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Home , Johannesburg

URBAN FUTURES CONFERENCE , South 10 – 14 July 2000

Focus of conference: Aspects of life Identifying key issues facing metropolitan structures in the new millennium

THE URBAN FUTURE: ENCLOSED NEIGHBOURHOODS?

By Karina Landman

CSIR Building and Construction Technology

Abstract:

In many neighbourhoods in , especially Johannesburg, residents have acted in an apparent attempt to prevent crime in their areas. In several instances this results in enclosed neighbourhoods with controlled access. These people firmly believe that life within an enclosed neighbourhood provides a solution to crime and an improved quality of life. Yet, conclusive evidence of its effectiveness is lacking. City planners are being confronted with requests for permission to enclose entire neighbourhoods. The question is however, what the implications of these types of developments are for future urban environments.

Karina Landman CSIR Building and Construction Technology Tel: +27 12 841 2084 Fax: +27 12 841 3400 B O U T E K Email: [email protected]

The Urban Future: enclosed neighbourhoods?

CSIR Building and Construction Technology has been conducting INTRODUCTION: THE research on crime prevention through environmental design for the past three WRITING ON THE WALL? years and is currently engaged in attempting to understand the effects and effectiveness of enclosed neighbourhoods in South Africa. This In many neighbourhoods in South paper will address the occurrence and African , especially in impact of enclosed neighbourhoods in Johannesburg, residents have acted in this country. It will focus on the heritage an apparent attempt to prevent crime in of the past, the fear of crime, and the their areas. In several instances this prevalence of neighbourhood resulted in enclosed neighbourhoods enclosures in South Africa at present, a with controlled access. These people possible future scenario and the believe that life within an enclosed implications of neighbourhood village or neighbourhood provides a enclosures on the urban future. solution to crime and an improved quality of life. But does it? Conclusive In South Africa, despite many attempts evidence of the effectiveness in South at reconstruction, cities still reflect the Africa is lacking. footprints of the past in their spatial and use patterns, which serve as constant Several municipalities and local reminders of a past of inequity and authorities across South Africa are segregation. Many questions remain receiving proposals and requests from unanswered, and almost unwillingly one groups of residents to close off their has to face the message expressed in neighbourhoods or local roads and to the growth of gated communities in this control access into these areas. Some country. The question is whether these groups even enclose roads without are signs of an inevitable urban future. formal permission. Despite all the Are they only a temporary reaction to requests, a limited number of Local crime and the fear of crime, or is the Authorities have any form of policy in writing on the wall? place to address this issue. Meanwhile, the phenomenon is escalating daily and there is a great need for a proper debate around this issue. THE PAST: MILESTONES

Internationally, especially in the United OF MISFORTUNE States, enclosed neighbourhoods and security villages have raised several questions. These questions address issues such as the legal implications of Town planning approaches and political enclosing public space, the values of ideologies can be very powerful. This properties within the enclosed , the has also been the case in South Africa. fragmentation of urban areas, the Not only have they shaped the privatisation of public functions such as country’s cities, but they also have a road maintenance and its implications major influence on the lifestyles and for taxes, the loss of social contact and urban use patterns of the residents of the effectiveness of territorial control to these cities, up to the present day. establish a sense of community. Another important issue relating to Modern town planning ideas were used neighbourhood enclosures is the very effectively to create the “ perception of safety versus actual city” in South Africa. Many of these reports of crime in these areas. ideas originated in and the USA. As a consequence of the massive

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The Urban Future: enclosed neighbourhoods?

