Commentary Visions of

Harold Glasser, PhD

Introduction tions about: the state of the planet; the mer- its and drawbacks of continued economic Humans are amidst a transition from the and human population growth; biodiver- relatively stable Holocene to a new, uncer- sity protection; the promise of technology; tain epoch, the , in which social goals; ethics; risk; uncertainty; and planetary-scale changes are resulting from the collective abilities of humans to dream, the wholesale conversion of the Earth into acquire, and process knowledge, make wise fleeting economic wealth. Humankind has judgments, collaborate, manage, plan, gov- The meteoric growth, only approached this scale of change two ern, and change. There’s an inherent para- careless usage, times in human history—during the Ag- dox, too. A word that on first blush refers ricultural Revolution and the Industrial to maintaining some system property or and potential for Revolution. These two revolutions trans- properties in a constant state rests on stav- manipulation by special formed the way humans lived and gave ing off some forms of change while encour- interests has led some to them the power to alter the Earth. Unlike aging others. As such, sustainability calls the Agricultural and Industrial Revolu- for a deep, public conversation about the argue that sustainability tions, however, the story of this third revo- conditions for human flourishing. has become a lution is not fully written. The conclusion will depend on the decisions and actions The terms sustain and sustenance share the meaningless that humans alive today make throughout same Latin root, sustinere (held up from buzzword, or even their lives. below). This suggests an implicit caution: If “sustainababble.” humans don’t honor their profound depen- Sustainability discussions represent a pro- dence on nature and each other by learn- active effort to influence the writing of this ing how to correct erroneous or outmoded conclusion. At its core, sustainability is perceptions, harmonize diverse interests, about improving the human condition— identify critical conflicts, and adjudicate now and into the future—while adapt- competing claims peacefully, the founda- ing human activity to fit what nature can tion for human flourishing just might col- provide. On the surface, sustainability is lapse. an easy concept to grasp, but like peace, human rights, equality, and democracy, it A Google search reveals hundreds of mil- is challenging to describe precisely, espe- lions of hits for the terms sustainability, cially in a manner that inspires consensus. sustainable society, and sustainable devel- This is, in part, because sustainability, as an opment. The meteoric growth, careless evolving set of aspirations and processes for usage, and potential for manipulation by achieving them, is an inescapably norma- special interests has led some to argue that tive term that cuts across many disciplines. sustainability has become a meaningless It involves values and subjective percep- buzzword, or even “sustainababble.” Oth- ers argue that this growth is indicative Executive Director, Campus Sustainability; Professor, Environmental and , Western of a term with cachet, substance, and the Michigan University, Kalamazoo, Michigan. capacity to be adapted to new understand-

56 Sustainability MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • Vol. 9 No. 2 • April 2016 • DOI: 10.1089/sus.2016.29044.hg ing. Returning to the roots of sustainability yields (p. 19).2 Plato (427-347 BCE), in Cri- and exploring its usage over time will un- tias, discussed the ills of deforestation and mask a term with meaning and profound its effect on erosion, biological diversity, significance for humankind. and local climate change (pp. 271-275).3

