is essential. Various forms of congestion charging appear to o´er significant traÁc congestion relief and reduction in emissions, and do so in an equitable and transparent manner. In contrast to other types of transport improvement, charging of road use tends to minimize the potential to create new demand, as a result of reduced traÁc congestion. The objectives for congestion charging vary considerably and the choice of objective(s) will influence the form of the congestion scheme adopted. A dual focus on environment and revenue raising may lead to a di´erent form of congestion scheme and associated measures with targeted use of revenues for public transport and other urban realm improvements. For travelers on all modes to perceive the beneficial impact, a comprehensive congestion charging policy is required that covers the majority of roads in Beijing. While a limited form of congestion charging could be implemented in a small part of Beijing initially, this needs to be seen as a transition to a larger scheme that ultimately could be a distance-based charge, where the distance-based charge could vary to reflect congestion at di´erent periods of the day. (iii) Retention of the vehicle ownership quota and progressive reforms of parking and other TDM measures is essential even if a form of congestion charging is pursued. Experience shows that the demand for car ownership and use of cars is extremely high. Congestion charging alone cannot reasonably curb this demand. Significant “quick wins” are available to enhance the management of travel demand apart from planned rail mass rapid transit (MRT): Ê Develop new extensive bus lanes and bus rapid transit (BRT) corridors; Ê Strategically extend an improved public bike sharing scheme primarily within the Fifth Ring Road, and enhance opportunities for use of individually owned bicycles to access rapid transit stations (bus and rail) and bus stops; Ê Improve the eÁciency of traÁc management, including the design of urban expressways based on how these actually operate; Ê Enhance sidewalks and pedestrian facilities throughout the city, in particular connecting to rapid transit stations and bus stops or linking activity areas to residential areas; and Ê Continue to rationalize the pricing and management of parking cars throughout the city.
Other matters to consider should congestion charging be pursued are¼
(i) Revisions to current road use charges. The current system of road use charges does little to moderate use of vehicles during congested times and in congested locations; registration charges are a fixed charge that does not vary with distance (or time of travel) and encourages extensive vehicle use once these charges are paid. Fuel excise charges do not vary by time of travel. A suitable congestion charging scheme could allow some existing charges to be reduced (e.g., motor vehicle registration and driver license fees) so that these charges then might simply recover their ongoing administration costs. Such an approach may be useful to convince car and fleet owners of the merits of congestion charging. (ii) Sophisticated travel demand forecasting tools. Development of an explicit congestion charging scheme requires careful preparation, sound feasibility assessments, and a robust transport modeling capability sensitive to the critical policy issues. The Government of the PRC, with the support of GIZ and ADB, is already using a very advanced sophisticated transport model, but further refinements are possible, for example, to include time period modeling. London’s congestion charging scheme has shown a charge’s impact can have far-reaching short and medium to long-term e´ects. The short-term e´ects include changes in travel patterns manifested in traÁc diversion (time, location, and route), Executive Summary xi
modal switching, and more. In the medium to long term, the e´ects of changes in land use, including impacts on the property market and business, could all be significant. The impact of charges can have very di´erent e´ects on cars, trucks, and other vehicle users (and revenue expectations). (iii) Monitoring impacts of a road use charging scheme. If it is decided to proceed with an explicit road use charging scheme, a suitable monitoring program will be needed to respond to all stakeholders’ concerns, to measure actual outcomes, and to identify needed management interventions. Even with the most sophisticated forecasting and planning tools, it is important to monitor the actual impacts on traÁc, public transport, business, and other stakeholders. Many of these impacts will be quite subtle and may only be discernible in the medium to long term. Monitoring of the e´ects of any major transport change requires the establishment of a suitable baseline, and a monitoring program and defined survey methods that can be implemented at an appropriate time. Adequate budgets are also needed. (iv) Impact of congestion charging on the BMG and related organizational arrangements. If it is decided to proceed with an explicit congestion charging scheme, an important consideration will be to define what the scheme entails, including the various functional requirements of planning, design, operations, monitoring, and enforcement. The impact of these functions on the BMG and other relevant agencies should be defined in staÁng, skills, budget, and necessary practical enforcement powers. Moreover, all relevant legislation needs to be reviewed to ensure the BMG has the power to set and apply charges, enforce the scheme, and carry out any other relevant actions to support the scheme’s implementation and operation. (v) Optimal level of congestion charge. A technical review would be desirable to establish the optimal charge and structure of charges. An optimal charge implies maximizing benefits to the community. Setting higher charges, even if practically possible, would reduce community benefits compared to the optimum, and may lead to perverse e´ects which may not be immediately apparent. (vi) Review of implementation and recurrent costs and continued review of advances in technology. Detailed estimates of implementation costs need to be made based on promising and feasible options. Recurrent operations and maintenance costs estimates, and demand and associated revenue forecasts are needed. Technological advances should be continuously monitored, but it is clear from this study that a range of technology providers could implement even the most advanced charging scheme using proven technology and components.
CHAPTER I Introduction
A. Background
Beijingª the capital of the People’s Republic of China (PRC)ª had a population of ¸«¬« million in ¸¶«±ª having grown by ®¹Å from ¸¶¶¸¬ One of the most economically advanced cities in the PRCª Beijing symbolizes the country’s rapid economic growth and serves as a model of urban development¬ Its transport policy influences other large cities in the PRC¬ The magnitude of its transport-related problems—and the implications for other large cities and for global climate change—is also attracting considerable international attention¬
Rapid urbanization and motorizationª combined with high population densityª have led to serious congestion and air quality problems in Beijing¬ A recent study by IBM found that Beijingª Shenzenª and Mexico City were the worst of ¸¶ global cities for traÁc jamsª with scores of µ²ª µ²ª and «¶°ª respectivelyª out of a theoretical maximum of «¶¶ for IBM’s “commuter pain index¬”« While Beijing accounts for less than ¸Å of the PRC’s populationª it has more than «¶Å of its vehicles¬¸ Per capita motor vehicle registration has surpassed the level of many leading cities in the world («¬° times the level in Parisª ¸¬± times of that in New York)¬ The number of registered vehicles grew from « million in «µµ¹ to ®¬² million in ¸¶«¶ª and the number of vehicles was expected to double by ¸¶«²¬
The adverse e´ects of congestion have been estimated to cause significant economic losses¬ Congestion and air pollution costs contribute the mostª although climate change and road injury costs are also substantial¬ Research has shown that more than three-quarters of the air pollution in Beijing come from vehicular carbon monoxideª particulate matterª and hydrocarbon emissions¬
In December ¸¶«¶ª the Beijing Municipal Government (BMG) announced ¸° new travel demand management (TDM) measures to reduce traÁc congestion and vehicle emissions¬ These focused on (i) introducing quantitative restrictions on vehicle ownership and peak-hour usageª (ii) providing more parking spaces and park-and-ride facilitiesª and (iii) prioritizing public transport and road construction to address bottlenecks¬ Most of these are aimed at producing temporary relief from congestion¬ More comprehensive and long-term approaches are also urgently needed¬ This study evaluates the current TDM measuresª and suggests suitable and sustainable solutions to Beijing’s urban transport problems¬
B. Current Urban Transport Issues
Population and motor vehicles growth With its population of ¸«¬« million at the end of ¸¶«±ª Beijing is the PRC’s most populated city¬ It also has the largest fleet of cars with ®¬¸¹ million cars registered at the end of ¸¶«±ª of which individuals owned ¹¸Åª and the rest owned by public enterprises and private firms¬
« IBM¬ ¸¶««¬ Commuter Pain Index¬ http¼ËËwww-¶±¬ibm¬comËpressËusËenËphoto˱²±¯¶¬wss (accessed «² April ¸¶«²)¬
¸ Footnote «¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Figure Motorization and Car Availability –
Ownership Percentage
July Year
Motorized vehicle ownership Number of private cars Motorized vehicle ownership (,) (,) ( of population)
Note: Growing motorization in Beijing is putting pressure on road capacity and contributing to air pollution¬ Source: Based on data from Beijing TraÁc Management Bureau¬ ¸¶«®¬ TraÁc Management Data from ¸¶¶¶¬ http¼ËËwww¬bjjtgl¬gov¬cnËpublishË portal¶Ëtab°¶±Ë
Private car ownership grew at a compound annual growth rate of µ¬°Å per annum between ¸¶¶¶ and mid-¸¶«® with the fleet increasing by ¸²¶Å over the period¬ Population growth was a more modest ±¬®Å per annum over the same periodª but due to nominal gross domestic product (GDP) growing by «²Å per annumª nominal per capita income rose at ««¬¸Å per annum (Figure «)¬
Growth in travel – Within the Sixth Ring Roadª total daily person trips increased from ¸µ¬¸ million in ¸¶¶² to ®«¬± million in ¸¶«¶ with the trips per capita growing from ¸¬¯® trips per capita in ¸¶¶² to ¸¬°¸ in ¸¶«¶¬ Of the total daily person tripsª only ¶¬°Å of all trips were reported as “business” in the recent household travel survey so may likely be underestimated¬ In Beijingª trucks are banned from entering the Fifth Ring Road during peak hours¬ Thereforeª trips to carry goods to the city center are shifted to other time periods or substituted by ordinary car trips¬ In the peak periodsª it is estimated that «¶¬¹Å of traÁc on Beijing’s roads in the morning peak periodª and ±¯¬²Å of traÁc in the evening peak period are business-related trips¬± Increased energy use and greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) accompany this growth in motorized travel with impacts on climate change¬
± PTV Group¬ ¸¶«®¬ Updating and Enhancement of the Beijing VISUM Transport Model—Model Calibration and Model Validation Report. January¬ Introduction
The estimated modal shares excluding walking® from ¸¶¶¶ to ¸¶«± as observed by household travel surveys conducted by the Beijing Transportation Research Center (BTRC) are shown in Figure ¸¬ In ¸¶¶±ª private car travel represented ¸¹Å of daily trips (excluding walking)¬ Public transport trips (bus and subway) represented ¸°Å of trips at the time¬ With an increase from ® to «° subway linesª and a quadrupling of its length over ¸¶¶± to ¸¶«±ª plus extensive TDM measures introduced since ¸¶¶°ª including “¸° Measures” in ¸¶«¶ the share of daily passenger trips by car peaked at ±®Å of daily trips in ¸¶¶°ª ¸¶¶µª and ¸¶«¶ª after which it declined to ±±Å of daily trips¬ At the same timeª public transport’s share grew from ¸°Å of daily trips in ¸¶¶± to ®¶Å of daily trips by ¸¶«¶ª and has since grown again to ®¯Å by ¸¶«±¬ Much of this growth appears to be at the expense of cycling which was ±²Å of daily trips in ¸¶¶±ª «¯Å in ¸¶«¶ª and «¸Å in ¸¶«±¬ Cycling declined slightly and so did cars’ share of daily trips (down from ±®Å in ¸¶«¶ to ±±Å in ¸¶«±)¬
Figure Changes in Modala Shares –
Modal share
Others Taxi Bicycle Subway Bus Cars
Year
a excludes walking trips¬ Source: Beijing Transportation Development and Research Center¬ ¸¶«®¬ Beijing Trac Development Annual Report. Beijing¬
® Walking was estimated to represent «ª¸¹¶ trips per day in ¸¶«¶¬ This report relies on typical reporting by BTRC of travel demand characteristics in which walking trips are often not included¬ Accordinglyª despite the importance of walking as a mode of travelª walk trips are not featured in the majority of tables and figures in which travel data or analysis results are presented¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Rapid decentralization of land use activities is occurring due to an increasing demand for more spacious housingª modern oÁcesª and industrial estatesÇ and a shortage of reasonably priced land in and around the Fifth Ring Road¬ These trends are underpinned by the growth in private vehicle ownership and increased commuting distances¬ The built-up area has expanded by ®¶Å since ¸¶¶¶ covering the period ¸¶¶¶–¸¶«±¬
Vehicle availability and annual vehicle activity Vehicle availability almost doubled from ¸¶¶± to ¸¶«±ª with the rate of vehicles per capita² growing from ¶¬«² in ¸¶¶± to ¶¬¸¯ in ¸¶«±¬ For private cars aloneª there were ±¬¹® million cars owned by ¸«¬« million people and their °¬¹² million households in ¸¶«¶¬¯ Thereforeª car availability was about ¶¬±² cars per householdª much lower than in the USª Europeª and Australiaª where households have one or more cars on averageÇ but not much less than Singapore where only ²¶Å of households¹ have access to a car due to high costs of ownership and other disincentives to use¬ In Hong Kongª Chinaª just above ¸«Å of households had access to a car in ¸¶«±¬°
Average annual car mileages are high in Beijing with private cars traveling an average of «µª¯¶¶ kilometers (km) per year in ¸¶«¶ª and government vehicles traveling an average of ¸°ª¹¶¶ km per year¬µ The mileage for private cars indicates that cars are used intensively due to their still relatively low availability at the household level¬«¶ OÁcial data shows that as car ownership increasesª annual car mileages declineª as expected where car ownership rates per household are still low¬ From ¸¶¶¸ to ¸¶¶°ª the estimated growth in the private car fleet was «¸¹Åª but at the same timeª annual average car mileages declined from ¸¹ª¶¶¶ in ¸¶¶¸ to ¸«ª¯¶¶ in ¸¶¶°ª a reduction of «¶Å¬««
C. Growing Congestion and Declining Accessibility