changes that took place in England during the Industrial Revolution, the Garden City concept1 developed. This, Townships along with the neighbourhood unit2 model from the United States, had a CBD definite influence on planning and development in South Africa. Together Informal these concepts provided the paradigm settlements for South African cities, which aimed to achieve community convenience through the careful balancing of Figure 1: Typical development pattern of th internally exclusive community facilities; SA cities in the late 20 century. the separation of uses, particularly by green space; and low densities, with each dwelling unit surrounded by open Planning ideas and political ideologies, space, to ensure adequate light and air however, have not only shaped the (Dewar et al. 1990). country’s cities, but also had a major influence on the lifestyles and urban Protagonists of apartheid also saw in use patterns of the residents of these this paradigm an opportunity to cities. Even today, many South African implement their own ideology. With the cities are characterised by aim of separation and segregation, fragmentation and spatial dislocation, different neighbourhoods were separation and mono-functional zoning, allocated to and planned for different as well as low-density sprawl. The race groups. These manifested in the result is a city of inequity and in many form of separate (through buffer-strips cases an environment of fear. in the form of open space or rapid transport routes) and internalised neighbourhoods for different groups, ranging from well-developed suburbs THE PRESENT: FORTS OF around the CBD to poorly developed FEAR dormitory townships along the city periphery. Later many informal settlements also grew around the townships (see Figure 1). In the nineties there has been a move towards the post-apartheid city in South It is this city form that became known Africa. Current planning and as the “apartheid city” - a product of development policies reflect this separation policies and government attempt to change. Two of the main control that dominated the country for policy documents regarding planning almost forty years. and development, the Green Paper on

Development and Planning (1999) and the DFA (Development Facilitation Act

1 of 1999) both advocate an integrated The Garden City concept was formulated by Ebenezer Howard in England and described in and holistic approach to planning and his book, “Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Social development in South Africa. Reform” (1898). 2 The neighbourhood unit concept initially The aim of integration emerged in the USA in response to rapid urbanisation. It was based on the following principles: 1) separation of residential land-use; The DFA introduced a new paradigm 2) self-contained and “inwardly orientated” for planning and development by residential areas; 3) “buffer strips” around these providing the basis for a coherent areas; 4) limitations on the number of people framework for land development, living in each area; and 5) access to green space (Dewar et al. 1990). according to a set of binding principles. According to the DFA, the term

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The Urban Future: enclosed neighbourhoods?

“planning” is concerned with the The Green Paper endorses all the following objectives: principles formulated in the DFA and · Promoting equity attempts to provide ways in which these · Promoting efficiency principles can be implemented in · Protecting the public practice. · Ensuring the good use of scarce resources The Green Paper therefore endorses · Protecting the environment (1999: the whole approach set out in the DFA. 5). “The DFA sought to place a set of principles, central to the planning In the later part of the DFA the central system [which] apply to all land concerns of the principles are development and spatial planning in highlighted and the first concern refers South Africa. They are intended to bring to “a need to create new forms and radical changes to the characteristic structures for South African settlements form and structure of South African to improve their performance” settlements. They represent an outright (1999:11). One way to achieve this is rejection of the low density, sprawling, through “positively performing fragmented and largely mono-functional settlements”. One of the aspects of forms of development, which resulted positively performing settlements refers under apartheid in both urban and rural to “the central significance of areas. They call for more compact, integration” (1999:12). In this regard the integrated and mixed-use settlement DFA explains: “The term ‘integration’ is forms” (1999:36). one of considerable importance in the principles. It calls for a rejection of past practices of fragmentation and separation. The term evokes the Both the Green Paper on Planning and principle of reinforcement. All parts and Development and the DFA therefore elements of a settlement should call for a paradigm shift and advocate reinforce and complement each other. a more integrated approach to A number of forms of integration are planning and development in South inherent in the term: Africa. · Integration between rural, urban and primeval landscapes · Integration between elements of spatial structure However, reality reflects a different · Integration between land uses picture. Despite the aim of integration · Integration of new development with and equity, many of the patterns of the old past, such as separation and · Integration of different classes” fragmentation, are still present in South (1999:14). African cities.

Apart from the spatial patterns, the social dynamics and crime patterns

also play an important role in the The DFA strongly emphasises the need shaping of South African cities today. for integration and advocates equity, Despite a decrease in - or at least a efficiency and planning for the public stabilisation of - incidences of the most good. serious crimes (for example ) the rates remain unacceptably high (CIAC Crime Statistics: February 2000). Many communities have little faith in The Green Paper on Development and the police to protect them. Perceptions Planning is strongly based on the DFA, that the criminal justice system and the which serves as conceptual framework. police fail in their protective duty are

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The Urban Future: enclosed neighbourhoods?

resulting in an increased use of private Within this framework, the CSIR security by the wealthy, and the embarked on a project investigating the establishment of vigilante groups by the issue of enclosed neighbourhoods and poor (Napier et al. 1999). street closures.