Origins Over 2,000 years later, in the 18th century, German Inspector General of Mines Hans Sustainability as a concept has its genesis Carl von Carlowitz coined the term Nach- in trepidation and hope. Trepidation stems haltigkeit (sustainability) when he decried from an ancient concern that in pursuing the wasteful, short-termed exploitation of the good life, humans may have, mostly forests for silver mining and smelting and unwittingly but sometimes not, over- argued for a more circumspect approach to Sustainability as a stepped boundaries and set in motion se- forestry, one which called for logging only concept has its rious and potentially irreversible harms. as much wood as could grow back in the Hope emerges from a conviction that im- same period. These concerns were echoed genesis in trepidation proving the human condition is realizable more broadly and loudly by 19th century and hope. in this world. For some people, sustainabil- intellectual reformers such as John Stuart ity suggests empathy, restraint, and reflec- Mill, Thomas Malthus, and Harriet Mar- tion properly posed as questions: What is tineau, who explicitly connected concern the place of humans on this Earth? What for the future to the welfare of humanity, are their responsibilities and obligations the conservation of nature, and the Earth toward other humans—past, present, fu- itself.4 ture—and nonhumans alike? As will be shown, exploring these questions and relat- The first formal effort to assess global hu- ing them to the many, evolving interpreta- man carrying capacity—or answer the tions of sustainability can help humankind question, How many people can the Earth make sense of the past, claim the present, support?—was produced in 1679 by An- and plan for the future. toni van Leeuwenhoek, the Dutch inventor of the microscope (p. 16).5 Since van Leeu- For thousands of years, people have been wenhoek’s estimate of 13.4 billion people, both fascinated and tormented by ques- there have been more than 65 estimates. tions concerning the conditions necessary These range from 0.5 billion to 1,000 bil- for human flourishing, for their future, lion. If medians are calculated using the and for their role in shaping it. Concern upper and lower bounds (when authors about breaching ecological carrying capac- offered ranges), the median of the low es- ity limits and other conditions for human timates is 7.7 billion and the median of the flourishing has been around for at least 25 high estimates is 12 billion (pp. 212-216).5 centuries and shared across cultures. Em- Interestingly, the scatter among these esti- peror Ashoka (304-232 BCE) unified most mates increases over time, suggesting that of the Indian subcontinent through brutal different assumptions and values govern conflict and subsequently became one of the authors’ calculations. The question, the most exemplary rulers in history. His How many people can the Earth support? most lasting influence, the rock and pil- cannot be answered with ecological car- lar Edicts of Ashoka, which are scattered rying capacity data alone. It can only be around what is now India, Nepal, Pakistan, addressed meaningfully by outlining what and Afghanistan, outlines reforms and pol- kind of world people want and the con- icies for a just and humane society, wildlife ditions necessary to support its ongoing conservation, respect for all life, and vege- flourishing. tarianism.1 The Chinese philosopher Men- cius (372-289 BCE) discussed the impor- The contemporary notion of sustainability, tance of adhering to particular harvesting at least in the , has its roots practices, rates, and times to maintain high in two books from 1948: Fairfield Osborn’s

MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • Vol. 9 No. 2 • April 2016 • DOI: 10.1089/sus.2016.29044.hg Sustainability 57 Commentary

Our Plundered Planet and William Vogt’s million copies, the book drew substantial Road to Survival. Osborn and Vogt both criticism from growth-oriented techno- wrote impassioned pleas for not exploiting logical optimists and was dismissed by the planet’s resources faster than they can many as a doomsday prophecy. TheLim - be regenerated. Presaging the now popular its to Growth, however, can also be seen as analysis, which reveals a catalyst for the term sustainable society, that humankind has surpassed the planet’s which was introduced shortly after in Rob- biocapacity and is now living on borrowed ert Stivers’ The Sustainable Society: Eth- ecological capital, Vogt argued, “By exces- ics and Economic Growth11 and in Dennis sive breeding and abuse of the land man- Pirages’ edited collection, The Sustainable kind has backed itself into an ecological Society: Implications for Limited Growth.12 trap. By a lopsided use of applied science Both books expanded on the theme of it has been living on promissory notes. planetary limits to economic growth and Now, all over the world, the notes are fall- explored the forms of social design and The landmark 1972 ing due” (p. 284).6 Osborn asked, “Do we institutional change that are necessary to United Nations (UN) need another catastrophic warning from sustain meaningful improvements in qual- nature to stir us into further action, or can ity of life. Conference on the we not now accept the many evidences of Human Environment in approaching crisis and take steps to ward it Evolving Visions off?” (p. 199).7 Stockholm resulted in a The landmark 1972 United Nations (UN) declaration that likely These books were followed by the pioneer- Conference on the Human Environment represents the first ing international symposium, Man’s Role in Stockholm resulted in a declaration in Changing the Face of the Earth, which that likely represents the first comprehen-

