Floriculture and Landscaping

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A HANDBOOK ON FLORICULTURE AND LANDSCAPING

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A HANDBOOK ON

FLORICULTURE And Landscaping

K. Vasanthakumar Bulti Merga

Program of Horticulture School of Plant Sciences HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY 2017

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter CONTENTS Page Number Numbers 1 Introduction to the basic concepts of floriculture 1 2 World floriculture sector 6 3 Classification of floricultural and landscape plants 8 4 Propagation of ornamental plants 12 5 Facilities for commercial flower production 18 6 Cut flower production 18 7 Post-harvest handling of cut flowers 21 8 Cultivation of rose 25 9 Chrysanthemum 45 10 Carnation 48 11 Orchids 54 12 Some flowers exported from Ethiopia 56 [1] Gypsophila [2] Statice [3] Freesia 13 Other cut flowers 64 [1] Gerbera [2] Marigold 14 New generation cut flowers 68 15 Dry flower production – A profitable floriculture business 74 16 Bonsai 77 17 Foliage Plants 81 18 Landscaping 83 19 Turf production and uses 104 20 References 110

Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO BASIC CONCEPTS FLORICULTURE

Definitions of Terms

▪ Horticulture comes from two Latin words ▪ hortus (garden plant) and cultura (culture) ▪ classically defined as the culture or growing of garden plants But as a Science:- Horticulture is the science and art of cultivating, processing and marketing of: ✓ Vegetables (Olericulture), ✓ Fruits (Pomology), ✓ Ornamental plants (Floriculture), ✓ Trees and other woody perennials (Arboriculture), and ✓ Stimulants, Spices, Herbs and Medicinal plants

[1] DEFINITION OF FLORICULTURE [Wikipedia]

Floriculture or flower farming is a discipline of horticulture concerned with the cultivation of flowering and ornamental plants for gardens and for floristry, comprising the floral industry. Floriculture crops include bedding plants, house plants, flowering garden plants, pot- plants, cut cultivated greens, and cut flowers.

[2] DEFINITION OF FLORICULTURE [Larson, 1980]

Floriculture is a branch of horticulture that deals with the cultivation of flowering plants, decorative foliage plants, cacti, orchids, succulents, bonsai, ferns, plants grown in containers as well as landscape gardening. In many of the recent literature, Floriculture is referred as Ornamental Horticulture.

Ornamental plants are:

✓ either plants as such or their plant parts are: - decorative, - showy, attractive, and - used for both aesthetic and functional purposes. They can be: flowering or non-flowering with decorative nature.

Role of Ornamental Horticulture in Present-Day Life

▪ The role of ornamental plants in the evolution of human civilization ▪ Reaches far beyond food, fiber and medicine ▪ Floriculture enlightens us to communicate with others in peace, love ▪ Provide harmony and balance in our behavior ▪ Ornamental crop culture was earlier considered as an gardener’s activity

▪ Now, Floriculture has become an innovative business with viable export potential

The global ornamental crop industry includes:-

1. Florist’s trade: - cut flowers, cut foliage, potted plants, bouquets etc. 2. Production and sale of seeds, bulbs, corms, rhizomes, tubers, rooted cuttings 3. Ornamental plant rental service 4. Plant nursery business and production of tissue culture raised plants 5. Production of flowers for perfumes, essential oils etc. 6. Production of dried flowers and plant parts 7. Landscape and turf grass industry

1. New production centers

(a) Africa e.g. Kenya, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Uganda, Ethiopia etc. (b) Latin America e.g. Ecuador, Chile, Brazil etc. (c) Asia e.g. India, China, Thailand etc.

2. Traditional production centers

a. USA b. Japan c. The Netherlands d. Italy e. Colombia

Floriculture in Ethiopia

▪ Ornamental Horticulture started in Ethiopia recently ▪ Now-a-days it is increasing and is one of the top export commodity of the country

Opportunities for expansion of Floriculture in Ethiopia

✓ Suitable climate to produce various flower crops ✓ Ample resources such as land, cheap labour, abundant water etc. ✓ Proximity to Middle East and European markets ✓ Increasing domestic market for flowers ✓ Government policy and investment incentives

Importance of Floriculture in Ethiopia

▪ Earns foreign currency ▪ Product diversification ▪ Job opportunity for the people ▪ Encourages supportive industries ▪ Promote investment

Important flower crops grown and exported from Ethiopia

Roses Poinsettia

Geranium/Pelargonium Chrysanthemum Lilies Carnation Gypsophila Statice Hypericum Freesia

ETHIOPIA’s FLOWER EXPORTS

Ethiopian flower export earnings

2005 20 million US dollars 2007 100 million US dollars 2010 140 million US dollars 2011 160 million US dollars 2015 225 million US dollars

• Floriculture plays a major role in Ethiopia’s efforts to beat un-employment • Floriculture is so blooming that in near future, it could even overtake coffee, the main horticultural export commodity • Low air-freight cost from Addis Ababa and proximity to European, West Asian, Middle East markets are advantages • Carnation stands 4th in flowers exported from Ethiopia, next to Rose, Geranium, Poinsettia • >1400 ha under Green House cultivation of flowers and ornamentals in Ethiopia • Cool climatic conditions of Ethiopian high lands (with warm sunny days & cooler nights) is ideal for growing cut flowers even in out-door conditions • The quality of flowers produced in Ethiopia, being superior than from Kenya and other countries can compete to gain supremacy among flower exporters of Africa

Role of Flowers in Human Life

1. As nature’s gift

▪ Their fragrance and beauty brings joy and happiness

2. As a symbol of grace and elegance

▪ Most ladies adorn their hairstyle with flowers. ▪ Gentlemen put flowers in their pocket to be elegant. ▪ To live in a fashionable way ▪ Well-made garden reflects the wealth of the owner

3. As a symbol of beauty, love and peace also to convey feelings

For instance American Floriculture Society has a quote

“Say it always with flowers” To say: Thank you! I love you! Congratulations!

4. Flowers are important features or items in all religious and festive occasions

Usually offered by devotees:- In the Mosques, In the Churches Given as:- Birthday presents, Wedding gifts, Funeral occasions

5. Importance in perfume and pharmaceutical industries

Rosa damascena Jasminum grandiflorum Polyanthus tuberosa

Table 1: WORLD’S LEADING EXPORTS OF CUT FLOWERS/ POTTED PLANTS

No Top Ten Cut Flowers Top Ten Potted Plants 1 Rose Ficus 2 Dendranthema (Chrysanthemum) Dracaena 3 Tulip Kalanchoe 4 Lily Dendranthema 5 Carnation Begonia 6 Gerbera Hedera 7 Freesia Azalea 8 Cymbidium Saintpaulia 9 Alstroemeria Hydrangea 10 Gypsophila Spathiphyllum

ETHIOPIAN FLORICULTURE INDUSTRY AT A GLANCE

After the command economy regime in Ethiopia, the country entertained and introduced a mixed economy where private businesses flourished. Following the emergence and expansion of the private business, the dawn of horticulture farms also came to Ethiopia. Hence, privately owned horticulture farms started to emerge and most of the farms started producing flowers, vegetables, and fruits for local and international markets. Among this the floriculture industry, although only a decade old, has shown significant progress in generating high foreign income and creating huge employment opportunity.

The Ethiopian Horticulture Development Agency reported that the floriculture sector has generated 276 million USD last fiscal year (2015). Agency Public Relations Office Head

Mekonen Hailu said that the foreign currency secured from export of floriculture products has shown a 10.7 per cent increase compared to the performance of the previous year (2014). He said 49,000 tons of roses and 714.5 million flowers (different types of cut flowers) were exported in the given period.

He attributed the increase in foreign currency earnings to consistent government support to the floriculture sector, attractive incentives and increase in export volume. The country is becoming a preferred investment hub for horticulture to the conducive investment climate and government incentives, Mekonnen said.

Majority of the 130 companies investing in fields of horticulture/ floriculture in Ethiopia are owned by foreigners. Europe is the key destination for Ethiopia’s horticulture products, taking 80 percent share of the exports. Most of flowers grown in Ethiopia are exported to Europe. These are the Netherlands (nearly 90%), Germany, France, Switzerland, also Israel, India and Russia. But Ethiopia is currently looking for the opportunity to expand the variety of countries- importers, and has already made attempts to advance floriculture products on markets in Japan, North America and other African countries too. And though the flower industry is rather new, it is increasing with a pace up to 500% a year. By 2020 Ethiopia’s flower exports are expected to enrich the countries’ budget on USD 600 million. A lot of different flower species are cultivated, but roses, gypsophila, carnations, chrysanthemums, limonium and hypericum are produced in more amount. Nevertheless, rose is considered to be a flower “queen”, as around 75% of companies grow, export and make a fortune on it.