The fear of crime becomes an everyday concern and statistics have shown that South Africans generally display high “Enclosed neighbourhoods refer to levels of fear of becoming victims neighbourhoods that have controlled (Napier et al. 1998). The reality is that access through gates or booms across crime affects people and their existing roads. Many are fenced or perceptions; it influences their use walled off as well, with a limited number patterns and lifestyles. Crime and the of controlled entrances/exits and fear of crime are powerful forces in the security guards at these points in some minds of many South Africans. cases. The roads within these neighbourhoods were previously, or still Reaction through urban fortification are public property and in many cases the local council is still responsible for Crime is changing the face of cities and public services to the community within. affecting functions and opportunities An enclosed neighbourhood usually within cities. High crime rates and the refers to an existing neighbourhood that fear of are leading has been closed off” (Landman to the fortification of many buildings and 2000b:3). parts of the cities. Urban families are trying to keep themselves safe by turning their houses into bastions. However, for many this does not afford sufficient protection. In their anxiety for safety, they do not only fortify their houses and other buildings, but entire complexes and neighbourhoods as well. The incidence of gated or walled communities has grown tremendously in the past five years in South Africa.

“Gated communities refer to any physical area that is fenced or walled- Figure 2: An enclosed neighbourhood in off from their surroundings, either Johannesburg protected by a security prohibiting or controlling access to guard controlling access into the area. Cars these areas by means of gates or are stopped and the details of persons in booms. In many cases the concept can the cars are requested and kept on record. refer to a residential area with restricted access so that normal public spaces The first phase of this CSIR study are privatised or use is restricted. They identified current trends and some of do not, however, refer only to the critical issues relating to residential areas, but may also include neighbourhood enclosures. As part of controlled-access villages for work this first phase, a questionnaire was (office blocks), commercial and/or sent to 100 Local Authorities in South recreational purposes. Gated Africa. Forty-three areas responded. communities can include both enclosed neighbourhoods and security villages” These questionnaires revealed that, (Landman 2000b:2). although enclosed neighbourhoods are predominantly encountered in

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The Urban Future: enclosed neighbourhoods?

and specifically in larger cities, smaller Urban fragmentation and separation towns are also increasingly receiving requests for street closure. Out of 20 Neighbourhood enclosures have the cities and towns that indicated that they potential to influence the urban form had received requests for road dramatically in the future. If one closures, 60% were towns with fewer considers the occurrence of gated than 500 000 inhabitants, such as communities in the Eastern Bethlehem and . One of Metropolitan Local Council of Greater the local council areas of the , the potential impact of Johannesburg has already had 220 neighbourhood enclosures is already applications for road closures and the becoming evident. The map (see Figure number of requests, is increasing daily. 3) indicates a number of enclosures Statistics obtained from MBS scattered over the area, especially in Consulting Engineers, Johannesburg, the northern area. If one then highlights show that not all the existing enclosures all the enclosed areas in black, the are legal and currently there are picture starts to raise concerns. An approximately 360 existing enclosures ensemble of separated, and in this specific area. fragmented cells (see Figure 4), are spread across the area (Landman Some of the critical issues identified in 2000b). This could have a negative the report emanating from the study affect on traffic patterns, choice of included the following: roads and pedestrian throughfare.