comprehensive state- explored the ecological and social conse- sive statement on sustainability—without ment on sustainability— quences of human activities throughout actually using the term. It focused on the history.8 Shortly after, Rachel Carson, in foundational role of environmental quality without actually using her book Silent Spring (1962), used the un- in achieving a good life. Beginning with a the term. intended side effects of reckless application broad conceptualization of the environ- of DDT in agriculture to raise the threat ment and peoples’ relationship to it, the of unexamined materialism, scientism, declaration states “[m]an is both creature and control of nature.9 In the process, she and moulder of his environment, which helped launch the environmental move- gives him physical sustenance and affords ment. him the opportunity for intellectual, moral, social, and spiritual growth.” The declara- This idea of global overshoot was first ex- tion goes on to discuss the importance of plored analytically in 1972 with The Limits “collaborating” with nature when working to Growth: A Report for the Club of Rome’s to promote equity, advance economic and Project on The Predicament of Mankind. social development, and improve qual- The authors created a computer simulation ity of life for present and future genera- model, World3, to explore how world pop- tions.13 The World Conservation Strategy, ulation, industrial output, pollution, food commissioned by the UN Environment production, and nonrenewable resource Programme, followed in 1980 and gave depletion interact over time to generate currency to the term sustainable develop- collapse or equilibrium states under vari- ment by stressing the interdependence of ous initial conditions. The few equilibrium conservation and development. Emphasiz- scenarios required stabilizing population, ing the primacy of Earth’s living support reducing pollution and resource consump- systems for human survival and flourish- tion, restoring farmland, and flattening ing, it identified priority conservation industrial production.10 Despite being issues and strategies for achieving these published in 30 languages and selling 30 aims.14

58 Sustainability MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • Vol. 9 No. 2 • April 2016 • DOI: 10.1089/sus.2016.29044.hg The first significant shift in emphasis, from mental goals. Using her characterization, a limits to growth as the foundation for hu- sustainable society: man flourishing to unlimited economic would be interested in qualitative growth, emerged with the World Com- development, not physical expan- mission on Environment and Develop- sion. It would use material growth as ment, which was tasked by the UN to iden- a considered tool, not as a perpetual tify long-term environmental strategies mandate. It would be neither for nor for achieving by against growth, rather it would be- 2000. The commission’s 1987 report,Our gin to discriminate kinds of growth Common Future, the source of the iconic and purposes for growth. Before this definition of sustainable development, society would decide on a specific asserted: growth proposal, it would ask what Humanity has the ability to make devel- the growth is for, and who would The concept of benefit, and what it would cost, and opment sustainable—to ensure that it sustainable meets the needs of the present without how long it would last, and whether it compromising the ability of future gen- could be accommodated by the sourc- development does 17 erations to meet their own needs. The es and sinks of the planet (p. 10). imply limits—not concept of sustainable development Recently, there have been efforts to recover absolute limits but does imply limits—not absolute limits this rich, multiple criteria, and constraint- but limitations imposed by the pres- based vision of sustainability, which limitations imposed by ent state of technology and social or- grounds improving the human condition the present state of ganization on environmental resources (development) in the well-being of Earth’s and by the ability of the to living support systems. Rockström et al.18 technology and social absorb the effects of human activities. have worked to characterize nine planetary organization on But technology and social organization boundaries, which they assert constitute can be both managed and improved to environmental a safe operating space for humanity. Ra- make way for a new era of economic 19 resources and by the growth (p. 8).15 worth has built on this work to create a complementary set of 11 social boundar- ability of the biosphere Our Common Future engendered a return ies, which together form a “safe and just to the Enlightenment notion of progress, space for humanity.” The Norwegian phi- to absorb the effects which conflates social and moral develop- losopher Arne Naess, much like Emperor of human activities. ment with continued economic growth. Ashoka, went even further by arguing that The primacy of the Earth’s living support human decision making in the case of non- systems was replaced with soft limits and vital needs should also reflect respect for technological substitution. In a related nonhuman life for its own sake.20 vein, John Elkington put forward the three pillars of the Triple Bottom Line— While this collective set of sustainability economic prosperity, environmental qual- visions generally covers the gamut, it is ity, and social justice—in an effort to em- only a sampling of the diversity of sustain- bed sustainability considerations into busi- ability definitions that have appeared in the ness.16 While admirable, this effort falls literature. This diversity has helped to stim- into the same quandary as the Our Com- ulate a creative tension that, over time, has mon Future definition by failing to estab- tended to broaden and deepen the discus- lish clear priorities or guidelines for mak- sion and elucidate a few core goals and val- ing decisions when conflicts and trade-offs ues.21 It has also generated a host of actions among the three pillars exist. to model these visions. As Paul Hawken notes in Blessed Unrest, it’s impossible to Donella Meadows, a coauthor of Limits to do justice to the great, quiescent under- Growth, made significant headway toward ground movement of citizens who work setting forth a sound, hierarchical relation- daily to speak for the planet, other spe- ship among economic, social, and environ- cies, and our collective interdependence.22