The optimum height for flower cultivation is from 1500 till 2300 meter above sea level. Luckily, Ethiopia has a wide range of height of the land, from 126 meters below sea level up to 4620 meter above sea level. A significant part of the territory of Ethiopia lies within this height range. Besides, the best temperature for flower growing is between 10 and 30 degrees Celsius. As far as the country also has many large areas with these climatic conditions, there is a huge potential for creating different companies and organizations, which would produce even more various sorts of cut flowers. The other advantages for developing the floriculture business on flower farms in Ethiopia are the fertile soils which are perfect for flower growing. In Ethiopia the cost spent on producing, transportation and work force are less than in many other African countries and, moreover, much less than in European countries, and simultaneously the quality of cut flowers is really high. This is one of the reasons why Ethiopian flower business is more attractive for foreign investors and, consequently, why floriculture in Ethiopia has attained a peak with such a fast tempo and high driving force.

CHAPTER 2: WORLD FLORICULTURE SECTOR

The ornamental plant sector is very diverse and includes the production of floral crops such as cut flowers and cut foliage, flower bulbs, potted flowering as well as foliage plants and bedding plants. Global floral production value is estimated at USD 55bn. Tree nursery—the production of trees, shrubs and other hardy plants—is worth another USD 35bn. But whereas cut flowers, cut foliage and flower bulbs are traded globally, mainly from south to north, more bulky live plants, such as potted plants and nursery products, are mainly traded regionally.

Equator countries gathering speed

Rabo bank’s 2016 World Floriculture Map, published in cooperation with Royal Flora Holland, highlights some key global trends in the very diverse floriculture sector. On the consumption side of the business, the rise of online floriculture sales is definitely one of these trends. Although the US floriculture market is showing signs of recovery, the total global floriculture market is still rather fickle. In Europe, the picture is very varied. The Russian market has been declining, resulting in decreasing and changing cut flower imports. The Netherlands is still a major junction in global cut flower trade, but the four cut flower exporters close to the equator— Colombia, Kenya, Ecuador and Ethiopia—are gathering speed. Colombia is also steaming ahead and has become a frontrunner in cut-flower sea freight. Looking at the future, predictability will become more difficult. Therefore, companies in the global floriculture market must be prepared for the unexpected.

Floriculture trade going online

Potted plants and nursery products are bought through a wider range of retail channels than cut flowers. However, there is one major trend impacting both categories: the rise of online sales. The market share of online sales of cut flowers in total cut flower sales ranges from 4% in Russia to 10% in the UK. Online potted indoor plant sales already account for 7% in Germany, 8% in Russia, France and the Netherlands and 12% in online retail forerunner the UK.

The rising four Equatorial Countries have surpassed the Netherlands (Dutch)

The Dutch share in global cut flower exports has continued to decline since we first published a World Flower Map in 2005. Currently, the Dutch share stands at 43% (see Figure 5). As the cut flower production area measures only 4380 ha (both covered and in the open field), the Netherlands is still a major junction in international floriculture trade. However, for the first time the four rising flower stars—Colombia, Kenya, Ecuador and Ethiopia—have passed the share of the Netherlands in 2015 and now account for 44% in global cut flower exports. Just two years ago, their share was 33% (in 2005 it was 25%). While roses are the main cut flower traded by these four countries, Colombia has a relatively diversified product range and is also the largest exporter of chrysanthemum and the second largest global exporter of carnations in the world.

Despite low production costs, a favourable climate, large farm size, increasing efficiency and quality, it is a challenge to grow cut flowers in these countries. There is (hardly) any domestic demand, producers have to deal with (a lack of) air freight and high transportation costs, volatile exchange rates, and challenging political and social circumstances.

Figure 1: World's largest cut flower exporting countries, 2005 versus 2015

Sources: UN-Comtrade, Royal FloraHolland, Rabobank, 2016

Colombia is the global leader in cut flower exports over sea freight where possible, exporting nations try to move away from expensive and relatively unsustainable air freight. Colombia is leading global sea freight in cut flowers. Part of Colombia’s market share gain in the global chrysanthemum market is related to the use of container shipping. In East-Africa, the infrastructure is not yet developed well enough to boost these countries’ cut flower transportation over sea.

Chapter 3: CLASSIFICATION OF FLORICULTURAL AND LANDSCAPE PLANTS

Introduction

The branch of biology that deals with identifying and naming organisms is Taxonomy. Plants are classified based on the similarities of their characters. Plant taxonomists compare flowering patterns, stem and leaf structures, life cycles, genetic similarities, and many other characteristics in deciding which plants are the most closely related. More than one classification system has been proposed for floricultural plants. Here we will use two of the most commonly used classifications.

Classification of flowering plants based on their growth / life cycle

1. Annuals

Flowering plants in this classification lives only in one growing season and completes its life cycle in that period. The duration of a cycle varies; it may be a few weeks to several months depending on the species. These flowering plants are useful in landscaping. Some popular annual flowering plants are: Zinnia (Zinnia elegans), Marigold (Tagetes spp.) etc.

2. Biennials

Plants under this class complete its life cycle in two growing seasons. The first season, it produces only vegetative growth, during the second season it produce flowers, fruits and ends its growth cycle in the second season. Examples: Sweet William, Hollyhock

3. Perennials

They are mostly woody species growing for several years through adverse weather conditions (winter, summer, and fall). They continue vegetative growth for long time, flower and fruit in a variable manner and live for a number of years. Examples: Magnolia grandiflora, Delonix regia

Classification of Ornamental Plants based on Applications / Uses

Flowering plants may be used in a variety of other ways, both indoors and outdoors. They are classified according to the following uses:

1. Cut Flower

Cut flowers refer to flowers starting to blossom or flower buds that are cut with stems, branches and leaves to be used for bouquets or decorations. Cut flowers are grouped into two categories (i) “fresh cut flowers” (ii) “non-fresh cut flowers” such as preserved flowers. Typical fresh cut flowers include roses, carnations, orchids, chrysanthemums, lilies, gerbera etc.

2. Potted plants

These plants are adapted to indoor conditions and for home and small gardens. They are grown in containers, usually slow growing, and mostly foliage plants, some flowering plants also used as potted plants. Examples are Sansevieria (Sansevieria spp.), Indian Rubber plant (Ficus elastica), Philodendron (Philodendron spp.).

3. Bedding plants

These are annual plants raised for planting outdoors in flower beds. It starts from sowing seeds indoors in the off-season and transplanted later in the growing season. Examples; includes Petunia (Petunia spp.), Snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), Pansy (Viola tricolor).

4. Hanging plants

These are hanging basket plants either annual or perennial, flowering or foliage rose in decorative containers and hung by elegant ropes from the ceiling in the patio, in the doorway area, or from decorative plant poles. Examples are Geranium (Pelargonium spp.), and Spider plant (Chlorophytum comosum).

5. Dried Flower

These are flowers which are used after being dried for different occasions. These flowers are dried using different preservatives. Ex: Statice, Gypsophila, Straw flower (Helichrysum)

6. Landscape plants

Crops which are grown in the garden for beauty and function

(a) Lawn: It is an area of grass grown as a green carpet. (b) Ground covers: refers to plants that are low growing and effectively cover the soil in place of lawn to cover unattractive sites. Ground covers can grow in any areas like shady areas and are used to fill bare spots.

Eg. Vinca minor, Vinca major, Carex spp., Sedum spp., Echeveria spp., and Dianthus spp.

An annual or perennial herb or a shrub with a special structure- to climb over a support

i. Scindapsus aureus (Money plant) ii. Monstera deliciosa (Swiss cheese plant) iii. Philodendron scandens iv. Hedera helix (English Ivy)

(d) Shrubs

Shrubs are plants with woody stem. , usually well branched from or near the base

They differ from trees in that they do not have a prominent central trunk.

Flowering shrubs

Shrubs that have very attractive flowers

i. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (red heart), ii. Nerium oleander, iii. Tecoma stans etc

Foliage shrubs: Those shrubs that produce rich and dense foliage that have no flowers.

Some of the shrubs in this group produce variegated foliage.

i. Dracaena fragrans (Corn plant), ii. Acalypha wilkesiana iii. Duranta erecta

Shrubs with Bracts

i. Bougainvillea glabra, ii. Euphorbia pulcherrima (Poinsettia)

(e) Trees: Trees are woody plants usually with well-defined trunks or stems

Functions of trees in the landscape

i. Provide shade, ii. to ensure privacy, iii. to avoid monotony, iv. to reduce glare, v. to serve as wind breaks, vi. to reduce high summer temperature

(a) Trees which shed their leaves during summer (Deciduous trees) i. Jacaranda mimosifolia ii. Azadirachta indica ( Neem tree)

(b) Trees that do not shed their leaves throughout their life span (Evergreen trees) i. Spathodea campanulata ii. Greviellea robusta

10 iii. Juniperus procera iv. Cupressus sempervirens

Chapter 4: PROPAGATION OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

4.1 Sexual Propagation of ornamental plants

Sexual propagation in many ornamental plants is done by seeds. Seed is a matured ovule that consists of a dormant embryo, its stored food and protective coverings (seed coat). Most bedding plants are annual in growth habit and are raised from seeds. Many perennials like flowering trees are seed propagated., even lawns are initially propagated by seeds- subsequently for covering large areas lawns are propagated asexually (by slips ).

Seed Storage, Viability and Germination

Temperature and relative humidity are two important factors governing the storage life of seeds. Most annual flowering plants can be best stored at 15 to 250C in hermetically sealed containers.