Trac congestion impacts TraÁc congestion has a significant impact on public transport passengersª motoristsª pedestriansª cyclistsª and the community at large through excessive air pollutionª GHG emissionsª noiseª and road trauma¬ Average peak period traÁc speeds across all roads in the network in ¸¶¶¹ averaged ¸¸ kilometers per hour (kph) in the morningª and «µ kph in the eveningª similar to other global megacities¬ Experience in other cities indicates that traÁc speeds tend to remain stable in the range of «² kph to ¸¶ kph (i¬e¬ª moderate to high congestion) in central activity areasª but congestion spreads outward geographically with urban area expansionª and also to the o´-peak periodsª including weekends¬ Henceª commuting times tend to increase and become less reliable¬ In Beijingª traÁc speeds are understood to have declined during the period from ¸¶¶¶ to ¸¶¶¹ due to the car fleet more than doubling¬
² All vehicles including private and nonprivately-owned cars¬ ¯ At ¸¬® persons per household¬ ¹ Singapore Government Data¬ In ¸¶«®ª there were «¬¸ million householdsª and in ¸¶«®ª ¯¶¶ª«¹¯ private cars registeredª indicating a car availability of ¶¬² per household¬ http¼ËËwww¬singstat¬gov¬sgËstatistics ° Hong Kongª China Government Data¬ In ¸¶«±ª there were ¸¬®¶µ million householdsª and in ¸¶«¶ª ²¶¶ª¶¶¶ private cars registeredª indicating a car availability of ¶¬¸« per household¬ http¼ËËwww¬censtatd¬gov¬hkËhkstatËsubËsp«²¶¬jsp?tableIDͶ¶²&IDͶ&productTypeÍ°Ç http¼ËËwww¬td¬gov¬hkËfilemanagerËenËcontentÏ®®®«Ëtable««¬pdf (accessed ¸² February ¸¶«²)¬ µ GIZ¬ n¬d¬ Work in Progress¬ p¬ «¶¬ «¶ For exampleª average car mileage in Australia for urban and rural areas combined is «®ª¶¶¶ km per annum but where households owned two or more cars on average¬ http¼ËËwww¬abs¬gov¬auËausstatsËabs@¬nsfËmf˵¸¶°¬¶ (accessed ¸² February ¸¶«²)¬ «« H¬ Huo et al¬ ¸¶«¸¬ Vehicle-use Intensity in China¼ Current Status and Future Trend¬ Energy Policy ®±¬ pp¬ ¯–«¯¬ Introduction
Changes in trip distance and commuting time – Table « shows thatª except for the bicycleª average trip distances by mode increased by ¸¹Å in ¸¶¶²–¸¶«¶¬ In ¸¶¶¹ª BTRC’s TraÁc Performance Index for peak periods was regularly in the range of ¯ to ° by ¸¶¶¹Ç when “moderate jams” were commonª travel times were typically twice as long as travel during noncongested periods¬«¸ With the introduction of TDM measures in ¸¶¶°ª traÁc speeds and journey time reliability slightly improved since that time¬ Howeverª despite these speed improvementsª with the ¸¹Å increased average trip distanceª trip times increased sharply in ¸¶¶²–¸¶«¶ª contributing to the perception that congestion is very severe¬
Table Changes in Trip Distances in – and Trip Times by Mode
Trip Distance (kilometer) Trip Time (minute) Mode Car ««¬« ««¬² ±µ¬° ±°¬µ Taxi °¬¯ µ¬± ±¹¬¹ ±µ¬¸ Metro «®¬² «°¬¶ ¯¹¬± ¹¹¬± Bus µ¬² «¶¬° ¯¸¬² ¯²¬® Coach «¸¬± «®¬° ²¯¬® ²¸¬¶ Bicycle ®¬¸ ±¬¹ ¸¹¬« ¸«¬² Walk only ¶¬° ¶¬µ not available not available Average °¬¹ «¶¬¯ ®±¬¸ ®°¬¶
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
New design standards may contribute to better management of congestion The Ministry of Construction develops standards for expressway and ring road design¬ As in many other countriesª these designs assume the roads operate as high-speed roads that are relatively uncongested and designed using the concept of uninterrupted flow¬ In factª the roads are congested during peak periods and the closely spaced entry and exit ramps (sometimes as close as µ² meters)ª«± and limited lane and ramp control exacerbates congestion¬ Ramp spacing is also related to the absence of an e´ective network of connecting roads between the rings and radials that couldª for exampleª eÁciently distribute major road traÁc even if on and o´ ramp spacing were considerably further apart¬
Congestion aects the level of service oered to passengers and productivity of road-based bus transport Excessive urban traÁc congestion reduces the number of revenue-earning trips a bus can make per dayª and the slower operating speeds make bus use less attractive due to increasing passenger trip distances and delays a´ecting bus lane operationª despite expansion of bus services from ¹¹² routes in ¸¶¶± to «ª¶¸¶ routes
«¸ The index measures whether the traÁc flows freely or is congested with a range of ¶–«¶ points and consisting of five categories¼ “smooth” (¶–¸ points)ª “basically smooth” (¸–®)ª “slight congestion” (®–¯)ª “moderate congestion” (¯–°) and “severe congestion” (°–«¶)¬ Higher points mean more severe congestion¬ «± X¬ Zhao et al¬ ¸¶«®¬ Calibrating and Modeling Expressway with Di´erent Ramp Distances on Beijing ±rd Ring Road¬ Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. «±°¬ pp¬ ±¹–®®¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
in ¸¶«±ª and the designation of ±¯¯ km of special bus lanes¬ Nevertheless despite the share of total trips on bus declining from ¸µÅ to ¸²Åª the total number of passenger trips on bus increased from ®¹¶ª°¯± in ¸¶¶° to ®°®ª±¶¯ by ¸¶«±¬«®
Congestion is inequitable Poorer groups in societyª who may not have access to carsª have less ability than wealthier people to select home and workplace locations to minimize commutes or to mitigate the negative impacts of transport¬ The direct e´ect of excessive congestion on transport users include a reduced ability to access workplacesª educational establishmentsª and community facilitiesÇ and increased exposure to the risk of traÁc-related crashes¬ As shown in Table «ª average bus and metro trip times are over « hour or twice that by car¬ Where road networks experience undue congestionª improvements in road transport supply would in many cases result in further private motorized travelª increased travel distancesª andª thusª ultimately aggravating congestion and accessibility problemsª and related impacts¬
Economic cost of congestion There are two recent estimates of the cost of congestion in Beijing¬ A ¸¶«¸ study estimates that traÁc congestion imposes costs of about CNY²° billion (®¬¸¸Å of GDP)«² in Beijing in ¸¶«¶ª including time delay costª vehicle operating costsª road injuriesª and environmental impacts¬ A ¸¶¶° study estimated the cost of congestion in ¸¶¶² to be at least CNY²² billion (¸¶¶² prices) or around ¹¬²Å of Beijing’s GDP¬«¯ This study also estimated that an optimal congestion toll«¹ could realize welfare benefits of CNY¸« billion per year¬
D. Air Pollution and Greenhouse Gas Emissions
Dominant motor vehicle pollutant Motor vehicles are estimated to contribute about ±«Å of locally generated
fine particulate matter (PM¸¬²) that represents about ¹¶Å of all such pollutionª a critical pollutant against human
health¬ The remaining ±¶Å of PM¸¬² is transmitted from the surrounding region where industrial sources of particulate matter are dominant as shown in Figure ±¬ Air (and noise) pollution is a critical problem for Beijingª as illustrated in Figure ®¬
Intensive multisector actions are improving air quality Compared to ¸¶«¶ª in ¸¶««ª the concentration of major air pollutants¼ total suspended particulate (TSP) matter at ««® µgËm±ª sulfur dioxide at ¸° µgËm±ª and nitrogen dioxide at ²² µgËm±ª were reduced by ²¬°Åª «¸¬²Åª and ±¬²Åª respectively¬ In ¸¶««ª ¹® days had an air
quality of Grade «ª an increase of ®¶Å compared to ¸¶«¶ª which for key pollutants such as PM«¶ and nitrogen
oxides is the equivalent of the European standard¬ For exampleª the European daily average PM«¶ standard corresponds to a Chinese Grade I standard of ²¶ µgËm±¬ Howeverª the number of days with air quality no lower than the Grade II standard did not change between ¸¶«¶ and ¸¶««ª remaining at ¸°¯ days¬ Grade II standards
for PM«¶ and other key pollutants mean much worse air quality¬ For exampleª the Chinese Grade II standard for average daily PM«¶ is «²¶ µgËm±ª three times higher than the Chinese Grade I standard¬ Significantlyª °¶ days per year had a lower than Grade II air quality standard (Figure ²)¬
«® National Bureau of Statistics of China¬ ¸¶«® and ¸¶¶µ¬ China Statistical Yearbook. Beijing¬ «² L¬ Maoª H¬ Zhuª and L¬ Duan¬ ¸¶«¸¬ The Social Cost of Trac Congestion and Countermeasures in Beijing Sustainable Transportation Systems. pp¬ ¯°–¹¯¬ doi¼ «¶¬«¶¯«Ëµ¹°¶¹°®®«¸¸µµ¬¶¶«¶ «¯ F¬ Creutzig and D¬ He¬ ¸¶¶°¬ Climate change mitigation and co-benefits of feasible transport demand policies in Beijing¬ Transport. Res. Part D. ¸¶¶°¬ doi¼ «¶¬«¶«¯Ëj¬trd¬¸¶¶°¬««¬¶¶¹ «¹ This is the amount of congestion with optimal pricing of road use¬ Suggested by F¬ Creutzig et al¬ to be about RMB± for congested inner zones of the city and RMB« for less congested outer zones¬ Introduction
Figure Sources of Particulate Matter ( microns) in Beijing –
Local discharge, Others, – Motor vehicle,
Fugitive dust,
Industrial Coal burning, production, Regional transmission, –
Source: Beijing Municipal Bureau of Environmental Protection¬ ¸¶«®¬ http¼ËËwww¬zhb¬gov¬cnËzhxxËhjyw˸¶«®¶®Ët¸¶«®¶®«¯Ï¸¹¶²µ¸¬htm (as reported by BTRC)¬
Figure Air Pollution in Beijing
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Figure Days with Air Quality No Lower than Grade II Standard
Source: Beijing Municipal Bureau of Environmental Protection¬ ¸¶«¸¬ Annual Report.
E. Compatibility of Institutional Arrangements
With a vast municipal land areaª and as a premier region of the PRCª Beijing municipality has substantive control over transport policyª planningª and management within its boundaries¬ As in other citiesª the institutional arrangements mirror the situation at the national level¬
Overall responsibilities at national level The National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC)ª under the Ministry of Financeª approves all expendituresª including for infrastructureª sets pricesª andª in principleª has an important coordinating role across agencies¬ The Ministry of Construction (MOC) is the national level agency responsible for urban development and urban transportª except urban public transport services (railª busª and taxi) which have been the responsibility of the Ministry of Transport (MOT) since ¸¶¶¹¬ Despite the MOT’s new roleª a new policy on prioritization of public transportª including TDMª was issued by the NDRC as a Directive of the State Council in December ¸¶«¸¬«°
«° State Council OÁce¬ ¸¶«¸¬ Directive ¯® [¸¶«¸]¼ State Council Directives on Prioritization of Urban Public Transport Development¬ ¸µ December¬ Introduction
National railways are the responsibility of the National Railway Administration (NRA) under the MOT¬ Planning and construction are the responsibility of the MOCª and operationª of the MOT¬ But responsibility for urban railways is not as clear-cut¬ Both the MOC and the MOT have limited sta´ resources assigned to urban transportª and so provide only limited policy guidance to municipal governments¬ Specialist Design Institutes attached to the MOCª the MOTª and the NDRC may be called upon to examine technical or policy questions¬ While it is broadly accepted that traÁc management and road safety are multi-agency tasksª primary responsibility for this area rests with the Ministry of Public Security (MPS)¬ Environmental managementª including air quality management and control of vehicle emissions is the responsibility of the Ministry of Environmental Protection (MEP)¬
Key responsibilities within Beijing Municipality (refer to Table ¸)¬ This split of responsibilities for urban transport at the national level is reflected in the organizational structure at the municipal level¬ Economic policy and development and approval of infrastructure investment expenditures is the responsibility of the Beijing Municipal Commission of Development and Reform (BMCDR)Ç urban planning and development controlª of Beijing Municipal Commission of City Planning (BMCCP)Ç infrastructureª of the Beijing Municipal Commission of Housing and Urban-Rural Development (BMCHURD)Ç urban transport strategyª multimodal policyª planning and operationsª of the Beijing Municipal Commission of Transportation (BMCT)Ç traÁc managementª which includes traÁc signalsª area traÁc controlª pedestrian crossingsª and on-street bus priorityª of the Beijing Municipal Public Security Bureau (BMPSB) and its subordinate agenciesÇ and emission controlª of the Beijing Municipal Bureau of Environmental Protection (BMBEP)¬ Implementation of land acquisition and resettlement is the responsibility of district level governments under the auspices of the BMCHURD¬ The railway operator is the newly-established Beijing Railway Corporation operating under NRA¬ Subways are operated by one municipal-owned operator and one municipal–private subway operator¬ Historicallyª horizontal coordination was poor but is improving through the BMCT’s e´orts¬
A mapping of the key agencies by principal urban transport functions is shown in Table ±¬ Particular issues that a´ect e´ective urban transport provision and management are¼
• Horizontal coordination. Although improving, e´ective horizontal coordination is challenging across multiple municipal institutions involved in transport. Priorities among the multiple municipal agencies may be di´erent or sometimes even conflicting. Modal integration can be further improved. For TDM, for example, the Transport Team at the BMCCP does not work in close cooperation with those at the BMCT. While the BMPSB has responsibility for pedestrian crossings and safety, it is not responsible for the design and implementation of pedestrian routes. This responsibility rests with the BMCC. Similar comments apply to the safety of cyclists and the provision of facilities for cyclists, including the creation of bicycle-dominant streets. • Design standards. The MOC sets design standards for urban roads and public transport infrastructure, but these standards do not reflect how the roads are actually operated.
«µ Interview conducted by Royal Haskoning DHV¬ ¸¶«²¬ Beijing Bicycle Strategy and Policy – The Way Back to World Bicycle Capital. Prepared for ADB¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
• Goals for transport management. The BMPSB is also responsible for policy on traÁc management, and related local implementation of national policies, which tend to focus on smoothing traÁc flow for motor vehicles. It appears the senior executives of these agencies do not give priority to pedestrians and nonmotorized transport. Furthermore, agencies of a lower level only report to their upper level departments that do not always coordinate well with others. Evidence of this is the lack of a cross-department action plan supporting nonmotorized or environmentally-friendly transport in Beijing. • Regulator or operator division. With the close relationship to the government of the limited number of subway and bus operators, there is little supervision of service level quantity and quality. • Transport pricing. The BMCDR sets overall levels of fares, tolls, and charges, as influenced by national policy directives, not necessarily by the needs of local transport policy. Top-down control of prices hinders the introduction of market-based transport operations and services that could be facilitated with a more flexible approach to pricing with a policy change that encourages new entrants to the market. The parking reforms, by introducing di´erential prices by area, aimed for the first time to redirect motorists from the congested central districts. Parking management is devolved to the districts, with variations in actual prices, charges, and approaches, making systematic development of e´ective metro-wide parking problematic.