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Three inspired examples follow. Second dation for human flourishing: 1.) increase Nature’s Climate Commitment is a move- human productive capacities; 2.) decrease ment by presidents to infuse sustainability human numbers, expectations, or both; across the curriculum while making their and 3.) redefine the art and practice of giv- campuses climate neutral and building ing and receiving sustenance (i.e., embrace community resilience. The Living Build- planetary and social boundaries; improve ing Challenge is a certification program for manners; enhance equity; respect nonhu- buildings that must, among other things, man life for its own sake; reduce corrup- be built on previously developed sites, cap- tion; upgrade institutions and public poli- ture or recycle all of their water on site, cies; incorporate full, life-cycle accounting; The behaviors that produce more energy than they use rely- follow ecological design principles; etc.). ing on solar income, incorporate biophilia, Disagreement in sustainability visions lies have been selected, use materials that are safe for all species in what combination of the three alterna- through biological and over time, and celebrate design that creates tives is favored and the practical strategies cultural evolution, have transformative change. Mannahatta 2409 is for advancing change. a bold project and map-based web applica- been for a world of tion that has been created to model, devel- An additional challenge complicates mat- relative stability, small op, and share designs for climate resilient ters further. The failure to secure broad- rewilding and restoration of the island of scale, collective action on sustainabil- human numbers, and Manhattan (NY), which has the biological ity may have more to do with the human tremendous resource diversity and resilience that Henry Hudson brain’s difficulty in keeping pace with a abundance. encountered in 1609. rapidly changing environment than a sim- ple lack of information, understanding, A Framework for Exploring concern, or consensus. The behaviors that

Sustainability have been selected, through biological and cultural evolution, have been for a world In searching for the good life, however, it of relative stability, small human numbers, appears that Homo sapiens have yet to fully and tremendous resource abundance. Se- take advantage of the warnings about plan- lection for a favorable biological or cultural etary boundaries suggested long ago and adaptation is most successful when the the promise of global action for sustain- past, present, and near future are relatively ability as outlined in of the 1992 stable because the consequences of the ad- Rio Earth Summit23 and reaffirmed in the aptation are readily apparent and because subsequent “The Future We Want” Resolu- they confer a clear advantage on the trait tion of the Rio + 20 .24 Exam- holders, which is maintained over time. ples of transgressing limits—such as coral As an example, when early human ances- bleaching, climate change, loss of cultural tors began eating meat, they likely made and biological diversity, fisheries collapse, it possible to evolve larger brains, because growing disparities between rich and poor, growing brain tissue is metabolically very and political insecurity—abound today (p. expensive. If the past, present, and near fu- 2).25 While the Millennium Development ture are in great flux, there is no clear basis Goals have led to significant quality of life for demonstrating the relative benefit of a gains for some, spotty progress on address- potential adaptations’ consequences. ing hunger, the number of people living in slums, maternal mortality, gender equality, Today, the environment that helped shape and access to safe water and sanitation in human behavior through biological and rural areas highlight the challenge of im- cultural evolution is itself changing rap- proving quality of life for all.26 idly and the specter of global unsustain- ability looms large. Science and technol- When push comes to shove, there are only ogy now provide data and models to help three general ways to secure a firm foun- piece together many of the coupled effects