Flower seeds of Gerbera lose viability within a month whereas seeds of aster, cleome, phlox, salvia, periwinkle, marigold, zinnia retain their viability from 6 months to one year depending on varieties.

In commercial flower growing, seeds have to be tested before sowing. A simple method is to count a specific number of seeds such as 50 or 100, keep them between two pieces of filter paper and place in a petri- plate, filter paper is moistened, when seeds start germinating & completed, take counts of promptly germinated seeds and calculate percentage germination. If germination % is below 60 the seed is not authentic., to calculate the amount of seeds to be sown, divide the number of seedlings expected by the germination percentage (in decimal form). For example, if 3000 seedlings are needed & germination is 80%, the number to be sown is 3000/ 0.8 = 3,750 seeds

PRE-TREATMENT OF SEEDS

Seeds of many bedding flowers like marigold, zinnia germinate readily when sown in a warm greenhouse, whereas certain perennial species require pre-treatments for germination.

(i) Stratification: is the application of moist chilling treatment @ 0 to 10 0C to seeds. This treatment can be applied to seeds already sown in flats or to seeds that are mixed with moist sand, peat moss or vermiculite, duration of treatment will vary with species. Stratification requires seeds to be moist but not over wet, excessive moisture may encourage rotting and prevent oxygen supply to seeds. Stratification is useful for perennial ornamentals such as Aconitum and Gentiana. (ii) Scarification: is the method of breaking the hard, water-impermeable seed coats to allow water to penetrate, members of pea family like lupine (Lupinus) and Baptisia are scarified. Large sized seeds can be hand scarified by filing or sand papering each seed. More numbers of small seeds can be mechanically scarified by equipment devices.

(iii) Chemical soaking: germination can be enhanced by using growth substances like gibberellins, cytokinins, potassium nitrate etc. Some flower species such as Primula germination is enhanced by soaking in GA3 200- 300 ppm for 24 hours (iv) Seed priming: this is a hydration method wherein seeds are treated with specific quantity of water in special equipment., mostly done by seed companies and research centres. The amount of water absorbed by seeds is controlled by soaking seeds in polyethylene glycol (PEG) solution. PEG restricts the water uptake by seeds. A number of flower species including: Impatiens, Verbena, pansy (Viola) are benefited by seed priming. (v) Coating of seeds: seeds are coated with thin layers of fungicide or insecticide or micronutrients., sometimes a film-coating of seeds with substances to promote germination are given. Sometimes pelleting of seeds are done by encasing in thin coatings so that seeds can be sown by mechanical seeders., this method increases size and weight of each seed (for example tiny seeds of Begonia, Petunia, Snapdragon etc ).

Containers for seed germination

Seeds can be sown by hand into open flats, plug cells, plastic trays or polythene bags. Commercial flower growers and nurseries mostly use plug cells for large scale production of healthy seedlings. Shape of plug cells may be round, square or octagonal. In large sized plug cells, seedlings can be retained for more time before transplanting. Most plug cells are made of plastic but some are made of Styrofoam.

Media for seed germination

Media for seed germination should be well drained. The texture should be fine with less clay content and slightly more sand when small to medium sized are used for sowing. The media should have low soluble salt levels and should not contain any pathogens. Good porosity of medium is desired to allow drainage and to prevent growth of pathogens., this is required for production of healthy seedlings and to prevent diseases like fungal damping-off, rotting of seedlings and bacterial wilt disease. Many growers use commercial, premixed germination media, which contain small amount of nutrients for production of healthy seedlings. When plug cells are used, sterilized sand is frequently added to the medium to facilitate easy separation of seedlings during transplanting.

Peat like mixes is used by small flowers of flowers and nurseries for sowing flower seeds. Large nurseries mainly aiming exports are not using soil-based media for germination because of the problem of sterilization and soil may contain weed seeds, disease causing organisms, insects, nematodes etc. When soil-based mixes are used, sterilization is done by steam, chemical sterilization is not recommended as it can leave residues in the medium.

Use of Silica sand or Sugar

When sowing of small seeds such as petunia, begonia or snapdragon by hand is done it is beneficial to mix 1 part of seeds with 5 parts of silica sand/ sugar, this mixing will help to monitor the rate of sowing.

Sowing of Seeds

Two options are available to flower growers either for sowing seeds directly in gardens or sowing under indoor conditions (i) sowing directly by hand (ii) using automatic seeders. Easiest and more accurate method of sowing is to sow seeds into plug trays using automatic seeder. Plug trays may contain 100 to 800 plug cells and good quality seedlings can be produced by this method.

Steps for sowing seeds

(i) Sowing of seeds for flower production needs utmost care., haphazard methods will waste expensive seeds and also result in severe crop loss (ii) Seed beds/ flats/ plug trays should be moderately watered before sowing (iii) Growing medium should be loosely packed., compact packing of medium will reduce oxygen supply (iv) In large nurseries for commercial flower growing, after sowing a practice of covering with a layer of vermiculite or perlite is done [to maintain moisture around seeds] (v) Seeds of certain flower species require light for proper germination., in such cases artificial illumination is given in the germinating chambers (vi) Flower species which are tropical/ subtropical when sown during winter need bottom heat in the germinating media (vii) In extreme heat of tropics, germinating chambers need more humidity to prevent desiccation of germinating seeds. Covering seed beds/ flats with polyethylene or providing intermittent misting is advisable to provide more humidity

Propagation of Ferns

Ferns reproduce by spores. A number of fern species are commercially grown as indoor foliage plants. Initial steps of fern propagation are similar to seed propagation in the sense that spores are sown on the surface of growing media and kept warm and moist.

But then spore germination of ferns differs as they produce a leaf-like structure “prothallus”. On maturity, prothallus produces male and female reproductive organs. Then sexual fertilization occurs and a sporophyte develops. This sporophyte further develops into a large plant which we know as fern.

4. 2 Asexual / Vegetative Propagation of Ornamental Plants

Asexual propagation is a method of regeneration from vegetative organs of a mother plant and from which true-to-type plants can be produced.

A large number of ornamental plant species are propagated by asexual or vegetative means. This is possible mainly because living cells of plants have a capacity to regenerate into a full plant under favourable environmental conditions.

Advantages of Asexual Propagation

• Plants regenerated by this method are true-to-type (genetically identical to the parent plant) i.e., they have genotypic and phenotypic characters similar to the mother plants • A large population of plants can be produced in a shorter period of time • It is easier, faster and economical than seed propagation in certain ornamental species where seed germination is poor or rather slow and there are seed dormancy problems • It is the only method of propagation of ornamental types like some roses, tuberose, canna, ornamental Musa, ornamental ginger etc.

Dis-advantages of Asexual Propagation

• Vegetative propagated plants in general are short lived than seed propagated plants • Vegetative propagated plants are more susceptible to diseases and pests • They are less hardy to biotic and abiotic stresses compared to plants raised by seeds • It needs more skill and more expensive than seed propagation

Propagation by Cuttings

Cutting is a method of vegetative propagation in which a part of the selected mother plant is separated from the mother and is induced to form its own roots.

This is a common form of asexual propagation in many floricultural species

(i) Stem cuttings are popular in poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima), chrysanthemums (Dendrathema X grandiflorum), carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus), rose types like polyanthus roses, miniature roses, climbing roses, hibiscus, hydrangea etc. (ii) Leaf cuttings are used for propagating floriculture crops like rex begonia, Peperomia, African violet (Saintpaulia ionantha) (iii) Root cuttings: rarely in floriculture plants like Oriental poppy (Papaver orientale), butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberose) etc. propagation is done by harvesting roots, cutting them into sections and then planted in the rooting medium.

Growth substances used for enhancing rooting of cuttings are IBA (Indole-3-butyric acid), NAA (Napthalene acetic acid), IAA (Indole acetic acid) etc.

Propagation of ornamental species by Budding and Grafting

Budding is a method of propagation where the scion is only a small piece of bark containing a single bud which is inserted onto the portion of a rootstock from where the bark has been removed. Budding techniques adopted in ornamentals include T (shield), inverted T, patch budding, ring budding etc. Budding is the successful method employed in commercial roses like hybrid teas, floribundas, grandifloras etc. In a variety of ornamentals like superior cultivars of hibiscus, bougainvillea where cuttings do not give success, budding is found successful.

Grafting is the process of uniting two separate plants or plant parts so that they become one plant after cell division and union occurs.

Grafting is used in ornamentals when:

(i) To propagate species or cultivars that cannot be propagated by other methods (ii) To graft scions of a superior plant so as to enhance vigour of a weak plant (iii) To create a unique plant with improved characters compared with the mother plants from which it was created

In floriculture, some vigorous types of hybrid tea roses, azaleas (Rhododendron), improved cultivars of poinsettias, focus are propagated by grafting where other methods are unsuccessful

Layering: is a method of vegetative propagation where adventitious roots are induced to form on injured plant parts while they are still attached to the parent plant. Layering is easy on low growing branches that can be buried in the soil or by mounding soil around the base of a plant which has multi-stems. Examples: jasmine, anthurium, croton, Ficus elastica, Philodendron

Division: is the process of separating individual shoots which cluster in a clump. The clumps are dug out, cut into sections with a sharp knife and the pieces are used for planting. Cone flowers, Astilbe, golden rod (Solidago) are examples of ornamentals for propagating by divisions.