· An enhanced/decreased sense of Neighbourhood enclosures, therefore, community have the potential to influence the life- · Safety and security styles of urban residents - not only · Social exclusion those living inside the enclosure, but · Urban segregation and also those living in the surrounding fragmentation environment. At a forum for · Urban management neighbourhood enclosures in South Africa, a woman was complaining about · Financial implications how the enclosure of the neighbouring Legal issues (Landman 2000b). · area has influenced her lifestyle. Not

only can she no longer use her regular These issues address the potential road through the neighbourhood, but impact that neighbourhood enclosures she also has to pass through the can have on urban planning and access control point every time she management and highlight some wishes to collect her post (Landman concerns regarding this form of 2000b). development. Some of these are more concerned with the short-term impact, Neighbourhood enclosures, therefore, such as urban management issues do not have the potential to influence (access of service vehicles, response the urban future in terms of physical times of emergency vehicles, etc.), as patterns alone, but also through the well as the legal issues (procedures of impact that the patterns can have on applications, relevant legislation, etc.). the social dynamics in future cities. Others, however, are more likely to have their greatest impact over the long Social exclusion through physical term. These include aspects such as barriers social exclusion, and especially urban segregation and fragmentation. As this For many, gated communities provide paper is concerned with the urban an illusion of stability and control. It future, the author will focus only on the allows those who can afford it to opt out two last mentioned aspects. of shared public services and public

places. Many residents reflect the

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The Urban Future: enclosed neighbourhoods?

Figure 3: Map of the Eastern Metropolitan Local Council showing a number of enclosures scattered over the area. (Original map done by MBS Consulting Engineers, Johannesburg). mentality of taking care only of social and economic activities. Gates, themselves and their immediate walls and fences are, therefore, not neighbours. This reflects a stance of only physical barriers to keep out social exclusion (Landman 2000b). criminals. They have the potential to convey a strong message and a Gated communities can also create a powerful signal to “outsiders” (Landman barrier to interaction among people of 2000b). different races, cultures, and classes and may add to the difficulty of building And in this sense, they touch on the social networks, which form the basis of very issue of individual rights to public

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The Urban Future: enclosed neighbourhoods?

space and the fundamental principle of are left the victims of a system of democracy. Many residents feel very enclosed fortresses for the privileged. strongly about their human right to free and unhindered access to public This describes a possible worst-case spaces and the right to free movement. scenario of what a city such as However, with a growing number of Johannesburg could become in 20 physical barriers and controlled access years. Perhaps it is too exaggerated points, free movement and access to and hopefully it will never become public spaces could be challenged in a reality. However, the signs of significant way. segregation are there, a warning to all those concerned with the nature of the built environment and the social well- being of South Africa. THE FUTURE: SIGNPOSTS In fact, this prospect is not entirely far- OF SEGREGATION fetched. If one considers the example of Sao Paulo in Brazil, the signs may be more real than we would like to believe. The increase in violence, insecurity and It is the year 2020. Johannesburg has fear in Sao Paulo is changing the city’s become a city of urban forts. These landscape and the patterns of daily life, forts are scattered across the city, people’s movements and the use of creating an intricate maze of illegible – as crime and violence urban cells. Wealthy citizens live, work discourages people from using the and play in these bastions of brick and streets and public spaces. Streets and iron. Many of these fortified buildings or public spaces where children used to protected enclaves are connected by play, where neighbours used to enforced bridges across public congregate, and where it was common throughways. However, when the for people to stroll are now much less residents of these enclaves are forced used. Increasingly, higher-income to leave their safety zones, they do so groups are living, working, shopping within the safety of their cars, dreading and taking their leisure in what are every moment they are “out there”, essentially fortified enclaves. They are exposed to the mercy of the “criminals” no longer making use of streets or in the violent public realm. public spaces, which are left to the homeless and the street children These public areas are the war zones (Habitat: Global Report on Human of the city – a den of deadly forces that Settlements 1996:124). threaten the very existence of those seeking safety in their private Is this the future we envisaged for the fortresses. They are also the living new South Africa? Earlier it was pointed places of the urban poor who have to out that this country has the noble aim face the dangers of unprotected areas. of integration, a vision of a spatially These people are without any means or integrated city. However, enclosed choice. They are the street people of neighbourhoods could impair this and the “dead-spaces” – literally and put the country back into the trap of the figuratively. No longer are these public apartheid city and ideals of enclosed spaces used by and shared by all the neighbourhood cells. The example of urban residents as in times gone by. It Sao Paolo should therefore be a is only those who do not have a choice signpost for South Africa – a warning that are left to live their lives in these for future urban development. derelict and dangerous areas. The city has been taken over by the many private micro-governments and the poor, the homeless and the unfortunate