Table Policy Regulatory and Oversight Responsibilities
Agency Responsibility Beijing Municipal Commission of • Provides leadership and coordination role in urban transport strategyª policyª planningª Transportation (BMCT) and operations¬ • Drafts transport strategy and master plan developmentª and integration with land use plans prepared by Beijing Municipal Commission of City Planning (BMCCP)¬ • Provides long-term planning of the road and subway network¬ • Plans and manages public transport¬ • Prepares annual transport programs and funding requests¬ • Provides cycle sharing schemes and minor works¬ • Regulates the transport industry¬ • Develops policyª including for intelligent transport systems (ITSs)¬ • Researches and prepares statisticsª and evaluation of transport programs¬ • Its subordinate agencies below support the BMCT¬ Beijing Municipal Roadway • Administers and arranges maintenance of highwaysª city roadsª railwaysª railway Administration Bureau (BMRAB) crossingª and facilities¬ • Implements and executes the lawsª codesª and regulations on transportation facilities¬ • Manages safety of railway crossingsª railwaysª highwaysª bridgesª and supporting facilities¬ • Administers collection of highway tolls and fees¬ Beijing Municipal Transportation • Regulates traÁc and transportation industry and water safety Administration Bureau (BMTAB) Beijing Municipal Transportation • Enforces and monitors compliance of drivers and the transport operators and Law Enforcement General Team operations¬ (BMTLEGT)
continued next page
¸¶ Footnote «µª p¬ «¶¬ ¸« Institute for Transportation and Development Policy¬ ¸¶«²¬ Parking Guidebook for Beijing. Prepared for ADB¬ Introduction
Table Continued
Agency Responsibility Beijing Municipal Public Security • Safeguards traÁc security and orderª and manages traÁc incidents via its subordinate Bureau (BMPSB) agenciesª the main ones shown below¬ Beijing TraÁc Management Bureau • Licenses drivers¬ (BTMB) – under Public Security • Provides vehicle regulationÇ regulates vehicle use¬ Bureau (PSB) • Manages roads and expressways¬ • Provides oversight and operation of traÁc control system¬ • Provides oversight of static and real time transport information¬ • Ensures traÁc safetyÇ investigatesª and researches¬ Beijing Transportation Research • Researches urban transport development strategiesª policiesª and programs¬ Center (BTRC) – under PSB • Studies urban traÁc hotspots and bottlenecks¬ • Develops and maintains the traÁc signal system and related ITSs¬ • Organizes and coordinates research¬ • Collects and disseminates urban traÁc information¬ • Prepares annual report on major urban transport development¬ Beijing Municipal Commission of • Prepares long-term land use master plans¬ City Planning (BMCCP) • Prepares and implements municipal lawsª regulationsª and technical standards on urban and rural planning¬ • Provides oversight of plansª selects locations for construction projectsª and issues permits for planned land use and planned construction projectsÇ examines the initial design of construction projectsª including transportation facilities¬ Beijing Municipal Commission • Plansª administersª coordinatesª implementsª and supervises comprehensive major of Housing and Urban–Rural projects (roadsª subwayª etc¬)¬ Development (BMCHURD) • Prepares standards for all construction worksª including transportª • Responsible for land acquisition for infrastructure projects¬ • Regulates the construction industry¬ • Reviews and approves construction plans¬ • Facilitates provision of low-cost housing¬ • Responsible for guiding development of towns and villages around Beijing¬ Beijing Municipal Commission of • Prepares municipal development strategiesª annualª mid- and long-term programs City Administration (BMCCA) for urban infrastructureª public utilitiesª and environmental sanitationÇ and organizes implementation¬ • Provides comprehensive management of the city’s environment¬ • Guides urban infrastructure construction at the district and county levels (including sidewalksª parking managementª associated facilitiesª and infrastructure)¬ Beijing Municipal Commission of • Approves investment expendituresª including for infrastructure¬ Development and Reform (BMCDR) • Coordinates across agencies¬ • Setsª adjustsª and controls prices¬ Beijing Municipal Bureau of • Responsible for environmental protection of the city¬ Environmental Protection (BMBEP) • Oversees and manages the prevention and treatment of pollution of andËor from the atmosphereª waterª soilª noiseª solid wasteª poisonous chemicalsª and automobiles¬ • Drafts and implements local pollution emission standards and local environmental quality standards¬ • Coordinates enforcement of laws and regulations on environmental protection¬ • Monitors pollution and raises public awareness of environmental problems¬
Sources: http¼ËËwww¬ebeijing¬gov¬cnËGovernmentËDepartmentsËt«¶¸®°²¹¬htmÇ http¼ËËwww¬bjtrc¬org¬cnËJGJS¬aspx?id͸¬«&MenuÍJGJSÇ http¼ËËwww¬bjjtzf¬gov¬cnËenglishË (accessed ¸¯ February ¸¶«²)¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Table Mapping of Main Transport Agency Functions in Beijing
Transport Sector Agencies Other Public Roads and Trac and Street Function Rail, Subway Transport Road Vehicles Management Policy and strategic planning BMCT BMCCPª BMCT BMCTª BMCC BMCTª BMCC Program development and management Tactical planning BMCTª BRC BMCTª BTMB PSBËBTMB BMPSBËBTMBª BMCC for pedestrianª cycle facilities Design BRC BMCHURDª Operatorsª BMCHURDª BMTBª BMCCA BMCCA (sidewalk BMCCA facilities) Procurement of BRC BMCHURDª BMCCAª BMCHURDª BMPSBª BMCCª BMCCA construction worksª Operators BMCCA land acquisition Maintenance BRC BMRABª BMCCA BMRABª BMCCA BMCCª BMCCA operator Financing National budget Municipal budget Municipal budget Municipal budget Service delivery including operations and maintenance Provision of servicesª One municipal- One municipal- Contractors BMTB for operation of operation owned and one owned operatorª one traÁc systemª BTRCª municipal–private independent operator districts manage parking subway operatorª one municipal- owned railway operator BRC User fees and charges BMCDR BMCDR BMCDR BMCCAª districts for parking Financing Municipal budgetª Municipal budgetª Municipal budgetª Municipal budgetª user user fees user fees user fees and tolls fees Regulation and BMCTËBMTABª BMCTËBMTABª BMPSBª BMTLEGT BMPSBª BMTLEGTª enforcement BRC BTMB districts Certification and BMRABËMOT BMRAB BMRABª BMPSB BMRABª BMPSB safety regulation
BMCCA Í Beijing Municipal Commission of City Administrationª BMCCP Í Beijing Municipal Commission of City Planningª BMCDR Í Beijing Municipal Commission of Development Reformª BMCHURD Í Beijing Municipal Commission of Housing and Urban–Rural Developmentª BMCT Í Beijing Municipal Commission of Transportationª BMPSB Í Beijing Municipal Public Security Bureauª BMRAB Í Beijing Municipal Roadway Administration Bureauª BMTAB Í Beijing Municipal Transportation Administration Bureauª BMTLEGT Í Beijing Municipal Transportation Law Enforcement General Teamª BRC Í Beijing Railway Corporationª BTMB Í Beijing TraÁc Management Bureauª MOT Í Ministry of Transportª PSB Í Public Security Bureau¬ Source: ADB¬ CHAPTER II Travel Demand Management Measures
A. Types of Travel Demand Management
Travel Demand Management (TDM) aims to reduce the usage by vehicles of the road system while providing a wide variety of mobility options for those who wish to travel¬ Early attempts at traÁc management in Beijing prior to the «µ°¶s generally sought to cater to demandª and to reduce peak period congestion¬ With the introduction of bus lanes in «µµ¹ on Beijing’s Chang’an Avenue on the Second Ring Roadª and subsequent replication elsewhere in the cityª there was formal recognition of the need to maximize person flowsª rather than focusing solely on assisting car and low occupancy vehicle movements¬
Figure An Example of Bus Lanes in Beijing
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
TDM may include measures to modify the time and place of travelª the mode usedª or even the decision to travel at all¬ Ultimatelyª it may also be aimed at emissions reduction to improve local air quality and reduce global warming impacts¬ The range of transport infrastructureª traÁc managementª and TDM measures normally considered by transport authorities is extensive and includes¼
• Roadway capacity expansion. New infrastructure and road widening in an attempt to reduce congestion and delays to traÁc, although new infrastructure initially operating below capacity in peak periods would usually generate new demand. • Trac management. TraÁc control system expansion, modifications to traÁc signal cycle times and phasing, physical widening at intersections, providing “green waves” for cars to reduce vehicular delays. • Allocation of road space, and trac signal cycle times, to favor bus, pedestrian and nonmotorized transport (NMT) movements. Provision of High Occupancy Vehicle (HOV) lanes on major roads for vehicles with multiple occupants (e.g., buses and cars with three persons or more). Within traÁc signal Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
networks, give preferential phases for buses at intersections or pedestrian movements in activity centers, such as shopping precincts and schools; and simplify intersection layouts to increase capacity. • Physical controls. Road closures, reduced movements at junctions, and local area traÁc restrictions to minimize traÁc intrusion in residential zones, commercial areas, historic precincts, and in proximity to other sensitive land use. • Parking controls. Physical, regulatory, and pricing measures applied to the ends of a vehicle trip that if implemented comprehensively across a metropolitan area, o´ers the potential to moderate or modify vehicular travel. • Public transport services. Improved rail and bus services, vehicles and supporting facilities, ticketing and information systems may not only enhance accessibility, convenience of use, and reduce journey times to existing passengers, but may induce drivers and passengers from cars and other vehicles to switch to public transport, providing benefits to remaining road users. • Walkability and other NMT measures. Improved sidewalks and road crossings for pedestrians and provision of lanes and other facilities to support use of NMT for passenger or goods movements. High quality walking environments are associated with vibrant cultural and commercial activity centers and may successfully substitute for short car trips. • Traveler information (pre- and during trip). Information provided to car drivers and their passengers to avoid excessive nonrecurrent congestion by route planning, modifications to routes and time periods of travel, and use of alternative modes, and minimize parking search times at destinations. Similarly, pre- and during trip information assists public transport users to plan their journey, monitor journey times, and change routes and services, if necessary. • Behavioral measures. Inform travelers, particularly car users, of the range of modes available and their time and cost characteristics, and environmental impacts, with the aim to encourage them to take car pools, shift to public transport, plan their trip itineraries to reduce unnecessary travel, or walk or cycle or change trip starting and finish times to avoid congested periods. Use new technologies to facilitate changes in travel patterns and trip frequency (e.g., telecommuting). • Administrative charges. Road use charges are already familiar and come in the form of initial ownership charges, and annual vehicular registration charges that are usually based on engine displacement. These charges are used to fund the road system and cost of administration of vehicles and roads. Such charges typically do not vary with vehicle use. • Fuel taxes. Usually levied by national governments for a variety of reasons but usually not to moderate vehicle use. There is a weak relationship between normal levels of fuel tax and vehicle use—high taxes tend to encourage consumers to choose fuel-eÁcient vehicles instead of moderating travel. • Pricing or charging of roads and other transport based on use. Apply tolls or charges when crossing boundaries of congested or historic zones, or traveling within such zones, or according to distance traveled or amount of prevailing congestion on a network. In some cases, notably in the US, some lanes of key roads are tolled and in return o´er a defined level of traÁc service, i.e., value pricing. Tolling is often used as a financing strategy to provide funding for road infrastructure that may not otherwise be built. Charges on other modes such as public transport also influence road use. • Low emission zones (LEZs). Limit entry of vehicles and/or vehicles which do not meet adequate emission standards in historic, sensitive, or other defined parts of cities e.g., in Berlin, London, or Milan. The London and Milan LEZs operate in conjunction with their Congestion Charging Zones. Travel Demand Management Measures
• Controls on vehicle ownership. Quota systems through lottery or tendering, as applied in Shanghai and Singapore, aim to curb growth of the vehicle fleet. But these may have the reverse e´ect of ensuring that the available vehicles, usually more expensive with the ownership restriction, are used intensively by household members. For example, in Singapore, the Certificate of Entitlement (COE) whereby the right to own a passenger car is regularly auctioned approximately doubles the retail price of a car. As a result, the average car in Singapore, an island-state, logged more than , km per year in . This annual mileage is one-third more than the average mileage of , km for a passenger car in Australia in that is used in both urban and rural areas. Fee or rebate systems apply taxes, or exempt taxes and charges on vehicles with low greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, or meet other stringent emission standards. In , electric vehicle manufacturers in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) received incentives, which were passed on to consumers, of up to CNY, for private purchase of new battery electric vehicles, and CNY, for plug-in hybrids in the cities of Shanghai, Shenzhen, Hangzhou, Hefei, and Changchun. • Controls on vehicle use. Typically, the controls are based on the final digit of number plates as in Beijing since when vehicles entering or traveling within the Fifth Ring Road were not permitted to operate on week day per week between the hours of a.m. to p.m. Similar controls were implemented in Manila, Philippines and many other cities with varying success. Such systems often favor wealthy households that can a´ord multiple vehicles. Another common criticism of such schemes, is that in some cases, the vehicle purchased for use on days of the restriction are often older, less energy-eÁcient and more polluting than the main vehicle.
B. Purposes of Travel Demand Management and Other Measures
The first three measures listed above¼ (i) roadway capacity expansionÇ (ii) traÁc managementÇ and (iii) allocation of road space and traÁc signal cycle times have been commonly applied throughout cities in the PRC¬ The remaining measures—defined for the purposes of this study as TDM measures—have been implemented to some extentª or are being considered currentlyª in Beijing and other cities in the PRC¬ All the measures listed above have been classified in Table ® according to what may be regarded as their principal purpose¬ In realityª measures often have multiple purposes or a particular measureª such as congestion chargingª may rely on improved public transport to cater to former car occupants who decide to stop using private vehicles¬
In Beijingª and other cities in the PRCª most of the preceding measures have been used¬ With the severe air pollution and congestion problems facing Beijing and other cities in the PRCª the potential for a more optimal pricing of roadsª sometimes referred to as congestion chargingª is explored in subsequent sections of this study¬
¸¸ Land Transport Authority¬ ¸¶«¸¬ Singapore Land Transport¬ Statistics in Brief¬ Singapore¬ http¼ËËwww¬lta¬gov¬sgËcontentËdamËltawebËcorpË PublicationsResearchËfilesËFactsandFiguresËStatsÏinÏBriefϸ¶«¸¬pdf ¸± Australian Bureau of Statistics¬ Survey of Motor Vehicle Use in Australia¬ http¼ËËwww¬abs¬gov¬auËausstatsËabs@¬nsfËmf˵¸¶°¬¶ (accessed «¸ February ¸¶«²)¬ ¸® New Energy Vehicles in China¬ http¼ËËen¬wikipedia¬orgËwikiËGovernmentÏincentivesÏforÏplug-inÏelectricÏvehiclesÓChina (accessed «¸ February ¸¶«²)¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Table Travel Demand Management and Other Measures Classified by Main Purpose
Purpose Type of Measure Reduce delays to vehiclesª expand vehicular capacity Roadway capacity expansionª conventional traÁc managementª toll roads Increase car occupancies (as an alternative to low occupancy Allocation of road spaceª and traÁc signal cycle times private vehicles) or prioritize noncar movements Reduce or eliminate trips to reduce vehicle kilometers of Physical controlsª parking controlsª real time traveler travel (VKT) or to move trips to less congested periodsª informationª behavioral measuresª congestion chargingª locationsª or routes vehicle ownership and use controls Substitute for car trips Behavioral initiatives Divert trips to more environmentally and Public transportª walkabilityª and nonmotorized transport socially-sustainable modes Improve air qualityª reduce greenhouse gas emissions Low emission zonesª vehicle controls¼ fee or rebate schemes Revenue raising to sustain the transport system and Annual road user chargesª fuel taxes other needs
C. Classification of Measures Using the Avoid–Shift–Improve Framework
The spatial pattern of economic activities is a key determinant of the demand for transport and its impacts¬ Through transport servicesª people can participate in activities at their destination and goods can be shipped from production zones to markets and international gateways¬ Transport is therefore often called a “derived demand” where the real demand is for the activities and services available at di´erent locations in a nation or urban area¬
In the development of transport infrastructure and servicesª there are three broad strategies to reduce air pollutionª noiseª GHG emissionsª and at the same timeª enhance welfare and social inclusiveness through reductions in congestion and improvements to accessibility enabled by transportª at the national or subnational scales¼¸²
• Avoid or reduce travel and travel distance by motorized modes. This can be accomplished by a combination of influencing regional development at the national level and land use planning at the urban level. Better management of the demand for travel through the use of economic and informational policy instruments can also reduce the amount of travel;
¸² GTZ¬ ¸¶¶¹¬ Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities described the “Avoid–Shift–Improve” frameworkª although the concepts were articulated earlierª for exampleª by Thomson¬ «µ¹®¬ Modern Transport Economics. Schipper et al¬ «µµµ in Carbon-Dioxide Emissions from Transport in IEA Countries: Recent Lessons and Long-Term Challenges described this framework as “Activityª Shareª Intensityª Fuel Mix¬” Both GIZ (¸¶¶¹) and Schipper et al¬ («µµµ) proposed their frameworks for consideration of travel with the main purpose being to reduce GHG emissions¬ Travel Demand Management Measures
• Shift to more environmentally and socially-sustainable modes. The availability, quality, and quantity of environmentally sustainable modes (such as urban and nonurban) passenger transport systems and provisions for walking and cycling is important with significant beneficial additional impacts on economic welfare (e.g., lowering congestion and related loss of time and economic productivity) and social inclusiveness (e.g., access and road safety). In the case of freight transport, a greater share of goods being moved by well-used railways or inland waterways will reduce GHG emissions, air pollution, and traÁc fatalities. • Improve the energy eciency and environmental performance of transport modes and vehicle technology. The performance of vehicles is important. The main impacts are usually environmental and possibly economic welfare through the choice of types of vehicles, fuel, fuel eÁciency, and load factors of vehicles.