GEOPHYTES: -

Geophytes include ornamental species that develop modified plant organs like bulbs, corms, tubers, rhizomes, pseudo-bulbs etc. These species can reproduce through replication of these storage organs.

(i) Bulb: It is a modified shoot in some monocots which has a short disc-like stem and at its apex there is a growing point. The stem is covered by several layers of fleshy leaves which have stored food. Ex. Lily, Tulips, Tuberose (ii) Corm: is a modified underground stem of some monocots where fleshy leaves are absent but non-fleshy or rudimentary leaves are seen. Ex., Gladiolus, Freesia

(iii) Tuber: is a modified underground stem which is fleshy and enlarged. Eyes are present on tubers which contain buds. So when tubers are divided for propagation should bear at least one or two eyes. Ex. Dahlia, Caladium (iv) Rhizomes: this is a specialized underground stem which grows horizontally just below soil surface, this is fleshy and compressed Ex. Iris, Heliconia, Alstroemeria

MICRO-PROPAGATION (IN-VITRO CULTURE) OF ORNAMENTAL PLANTS

Micro-propagation is the development of new plants on an artificial medium under aseptic conditions from very small piece of plants such as embryos, shoot tips, leaf discs, root tips, callus, pollen grains or even individual cells.

• Micro-propagation or in-vitro propagation offers potential to produce unlimited number of genetically identical plants from one mother plant. • A number of plant species including Alstroemeria, hybrid lilies (Lilium), Gerbera, Orchids (Orchidaceae) and numerous foliage ornamentals are commercially propagated by micro-propagation. • Micro-propagation is very important in production of disease-free stock plants as in the case of geranium, carnation, chrysanthemum etc. • For development of new cultivars and in hi-tech experimental works, micro- propagation has much advantage in floriculture species.

Drawbacks:

• However, in practice micro-propagation is elaborate, rather sophisticated, time consuming and very expensive • Occasionally, the plants regenerated by in-vitro propagation are not genetically identical to the parent plant due to soma- clonal variations.

Micro-propagation of orchids:

• Orchids belonging to family Orchidaceae, is highly evolved among monocotyledons with >35000 species and >70000 natural/ man made hybrids • Flowers of orchid genera like Arachnis, Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Vanda have high cut flower value, highly priced & popular in international flower trade • Though orchids can be vegetatively propagated by division of rhizomes and separation of off-shoots, the methods are found to be very slow • So, rapid multiplication using in-vitro culture techniques is an important strategy by nations exporting orchids • Embryo culture, Shoot tip culture, Leaf culture, Node culture, Inflorescence culture, Root culture etc. are adopted for regeneration of plants in orchids.

CHAPTER 5: FACILITIES FOR COMMERCIAL FLOWER PRODUCTION and

CHAPTER 6: CUT FLOWER PRODUCTION

✓ For commercial flower production, various facilities required are protected structures, equipment, good markets, personnel, site for production and above all sufficient funds ✓ For hi-tech floriculture projects, sophisticated equipment are needed., greenhouses, refrigeration, temperature & humidity control equipment, computerized irrigation & nutrient distribution systems etc are required ✓ Transportation by air freight accounts for 40 % of total production costs., timely availability of flight with minimum lapse between cutting of flowers and reaching the destination market under proper packing & environment are most important ✓ Market Evaluation: Before starting a commercial floriculture unit, it is essential to make an assessment on : (i) Where are the market for the flowers (ii) What types of flowers are needed on different occasions (iii) What are the market prices • As per the communication facilities prevailing now, it is easy to locate suitable markets. • Growers can get reliable information on the needs of flowers by various markets and also the prices of flowers. • It is wise to consider alternative markets if the original markets are less favourable for the flowers and also the prices offered.

PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF FLOWERS FOR TRADE

(1) World floriculture trade is shifting from traditional flowers to cut flowers for export purposes (2) Wide variation in agro climatic conditions of Ethiopia, permit to grow various types of tropical and subtropical plants and flowers. Though such plants grow successfully without cover, they fail to meet the export requirements. (3) High quality ornamental plants meant for export should be scientifically grown only in plastic, glass or fiberglass greenhouses or at least under partial cover. Though initial investment is high in protected cultivation, the products developed will obtain more attractive prices. Definition: - Protected cultivation is cultivating plants inside a structure which protects plants from wind, precipitations, excessive radiations, temperature extremes, insects and diseases. It is also of vital importance to create an ideal micro-climate around the plants. Therefore, an ideal protective structure should have facilities for creating most acceptable growing conditions for a given plant species.

DIFFERENT PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES FOR ORNAMENTALS

Greenhouses, lath house, cloth house, hot bed, cold frame, tunnels are protective structures used for ornamentals.

Cloth house

These are protective structures with straight sides and flat top. The frame consists of iron posts or wood and the cover consists of mostly light transmitting plastic or rarely cloth. The covering (plastic or cloth) slightly lowers maximum daily temperature and slightly increases the relative humidity. However, it markedly lowers light intensity. The decrease in light intensity lowers the temperature and creates a favourable situation for many ornamental foliage crops.

Lath house

Lath house has straight sides and flat top. The frame is similar to cloth house but the cover consists of movable iron wire netting or black plastic nets with holes. It is used to protect ornamental plants which are sensitive to high light intensity. Examples: - foliages plants (begonia, ferns, hydrangeas, azaleas etc.)

Hot beds

Hot bed is a plant propagating structure used in severe winters. It has 3 parts – heating materials, frame, and cover (the cover consisting of glass, light-transmitting plastics, or rarely cloth). Heating system varies depending on availability (electric heating devices, hot water, and hot air).

Cold frame

These are used to protect plants from frost, heavy rains and wind. In regions characterized by mild winters, herbaceous crops are started in these structures. Later, as the weather becomes warm, the covers can be removed.

GREEN HOUSES:

Definition - Greenhouses are framed or inflated structures covered with transparent or translucent material large enough to grow crops under partial or fully controlled environmental conditions to get optimum crop productivity. [Greenhouses are the most commonly used protective structure in floriculture industry].

RELEVANCE OF GREENHOUSE TECHNOLOGY:

• Since the climatic conditions inside are fully controlled, it ensures off season crop production.

• Greenhouses help to obtain planting materials of high quality, in large numbers and also helps in extending propagation almost throughout the year irrespective of seasons • Sensors are installed in hi-tech greenhouses for detecting water need of plants and irrigation is given as per requirement, so wastage of water can be avoided. • Greenhouses provide right type of environmental conditions for conservation of rare ornamental species. • They are also useful for hardening of tissue cultured plants

GREENHOUSE EFFECT: Solar radiation (visible light) is of wave length 400 – 700 nm. Short wave radiation enters the greenhouse and long wave radiations are prevented by the greenhouse cover. Inside the greenhouse, some amount of short wave radiation touches plants and greenhouse objects, more quantity of short wave radiations are reflected back from the floor and other reflecting surfaces and turns into long wave length radiations. The covering material of greenhouse is opaque to long wavelengths and it is trapped which increases the temperature inside.

Carbon dioxide enrichment: CO2 enrichment accelerates vegetative growth; water use efficiency and photosynthetic capacity leading to high quality blemish free flower blooms. For CO2 enrichment, CO2 generators and injectors are used in hi-tech greenhouses.

Table 2: Ideal CO2 Concentration for Important Flowers

Crops Ideal CO2 Toxic CO2 concentration (ppm) concentration (ppm) Rose 1000-1500 2500-3000 Carnation 1000-1500 2000-2500 Chrysanthemum 700-900 1500-3000 Gerbera 800-1200 1600-2200

CHAPTER 7: POST- HARVEST HANDLING OF CUT FLOWERS

• A ‘flower’ is an intricate organ composed of different morphological units including sepals, petals, androecium, gynoecium, stem and leaves. • Cut flowers in general are highly perishable commodities and highly susceptible to huge post-harvest losses • Most of the cut flowers complete their life cycle in two distinct phases. The first phase is of flower bud growth and development of the flower to full opening. • The second stage is maturation, senescence and wilting. • Post-harvest handling techniques of flowers are used to enhance cut flower longevity and to promote growth process in the 1st stage and retardation of metabolic processes of second stage.

Mode of Harvesting: Cut flowers should be cut with sharp tools and placed immediately in water or in a floral preservative solution. The angle of cut must be slanting and smooth to absorb water freely through cut stems. While cutting, the stem should not be crushed which may lead to blockage of xylem vessels.