60 Sustainability MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • Vol. 9 No. 2 • April 2016 • DOI: 10.1089/sus.2016.29044.hg of production and consumption (giv- 2. For whom and with what rules of distri- ing and receiving sustenance) before they bution—some select group of humans, all happen.27,28 Technology also provides the humans, nonhumans to the extent that communications infrastructure to share they are instrumentally useful to us, non- these insights widely, but the full force of humans for their own sake, all life? this knowledge is only leveraging modest change. This may be because many of the 3. With what forms of decision making, gov- consequences of present human actions are ernance, and metrics for measuring prog- separated, in space and time, from those ress—ad hoc, adaptive, or anticipatory generating them—or not experienced vis- planning; crisis management; representa- cerally by them. This undermines the po- tive democracy; socialism; participatory tential of these very real consequences to democracy; authoritarian dictatorship; ex- The absence of pert-based, professional politicians; Gross directly influence the behavior of those significant forward causing them.29 For example, those reaping Domestic Product; Genuine Progress Indi- the benefits of inefficient fossil fuel burn- cator; ecological footprint; Human Devel- movement toward opment Index, Happy Planet Index; etc.? ing in the United States don’t directly feel broad sustainability the impacts of rising seas on Pacific Island 4. For how long—until the next annual re- objectives may have communities or the effects on future gen- port, for the next several years, for a gener- erations. Furthermore, when consequenc- ation, for future generations, for thousands arisen, in part, because es are readily detectable, the relationship of years, until the sun runs out of hydrogen confusing, contrasting, between cause and effect is frequently fuel (≈5 billion years)? muddled. Even when causes are relatively and potentially clear, those in power frequently perceive Table 1 represents an attempt to portray the conflicting goals and other potential outcomes as more salient, status quo plus two broad-brush visions of perspectives are not making it worth the effort for them to sustainability—nominal sustainability and change. For example, addressing unjust robust sustainability—in terms of seven deeply embedded and environmentally unsound production underlying perspectives on: nature and the in them. processes in China would likely result in environment; economic growth; popula- higher prices for consumer goods. tion growth; technology; social goals and ethics; decision making and governance, The absence of significant forward move- planning horizon, and metrics for measur- ment toward broad sustainability objec- ing progress; and behavior change. tives may have arisen, in part, because confusing, contrasting, and potentially Conclusion conflicting goals and perspectives are deeply embedded in them. When trying The future is contingent. The value of dis- to make sense of this situation and the di- cussing sustainability and exploring differ- verse characterizations of sustainability, it ent visions lies in refocusing attention on is helpful to ask four questions: improving the human condition and the requirements for achieving it on this plan- 1. What are we trying to sustain—envi- et. Characterizing sustainability visions in ronmental degradation, lifestyles of the terms of seven key underlying perspec- wealthy, political stability, humans as a tives can illuminate critical assumptions, species, modern civilization, human rights subtle trade-offs, and conflicts. Other fac- and dignity, social equity, resilience, eco- tors, such as the state of the planet knowl- nomic growth, population growth, tech- edge, views on human nature, and human nological progress, biological diversity, capacity for change, risk tolerance, and is- cultural diversity, nonrenewable resources, sues of the day also influence preferences the ecosystem services on which human for different visions. As an example, today’s survival depends, happiness, the capacity growing appreciation of planetary and so- to learn and continuously improve quality cial constraints is helping to differentiate of life for all? the visions.18,19

MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • Vol. 9 No. 2 • April 2016 • DOI: 10.1089/sus.2016.29044.hg Sustainability 61 Commentary

Table 1. Visions of Sustainability in Terms of Seven Underlying Perspectives

Status Quo Nominal Sustainability Robust Sustainability

Nature and the Humans are apart from and above nature Humans are apart from and above nature. Humans coevolved with, are a part of, and Environment (anthropocentrism). The environment is a The environment, however, is not a have innate affinity for nature (biophilia). limitless raw-material source and waste limitless raw-material source and waste Human flourishing rests on drawing sink for humans to exploit as they see fit. sink—some, albeit ill-defined, carrying sustenance from a finite planet with capacity limits exist. Nature also biospherical boundaries. Maintaining the contributes critical instrumental values that conditions to support rich and flourishing go beyond providing raw materials and a biological diversity, which has value in waste sink (i.e., aesthetic, spiritual, and itself, is a human responsibility. other ecosystem support services).