As shown in Table ²ª the TDM and other measures classified using the Avoid–Shift–Improve (ASI) framework shows how the various measures¼ (i) improve travel eÁciency and enhance accessibilityÇ (ii) improve safety and securityÇ and (iii) enhance local and global environmental outcomes¬
Table Classification of Travel Demand Management and Other Measures by Avoid–Shift–Improve Framework
Economic – Travel Eciency/ Measures ASI Category Accessibility Social Environmental Roadway capacity expansion I Ôª xª or – Ôª xª or – x or – TraÁc management I Ô Ô Ôª xª or – Allocation of space or phase timesª to favor busª I Ô Ô Ôª xª or – pedestrian and NMT movements Physical controls Aª S Ô or x Ô Ô Parking controls Aª S Ô or x Ô Ô Public transport Sª I Ô Ô Ô WalkabilityËNMT Sª I Ô Ô Ô Traveler information Aª S Ô Ô Ô Behavioral Aª S Ô Ô Ô Administrative charges I x x x Fuel taxes Iª S x x Ô PricingËcharging for use Aª S Ô Ô Ô Low Emission Zones Aª S Ô or x Ô Ô Controls on vehicle ownership A Ô Ô Ô Controls on vehicle use A Ô or x Ô or x Ô or x
Ô Í positiveª – Í negativeª x Í neutralª A Í avoidª ASI Í avoid–shift–improveª I Í improveª NMT Í nonmotorized transportª S Í shift¬ Source: ADB consultants¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
D. Beijing’s Experience with Travel Demand Management
This section describes the TDM measures implemented between ¸¶¶¶ and the present dayª their impacts to the extent knownª and the most relevant prevailing policies¬
Preparation for the ª Summer Olympics With the ¸¶¶« award of the right to host the ¸¶¶° Summer Olympic Gamesª Beijing’s leaders promised to transform the city’s transport system¬ In the period ¸¶¶¶–¸¶¶°ª the rail mass rapid transit (MRT) network was extended from ²¶ km to ¸¶¶ km¬ Key policies released in ¸¶¶² and ¸¶¶¯ (Box «) prioritized investments in all forms of public transport¼ railª bus rapid transitª and on-street busª often with dedicated lanes¬
To cater to the “Games-family” traÁcª ¸°¯ km of dedicated on-road lanes were introduced¬ But to provide these lanesª from the preopening of the Olympic Village to the closing of the Paralympic Village (¸¶ July ¸¶¶°–¸¶ September ¸¶¶°)ª a series of traÁc restrictions were introduced that¼ (i) prohibited car use by private individuals and most government vehicles within Beijingª on alternate daysª according to whether the number plates ended in an odd or even numberÇ (ii) required trucks from other provinces to avoid the cityÇ and (iii) required vehicles from other provinces traveling within Beijing to meet national second-class emissions standards¬¸¯ More flexible oÁce and retail shopping hours were introduced to spread traÁc loads¬ The TDM measures functioned well and were well-accepted by the public¬ The Olympics experience provided practical experience and opportunities for the subsequent development of TDM policies since that time¬
Figure ¹ shows trends in the (weighted-average) TraÁc Performance Index (TPI) by month from January ¸¶¶¹ to March ¸¶«±¬ The trends from ¸¶¶¹ to September ¸¶¶°ª at the end of the Paralympicsª show that the combined e´ect of all temporary traÁc restrictions during the period of the Games reduced the TPI to “below ®” characterized as “basically smooth¬”
Figure Monthly Changes in Trac Performance Index on Working Days «–
Serious jam Since December Measures to Relieve Tra c Jam Moderate jam Mild jam July– Sept Odd-and-even license plate rule and special controls Basically smooth during the Olympic Games Tra c performance index Smooth
One-day driving stop One-day driving stop Regional travel restriction Regional travel every week between in peak hours between in peak hours of working days restriction in peak hours October April between April of working days and April and April and April since April
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
¸¯ As applied to residentialª commercialª industrialª and rural areas¬ Travel Demand Management Measures
Box Relevant Policies
Outline of Beijing Trac Development (–) Released in April ¸¶¶²ª the Beijing Municipal Government (BMG) proposed to accelerate the construction of a comprehensive public transport system with rail transit and bus rapid transit as the backbone with on-street buses serving a major role¬
Common ticket system for public transport From « January ¸¶¶¹ª Beijing switched the public transport ticket system to require a single ticket and one-time payment for travel from origin to destination irrespective of the number of modes or lines traveled¬ Deep discounts apply for regular travelers holding a common stored value ticket¬
Opinions about Priority Development of Public Trac The BMG released this document at the end of ¸¶¶¯ that recognized the strategic importance of public transport for fostering sustainable urban development and for enhancing public welfare¬ Four priorities were identified¼ (i) priority for land for public transport facilitiesÇ (ii) priority for investmentÇ (iii) allocation of right-of-way priorityÇ and (iv) priority for public financial support¬
Beijing’s Action Plan for the Construction of Culture-Enriched Trac Technology-Empowered Trac and Environment- Friendly Trac (¬–) The BMG released this document in July ¸¶¶µ that focused on promoting the action plan for the construction of a “public transport city¬”
Opinions of Beijing about Further Promoting Scientific Development of Capital Trac and Intensifying Eorts to Relieve Trac Congestion The BMG released this document in December ¸¶«¶ that proposed ¸° comprehensive measures to relieve congestion including scientific planningª constructionª managementª restrictionª and other aspects¬ The “¸° Measures to Relieve TraÁc Jams” in ¸¶«¶ pointed out the “high concentration of functions and population in central urban zonesª rapid increase in inventory and intensive use of motor vehiclesª public transportation’s lack of attractivenessª comprehensive traÁc management level not matching with the rapid increase of vehicle inventory and other problemsª” and proposed the following targets for ¸¶«²¼ (i) public transport should carry ²¶Å of all person trips in central urban zonesÇ (ii) bicycle travel shall be maintained at «°ÅÇ and (iii) the share of trips by passenger cars shall be controlled below ¸²Å¬” It also proposed to control the increase of small passenger cars to less than ¸®¶ª¶¶¶ vehicles per year (through a free lottery) or less than one-third the rate of growth in ¸¶¶µ–¸¶«¶¬ A di´erential parking charge policy was also proposed that mandated higher prices for central areas than the peripheryª and for on-road parking than o´-road spacesª and higher prices for aboveground parking places than underground spaces¬ Areas were defined as follows¼ (i) class I areasª within and adjacent to the Third Ring RoadÇ (ii) class II areasª the balance of areas within the Fifth Ring RoadÇ and (iii) class III areasª outside the Fifth Ring Road¬ Class Iª IIª and III areas were subject to progressively lower charges¬
Implementation of National Public Transport City Construction Demonstration Project In November ¸¶««ª the Ministry of Transport issued a Notice that proposed to organize the implementation of a national “public transport city” construction demonstration project to improve the urban public transport service levelª meet the people’s basic travel needsª and relieve urban traÁc congestion and pressure on resources and the environment¬ Beijing was included in the first batch of “Public Transport City Construction Demonstration Projects” in ¸¶«¸¬
Opinions about Construction of Public Transport City and Improvement of Public Transport Service Ability The BMG released this document in June ¸¶«¸ that promoted the construction of a “Culture-Enriched Beijingª Technology-Empowered Beijingª and Environment-Friendly Beijing”—an international city with PRC characteristics—and proposed to further stick to public transport’s important strategic status and public welfare positioningÇ stick to priority land for public transport facilitiesª investment arrangement priorityª right-of-way distribution priority and financial and taxation support priorityÇ and build a “public transport city¬”
Clean Air Action Plan of Beijing On «¸ September ¸¶«±ª the State Council released the “Action Plan for Air Pollution Control¬” In responseª the BMG released the “Clean Air Action Plan of Beijing for ¸¶«±–¸¶«¹¬” It was proposed that by ¸¶«¹ª the average annual density of fine particles shall have reduced by over ¸²Å compared to ¸¶«¸ª and shall be controlled at about ¯¶ µgËm±¬ To achieve this targetª public transport was to be given priority along with across-the-board energy conservationª emission reductionª and air pollution control¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
ª to Present Following the Olympicsª until early ¸¶«¶ª traÁc congestionª as measured by the TPIª stayed in the range ®–¯ or “mild jam” level as shown in Figure ¹ª due to the extensive investments in public transport and other initiativesª but also a continuation of milder forms of vehicle use restrictions that limited driving « day per week (from October ¸¶¶° to April ¸¶¶µ)¬ Between April ¸¶¶µ and April ¸¶«¶ª the restrictions were converted to a weekday driving ban¬
With continued development within the Third Ring Road and continued urban expansion beyond the Fifth Ring Roadª traÁc congestion grew after the Olympics to the end of ¸¶«¶¬ With the addition of ¹µ¶ª¶¶¶ new vehicles to the fleet in ¸¶«¶ª¸¹ representing annual growth of ¸¶Åª traÁc congestion sharply increased¬ By the second half of ¸¶«¶ª peak period traÁc congestionª as measured by the TPIª was regularly in the ¯–° range or “moderate jam” having worsened over the year¬
The extensive gridlock experienced regularly in late ¸¶«¶ª culminating with the paralyzing gridlock experienced on «¹ September ¸¶«¶ where trips took several hours longer than normalª led to the BMG issuing a new policy directive that set out ¸° Measures (Table ¯) designed to address congestion¬ Several targets and ¯¯ specific measures were proposed to guide implementation of the ¸° measures¬ Two quantitative targets proposed to measure performance in ¸¶«« were the TraÁc Performance Index to remain below ¯ (“mild jam”) and the share of trips using public transport should increase to ®¸Å (up from ®¶Å in ¸¶«¶)¬
Key Measures Of the ¸° measuresª several were implemented to restrain vehicle use during the Olympics¬ The expanded list of measures continued curbs on usage in a more stringent formª introduced restrictions on vehicle ownershipª while others aimed to reallocate road space to favor high-capacity bus movementª and others to expand the range of transport services for short tripsª or to provide enhanced “last mile” connections between residential areas and subway stations and regular bus stops¬ Other important measures are the expansion of subway lines and conventional bus services to provide suÁcient travel opportunities for persons a´ected by vehicle restrictionsª and complementary services for the “new” modes described below¬ In December ¸¶«®ª the previous flat fare for metro (CNY¸) was changed to a distance-based fare starting at CNY± to address the substantial operating deficit of the metros but also to better distribute demand across the metro lines and bus services¬
The measures discussed belowª along with their impacts where availableª are¼
• Continuation of flexible working hours; • Parking policy adjustments with di´erential parking pricing; • Continuation of restrictions on vehicle use based on the final digit of the number plate; • Controls on private vehicle ownership; • Public bicycle sharing scheme; • Dedicated bus lanes on the Beijing–Tongzhou Expressway; and • Community bus and pocket buses.