POST HARVEST HANDLING CHAIN OF CUT FLOWERS

HARVESTING

↓

CONDITIONING

↓

PRE-COOLING

↓

PULSING

↓

GRADING

↓

BUNCHING

↓

WRAPPING

↓

PACKING

↓

STORAGE

↓

TRANSPORT

↓

SALES

1. Conditioning of cut Flowers:

• First step in conditioning or hardening is a simple process where the flowers are kept to stand loosely in a big container of water so the air circulates around the stems. The main purpose of this treatment is to restore turgidity of cut flowers after they have suffered from water stress during handling in the field, greenhouse or while transporting from greenhouse to post- harvest handling rooms. • Flowers can be conditioned in the dark rooms so that their stomata will close, reducing the amount of water loss by transpiration • Second step in conditioning is to place cut end of flower stems in floral preservative solutions[particularly when delay occurs in air lifting of flowers]

Widely used floral preservative solutions

CITRIC ACID (150- 400 ppm) + any one of germicide 8- Hydroxy Quinoline Citrate (200- 400 ppm) / 8- Hydroxy Quinoline Sulphate (200- 400 ppm) / Silver Nitrate (25 to 30 ppm) / Silver Thio Sulphate (25 to 30 ppm)

2. Pre- Cooling

Flowers have to pre-cool before storage and air lifting. Time between harvest and pre-cooling should be as short as possible. Forced air cooling is most effective in removing the field heat from flowers in a short period. Pre-cooling temperature suitable for flower crops vary from 1 to 40C.

3. Pulsing

At this stage, a nutrient supplement like Sucrose (5- 10 %) is added to preservative solution which contain the germicide. The absorption of chemical solution containing sugar and germicides through the lower cut portion of flower stems is known as pulsing. This treatment should be performed under temperature of 20-250C at light intensity of 2000 lux.

4. Grading

Grading is also done based on stem length, flower size, colour, quality, and also based on the standards recommended for each type of cut flower. According to these grades, prices are fixed in international markets. Example: Grades in anthurium.

• Extra-large > 18cm spathe size • Large > 15-18cm spathe size

• Medium > 12-15cm spathe size • Small > 9-12cm spathe size • Mini < 9cm spathe size

5. Bunching

Flowers should be bunched before wrapping/ packing and tying should be firm but not too tight. If flowers are too tightly crowded in storage, mould growth will be favoured.

6. Wrapping

Just before packing the flowers in boxes/ cartons, flowers are wrapped individually in thin polythene sleeves. E.g: Anthuriums are wrapped individually in thin polythene covers. Bud roses are wrapped in butter paper sheets or waxy sheets.

7. Packing

Packing is done to protect flowers from physical damage, water loss and external conditions during transporting. Packing can take many forms from flower cups, to sleeves, boxes, cartons, bulk bins, and special containers for flights. It is desirable to design a package which is specifically suitable to a particular flower under specific storage conditions. An ideal package should promote low respiration and low transpiration.

8. Cold storage

Cold storage of cut flowers facilities the adjustment of flower supply to distant markets based on demands. It makes possible to prolong the period of flower sales. Low temperature treatment during storage of cut flowers reduces the entire metabolism in the tissue, slows down the respiration, transpiration, ethylene production and activities of fungi and bacteria. In general, temperate varieties of flowers like, Cymbidium, carnations, chrysanthemums are stored at 0 – 10C. Sub-tropical flowers like, gladiolus, freesia, gerbera etc. are stored at 4 – 70C. Tropical flowers like Anthurium, Vanda, Heliconia etc are stored at 7 – 100C.

CHAPTER 8: CULTIVATION OF ROSE

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Figure 2: The blossom of rose flower

✓ Genus name: Rosa [ word adopted from Greek, “Rhedon” meaning fragrance ✓ Rose enjoys the status as “Queen of flowers”. ✓ Does best naturally in dry temperate areas, protected cultivation adopted for rose growing in tropics / Sub-tropics. ✓ England adopted rose as national flower

EVOLUTION OF MODERN ROSES

✓ Roses grown today have descended from natural crossing of several original species such as:- ✓ Rosa chinensis (China rose), Rosa gallica (French rose), Rosa X odorata(Tea rose), Rosa moschata (Musk rose), Rosa polyantha (Polyantha rose)

✓ A red China rose (Rosa chinensis) was introduced to England in 1790; it was dwarf in stature & perpetual (continuous) flowering habit [this is considered as “Father of Modern roses”.

MORPHOLOGY

Rose has got a determinate inflorescence, Corymbose (cluster of flowers) or Solitary form (Single). Usually it grows with a single flower (Hybrid Tea), but sometimes clusters of flowers (Polyantha / Miniature).

OLD CULTIVARS

1950’s cv Red Delight was traded by shipping which stood fresh after long transporting 1960’s cv For Ever Yours replaced other cultivars Other popular old cultivars that ruled market: Double Delight, Iceberg, Olympiad

DISTRIBUTION

• Modern garden roses developed from wild species – cultivated in France, Morocco, Bulgaria, Germany, Italy, China etc….

• Later, Holland, Belgium, Turkey, Japan, USA, India, Myanmar, Kenya, South Africa, Malawi, Ethiopia started growing roses on a commercial scale.

COMMERCIAL CLASSES OF ROSES

TEA ROSE [Rosa X odorata]

• They are called tea roses because flowers possess distinct aroma of cured tea leaves, this bear showy flowers with distinct colors.

HYBRID PERPETUALS

• Very hardy and flower throughout year • They are immediate forerunners of Hybrid Teas

HYBRID TEA ROSES

• Most popular rose type of modern days • Large blooms with long stems, ideal for cut flowers, decorations, exhibitions • Originally developed by crosses between Tea roses and Hybrid Perpetuals • Large number of excellent varieties (single, bi-colour & multi- colour available) • Cultivar La France was first Hybrid Tea rose developed in 1867

POLYANTHAS [Rosa X polyantha]

• Produce enormous clusters of small flowers and bloom for several months

FLORIBUNDA ROSES

• Developed in 1924 by a cross between Hybrid Tea and Polyantha roses • Possess beautiful floral characters of Hybrid Teas & perpetual flowering habit of Polyantha roses • Since floribundas produce flowers in clusters they are suitable for bedding and mass colour effects

GRANDIFLORA ROSES

• Obtained by crosses between Hybrid Tea and Floribunda types • This class of rose produce blooms that are beautifully developed like Hybrid Tea and also bearing flowers in clusters like that of Floribunda roses

MINIATURE ROSES

• Miniature are popular “Baby Roses” with small flowers and leaves • Quite hardy, can easily be propagated by cuttings • Ideal for growing in pots & as edges of lawns in gardens

CLIMBING ROSES

• Climbing roses are of upright growth habit requiring support for their growth • They bear small to medium flowers in small clusters at the end of side branches • Growth is restricted, mostly upright and not flexible like ramblers

RAMBLERS

• These are a type of climbing roses bearing large clusters of small flowers • They have leisurely spreading habit without specific direction of growth • More flexible than climbers and suitable for covering fences, pergolas and trellis

DAMASK ROSE

• This is Rosa damascena, most important species for extraction of perfume • Flowers deep pink, bear in clusters and sweet scented • Flower petals are steam distilled/ solvent extracted to extract essential oils • Major fragrant components of essential oils are geraniol and citronellol

CABBAGE ROSE [Rosa centifolia]

• Can be propagated by cuttings and also used as a rootstock • Flower petals wrap up just like cabbage heads • Flowers fragrant and most common shade is pink

EDWARD ROSE [Rosa X bourboniana]

• Vigorous shoots, dark green stems with hooked prickles • Flowers light rosy pink, borne in clusters • Flowers scented and cultivated in North India for preparation of Rose Water & Gulkand (perfumes) • This is an excellent rootstock for budding most commercial varieties

Types of Roses

There are five types of roses grown for cut flower production

1. Large Flowered Roses:

• This are also known as Hybrid Tea roses • They are generally grown between 50-120 cm in length and yield 100-150/year/m2 • Generally, large flowered HT roses are difficult to handle. • They too frequently fail to take up water • they have a shorter vase-life • The main producing countries: USA, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, Japan, Zimbabwe, Morocco, France and Italy

2. Medium Flowered Roses

• Even though they can grow to 50-70 cm and have a bigger flower, they are still classified as short stemmed. • They yield up to 220 blooms/m2/year, and have handling advantages. • Medium roses are particularly popular with growers in Kenya, where they respond well to the growing conditions. • Their popularity is also increasing in Holland, Germany, Italy, Israel, Zimbabwe, Japan, Mexico, and Colombia.

3. Small Flowered Roses

• They produce large number of stems/m2/year (i.e b/n 250-350 stems/m2/year) • They are easy to handle and some of the new varieties have exceptionally good vase- lives. • There are now major areas planted to short roses in Israel, Kenya and more recently Colombia and Zimbabwe • Main production areas include. Holland, Germany, Israel and Kenya.

4. Spray Roses

• Spray roses produce many blooms per stem • They grow in much the same way as small flowered roses and often yield a large proportion of singles to sprays. • In the USA, they are not commonly used as cut flowers. • The main problems with this type of rose are that their yields are generally low and the stems are heavy, and therefore, expensive to airfreight.

5. Miniature Roses

• Miniature roses such as the original Garnet and Carol have stem lengths of b/n 20-40 cm. • They have much smaller flowers than the small roses. • They can yield up to 500 stems/m2/year but require more labor in harvesting and packing than other varieties.