Economic Growth No inherent limits to continued economic Economic growth is complimentary to Wealth ≠ Happiness. Economic growth can growth exist. There are, however, environmental protection and improving run counter to ecological well-being and externalities—changes in human welfare the human condition (quality of life). It is social progress. Viable economic growth resulting from the unintended side effects also required to achieve them. Full-cost generates qualitative development and of production and consumption that are accounting to internalize externalities can results from functioning safely within not directly captured by the market. enhance opportunites to sustain economic , satisfying social Quality of life is generally equated with growth. goals and ethical concerns, and restoring standard of living; high consumption the environment, especially over the near- implies high quality of life. term.

Population Growth Population growth is not viewed as a Population growth must be slowed to Population growth must be slowed and significant concern. More minds to solve match the pace of humans' capacity to reversed so that ecological demands are problems and continue to advance compensate for adverse social and well within what nature can provide safely technology and economic growth are seen environmental side effects. Technological and so that the requirement to improve the as benefits that outpace any negative advances have the potential to extend human conditon can be met with available effects associated with additional bodies. carrying capacity, but can be outpaced by organizational and institutional capacities rapid population growth or excessive per and resources. capita consumption.

No fundamental limits to human ingenuity Technological progress supports efficient Some technologies are inherently anti-

Technology and technological progress exist. Economic production and consumption and the ecological and socially iniquitious. growth rests on unbridled technological substitution of many ecosystem support Substitution for ecosystem services is progress, which creates advances that services, which nature currently provides limited and often very expensive. The continually reduce the materials and for free. This substitution, however, is not Precautionary Principle should be applied energy requirements per unit of costless. Technological advances, to technological choice, and production consumption and thereby improve quality especially when unquestioned, can also processes should be modeled on natural of life. generate unintended, negative side effects systems (biomimicry). with significant environmental and social costs. Social Goals and Poverty reduction is a stated priority that is Improving quality of life is a stated priority. Improving quality of life for all by Ethics left to the market or private institutions. The capacity to broadly improve quality of maintaining rich, cultural diversity, Poverty can only be overcome by sustained life rests on sustained economic growth. resolving conflicts nonviolently, and economic growth ("rising tide lifts all Modest use of government policy is favored enhancing security are stated priorities. boats"). Great caution should be employed to redirect markets and behavior to reduce Markets and policy are used agressively to when considering the use of government povery and foster green production and address social goals. Excessive policy to redirect markets to address social consumption, address human rights, and consumption by the wealthy must be goals. enhance equality. reduced; consumption by the poorest must be expanded to meet basic needs.

Decision Making and Ad hoc decision making by experts and Adaptive decision making by a Anticipatory decision making fosters Governance || professional politicians. Minimal combination of experts, professional decentralized, participatory democracy. government intervention. || politicians, and collaborative stakeholder Government brokers sustainability. || Planning Horizon || Planning horizon generally only reflects the processes. The need for modest government Planning reflects a multiple century time- Metric(s) for Measuring next 1 to 5 years. || intervention is recognized. || scale and explicitly addresses the needs of Progress Gross Domestic Progress (GDP) Planning horizon includes expressed future generations. || concern for future generations. || Environmental, social, and economic Modified GDP to reflect externalities, such indicators are used to regularly measure as the Genuine Progress Indicator. progress and make mid-course corrections.

Behavior Change Markets are fully adequate to induce any Not everything that matters can or should Transformative changes to system structures necessary behavior change. People are be incorporated into market-based (markets, political and social organizations, utility maximizers with all pertinent decisions. Information is also not always and institutions) are necessary to induce information. adequate or accessible. All necessary unprecedented behavior changes. Science, behavior change, however, can be policy, ethics, markets, finance, and social achieved with existing system learning should be fully exploited to structures—markets, political and social leverage requisite system structure changes. organizations, and institutions.