¸¹ The exceptionally high growth in vehicle sales in ¸¶«¶ was because consumers expected a quota to be applied and hence purchased preemptively¬ Travel Demand Management Measures
Table The ª Measures
Category Content Further improve urban planningª «¬ Further optimize and adjust urban functional layout¬ disperse functions and population of central urban zones ¸¬ Bring into full play traÁc’s guide and service role¬ ±¬ Fully carry out the planning for supporting traÁc infrastructure¬ Accelerate the construction ®¬ Fully promote the construction of trunk road network system in central urban zones¬ of road traÁc infrastructureÇ increase carrying capacity ²¬ Accelerate the construction of microcirculatory road system in central urban zones¬ ¯¬ Build over ²¶ª¶¶¶ public parking places in central urban zones¬ ¹¬ Build over ¸¶¶ª¶¶¶ basic parking places in accordance with local conditions¬ °¬ Fully complete national highway network and municipal trunk road network¬ Make more e´orts in µ¬ Accelerate the construction of rail transit in central urban zones¬ priority development of public transportationª encourage to «¶¬ Renovate safe operation and service facilities of existing rail transit lines¬ travel by public transportation ««¬ Establish express shuttle network by public transportation¬ «¸¬ Further optimize and adjust ground traÁc lines¬ «±¬ Accelerate the construction of comprehensive passenger transportation hubs and public transportation sites¬ Improve transfer conditions of «®¬ Complete the public bicycle service system with the scale of «ª¶¶¶ stations and bicycleª pedestrian traÁc systemª over ²¶ª¶¶¶ bicycles¬ and parked conditionsÇ advocate environment-friendly travel «²¬ Actively develop school bus service system of primary and high schools and encourage units to establish company buses¬ «¯¬ Establish a park-and-ride space for parked cars with over ±¶ª¶¶¶ parking places¬ «¹¬ Vigorously advocate modern traÁc concept and carry out civilized traÁc activities¬ «°¬ Advise to convene teleconferences and exercise flexible work system¬ Further strengthen the management «µ¬ Implement inventory regulation and control for small passenger cars to relieve the of motor vehiclesÇ guide proper use excessive growth of motor vehicles¬ ¸¶¬ Continue to implement and improve the traÁc management measures of regional travel restriction during peak hours¬ ¸«¬ Motor vehicle owners shall assume reasonable use costs to reduce traÁc flow in central urban zones¬ Strengthen scientific managementª ¸¸¬ Continue to implement traÁc congestion relief project and improve capacity of improve the level of modern existing roads¬ traÁc management and transportation service ¸±¬ Build a new intelligent traÁc management system¬ ¸®¬ Strengthen the management of traÁc order¬ ¸²¬ Strengthen the management of parking lots and their operation¬ ¸¯¬ Establish traÁc information releaseª alarmª and forecast system and strengthen emergency management¬ ¸¹¬ Further improve traÁc management system and fulfill responsibilities¬ ¸°¬ Include traÁc congestion relief into supervision and performance appraisal¬
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Flexible Working Hours
Scope The BMG first introduced staggered oÁce hours during the Olympic Games and Paralympics¬ Flexible working hoursª starting and finishing times between °¼±¶ a¬m¬ and ²¼±¶ p¬m¬ for public enterprisesª and µ a¬m¬ and ¯ p¬m¬ for private enterprises were introduced¬ These arrangements were continued following the Games period¬
Eect Although restrictions on car use were also introducedª more flexible working hours were introduced¼ (i) shifting the morning peak traÁc demand to ° a¬m¬ from ¹¼®² a¬m¬Ç and (ii) not changing the time of occurrence of the maximum evening peak traÁc demandª but lengthening the duration of both peak periods at a reduced level of intensityª even allowing for the e´ect of the restrictions on vehicle use as shown in Figure °¬ TraÁc congestionª as measured by the TPIª reduced by ±Å in the morning peak and «®Å in the evening peak period¬¸°
Figure Changes in Trac Performance Index Based on Flexible Working Hours
Serious jam
Moderate jam
Mild jam
Basically smooth Tra c congestion index
Smooth
Time of day
No travel restrictions One-day travel restriction in peak hours Staggered work hours ( – ) (before work hours is staggered)
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
¸° BTRC¬ ¸¶«²¬ Beijing Urban Transport and Travel Demand Management Report. February¬ Travel Demand Management Measures
Parking Policy and Dierential Pricing
Scope In April ¸¶««ª new parking reforms were introduced that aimed to limit parking in the old city and use di´erential parking pricing to redirect traÁc away from the city center¬ There were approximately ²±¶ª¶¶¶ on- street parking spaces and about ¸¬² million o´-street spaces in ¸«ª¸¶¶ parking facilities¬ The maximum parking prices were applied to on-street spaces in Zone « covering the area within the Third Ring Road and four other activity centersª i¬e¬ª the central business districts (CBDs)ª Yansha areaª Zhongguancun core areaª and Cuiwei business area)¬ Progressively lower maximum parking prices applied to Zone ¸ (area between the Third and Fifth Ring Roads) and Zone ± (area outside the Fifth Ring Road)¬ In all areasª pricing of parking was changed to vary by «²-minute periods with a higher charge to apply to the first «² minutes as illustrated in Figure µ¬
Eect Many drivers were una´ected by the price increase as a ¸¶«¶ survey showed that up to µ¶Å of drivers do not pay for parking because they receive employer subsidies or find illegal spaces¬¸µ Howeverª a survey conducted immediately after implementation of the policy showed there was an immediate «¸Å decrease of small cars entering the inner Zone « areas to park on-street¬ A decline of «µÅ was observed for o´-street parking¬ The monitored traÁc flow on roads surrounding Zone « declined by «¸Å¬ The average number of vehicles parked in o´-street parking lots declined by «¸Å distributed as follows¼ (i) «µÅ decline in class I areasÇ (ii) ««Å decline in class II areasÇ and (iii) ¹Å increase in class III areas¬ A survey of drivers in carparks who formerly parked in Zone « found ¹±Å continued to drive but parked elsewhereª including continuing to parking in illegal spaces in Zone «¬ The remaining ¸¹Å of drivers said they drove less and used other modes of transport (Figure «¶)¬ Subsequent surveys showed similar results but with lessened e´ects as drivers adjusted to the change¬
Table Current Parking Price Standard (values represent maximum prices)
Parking Price Standard Daytime (® a.m.–¯ p.m.) Nighttime (¯ p.m.–® a.m.) On-Street O-Street First Hour After First Hour Outdoor Indoor Outdoor Indoor Maximum Parking Prices (CNY/ min) (CNY/ min) (CNY/ min) (CNY/ min) (CNY/ hours) (CNY/ min) Zone « ¸¬²¶ ±¬¹² ¸¬¶¶ «¬²¶ Public hourly Zone ¸ «¬²¶ ¸¬¸² «¬¸² «¬¸² « ¸¬² parking Zone ± ¶¬²¶ ¶¬¹² ¶¬²¶ ¶¬²¶ Non- residential Outdoor public parking lots ¿ CNY«²¶Ëmonthª CNY«ª¯¶¶Ëyear area Indoor public parking lots (monthlyËyearly) Market price Park and Ride CNY¸Ëentry Independently operating parking facility Market price Residential Outdoor parking lots hourly parking CNY« per ¸ hours area Outdoor parking lots long-term parking ¿ CNY«²¶Ëmonthª CNY«ª¯¶¶Ëyear Indoorª hourly parking ¿ CNY« per ±¶ minutes Indoorª monthlyËyearlong parking Market price CNY Í yuanª min Í minute¬ Source: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy¬ ¸¶«²¬ Parking Guidebook for Beijing¬ Prepared for ADB¬
¸µ GIZ¬ n¬d¬ Travel Demand Management in Beijing – Work in Progress. Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Figure Current Parking Zones in Beijing
Source: Institute for Transportation and Development Policy¬ ¸¶«²¬ Parking Guidebook for Beijing.
Figure Eect of Parking Policy Change
Few visiting, No influence, Drive less, use other ways,
Change to park at places without charge, Change to park at surrounding communities, Change to park at low-price areas, such as underground garage,
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Travel Demand Management Measures
Continuation of Restrictions on Vehicle Use
Scope From December ¸¶«¶ª the BMG continuedª but strengthenedª the earlier traÁc restrictions on use of government carsª regionwide restrictions during peak hours for local Beijing and nonlocal vehicles¬ Comprehensive restrictions applied to virtually all government vehicles (throughout the Beijing Administrative Area)ª on all roads on « working day per week¬ Restrictions on local and nonlocal vehicles also required cessation of travel on « working day per week (within the Fifth Ring Road as shown in Figure ««) between the hours of ¯ a¬m¬ and µ p¬m¬ Furtherª nonlocal vehicles were restricted to driving outside of peak periods on roads within the Fifth Ring Road on the ® working days per week they were permitted to travel¬
Figure Geographic Extent of Private Vehicle Use Restrictions
The Fifth Ring Road
07:00-24:00
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Eect of restrictions After the traÁc restriction policy was initially implemented following the Olympic Games in ¸¶¶°ª the average daily±¶ TPI of the road network within and including the Fifth Ring Road droppedª that isª improved to ²¬° (“mild jam”)ª decreasing by ¸¶¬²Å compared to the average TPI of ¹¬± (“moderate jam”) in ¸¶¶¹ (with no travel restrictions)¬±« Peak hour traÁc speeds increased by ¹Å in the morning peak and more than «±Å in the evening peak period as shown in Table °¬ It would be desirable to disaggregate the impacts of restrictions of households by income and car availabilityª howeverª the information is not available¬
±¶ Weekday¬ ±« Recognizing at the same time that motorization and car use were increasing and that new subway linesª etc¬ª were being implemented¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
But with the ¸¶Å growth in the vehicle fleet over Table Average Speed of Road Network ¸¶«¶ª despite expansion of the subway and bus Average Speed of Morning Evening linesª the average TPI over the last half of ¸¶«¶ Road Network (km/h) Peak Hours Peak Hours averaged over ¹¬¶ or higherª (“moderate jam”)ª No travel restriction as at ¸«¬° «°¬¹ and without interventionª was projected to rise¬ November ¸¶¶¹ With the implementation of the more stringent ¸µ March–¸ April ¸¶«¶ ¸±¬± ¸«¬¸ form of vehicle restrictionsª as set out by the ¸° «¸ April–¹ May ¸¶«¶ ¸±¬¸ ¸¸¬¸
measuresª congestion was greatly relieved with kmËh Í kilometer per hour¬ the TPI hovering just above ²¬¶ throughout the Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ first half of ¸¶««ª although it increased to around ¯¬¶ (limit of “mild jam”) by the end of the year¬
Ticketing data for bus and subway systemsª which were also expandingª showed that public transport use increased following the restrictionsª with the share of public transport mode rising from ±®Å in ¸¶¶¹ to ®¶Å in ¸¶«¶¬ The share of trips by car grew from ±±Å in ¸¶¶¹ to ±®Å in ¸¶¶° and stayed constant to ¸¶«¶ª then declined to ±±Å in ¸¶««ª even with growth of °®Å in the car fleet from ¸¶¶¹ to ¸¶««¬±¸
Controls on Private Vehicle Ownership
In ¸¶«¶ª ¹®¶ª¶¶¶ cars entered the vehicle fleetª about twice the number of new registrations in each of the previous yearsª in part because vehicle purchases were accelerated in anticipation of ownership restrictions¬ Following the sharp increase in congestion and air pollutionª a quota system to limit the number of cars that could be registered each year was announced on ¸± December ¸¶«¶¬ In ¸¶««ª the quota for small passenger cars was set at ¸®¶ª¶¶¶ per year with °°Å intended to be allocated to individualsª and «¸Å for other purposes through a public lottery¬±± Since the implementation of the policy the sharp growth in the vehicle fleet has been moderated with actual growth held to below «²¶ª¶¶¶ in ¸¶««–¸¶«¸ and ¸¶«¸–¸¶«±¬ As the number of new vehicles entering the fleet each year was only ¯±Å of the permitted limit it appears the quota system has had no e´ect on limiting the number of new vehicles in those years¬
Figure «¸ shows these trends with annual growth of the car fleet growing at below ²Å in ¸¶««¬ A survey of motorists conducted by Beijing News in ¸¶««ª found that ²±Å of respondents did not perceive any obvious speed improvementsª likely because the fleet was still growingª though at a reduced rate¬
Public Bicycle Sharing
Scope In response to the ¸° measuresª Beijing implemented a Public Bicycle Sharing (PBS) system in nine areas throughout the city¬ Interdistrict bicycle rental is only possible in the five central area districts¬ By the end of July ¸¶«®ª the whole city had ¸¹ª¶¶¶ public bicycles spread over ¹¯¯ docking stations as shown in Figure «±¬ Rental is free for the first hour¬ After thatª users are charged CNY« to a maximum of CNY«¶ per hour¬
±¸ Refer to Figure ± for changes in share of mode¬ ±± A lottery appears to be more equitable than Singapore’s COE systemª or Shanghai’s «µ°¯ and Guangzhou’s ¸¶«¸ vehicle license plate auction systemª as low income purchasers have the chance as a wealthier person to be successful¬ Travel Demand Management Measures
Figure Annual Growth in Car Fleet
Number of cars Percentage
Year
Cars ( ) Growth rate per annum
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Figure Locations of Public Bicycle Sharing Docking Stations
Source: Royal Haskoning DHV¬ ¸¶«²¬ Beijing Bicycle Strategy and Policy – The Way Back to World Bicycle Capital. Prepared for ADB¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
The district governments implement the PBSª determine the required criteriaª and seek tenders from companies to operate the PBS system¬ The municipal government provides subsidies to the companies to buy bicyclesª for docking stationsª and servicing¬ Funds for land-use feesª constructionª operationª and repair feesª as well as renewalª maintenanceª and monitoringÇ and provided by the district governments¬
Eect Along with the public’s current general reluctance to ride bicycles due to¼ (i) climateÇ (ii) air pollutionª (iii) most trip lengths further than bikeable distanceª (iv) traÁc risk due to lack of facilitiesª and (v) potential theft of bicyclesª the PBS system is underused¬ In ¸¶«®ª the number of daily rides was ±¸ª¶¶¶ or a just over one ride per bicycle per day although there are «®¶ª¶¶¶ bicycle share card holders¬ The system is “not working well¬”±® Howeverª awareness of the PBS among general cyclists is high as shown in Box ¸¬
Box Surveys of Public Biking Systems
Bicycle TraÁc Willingness Survey Results¼
Ê Public Biking System (PBS) system is well known (µ¶Å) Ê Usage is low (««Å) Ê Willingness to use PBS overall ¯¶Å¬ Highest rates¼ • Among bicycle users¼ car drivers (¹±Å) and public transport users (¹¸Å) • Among nonusers¼ public transport users (¯¶Å) Ê Main reason to not use PBS¼ availability of own bicycle (±«Å–²«Å) Ê Uncertainty how to use the PBS
Source: Royal Haskoning DHV¬ ¸¶«²¬ Beijing Bicycle Strategy and Policy – The Way Back to World Bicycle Capital. Prepared for ADB¬
Several factors appear to contribute to the underperformance of the PBS to date¼±²
• Unclear role in the larger urban transportation system. • Connection with PBS systems in other parts of the city is not guaranteed. Separate PBS systems in various parts of the city with di´erent operators and without mutual interchange are in place. Most operators seem to not feel responsible for the maintenance and the promotion of the system. • Insucient financial investment. The operator is not ready for long-term investments. The city government does not provide adequate financial support to the PBS system. • Insucient connection with public transport. The PBS does not provide a faster, more convenient way to cover “the last mile” than walking does. • Unclear focus on target group. Although focus is said to be set on providing “the last mile,” potential users do not recognize it as such. Moreover, a PBS system has a much wider potential than only commuters for “the last mile.” • Threshold to participation. Due to the expense of a step-in deposit (relatively high compared to the public transport fare) and complicated application for a membership card, people are discouraged from trying to use the service.