Basics of Rose Production

• To achieve export standards, roses must o be protected from harmful climates (plastic greenhouse or glasshouse). o They must also be of a recognized variety. • The main objective of greenhouse production is to control Powdery mildew and Downy mildew on the leaves and Phytophtera sp. in the bloom. • The planting rate is 5.5-8.0 plants/m2 or 55 000-80 000 roses/ hectare o Normally it is 60 000 plants/ha in the warmer climates and o 70 000 in glasshouses. • The number of stems cut/m2/year varies according to the climate, variety and the length of the cropping season • Humidity should be high, especially when it is hot, but not above dew point when it cools down • Labor requirement: o Rose production is labor intensive, requiring b/n 10-15 fulltime equivalent/ha/yr. o About 80% of this labor is required in harvesting, grading and packing

Variety Trends

Selection criteria now include

1. High yielding varieties: some short stemmed roses are now yielding up to 400 stems/m2/year 2. Long vase-life; new varieties can now last up to 16 days in the vase, thus dramatically increasing the potential market

3. Varieties that take up water easily 4. Thornless varieties for ease of handling 5. Color: Reds are still the most popular but pinks, pastels and bicolors that do not fade are all fast gaining in popularity 6. Scent: unfortunately, fragrance and good vase-life do not yet go together, especially when the blooms are closed up for some time in a transport box. 7. Resistance to diseases and mechanical damages in harvesting and transport.

Cutting for propagation

A. Cutting

• Make sure you take cuttings from firm but young stems. • Cuttings are made at any time of the year:

Leaves –

• The cutting can be one, two, or three nodes • the top leaf is retained o to delay growth of the upper axillary bud o to provide food for the developing shoot. o to provide root-promoting hormones.

Cuts and "wounding" –

• Roses can form roots at any point along the stem, so the exact site of the cut is not important. • Many people "wound" the base of the cutting enhance rooting

Rooting hormones –

• Many growers apply a commercial hormone preparation to stimulate the production of strong roots. o Auxin (IBA) and/or (NAA).

Spacing

• Planted 1.5 inches in the row and 3 inches between rows. • The medium should have good water retention and excellent aeration • Rooting occurs quickly at a media temperature of 700 to 750 F

Moisture –

• Essential for successfully • Rooting cuttings is maintaining adequate moisture, both in the soil and in the form of humidity in the air. • Place the cuttings in pots of moist sand or potting soil, • then cover them with a plastic bag to maintain high humidity around the cuttings.

Light –

• Roses root best in bright light. • when using the mini-greenhouse method, it's important to avoid overheating by giving some shade from hot, midday sun. • Put the cuttings in bright shade to allow rooting without too much heat build-up. • Decrease in misting frequency should begin when roots are observed, in 11 to 14 days, • to harden the plants for medium temperature.

B. Budding and grafting

• Budded plants are still the most popular. • They are larger and can produce quality flowers in a relatively short time.

Common Rootstocks

• Modern roses are not grown on their own roots. • They budded on to the roots of wild and semi-wild roses or close relatives Rootstock commonly used by nurserymen are 1) Rosa laxa--- popular. Almost thornless for easy budding Rarely suckers transplant well 2) Rosa canina (Dog rose) ---- Most popular of all. Produces hardy bushes, which transplant well. 3) Rosa multiflora------sometimes used for standards. Suckers freely and is best suited for light soils

Production Requirements of Roses

-All cut roses require similar climatic conditions, the basic essentials of which are:

Soil

• The aim should target to start with a good soil, productive soil, and keep quality by reducing compaction, salinity, nematodes, and soil borne diseases. • Ideally, the soil for roses should be a rich well-aerated loam. • A sandy soil can be used provided the organic matter level is kept high.

Climatic requirement

Temperature

• Growth rate of the rose is very responsive to temperature; growth rate increases with temperature increase. • Flower quality is affected in opposite direction, as temperature increase petal number and flower bud size decrease. • A temperature between 150C and 200C is ideal. o Below 15oC, but growth will be slower considerably. o above 28 oC, RH must be kept high to slow evapo- transpiration. • The ideal average temperature for rose production is 22 0C • Excess variation of temperature and RH can cause a high incidence of either Powdery mildew in heat or Downey mildew in the cold and wet conditions • In highland tropics of 1800-2500m, provided that there is sufficient water, conditions for the production of roses are good almost all year round. • Comparatively little needs to be spent in the form of greenhouses but a well-ventilated plastic-house is essential to keep the rain off the flowers and to keep the RH high.

Light

• Generally, rose growth and quality increase with increasing light about 1200μmolsec-1m-2 photosynthetically active radiation (PAR). • It must be remembered that increased PAR will be increase greenhouse temperature and decreased relative humidity. • High pressure mist and fogging system are essential part of humidity management. • Daytime humidity of 60 to 80% is optimum for rose production. • It is also important to have good light for as long as possible throughout the day. • It is also an advantage if the morning sun is available because this is the coldest part of the day and it helps to raise the temperature quickly

Water

• Roses require plenty of water and a well-aerated soil or growing medium (substrate). • It requires a lot of water especially when it is hot. • As a rule of thumb, the grower needs to be able to supply the plants with a minimum of mm/day i.e 60 cubic meters/ha/day. • The water can come from a well, borehole, river, lake or reservoir, But it should be tested for-pH, salts, and mineral content and for bacterial count. • The pH for roses should be around 5.8-6.5

Land or Production Site Selection ➢ If possible, the chosen site should be close to the market, or within easy reach of an international airport ➢ If the land is steep, it has to be leveled before it can be developed as a flower farm, though the costs of leveling can be substantial The site should be well drained, ideally with a slope of 2-3%

Propagation

• Roses can be grown by seeds, cuttings, layers, budding and grafting • To produce new hybrids through breeding, seeds known as “hips” are used • Cuttings are effective for propagation of vigorous cultivars, miniatures, polyanthas, climbers, ramblers etc. Layering is also possible in these categories.

Commercial Propagation of Roses

• Rose is commercially propagated by T - budding and sometimes by patch budding • Important rootstocks used for propagation are Edward rose (Rosa bourboniana) and Rosa multiflora • Rosa indica is an important rootstock resistant to powdery mildew • Buds selected should be plumb but have not bursted or elongated • In T-budding, bark bearing a bud (scion) of 2.5 cm is taken out from stem of selected cultivar in the shape of a shield with a budding knife • Portion of wood remaining attached with bark in scion is removed gently • A T shaped cut of 2.5 cm length is made in rootstock and bud is inserted in the incision • Bud should point upwards and is then tied firmly with a polythene strip keeping bud uncovered • Bud union will take place in 3-4 weeks and budded plant will be ready for transplanting in 6 months

Selection of Site for Growing Roses

• Roses grow better in full sunshine. So, select places getting sunshine for at least half of the day preferably the first half • The site selected should be away from buildings and trees • Well drained loamy soil is the best for growing roses

PRUNING OF ROSES

• Pruning is the judicious removal of plant parts to induce production of quality flowers and to maintain vigour of plant

• It keeps rose bushes in proper size and shape & also allow penetration of light to center of plant • Strong, healthy canes are retained., weak branches, dead and diseased ones are removed • Cuts are made at 45 degree angle, 5 cm above eye (bud)

Rose Flowering – Arranging Production

• Scheduling flowering and flower production- Valentine’s Day, Mother’s day Christmas, New Year and several ceremonial days - Pruning, timing of pinching & cultural operations- adjust for flower production - Flower Development 5.5 – 6 weeks in summer, 7.5 - 8 weeks in winter

GROWING OF ROSES IN POTS

• Roses can be grown in large pots of 35 – 45 cm for Hybrid Teas and smaller pots for polyanthas and miniatures • For pot-culture, potting mixture should consist 3 parts garden soil, 1 part well rotten cow dung, 1 part leaf mould and 1 part wood ash • Repotting is to be done as and when pot-bounding occurs., potted plants need watering daily

PROTECTED CULTIVATION OF ROSES

• As early as 1950- 60, roses for export purpose were grown under open field conditions • When the scenario of floriculture industry changed, protected cultivation was adopted by major growing nations • Cultivating roses under polyhouses are found to possess better stalk length, brightness and vase life • Experiments conducted in India, using rose cultivars, Eterna, Kiss, Vivaldi, Gladiator etc under naturally ventilated low-cost polyhouses produced superior quality flowers, more stem length and high vase life

Temperature inside Green House

• Excessive Temperature results in small flower size, fewer petals, poor keeping quality GH => 160C at night, 20-28 0C day Temperature (Optimum) • Low Temperature reduce flower production., In low temperature certain cvs develop excessive petals and soft growth because of low photosynthetic activity • => 270C and above results in petal dropping

Ventilation inside Green House

• Ventilation – essential for air exchange between outside and inside of Green House • Ventilation can be natural (wind pressure gradient) or forced (mechanical means) • Ventilation is important during day times mainly for :- a) controlling high temperature b) reducing level of relative humidity c) maintaining normal CO2 level

CO2 Enrichment inside Green House

• Additional supply of CO2 give better results • Natural CO2 concentration (0.03% or 300 ppm) will be depleted earlier • Sources of enriching CO2 level inside green house by decomposition of mulches, dry ice, liquid CO2 enhances more flower production

IRRIGATION & FERTILIZATION INSIDE GREN HOUSE

• The irrigation system should be set below the level of the leaves, ensuring that the leaves stay dry and there is a little danger of Downey mildew. • In the hydroponic production system, water is applied through drippers so the evaporation area is much less. • In fact, when it is hot, some growers attempt to keep the RH up by spraying a fine mist overhead. • So, it is better if the water is applied below the level of the blooms. • The drip irrigation system normally carries fertilizers. • Modern system is to apply water only when it is required based on transpiration model and Soil moisture tension • In practically all cases, roses are nowadays fed through the drip lines, a process known as “fertigation”. • A liquid fertilization schedule is designed based on soil test, especially pH and salinity, and on occasionally foliar analysis. • A pH range of 5.5 to 6.3 allows moderate solubility of the micronutrients • Rose fertilizer solution contain N, P, Mg, Ca, S, and Fe as a regular constituents, and periodically, • a micronutrient supplement of B, Cu, Mn, Mo, and Zn will be added.