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The Urban Future: enclosed neighbourhoods?

policies, since many of these CONCLUSION: THE developments negate the very idea of integration. Gated communities URBAN FUTURE - therefore hold the potential to be a ENCLOSED major factor influencing both decision- NEIGHBOURHOODS making and policy formulation and implementation on national and local government levels. Enclosed neighbourhoods are not only the concern of those living inside or Gated communities, and especially directly outside these areas. They are enclosed neighbourhoods, have the also the concern of all those interested potential to privatise public space and and involved in planning and amenities, and reduce government considering the urban future in the 21 resources through demands for tax century. Enclosed neighbourhoods reductions for public functions have the potential to radically transform performed privately. This could in the the urban environment in this century. long run serve to benefit only the higher income areas and their residents, Economic and social segregation is not leaving the poor exposed to an new to this country. South Africa has a increased amount of undeveloped tradition of apartheid planning, where public open spaces. In this way gated neighbourhoods where designed to communities could have a very accommodate certain racial or socio- negative effect on the opportunities and economic groups. However, since the quality of life of the urban poor, who 1990s there has been a definite attempt already are at the mercy of the public to reconstruct the city and aim for more sector. In this sense, they have the integrated planning. But, what about the potential to threaten not only the aim of development and increased occurrence integration, but also the long-term goal of enclosed neighbourhoods? In of sustainability in the urban future. essence, gated communities and enclosed neighbourhoods have the There is an urgent need for an active potential to re-establish segregation debate on gated communities in South and in several respects go further than Africa. This country is unique and hosts other means of exclusion. They create a set of characteristics that is unlike boundaries and physical barriers to those elsewhere in the world. A access. They also privatise public contextual approach to gated space. Some neighbourhoods even go communities is needed, as well as a as far as to privatise civic clear understanding of local physical responsibilities like police protection and social dynamics. City planners and services such as road and other role-players will need to ask maintenance, park maintenance and themselves what they want to achieve recreation. in the future. They need to have a vision, to take a position and to act Inevitably, the question arises as to accordingly. Neighbourhood enclosures what the reasons are behind this. Is it are not likely to disappear overnight. At primarily to enforce segregation or to the same time, answers will not come privatise space, or is it just another easily. Ultimately, it is up to those attempt alongside so many others to try involved in the debate to ask the and address the current high crime rate questions, determine the answers and in the country? guide all other role-players.

Gated communities have the potential Crime rates are high in South Africa. to impair the implementation of the Nobody disputes this fact. But does this goals and vision of the major South justify any action, regardless of its African planning and development consequences? What about social and

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The Urban Future: enclosed neighbourhoods?

political democracy? Can crime just be Centre for Human walled away? Ultimately, what is our Settlements (Habitat) 1996 An urban future likely to be: militarised Urbanizing World: Global Report on public space, fortified enclaves, or Human Settlements. Oxford University integrated neighbourhoods? Press.

EFERENCES

Crime Information Analysis Centre (CIAC) Crime Statistics January 2000. http://www.saps.co.za/8_crimeinfo/bulle tin/2000(1).htm

Dewar, D., Watson, V., Bassios, A., and Dewar, N. 1990. The structure and form of metropolitan : its origins , influences and performance. Urban Problems Research Unit and Urban Foundation ().

Department of Land Affairs, 1999. Green Paper on Planning and Development. .

Landman, K 2000. An international review of gated communities. CSIR Publication, Pretoria.

Landman, K 2000b. An overview of enclosed neighbourhoods in South Africa. CSIR Publication, Pretoria.

Napier, M., et al. 1998. Environmental Design for Safer Cities in South Africa. CSIR Publication, Pretoria.

Napier, M., et al. 1999. The State of Human Settlement Report. CSIR Publication, Pretoria.

National Development and Planning Commission, 1999. Resource document and manual on Chapter 1: Principles of the Development Facilitation Act of 1995. Pretoria.

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