±® GIZ¬ n¬d¬ ¸¶««¬ Op¬ cit¬ p¬ ¸²¬ ±² Royal Haskoning DHV¬ ¸¶«²¬ Beijing Bicycle Strategy and Policy – The Way Back to World Bicycle Capital. Prepared for ADB¬ Travel Demand Management Measures
Dedicated Bus Lanes on the Beijing–Tongzhou Expressway
Scope A lane reserved for buses during peak periods was introduced on ¸® May ¸¶«« on the Beijing–Tongzhou Expressway connecting Tongzhou in the east to central Beijing¬ The scheme was the first of its type in the PRC¬ The bus lane was placed adjacent to the median in the direction of traÁc¬ After adjustments made in the first ² months of operationª the morning inbound lane now extends over «« km and the evening outbound lane for °¬° km¬ The morning inbound lane to Beijing central area operates from ¹ a¬m¬ to µ a¬m¬ and the evening outbound lane from ² p¬m¬ to ° p¬m¬ (Figure «®)¬
Figure Conditions Before and After Opening the Bus Lanes
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Eects A variety of positive e´ects were observed following implementation¬ Bus operational speeds doubled to ²¸ kph¬ As implemented originallyª bus flows over the ¸-hour morning peak period increased by «¯Åª and by µÅ for the evening peak period by the third day of operation¬ Passenger flows in the morning peak period increased by «±Å and by °Å by the evening peak periodª as shown in Figure «²¬
Passenger crowding on the nearby Batong Metro Line decreased to some extent¬ Between ¸® May and ¸¹ Mayª the average daily passenger volumes on the Batong Line during peak hours reached «¶¶ª¶¶¶ª reduced by ²ª¶¶¶ every day on averageª compared to the same day of the week just before introduction of the special lanes on the Beijing–Tongzhou Expressway¬ The maximum morning peak hour crowding reduced from «±¶Å to «¸¶Å of passenger carrying capacity (Figure «¯)¬
TraÁc speeds on the nearby sections of trunk and secondary roads between the Third and outside of the Fifth Ring Road remained stable before and after the bus lanes were introduced on the Beijing–Tongzhou Expressway¬ Howeverª it is likely that the general traÁc experienced somewhat slower speeds on the expressway¬ But this e´ect would likely be low because bus flows of «¶¶ per hour per lane would tend to create their own de facto lanes even without the introduction of the reserved lanes¬ Howeverª the reserved Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Figure Peak Period Bus and Passenger Flows on Beijing–Tongzhou Expressway Before and After Bus Lanes
A. Peak Period Bus Flows B. Peak Period Bus Flows
Comparison of buses during peak hours Comparison of passenger flow of public transportation during before and after the opening of the special lane peak hours before and after the opening of the special lane
persons Morning peak hours Evening peak hours Morning peak hours Evening peak hours
Before opening The day before opening The first day after opening The opening day The second day after opening The second day after opening The third day after opening
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Figure Comparison of Changes in the Number of Passengers Using Batong Metro Line during Morning Peak Hours Before and After Opening the Special Lanes
Number of persons
– – –
Before opening
After opening
th day and th day th day and th day th day and th day
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Travel Demand Management Measures
lanes eliminated the use of the lane by cars that even in small quantities of ¸¶¶–±¶¶ vehicles per hourª slowed buses and increased the variability of their travel times¬ Speeds on trunk roads between the Third and Fourth Ring Roads increased¬ A survey of bus passengers conducted after the bus lanes were introduced showed that «²Å previously used the subwayª «¶Å previously used buses and metro before the opening of the special laneª ¯Å used small carsª and the balance were former bus users¬
Overallª travelersª decision makers and the community at large viewed very positively the creation of reservedª with-flow bus lanes during peak periods on the expressway¬ The opportunity exists to replicate this measure in other locations in Beijing and other cities in the PRC¬
Community Buses and Pocket Buses
Among the ¸° measuresª it was proposed to introduce shuttle buses connecting the main trunk bus lines and the metro stations to o´er e´ective last-mile connections to residential areas¬ Two types were planned¼ (i) commuter buses connecting residential areas and metro stations with express services and o´ering guaranteed seatsÇ and (ii) “pocket” buses connecting residential areas and major bus stations¬ On ¸° March ¸¶««ª the first «¸ commuter lines were launched¬ By the end of Decemberª ²¹ lines were operational that transported ±¯ª¶¶¶ passengers per day¬ In ¸¶««ª «² “pocket” bus lines were established and within a short timeª were carrying ±²ª¶¶¶ passengers per day¬
E. Summary of Implementation Eects
The overall e´ect of all these measures on traÁc congestion is shown in Figure °¬ Between ¸¶«¶ and ¸¶«±ª the combined e´ect of expansion of the metroª expansion of bus linesª building of roadsª introduction of the new vehicle quotaª vehicle use restrictionsª and other TDM measures was to maintain congestion (as measured by TPI) generally below ¯¬¶ª described as “mild jam” even with rapid growth in the vehicle fleet¬ TraÁc speeds increased by about «²Å in the morning and evening peak periods between ¸¶«¶ and ¸¶«± as shown in Table µ¬ Peak period bus speeds were fairly stable between ¸¶«« and ¸¶«±ª but by ¸¶«±ª tended to slow slightly as seen in Figure «µ at the majority of representative locations¬ These improvements were reflected in the ¸¶Å decline in the proportion of vehicle–kilometers of travel at peak periods classified as “severe congestion” in ¸¶««ª compared to ¸¶«¶ª as illustrated in Figure «°¬
The percentage of travel by public transportation increased from ®¶Å of all daily person trips in ¸¶«¶ to ®¯Å by ¸¶«±¬ Bicycle share decreased from «¯Å to «¸Å¬ The share of trips by car declined from ±®Å in ¸¶«¶ to ±±Å in ¸¶«±¬ Overallª the impact on traveler accessibility to jobsª educationª and other opportunities has likely not reducedª and may have improvedª given that the length of metro lines more than doubled between ¸¶«¶ and ¸¶«±¬
The impact on air pollution and GHG emissions is less clear since the vehicle fleet and total travel demand has grown since ¸¶«¶¬ Given the impacts on travel speedª and the e´ect of complementary programsª since ¸¶«®ª to scrap the most polluting vehiclesª likely old and fuel-ineÁcientª transport’s contribution to air pollution and GHG has been curbed to a certain degree¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Table Average Speed of Roads at All Levels within the Fifth Ring Road (Including the Fifth Ring Road) (kilometers per hour)
Period Road Type ± Expressway ±²¬« ±²¬¯ ±²¬² ±¯¬¹ Main road ¸¸¬¸ ¸±¬® ¸±¬± ¸¸¬µ Morning peak hours Secondary road ¸¶¬« ¸²¬¸ ¸®¬¸ ¸«¬² Road network ¸±¬µ ¸¯¬® ¸¯¬¶ ¸¹¬® Expressway ±¶¬¸ ±«¬¸ ±¶¬¯ ±«¬° Main road «µ¬¹ ¸«¬² ¸«¬® ¸¶¬¹ Evening peak hours Secondary road «°¬± ¸±¬± ¸¸¬¸ «µ¬® Road network ¸«¬¸ ¸®¬¶ ¸±¬² ¸®¬¸
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Figure Proportion of Road Network Congestion During Morning and Evening Rush Hours
Road Network Congestion Mile Proportion (Comparison between and Workday)
Congestion mile proportion () Morning rush hours Evening rush hours
Severe congestion Moderate congestion Slight congestion Basically smooth Smooth
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Travel Demand Management Measures
Figure Recent Trends in Bus Speeds
Speed (kph) Public transportation speed during morning peak hours
Xidan Third Ring Baiyi Road Zhichun Li Fushi Road Fourth Ring Second Ring College Road Ping’an Street Northern Axis Majiabao Road Chaowai Street Chang’an Street Liangguang Road Dayangfang Road Xizhimenwai Street Jingshan Front Street
Speed (kph) Public transportation speed during evening peak hours
Xidan Third Ring Baiyi Road Zhichun Li Fushi Road Fourth Ring Second Ring College Road Ping’an Street Northern Axis Majiabao Road Chaowai Street Chang’an Street Liangguang Road Dayangfang Road Xizhimenwai Street Jingshan Front Street
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ CHAPTER III Assessment of Travel Demand Management Scenarios for Beijing
o capture the potential demand response of a transport improvementª “variable demand” modeling Twas used as recommended by the UK Department for Transport±¯ for most situations¬ Variable demand modeling aims to employ techniques to simulate changes in¼ (i) car availabilityª (ii) travel routeª (iii) travel modeª (iv) travel locationª (v) time of travelª (vi) car occupancyª including changes between traveling as a car passenger and driverª (vii) trip frequencyª (viii) generated trips (i¬e¬ª the making of entirely new journeys due to improved accessibility)ª and (ix) land use as people choose to undertake their activities in di´erent locations¬ To simulate the impacts of travel demand management (TDM) is particularly complex and requires that virtually all the key behavioral aspects are addressed¬ Consequentlyª the Beijing Transport Demand Model was enhanced so it could adequately simulate items (i) to (vii)¬ The e´ects of land use changes did not have to be modeled because the TDM measures were assumed to be implemented in the very short termª where land use e´ects were not significant¬
The following TDM scenarios were assessedª with the first two types using the Beijing Transport Demand Model¼
• Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) improvement strategy; and • Road charging scenarios.
A. Bus Rapid Transit Network Plan Scenario Analysis
There are four existing BRT corridors in Beijing¬ In this sectionª two BRT scenarios are investigated¬
Bus Rapid Transit Scenarios Scenario ² One New Bus Rapid Transit Corridor
Scenario « shown in Figure «µ includes the four existing BRT corridors¬ In this scenarioª one more BRT corridorª the Liangguang Road BRTª is added to the network¬ This new ¸¹-km corridor starts at Fifth Ring Road and links to Gaobeidian Road between the eastern section of the Fourth Ring Road and the Fifth Ring Road¬ It has a relatively high possibility of being launched in the near future¬
Scenario ² ³ New Bus Rapid Transit Corridors
Scenario ¸ excludes the five BRT corridors covered by Scenario « and is shown in Scenario «¼ «¸ new BRT Corridors¬ Taken togetherª Scenarios « and ¸ cover virtually all the potential BRT corridors for Beijing¬
±¯ UK Department for Transport¬ ¸¶¶¯¬ An Introduction to Variable Demand Modelling. TAG Unit ... UK¬ ¸¶¶¯¬ Assessment of Travel Demand Management Scenarios for Beijing
Figure Scenario ² One New Bus Rapid Transit Corridor
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Figure Scenario ² New Bus Rapid Transit Corridors
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Assessment of Bus Rapid Transit Scenarios Transport modeling was carried out to test the possible e´ects of the two BRT network scenarios¬ All the BRT lanes in both scenarios were added to the current simulated road network¬ The e´ect of each BRT scenario on traÁc volumes is shown in Figure ¸« for Scenario « and Figure ¸¸ for Scenario ¸¬ The green color displayed on a road link means at least one vehicle was oÕoaded from the roads after the introduction of BRT¬ Trips by bus are encouraged while private car and taxi trips are minimized to some extent¬ Bicycle and other modes experience slight variations¬ The more comprehensive Scenario ¸ reduces traÁc on more road links¬ Implementation of all BRT corridors in both scenarios is expected to have more extensive impacts¬ Scenario ¸ shows an increase in public transport usage (BRTª MRTª and bus) of ¶¬«µÅ compared to the existing mode share of public transport¬ Compared to the ¸¶«¶ daily total trips of ®«¬¸ millionª ¶¬«µÅ represents ¹°ª¶¶¶ additional public transport trips per day instead of traveling via carsª taxisª and bicycles¬ Just under one-third of the total trips are drawn from carsª leading to a decline in private vehicle kilometers of travel (VKT) of ±Å within the Sixth Ring Roadª as shown in Figure ¸«¬
Figure Trac Volume Change with Scenario
Volume Prt [veh] – ¶« (AP) Í volume of private vehicles in Scenario «¬ Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Assessment of Travel Demand Management Scenarios for Beijing
Figure Trac Volume Change with Scenario
Volume Prt [veh] – ¶« (AP) Í volume of private vehicles for Scenario ¸¬ Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Table Model Test Result—Mode Share Changes within Sixth Ring Road
Mode Share within Sixth Ring Road Current Daily (É) Scenario (É) Scenario (É) Car ±±¬®¶ ±±¬«µ ±¸¬±® Taxi ¯¬®¶ ¯¬±µ ¯¬¶¸ Public transport ®±¬¸¶ ®±¬®± ®²¬±µ Bike «®¬¶¶ «±¬µµ «±¬µ® Others ±¬¶¶ ±¬¶¶ ¸¬µ¶
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Table Model Test Result² Vehicle Kilometers and Bus Rapid Transit Passenger Kilometers in Morning Peak
Morning Peak within Sixth Ring Road Scenario (É) Scenario (É) Private vehicle kilometer of travel –¶¬µ¯ –¸¬µ« Bus rapid transit passenger kilometer ®¬®« «µ¬¯¹
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
B. Charging for Road Use
The economic rationale for charging for the use of roads is no di´erent from the general rationale found elsewhere for setting prices appropriately so consumers will make sound decisions about what and how much they consume¬ Thereforeª charging for road use would be expected to result in more eÁcient road use¬ The revenues raised from road users can then be used to fund the ongoing provision of the transport network¬
Thereforeª the rationale for road pricing clearly includes two quite separate objectives¬ The main objective is to encourage consumers to make economically optimal transport decisions and the second objective is revenue generation¬ Road use charges may be a powerful revenue-raising deviceª henceª there is potential for road use charges to generate revenue to fund significant government expenditure in both the transport sector (e¬g¬ª new roads and road maintenance) and in other sectors¬ Howeverª if such expenditure is not economically justifiedª it follows that charges used to support that expenditure are excessive¬ The influence of particular levels of charge on driver behavior depends on how they perceive their travel costs¬ Transport planners and economists normally study motorists’ perceptions of the cost of their timeª and some or their entire car operating costsª such as the fuel cost and perhaps part of the maintenance cost¬ A road use charge applied across a cordonª or in any other wayª is intended to directly impact on the perceived costs of their travel¬
The starting points for developing suitable congestion charging scenarios are the objectives and constraints¬ Beijing su´ers substantial economic losses because of both congestion and air quality problemsª and reducing these would make suitable policy objectivesª even if targeting congestion may lead to a di´erent design than reducing air quality problems¬ In testing the congestion charging scenariosª the objective was set to reduce the overall working day congestion index within the Fifth Ring from ²¬² to ²ª a reduction of µÅ¬ Furthermoreª constraints were put on the maximum charge level of CNY®¶¬ In additionª the political opinion is that congestion charging cannot be introduced without removing the existing license plate ban policy so the congestion charging policy needs to generate similar e´ects as the existing license plate ban plus a reduction of the congestion index by µÅ¬
Given the political objectivesª it immediately becomes apparent that a policy is needed that a´ects the travel behavior of a large quantity of drivers in Beijing¬ Replacing the «-day-a-week license plate ban with a small cordon will never achieve the same e´ects as the license plate banª let alone achieve additional positive e´ects on congestion¬ The downside of a policy with wider coverage is that it comes with additional political risk and public opposition¬ Given this tension between policy objectives and political risks with larger congestion charging policiesª three di´erent types of congestion charging were tested¬
(i) Distance-based charge. Most likely will meet the policy objectives and constraints, but is not feasible to implement in the short term. A distance-based charge does not account for the spatial and temporal aspects of congestion but may be designed to reflect “a certain average level of congestion”; (ii) Area and cordon charging scenarios around ring road structures. These will provide socioeconomic benefits, but will not meet the É reduction in congestion index set as an objective and maximum charge of CNY . These systems can be implemented in the medium term; and (iii) Cordon-based charging scenarios around smaller specific zones in Beijing. These systems provide minimal socioeconomic benefits for Beijing, and do not reduce the congestion index by É, but these can be introduced in the short term and may be a stepping-stone for a larger introduction of congestion charging. Assessment of Travel Demand Management Scenarios for Beijing
The charging scenarios are applied to the Beijing ring roads¬ Figure ¸± shows the di´erent ring roads in Beijing¬
Figure Beijing Ring Roads
BBEIJINGEIJING RRINGING RROADSOADS Changping iinn thethe PEOPLE'SPEOPLE'S REPUBLICREPUBLIC OFOF CHINACHINA
Xiaotangshanzhen S321
S219 Gaoliyingzhen Shahezhen Shunyi S203 Shahe Reservoir G45
S324 Beiqijiazhen S28 Houshayuzhen Shangzhuangzhen Huilongguanzhen Chaobai River
Wenyu River Xibeiwangzhen Dongxiaokuozhen S332 G6 Wenquanzhen S210 S12 S32 Jinzhan Xiangshan Residential District Kunming Zhongguancun Wangjing Lake Xuxinzhuangzhen
Yengding River Dongbaxiang Haidian Mentougou Pingfangxiang
Shijingshan G102 Tongzhou Tonghui River Yongdingzhen BEIJING G1 G108 Wangsiyingxiang Tanzhesizhen Fengtai Shibalidianxiang Huaxiang Taihuzhen Daning S15 Reservoir S215 S328 Wangzuozhen S50 Yizhuangzhen Ciquzhen Xihongmenzhen Qinglonghuzhen G4 Liangshui River Luchengxiang G5 Yinghaizhen
FangShan S228 G107 Daxing G2
Guandaozhen S333 Beizangcunzhen N
0 1 5 10
Kilometers
City Center 2nd Ring Road 3rd Ring Road 4th Ring Road 5th Ring Road 6th Ring Road National Highway G This map was produced by the cartography unit of the Asian Development Bank. Provincial Road S The boundaries, colors, denominations, and any other information shown on this River map do not imply, on the part of the Asian Development Bank, any judgment on the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries, colors, denominations, or information.