• Application of Major nutrients (through irrigation water):- 14 g of following mixture in 10 litres water (Urea: 2 parts, Potassium nitrate: 1 part, Potassium phosphate: 1 part).

Spraying

• A regular preventative spraying program should be carried out against Powdery and Downy mildew • Sulphur Burner; every night.

Disbudding:

• Disbudding is removing the 2nd and sometimes 3rd buds that may form alongside the main bud. • These take away energy from the main bud (i.e. the seriously compete) and if left on the stem can make it unsaleable quality.

Harvesting:

• Harvesting is a slow and a painful job • no one has yet found a way of mechanizing. • Harvesting can be speeded up by: 1. Choosing varieties that need little or no disbudding 2. Choosing varieties that have as few thorns as possible 3. Reducing the amount of walking involved 4. Transportation for the harvested stems to the packinghouse • Roses are cut two times per day • The stage of cutting varies • with cultivar • season • distance of market, • Generally rose is cut at the tightest stage at which the flower will open in plain water. • The position of cut on the shoot will vary with • market needs for stem length • on the height of the plants, • the season, and • the leafiness of the plant. • As a general rule, the cut will be made to the first 5-leaflet leaf above the point of origin of the flowering stem.

Yield

• depends on-the type and variety of rose, the temperature and light, and the growing medium • The two most important factors determining the yield are o The commercial cut rose varieties will not form flowering stems at all when temperatures are below 140C and

o if there is insufficient light to go with the temperature, the stems will be too weak in quality to be saleable..

Hydration Procedure

• This is done to prevent vascular blockage in the flower stems, which is usually caused by build-up of bacteria. • The wound that opened up, when the stem is cut or damaged is infected by bacteria in the water. • One of the first signs of this blockage is neck drop. • To stop this happening the water and the buckets must be clean as possible at all times and contain a biocide. • Any produce showing a high bacterial count at export destination markets are downgraded. the objective of hydration is to remove the blockage; • by cuttings off the worst section which is at the bottom of the stem • putting into warm water in which the pH has been lowered, • through the addition of a preservative or a compound such as citric acid or aluminum sulphate. The following procedures are nowadays recommended in handling cut flowers at packinghouse, or at the auction centers: 1. Re-cut flower stems, do not remove the lower leaves or thorns 2. Place in clean containers, in clean warm water (40-430C), adjusted with preservative (citric acid) to pH 3.0-3.5. Test with litmus paper of pH meter. 3. Remove from the citric acid after approximately 30-60 minutes or when turgid. 4. Place in preservatives in the cooler (cold rooms) • Please note the flowers when cold are inactive and will not hydrate easily. • For about the first 20 minutes of hydration, the water used should be warm enough. • Once the water has been taken up, then the flower stems as well as the water can be cooled down again.

Sleeving

• The heads of the roses are only wrapped when the flowers are going to be packaged and transported over long distances. • The idea of wrapping is to cushion the buds and prevent them from jamming up against the end of the package and bruising. • materials used: corrugated wrapper paper and foam rubber

Packaging

• The packaging boxes used for roses often vary in size according to their source and destination. • Depending on the market, the packages are either filled with one variety one grade, or mixed colors one grade. • The bunches in the boxes should be packed tight.

Airfreight

• The biggest marketing cost to the rose growers is airfreight. • it is crucial that roses are air freighted as soon as possible after harvesting. • when air freighted the temperature level must be 2-40C

Marketing

• skill in marketing is to get the highest possible return • Getting the best possible price • Minimizing the selling costs • Selling the maximum number of flower stems

Color trends under the world market of roses

1. Big flowers are sold before small 2. Consumers want roses with fragrance in all the color ranges 3. Red is still the predominant color regardless of how the flowers are moved. Reds still account for over 50% of all the sales 4. Yellow and pink are about equal with which together account for about 30% of the market 5. Whites are about 5%

Quality Parameters

• Generally in export rose production, quality is more important than yield • Hence, the method of growing for roses should be such that it produces; 1. Long flowers that open easily 2. Large flowers that open easily 3. Good flower color and shape 4. Short internodes 5. Good leaf surface with no damage from insect and disease 6. Maximum yield The size and color of the flowers also be affected by poor growing practices like a) Allowing water to get onto the flowers can cause Botrytis in the flower

b) Spraying at the wrong time, at too high on air temperature or with the wrong concentrations, can cause burning with petals c) Too strong light will cause burning of the petal tips. d) Too little light will cause weak stems, stretched internode and petioles, drooping necks and poor vase-life e) Leaf quality will be damaged by • deficiency, • fungal disease problems such as Mildews, • too little water to the plants, • Leaf Roller and Red Spider Mites f) If a bud is cut too early, it will fail to open

The major quality parameters are:

1. Length of stem---the grade lengths for roses are: 30-40 cm, 40-50 cm, 50-60 cm, 60-80cm- 100 cm, and 100-120 cm 2. Strength/thickness of stem------the thicker the better 3. Size, shape and fullness of bud 4. Color of flower 5. Quality of leaf substance size and color 6. Freedom from powdery and downy mildew 7. Freshness

The most common mistake and/or fault found in the rose markets is • damage to the heads, • bruising of the buds, and • breaking of the necks.

POST – HARVEST HANDLING

• The maturity of flowers at harvesting does affect the vase life of the flower • Early harvesting (stem does not transmit enough water) – so not good • As a rule of thumb: red roses harvested when the outer (first two petals just begin to unfold, white rose are harvested at slightly open stage than others) • Pre-cooling: For extended storage before air lifting place the flowers in cool rooms in airtight containers and held at 2 - 40C up to 2 weeks • Grading is done mainly on the basis of stem length and flower size

After grading, place stems of roses immersed in preservative solutions: FLORALIFE: 2-3% sugar + 200 ppm citric acid + bactericide [8-hydroxy quinoline citrate 200 ppm OR 8-hydroxy quinoline sulphate 200 ppm]

Physiological Disorders

1. Bullheads:

• Characterized by shorter petals that give the rose a flattened appearance. • Common in some cultivars grown at cool temperatures • it is also seen in flowers distorted by thrips • by excess stem vigor as in the case of renewal shoot • Some cultivars that have a tendency to produce bullheads.

2. Blind shoots

• Rose shoots initiate flowers at an early stage of development but blind shoots abort most flower buds soon thereafter. • Blind shoots increase in periods of low lights • Increased carbon dioxide & light levels help to minimize numbers of blinds

3. Leaf Drop

• Is not uncommon in the rose. • causes are o shading from foliage, o about inconsistent irrigation & nutritional practices, o plant age o a reaction to a pesticide application. o heavy infestation of mites & powdery mildew

4. Leaf Distortion • Spray applications to very young leaves can damage the leaf & prevent normal growth, producing distortions. • Water stress, usually caused by high light intensity & low humidity, causes a tissue burn.

5. Volatiles • Rose is sensitive to chemicals from o mercury metal and o mercuric compounds fungicide, o ethylene gas, o ammonia, o sulfurdioxide, o Phenoxy-type herbicides.

Pests and Diseases

1. Diseases

Powdery mildew (Saphaerotheca pannosa var. rosae)

• The most common disease of roses in greenhouse. • It attacks leaves, stems, and flower. • Spores are wind borne from fruiting bodies to new leaves and can germinate in 3 hr. • Following penetration of the tissue, the fungus develops along outside of the tissue and fruiting bodies are developed to complete the life cycle. • Development of the disease is related with temperatures and humidity. o spore germination, infection and spore production favoured by ▪ Low night temperatures (60oF) ▪ high humidity (90 to 99%) favor,. o favor spore maturation and release. ▪ High temperatures and low humidity (35 to 70%) • In hot dry periods, the incidence of Powdery mildew can be wide spread especially when there is a significant difference b/n the day and night temperature. • It appears as a powdery white mark on the leaves • It does not kill the leaf but marks it and reduces the quality when the flower is sold • Control of the RH is the best way to slow down the spread, also by using sulphur burners every night as a preventative measure • Failing that, the only way to get rid of it is to spray daily with different range of fungicides.