62 Sustainability MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • Vol. 9 No. 2 • April 2016 • DOI: 10.1089/sus.2016.29044.hg Nominal sustainability, despite its wide ap- and identification with all life, and muster peal, may ultimately be like walking toward groundbreaking global collaboration. All a northbound destination on a southbound of these requirements rest on bringing into train. One starts walking in the right direc- play our species-scale capacities for learn- tion, but multiple frames of reference ex- ing and innovation and deploying them ist and some matter more than others. As for the common good. While the stakes the train moves on, the desired destination are much higher today than thousands of grows further out of reach. Underlying years ago, generating the actions today to perspectives may be mixed and matched justify optimism for tomorrow is still likely to some extent, but, like a house of cards, the most vital challenge before humanity. they are also interconnected in subtle ways. In the final analysis, nominal sustainability References In the end, robust likely represents a failure to fully and ac- sustainability is curately assess the scope of the problems at 1. Nikam NA, and McKeon R (eds.). The hand and match them to appropriate, high- Edicts of Ashoka. University of Chicago premised on the leverage solution strategies. Press, Chicago, 1966. belief that 2. Hughes JD. Mencius’ prescriptions for The expanding efforts to model robust sus- ancient Chinese environmental problems. opportunities to tainability serve as inspiring and, at times, Environ Rev 1989;13:15-27. secure a firm ironic counterforces to the status quo and 3. Plato. Timaeus, Critias, Cleitophon, foundation for the widespread ignorance, denial, despair, Menexenus, Epistles. Bury RG (trans.). and maladaptive behaviors it engenders Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, human flourishing in the face of failure to secure a safe and 1929, 1989, pp. 255-307. can be enhanced as desirable operating space for humanity. 4. Lumley S, and Armstrong P. Some of well as squandered. While modest today, these efforts are a tes- the nineteenth century origins of the sus- tament to the idea that having a relatively tainability concept. Environ Dev Sustain high certainty that one is on a viable path 2004;6:367-378. toward sustainability matters much more 5. Cohen JE. How Many People Can the than thinking one is traveling in the cor- Earth Support? W.W. Norton, New York, rect general direction. 1995. 6. Vogt W. Road to Survival. William Sloane In the end, robust sustainability is premised Associates, New York, 1948. on the belief that opportunities to secure a 7. Osborn F. Our Plundered Planet. Little firm foundation for human flourishing can Brown, Boston, 1948. be enhanced as well as squandered. Getting 8. Thomas WJ (ed., with collaborations of on a path toward robust sustainability rests Sauer C, Bates M, and Mumford L). Man’s on a sober assessment of the state of the Role in Changing the Face of the Earth. 2 vols. planet, reflection on humankind’s high- University of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1956. est aspirations, and a conscious, vigilant 9. Carson R. Silent Spring. Houghton Mif- effort to transform knowledge and caring flin, Boston, 1962. into action on a global scale. Unlike the 10. Meadows D, Meadows DL, Randers J, Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions, et al. The Limits to Growth: A Report for the which were slow-paced, largely unplanned, Club of Rome’s Project on The Predicament and oriented toward shaping nature to of Mankind. New American Library, New fit human needs, a sustainability revolu- York, 1972. tion will need to re-shape human desires 11. Stivers RL. The Sustainable Society: Eth- to fit what the planet can afford and sup- ics and Economic Growth. Westminster port over time. It will need to happen on Press, Philadelphia, 1976. an extraordinarily short time scale, draw 12. Pirages DC (ed.). The Sustainable Soci- on the best anticipatory planning and sci- ety: Implications for Limited Growth. Prae- ence, demonstrate a renewed empathy for ger, New York, 1977.

MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • Vol. 9 No. 2 • April 2016 • DOI: 10.1089/sus.2016.29044.hg Sustainability 63 Commentary

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64 Sustainability MARY ANN LIEBERT, INC. • Vol. 9 No. 2 • April 2016 • DOI: 10.1089/sus.2016.29044.hg