16-3598A ABV Source: ADB¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Overview of Scenarios The objective of the scenario analyses is to find the best alternative within each of the three typologies¬ This is an iterative process in which scenarios are implemented in the transportation modelª the e´ects of the scenario are analyzedª and new adapted versions of the scenario are identifiedª implementedª and evaluated again¬ Howeverª as a starting pointª the first scenarios to evaluate were determined as presented in Table «¸¬ Within each typology of congestion charging policiesª the scenarios di´ered in geographic scope as well as charge levels¬ In totalª «° initial model runs were identified¬
Table Overview of First Set of Scenarios
Charge Level (CNY) Per Day for Per Passage Per Kilometer for Area Charging for Cordon Distance-Based Third Ring Road cordonª including Third Ring Road ¸¶ ®¶ Third Ring Road areaª including Third Ring Road ¸¶ ®¶ Third Ring Road areaª inside only (Ring Road free of charge) ¸¶ ®¶ Central business district ¸¶ ®¶ ¯¶ Financial street ¸¶ ®¶ ¯¶ Zhong Guan Cun ¸¶ ®¶ ¯¶ Central business district–Financial Street–Zhong Guan Cun together ®¶ Kilometer charge within Fifth Ring Road ¸ ®
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Because of resource constraintsª six di´erent scenarios were tested¼ one distance-based policyª three cordonË area charging policies around the Third Ring Roadª and two CBD cordon charging scenarios¬ The distance-based charging policy looked at a flat kilometer charge of CNY¸ on all roads within the Fifth Ring¬ For the charging policies surrounding the Third Ring Roadª two di´erent area charging alternatives were investigated where only the charge level was changed from CNY¸¶ to CNY®¶¬ In the third alternative for the Third Ring Roadª cording charging replaced area charging¬ Lastlyª two alternatives were tested for the CBD alternativeª one with a CNY¸¶ charge and the other with a CNY®¶ charge¬
High-Level Evaluation of Scenario Results To quickly compare the e´ects of di´erent policies on a high levelª three di´erent indicators were used¬ All three indicators are simplifications of more complex calculationsª but they provide a usable base for indicative appraisal of “good” and “bad” alternatives¬ Firstª a proxy for the societal benefits was used by calculating the changes in consumer surplus for car travelers only¬ The societal benefits should be one of the key drivers in decision making¬ Secondª the changes in the congestion index for the morning peak were calculated using a method based on the volume–capacity ratios from the transportation model¬ These changes in congestion index provide a direct link to the political objectives¬ The third indicator is the reduction in vehicle kilometers traveled which is a simplified indicator for environmental e´ects¬ Assessment of Travel Demand Management Scenarios for Beijing
The performance results for each of the scenarios for the three indicators are provided in Table «±¬ Clearlyª and as expectedª the kilometer charge provides the highest societal benefitsª reduces the congestion index the mostª and has the highest e´ect on vehicle kilometers traveled¬ The area charging around the Third Ring Road is secondª where either CNY¸¶ or CNY®¶ is better depending on how societal benefits are weighed compared to the other indicators¬ The lower societal benefits for the CNY®¶ alternative are mainly the result of further reduction of car trips¬ The societal costs for this is about three times higher than for the CNY¸¶ alternativeª while the benefits are only about ±¶Å higher¬ Charging around the CBD area does not a´ect the traÁc conditions or the environmentª but has a slightly negative social benefit¬
Based on these resultsª the detailed analyses of one alternative for each of the solution directions are as follows¼
• Distance-based charging of CNY/kilometer (km) within Fifth Ring Road. This was the only kilometer charge scenario available; • Area charging of CNY¶ within Third Ring Road. Even if the social benefits of the system are lower than the CNY alternative, these may be mitigated in future improvements to the scheme. The higher e´ect on the congestion index, which is the main political objective, was considered more important in this case; • CBD cordon charging CNY. Congestion charging in the smaller areas needs to be seen as a pilot to something bigger. Therefore, it is important that the benefits inside the zone are higher than the potential deterioration outside the zone. The current negative social benefits show that this is not the case. Therefore, the CNY scenario is chosen, because improvements to that scenario are most likely to result in societal benefits.
Distance-Based Charging In the distance-based charging alternativeª a flat kilometer charge of CNY¸ within the Fifth Ring Road was tested¬ Since the average trip distance is about «¸ kmª this charge level correspondsª on averageª to the CNY¸¶ charge levels used on other scenarios¬ A distance-based charging policy is attractive as it not only decreases the negative side e´ects of boundary problems that occur in area and cordon charging schemesª but it also charges more for longer distance trips than shorter trips¬ This type of charging policy is more in line with the economic theory on congestion charging¬
Trac Eects
Table «± presented that the kilometer charge provides the highest societal benefits of all the scenarios considered¬ The policy generates about CNY°¬°® million in revenues per morning peak period¬ The average paid charge is CNY«®¬ This seems low compared to the average trip distanceª but inside the Fifth Ring Roadª the trip distance for car users is only about ¹ km¬
The kilometer charge substantially reduces the congestion index¬ Table «® shows that the total reduction in congestion index is distributed somewhat unevenly among the di´erent ring roads¬ The largest reductions are further away from the central area¬ Using detours on these ring roads becomes more expensive¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Table Overview of Performance of Scenarios on Key Indicators
Societal Benefits Environmental Eects (Million CNY per Congestion Index (Reduced Vehicle Kilometers Scenario Description Morning Peak) (É) per Morning Peak) (É) Kilometer charge CNY¸ per km within Fifth Ring ²¬«² –«« –«¶ Area charging Third Ring Road CNY¸¶ ¸¬¸¹ –² –± Area charging Third Ring Road CNY®¶ «¬±¹ –µ –² Cordon charging Third Ring Road CNY¸¶ ¶¬°¸ –¸ –« CBD cordon charging CNY¸¶ –¶¬¸¸ ¶ ¶ CBD cordon charging CNY®¶ –¶¬±¹ ¶ –«
Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
The improvement in congestion index is the result Table Changes in Congestion Index of reductions in car demand¬ Overallª car demand Area Change (É) decreased with °Åª but inside the Fifth Ring Road (the Entire network –«² charging area)ª the demand drops about «²Å¬ This decrease in car demand also leads to changes in mode On Second Ring Road –µ shares¬ These are presented in Table «²¬ The changes in On Third Ring Road –¯ mode shares are somewhat unexpected¬ The decrease On Fourth Ring Road –«¯ in taxi shares is a direct result of the unintended charging On Fifth Ring Road –±¯
of taxis¬ This needs to be adjusted in future scenario Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ analyses¬ The second unexpected issue is the shift to coachª but since the absolute demand for coach is lowª higher relative changes can be expected¬ Table Changes in Mode Shares (Trips) The traÁc conditions change substantially as a result of the changes in demandª also obvious from improvements Mode Change (É) in the congestion index¬ In Figure ¸®ª green roads Car –² mean that flows decreased thereª while red roads mean Taxi –«± increases in flows¬ The thickness of the bars indicates Coach ¸« the size of the change in flow¬ The charging area for the Public transport ¸ kilometer charge is largeª but still there are some route Bicycle ± adaptations around Beijing to avoid paying¬ Within the Fifth Ring Roadª only reductions in flows can be detected¬ Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
The changes in flows will have consequences on the speeds in the network as wellª and Figure ¸² shows the relative change in speeds compared to the reference in di´erent categories¬ Since the speeds in the reference situation are extremely lowª with many roads having volume–capacity ratios above « (traÁc volume assigned to a road is higher than the capacity of that road)ª the relative speeds increases can be high even if conditions are still congested in absolute terms¬ As a consequenceª substantial speed increases are to be expected inside the Fifth Ring Road¬ The increases in flows resulting from rerouting do seem to result in speed decreases in the North–East and West of Beijingª and these need to be investigated¬ Assessment of Travel Demand Management Scenarios for Beijing
Figure Changes in Flows Using Distance-Based Charging Scenario
Volume Prt [veh] – ¶¸ (AP) Í volume of private vehicles for distance-based charging scenario¬ Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Figure Relative Changes in Network Speeds Using Distance-Based Charging Scenario
Volume Prt [veh] – ¶¸ (AP) Í volume of private vehicles for distance-based charging scenario¬ Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Area Charging around the Third Ring Road In the area charging scenarioª car drivers pay when entering the area within and including the Third Ring Road¬ Even travelers who travel inside the area are chargedª in contrast to cordon charging where only those who travel over the charging boundary are charged¬ For the area charging scenarioª a charge level of CNY®¶ per day is used¬ Even if the societal benefits were lower compared to the CNY¸¶ scenarioª the e´ects on the congestion index were higher¬ When this scenario is further developed in more detailª the aim should then be to increase the system’s societal benefits¬
Trac Eects Table Changes in Car Demand Levels The overall reduction in the congestion index for the area for the Area Charging Scenario charging scenario is about µÅª which is suÁcient to reach Area Change (É) policy objectives if the license plate ban remains in place¬ Second Ring Road –²° The total revenues generated by the scenario are about CNY¹¬¹¹ million per morning peak¬ The reductions Third Ring Road –²« in car demand are substantial within the entire Fifth Fourth Ring Road –±° Ringª with its highest reductions within the Second Ring Fifth Ring Road –¸® Road¬ Table «¯ shows the changes in car demand levels Total –µ
(number of travelers) for the area within each ring road Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ as well as the total network¬
These numbers seem unexpectedly highª so the model Table Changes in Mode Shares for the scenario may need to be checked again (codingª for the Area Charging Scenario charge correctly converted to timeª right value of time Mode Change (É) [VoT]ª etc)¬ The results are also high in the CNY¸¶ Car –¹ alternativeª soª potentiallyª the short-distance trips in these areas are a´ected significantly by the charges¬ Taxi –«° Howeverª Table «¹ does not show significant reductions Coach ¸« in car shares¬ Public transport ² Bicycle ¸ If the changes in mode shares are investigated in more Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ detailª then the car shares are reduced by half (Table «°)¬ The question remains if these changes in mode shares are realistic¬ They could beª but the size is reason to investigate the model further¬
Table Changes in Car Shares for Trips between Dierent Areas (Å)
Inside Inside Inside Inside Second Ring Road Third Ring Road Fourth Ring Road Fifth Ring Road Inside Second Ring Road –²® –®² –®¹ –®® Inside Third Ring Road –®® –®¹ –®° –®¯ Inside Fourth Ring Road –±± –±µ –« ¯ Inside Fifth Ring Road –±« –±° ¯ ¸
Sources: Beijing Transportation Research CenterÇ ADB consultants¬ Assessment of Travel Demand Management Scenarios for Beijing
The reductions in car demandª resulting in improvements in the congestion indexÇ as shown on the road network in Figures ¸¯ and ¸¹ª flows clearly decrease within the charging zone (green) and increase on the outer ring roads¬ The speeds on these outer ring roads do not seem to decrease muchª howeverª single bottleneck points can be identified and mitigated¬
Figure Changes in Flows Using Area Charging Scenario
Volume Prt [veh] – ¶¸ (AP) Í volume of private vehicles for area charging scenario¬ Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬
Figure Changes in Speeds Using Area Charging Scenario
kmËh Í kilometer per hourª vCur-PrtSys – ¶¸ (Car) Í car speed for area charging scenario¬ Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Cordon Charging in Central Business District Area Charging in the CBD area (Figure ¸°) may make a substantial di´erence to local traÁcª but it will not benefit Beijing’s population in general¬ In the CBD area two new metro lines will be opened (lines ¹ and «®)ª and together with the existing metro linesª the CBD will have above average public transport availability¬ Apart from thisª the area has focused on promoting walkability and cycling¬ Parking is also being addressed within the CBD area¬ Congestion charging could contribute to turning this area into a sustainable transportation zone for Beijing¬
Figure Cordon Charging Central Business District Area
BBEIJINGEIJING CCENTRALENTRAL BBUSINESSUSINESS DDISTRICTISTRICT iinn tthehe Dongzhimen Outer St PPEOPLE'SEOPLE'S RREPUBLICEPUBLIC OOFF CCHINAHINA
Xindong Rd
Chaoyang Park S Rd Workers’ Stadium E Rd
E 2nd Ring Rd E 3rd Ring Rd Ring 3rd E
E 4th Ring Rd Jintai Rd Jintai
CORDON CHARGING CBD AREA Chaoyang N Rd DongDaqiao Rd DongDaqiao
G102
Chaoyang Rd W Dawang Rd CORDON CHARGING CBD AREA
G103 Jianguo Rd
Tonghuihe N Rd CORDON CHARGING CBD AREA CORDON CHARGING CBD
E 2nd Ring Rd
CORDONGuangqu CHARGING Rd CBD AREA
N
Nanmofang Rd 0 100 500 1000 This map was produced by the cartography unit of the Asian Development Bank. The boundaries, colors, denominations, and any other information shown on this map do not imply, on the part of the Asian Development Bank, any judgment on meters the legal status of any territory, or any endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries, colors, denominations, or information.
16- 3598B ABV Source: ADB¬ Assessment of Travel Demand Management Scenarios for Beijing
Table «± already showed that the overall societal benefits are nonexistent or even slightly negativeª and the scenario generates about CNY¶¬±« million per morning peak¬ It is good to note that the current model does not incorporate the new metro lines yet¬ A larger share of the riders will already be using public transportationª but even shifting to public transportation will be easier than is currently modeled¬
Trac Eects
In the previous scenariosª changes in demand levels and mode choice were presentedª but for the CBD scenarioª these are all zeroª as is the change in the congestion index¬ This implies that the CBD system has no impact on the Beijing transportation system overall¬ But locallyª there are both positive and negative e´ects¬
Figure ¸µ shows the changes in flows on the network for the CBD scenario¬ Inside the CBD area are clear reductions in flows (green)ª while on the boundaries are clear increases in flows (red and purple)¬ Rerouting around the small zone may cause deteriorating traÁc conditions just outside the zoneª which o´set the potential benefits¬ Thusª the exact boundary of a CBD zone needs to be studied in more detailª and mitigating measures should be found that can reduce these negative e´ects¬
Figure Changes in Flows for Cordon Pricing in the Central Business District Area
Volume Prt [PCU] – ¶¸ (AP) Í volume of vehicles in passenger car unit for cordon pricing scenario¬ Source: Beijing Transportation Research Center¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
The modeling results show the congestion charging scenario that produces the highest benefits to society is the distance-based charge imposed on the Fifth Ring Road¬ Howeverª the number of scenarios is mainly limited by available modeling resources within the study periodª and many other alternatives and adaptations to existing alternatives should be investigated¬ All of the tested scenarios are first-test scenarios which likely can be improved upon¬
Transition Implementation Strategy
The objectives of the congestion charging policy are ambitiousª and a´ect manyª if not all travelers¬ This congestion charging policy requires political supportª partly because of the high political risks and the lack of congestion charging examples in the PRC¬ To overcome the political barriers to introducing congestion chargingª a transition strategy should be considered whereª firstª a pilot policy is implemented in small areasª followed by an area charging policy ± to ² years laterª leading to a distance-based policy in «¶ years¬ The charging infrastructure for the area charging scheme can be partially reused for enforcement¬ CHAPTER IV Future Policy Challenges and Improvement Directions for Travel Demand Management
eijing is a modernª sophisticated metropolis that is often a role model for what other cities in the PRC Bmay adopt¬ Since ¸¶¶±ª the Beijing Municipal Government has increasingly comprehensively addressed the growth in travel demand and associated motorization in Beijing¬ Initiallyª the main concern was traÁc congestionª but today vehicle-related air pollution is an equally prominent issue¬ Rising GHG emissions from transport are also a concern¬
Howeverª though car ownership is still below ¶¬² cars per household todayª congestion and associated emissions are high despite recent relief provided by TDM measures introduced since ¸¶¶°¬ Despite annual caps on the number of vehicles introduced in ¸¶««ª the car fleet continues to grow at just below ²Å per annum¬
Beijing’s policy makers understand the concept of building more roads is not a solution to congestion as evidenced by the recent focus on TDM measures¬ While roads and streets are essential to supporting development and road-based public transport useª building major road infrastructure that facilitates traÁc access to already-congested major activity centers is likely to be counter-productiveª and will lead to losses of community welfare¬
A. Challenges
Three key policy challenges can be determined from Beijing’s extensive experience with the expansion of multimodal transport infrastructureª introduction of TDMª and changes in the organizational arrangements for urban transport¼
Travel demand continues to grow rapidly as does motorization Current TDM measures appear to be fairly e´ective as these tackle both the ownership and use of vehiclesª but much more remains to be done¬ Recent improvements to parking pricing changes are just the beginning of a needed major system-change in the parking system that has been acknowledged by the BMG¬ While the car ownership quota on the surface is quite equitableª the «-day-a-week vehicle use restriction based on the number plate’s final digitª is likely to be circumvented by wealthy people who own more than one car¬±¹ The current restrictions are based on time periods and geographic areas and not where congestion may actually or will occur in the future¬
±¹ It is likely that some wealthy people may have circumvented the quota prior to its introduction by buying cars in advance¬ Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
Continued improvements to public transport alone are insucient in addressing Beijing’s transport challenges The quadrupling of subway length and bus services since ¸¶¶± has been extremely beneficial in providing an alternative to private vehicle use and acts as a relief valve to congestion¬ Neverthelessª while combined subway and bus usage has increased by more than ²¶Åª much of this growth was apparently diverted from bicycle use¬ With the introduction of the vehicle quota and the «-day-a-week driving restriction and other measuresª car use has apparently peaked and slightly declined as a proportion of daily trip making that is growing¬
Eective management of the direction pace and density of urban development is critical While population and household income growth have been key drivers of travel demandª the demand for a´ordable housing and modern commercial oÁces has driven much new development to the edge of the expanding urban area¬ The building of new large roads on the fringes of the urban area too far in advance of urban development may contribute to urban sprawl¬ The current institutional responsibilities for urban developmentª transport infrastructure provisionª TDM and provision of public transport have improved in recent years at city level but there is room for further coordination improvements¬
B. Directions for Improvement
The current study has identified several directions for improving Beijing’s approach to TDM¼
A multipronged suite of measures continues to be necessary Beijing has already demonstrated a comprehensive approach to addressing congestionª accessibilityª road safetyª and emissions is essential to merely keep pace with growing demand¬ This has involved provision of public transport infrastructure and servicesª enhancement of conditions for walking and cyclingª restrictions on car ownership and useª and pricing measures for parking and public transport¬ Greater research and careful planning of measures is needed to ensure the most beneficial are implemented¬ In the pastª not all TDM measures were subject to detailed study prior to being proposed¬
Congestion charging oers the opportunity to manage demand and associated congestion and emissions where and when they occur and to selectively address particular travel segments (e¬g¬ª vehicleª tripª and traveler types)¬ Various forms of congestion charging appear to o´er significant traÁc congestion reliefª and reduction in emissionsª and do so in an equitable and transparent manner¬ In contrast to other types of transport improvementª charging of road use tends to minimize the potential to create new demand as a result of reduced traÁc congestion¬ With the ability to optimize tolls over timeª by vehicle typeª and by geographic areaª far greater selectivity in managing demand would be possible¬ Congestion charging appears to o´er the following advantages compared to the current «-day-a-week usage restriction measure or the situation that may exist without the current usage restriction¼
• Discourages low-value (i.e., of low importance to the person making the trip) road use, particularly at peak times when usage charges would (arguably) be at their highest. • Reduces peak period vehicle travel, and, hence, peak period congestion, congestion delays, and travel time uncertainties. Future Policy Challenges and Improvement Directions for Travel Demand Management
• Reduces the need for additional expenditure to cater to peak period demand (as a result of reduced peak period travel). • Increases the cost of peak period travel (but with potentially o´setting reductions in other costs). • Encourages increased o´-peak travel, as some users change trip times to avoid peak period use charges. • Encourages increased vehicle occupancy rates and public transport use, as a means of avoiding and/or minimizing the e´ects of any peak period road use charge. • Has some impact on property values, with a distance-based charge favoring properties closer to the central area, and a cordon charge probably favoring properties within that cordon. • Results in a reduced need for additional road expenditure and reduced costs to road consumers overall, than would otherwise be the case.
Have a clear objective for congestion charging The objectives for congestion charging can vary considerably and the choice of objective(s) will influence the form of the congestion scheme adopted¬ For exampleª a focus on optimizing congestion across the urban area would likely feature eÁciency and equity more than congestion reduction or reduction of air pollution in a major activity center¬ A dual focus on environment and revenue raising may lead to a di´erent form of congestion scheme and associated measures with targeted use of revenues for public transport and other urban realm improvements¬
A comprehensive approach to congestion charging is essential To create suÁcient benefit so travelers on all modesª as well as Beijing’s citizens in generalª can perceive the beneficial impactª a comprehensive congestion charging policy is required to cover the majority or all roads within Beijing¬ While a limited form of congestion charging could be implemented initially in a small part of Beijingª this needs to be seen as a transition to a larger schemeª that ultimately could be a distance-based charge (where the distance-based charge could vary to reflect congestion at di´erent periods of the day)¬
Retention of the vehicle ownership quota and progressive reforms of parking and other TDM measures would be essential even if a form of congestion charging is pursued Experience shows that the demand for car ownership and use of cars is extremely high¬ Congestion charging alone cannot reasonably curb this demand¬ Significant “quick wins” are available to enhance the TDM apart from the planned rail MRT¼
• Develop new extensive bus lanes and BRT corridors; • Strategically extend an improved public bike sharing scheme primarily within the Fifth Ring Road, and enhance opportunities for use of individually owned bicycles to access rapid transit stations (bus and rail) and bus stops; • Improve the eÁciency of traÁc management, including urban expressways based on how these actually operate; • Enhance sidewalks and pedestrian facilities throughout the city, in particular, connecting to rapid transit stations and bus stops or linking activity areas to residential areas; and • Continue to rationalize the pricing and management of parking cars throughout the city.
Other matters worthy of consideration should congestion charging be pursued are¼
• Revisions to current road use charges. The current system of road use charges does little to moderate use of vehicles during congested times and at congested locations; registration charges are a fixed charge that does not vary with distance (or time of travel) and encourages extensive vehicle use once these charges Travel Demand Management Options in Beijing
are paid. Fuel excise charges do not vary by time of travel. A suitable congestion charging scheme could allow some existing charges to be reduced (e.g., motor vehicle registration and driver license fees) so these charges may recover their ongoing administration costs. Such an approach may be useful in convincing car and fleet owners of the merits of congestion charging. • Sophisticated travel demand forecasting tools. Development of an explicit congestion charging scheme requires careful preparation, sound feasibility assessments, and a robust transport modeling capability sensitive to the critical policy issues. The Government of the People’s Republic of China (PRC), with GIZ and ADB support, already uses a very advanced and sophisticated transport model, but further refinements are possible, for example, to include time period modeling. The London congestion charging scheme shows the impact a charge can have: far-reaching short- and medium- to long-term e´ects. The short-term e´ects include changes in travel patterns manifested in traÁc diversion (time, location, and route), modal switching, and so on. In the medium to long term, changes in land use e´ects, including impacts on the property market and business could all be significant. The impact of charges can have quite di´erent e´ects on cars, trucks, and other vehicle users (and revenue expectations). • Monitoring impacts of a road use charging scheme. If it is decided to proceed with an explicit road use charging scheme, a suitable monitoring program is needed to respond to all stakeholders’ concerns, to measure actual outcomes, and to identify needed management interventions. Even with the most sophisticated forecasting and planning tools, it is important to monitor the actual impacts on traÁc, public transport, business, and other stakeholders. Many of these impacts will be quite subtle and may only be discernible in the medium to longer term. Monitoring of the e´ects of any major transport change requires the establishment of a suitable base line and a monitoring program, and defined survey methods that can be implemented at an appropriate time. Adequate budgets are also needed. • Impact of congestion charging on BMG and related organizational arrangements. If it is decided to proceed with an explicit congestion charging scheme, an important consideration is to define what the scheme entails, including the various functional requirements of planning, design, operations, monitoring, and enforcement. The impact of these functions on BMG and other relevant agencies should be defined in staÁng, skills, budget, and necessary practical enforcement powers. If it is decided to proceed with a charging scheme, a review of all relevant legislation is needed to ensure that BMG has the power to set and apply charges, enforce the scheme, and implement any other relevant actions needed to support the scheme’s implementation and operation. • Optimal level of congestion charge. A technical review would be desirable to establish the optimal charge and structure of charges. An optimal charge implies maximizing benefits to the community. The setting of higher charges, even if practically possible, would reduce community benefits compared to the optimum, and may lead to reverse e´ects, which may not be immediately apparent. • Review of implementation and recurrent costs, and continued review of advances in technology. Detailed estimates of implementation costs need to be made based on promising feasible options. Recurrent operation and maintenance cost estimates need to be made, as well as demand and associated revenue forecasts. Technological advances should continue to be monitored, but it is clear from the work undertaken for this study, that a range of technology providers would be able to implement even the most advanced charging scheme using proven technology and components. References
Australian Bureau of Statistics¬ Survey of Motor Vehicle Use in Australia¬ http¼ËËwww¬abs¬gov¬auËausstatsË abs@¬nsfËmf˵¸¶°¬¶ (accessed «¸ February ¸¶«²)¬
Beijing Municipal Bureau of Environmental Protection¬ ¸¶«¸¬ Annual Report.
———¬ ¸¶«®¬ http¼ËËwww¬zhb¬gov¬cnËzhxxËhjyw˸¶«®¶®Ët¸¶«®¶®«¯Ï¸¹¶²µ¸¬htm
Beijing Transportation Development and Research Center¬ ¸¶«®¬ Beijing Trac Development Annual Report. Beijing¬
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Creutzigª F¬ and D¬ He¬ ¸¶¶°¬ Climate change mitigation and co-benefits of feasible transport demand policies in Beijing¬ Transport. Res. Part D. ¸¶¶°¬ doi¼ «¶¬«¶«¯Ëj¬trd¬¸¶¶°¬««¬¶¶¹
GIZ¬ n¬d¬ Work in Progress¬
GTZ¬ ¸¶¶¹¬ Sustainable Transport: A Sourcebook for Policy-makers in Developing Cities¬
Hong Kongª China Government Data¬ ¸¶«±¬ http¼ËËwww¬censtatd¬gov¬hkËhkstatËsubËsp«²¶¬jsp?tableI DͶ¶²&IDͶ&productTypeÍ°Ç http¼ËËwww¬td¬gov¬hkËfilemanagerËenËcontentÏ®®®«Ëtable««¬pdf (accessed ¸² February ¸¶«²)¬
Huoª H¬ et al¬ ¸¶«¸¬ Vehicle-use Intensity in China¼ Current Status and Future Trend¬ Energy Policy ®±¬ pp¬ ¯–«¯¬
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Institute for Transportation and Development Policy¬ ¸¶«²¬ Parking Guidebook for Beijing. Prepared for ADB¬
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Maoª L¬ª H¬ Zhuª and L¬ Duan¬ ¸¶«¸¬ The Social Cost of Trac Congestion and Countermeasures in Beijing Sustainable Transportation Systems. pp¬ ¯°–¹¯¬ doi¼ «¶¬«¶¯«Ëµ¹°¶¹°®®«¸¸µµ¬¶¶«¶
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PTV Group¬ ¸¶«®¬ Updating and Enhancement of the Beijing VISUM Transport Model—Model Calibration and Model Validation Report. January¬
Royal Haskoning DHV¬ ¸¶«²¬ Beijing Bicycle Strategy and Policy – The Way Back to World Bicycle Capital. Prepared for ADB¬
Schipperª L¬ J¬ et al¬ «µµµ¬ Carbon-Dioxide Emissions from Transport in IEA Countries: Recent Lessons and Long-Term Challenges.
Singapore Government Data¬ ¸¶«®¬ http¼ËËwww¬singstat¬gov¬sgËstatistics
State Council OÁce¬ ¸¶«¸¬ Directive ¯® [¸¶«¸]¼ State Council Directives on Prioritization of Urban Public Transport Development¬ ¸µ December¬
Thomsonª J¬ M¬ «µ¹®¬ Modern Transport Economics.
UK Department for Transport¬ ¸¶¶¯¬ An Introduction to Variable Demand Modelling. TAG Unit ...
Zhaoª X¬ et al¬ ¸¶«®¬ Calibrating and Modeling Expressway with Di´erent Ramp Distances on Beijing ±rd Ring Road¬ Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences. «±°¬ pp¬ ±¹–®®¬ TravelTravel Demand Demand Management Management Options Options in in Beijing Beijing
RapidRapid urbanization urbanization and and motorization motorization combined combined with with high high population population density density have have led led to to serious serious congestion congestion andand air air quality quality problems problems in inthe the People’s People’s Republic Republic of of China China capital capital of of Beijing. Beijing. While While Beijing Beijing accounts accounts for for less less thanthan 2% 2% of of the the population, population, more more than than 10% 10% of of the the country’s country’s vehicles vehicles ply ply the the city’s city’s roads. roads. This This study study is ispart part of of thethe Asian Asian Development Development Bank’s Bank’s initiative initiative to to support support greener greener and and more more sustainable sustainable transport transport systems systems that that are are convenientconvenient and and lessen lessen carbon carbon dioxide dioxide emissions. emissions. Read Read how how congestion congestion charging, charging, vehicle vehicle ownership ownership quotas, quotas, andand progressive progressive parking parking reforms reforms can can improve improve Beijing’s Beijing’s approach approach to to travel travel demand demand management. management.
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