Downey mildew (Peronospora aparsa)

• Downey mildew is every tropical rose grower’s dread • It is found when the weather is cold and damp and there is limited air circulation around plants. • The disease enhanced by cool temperatures and high relative humidity, rainy period when relative humidity exceeds 85% is favorable. • After spore germination, the fungus grows within the leaf and depending on the humidity, spores may be seen on the underside of the leaf. • The leaf shows black spots and starts to turn yellow, and after a while it drops off causing a major loss of crop • These is little care for it except by ensuring that the leaves are kept dry by improving the air circulation • It is not such a problem in heat greenhouses b/s of the air circulation caused by the heating.

Botrytis (Botrytis cinerea)

• Botrytis or gray mold is a common disease of flowers. • Under cool and humid condition, it is a serious problem of roses in transit. • Spores need up to 12 hrs continuous freestanding water on plant surface to germinate. • protect the heads from water (damp moisture) that causes Botrytis in the bloom. • This rots the bloom and causes it to shatter either when it is being handled or transited. • All irrigation should be a low level • One or two varieties have been found to be more tolerant to Botrytis. • Proper heating and ventilation are important control measures

Integrated Pest Management: -

• is the prevention and control of powdery and Downey

Components

• Hygiene/sanitation • supervision, • use of resistant / tolerant varieties, • biological control (parasites and predators), • Mechanical and chemical control.

Pests (insects and mites)

A. Red Spider Mite

• Found throughout the world Particularly prevalent in hot dry conditions in which they can build up very rapidly • In the earlier stages, the leaves underneath start to discolor while on the top silvery like pin pricks are to be seen; • The red Spider Mite is only the red color when coming out of hibernation or going into hibernation • The wide use of fungicides to control Powdery mildew appears to encourage spider mites • Sulphur burners, control on both Powdery mildew and spider mite • So, Red Spider Mites must be eliminated on the nursery if the flowers are intended for export

B. Trips

• This small insect pest buries itself into new tissue in the growing points • The insect complete the life cycle in the plant and the soil. • difficult to control b/s of quick lifecycle and resistance to almost all pesticides used

C. Whitefly

• It is not a very common problem in roses • attack the very young leaves and weaken plants • It is a small white furry insect easily recognized once known • Both the Tobacco Whitefly and Greenhouse Whitefly, • once established are very difficult to control • Therefore, immediate action once seen is required

D. Leaf roller

• Easy to find but by that time the leaf is damaged • more common in temperate countries than it is in tropical areas • Controlled by general insecticides which are widely available in the temperate countries

E. Aphids

• A common problem everywhere increasing all the time and going on to different species of rose. • feed on stems, leaves and flowers. • easily be detected from the cast skins and black sooty fungus that grows on the honeydew. • Whilst in the beginning, they are relatively easy to control. • But, later, they will be getting harder due to the buildup of resistance to the aphidicide range of products by some of the varieties.

Table 3: The flower color and the world flower meaning for communication among people

Red Love, Beauty, Courage and Respect, Romantic Love, Congratulations, I Love You, Job Well Done, Sincere Love, Respect, Courage & Passion Red (Dark) Unconscious beauty Red (Single) "I Love You" Deep Burgundy Unconscious Beauty White Purity, Innocence, Silence, Secrecy, Reverence, Humility, Youthfulness, I am worthy of you, Heavenly White (Bridal) Happy love

Pink Appreciation, "Thank you", Grace, Perfect Happiness, Admiration, Gentleness, Please Believe Me Dark Pink Appreciation, Gratitude, Thank You Light Pink Admiration, Sympathy, Gentleness, Grace, Gladness, Joy, Sweetness Yellow Joy, Gladness, Friendship, Delight, Promise of a new beginning, Welcome Back, Remember Me, and Jealousy, "I care" Yellow with Red Tip Friendship, Falling in Love Orange Desire, Enthusiasm Red and White Given together, these signify unity Red and Yellow Jovial and Happy Feelings Peach Appreciation, Closing of the deal, Let's get together, Sincerity, Gratitude Pale Peach Modesty Coral Desire Lavender Love at first sight, Enhancement Orange Enthusiasm, Desire, Fascination Black * Death, Farewell Blue * The unattainable or impossible Single in any color Simplicity, Gratitude Red Rosebud Symbolic of purity and loveliness White Rosebud Symbolic of girlhood Thornless Rose "Love at first sight"

CHAPTER 9: CHRYSANTHEMUM

Chrysanthemum (chrysos=golden; anthos= flower) is a popular cut flower crop of commercial importance known as “Queen of the East”. It ranks next to rose among cut flower crops of the world.

Importance

Chrysanthemum is the number one dollar earning flower in the United States and cultivars suitable for growing throughout the year have been evolved there. The members of National Chrysanthemum society runs into thousands in several countries.

Large number of cultivars which exhibit wide variation in respect of growth habit, size, colour and shape of blooms makes chrysanthemum suitable for varied purpose. Its erect and tall growing cultivars are suitable for background planting in borders and as cut- flowers. The dwarf and compact growing ones are suitable for front row planting or pot culture. The decorative and fluffy bloomed small flowered cultivars are ideal for garland making and hair decoration. The extra large- bloomed cultivars are prized for their exhibition value. Certain species like Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and Chrysanthemum coccineum are cultivated as sources of pyrethrum, a natural insecticide.

Classification

The genus Chrysanthemum belongs to the family Asteraceae. The natural Chrysanthemum societies in each country classify the cultivars on the basis of flower characters, i.e. the two kinds of florets (ray and disc florets), the physical shape of florets and the direction of growth and arrangement of florets.

Chrysanthemum blooms are divided into 13 different bloom forms by the US National Chrysanthemum Society, Inc., which is in keeping with the international classification system. Chrysanthemum blooms are composed of many individual flowers (florets), the disk florets are in the center of the bloom, and the ray florets are on the perimeter. The ray florets are considered imperfect flowers, as they only possess the female productive organs, while the disk florets are considered perfect flowers, as they possess both male and female reproductive organs and are capable of producing seed.

Common Name: FLORIST’S CHRYSANTHEMUM [Dendranthema X grandiflorum, Asteraceae]

Modern Florist’s Chrysanthemum Dendranthema X grandiflorum (former name, Chrysanthemum X morifolium) have originated from Dendranthema indicum and Dendranthema japonicum

Table 4: The scientific and common names of flower

COMMON NAME FORMER SCIENTIFIC NEW SCIENTIFIC NAME NAME FLORIST’S Chrysanthemum X morifolium Dendranthema X grandiflorum CHRYSANTHEMUM ANNUAL Chrysanthemum coronarium Dendranthema coronarium CHRYSANTHEMUM PYRETHRUM Chrysanthemum Tanacetum cinerariifolium cinerariifolium TANSY CHRYSANTHEMUM Chrysanthemum Tanacetum macrophyllum macrophyllum

ORNAMENTAL USES

Figure 3: Florist’s Chrysanthemum Figure 4: Pyrethrum Modern cultivated chrysanthemums are showier than their wild relatives. The flower heads occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like or decorative, like pompons or buttons. This genus contains many hybrids and thousands of cultivars developed for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other colors are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid is Chrysanthemum × morifolium (syn. C. × grandiflorum) was now named as Dendranthema × grandiflorum

Chrysanthemums are divided into two basic groups (A) garden hardy and (B) exhibition. Garden hardy mums are perennials, capable of wintering in most northern latitudes. Exhibition

46 varieties are mostly annuals, not as hardy as garden mums. Garden hardies are defined by their ability to produce an abundance of small blooms with little mechanical assistance, such as staking, they withstand wind and rain to some extent. Exhibition varieties require staking, cannot withstand wind or rain and prefer a relatively dry, cool environment.

The exhibition varieties can be trained to create many artistical forms, such as thousand-bloom, standard (trees), fans, hanging baskets, topiary, bonsai, cascades etc.

POTTED CHRYSANTHEMUM PRODUCTION

• Potted mums are mostly produced in greenhouses. Maintaining night temperature between 15 to 170C and day temperatures between 25 to 270C is good for producing export quality potted mums. • Potting mixture (medium) must be porous and well drained • Potting medium must be free from disease causing organisms and insects • Pinching of growing apex has to be done at early stage to make a compact potted plant with more lateral flowers

INSECTICIDAL USES

Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum [or Tanacetum] cinerariaefolium) is economically important as a natural source of insecticide. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components, called pyrethrins are extracted with organic solvents in the form of an oleoresin. This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all insects. In sub-lethal doses they have an insect repellent effect. They are harmful to fish, but are far less toxic to mammals (including man) and birds than many synthetic insecticides. They are not persistent, being bio-degradable, and also decompose easily on exposure to light. Synthetic Pyrethroids such as Allethrin, Lamda-Cyhalothrin, Transfluthrin are artificially manufactured and have a mode of action similar to natural pyrethrum.

WORLD’S TOP CHRYSANTHEMUM PRODUCERS: - 1. NETHERLANDS 2. COLOMBIA 3. MEXICO 4. ITALY 5. SPAIN 6. SOUTH AFRICA

EXPORTS OF CHRYSANTHAMUM FROM ETHIOPIA

Ethiopia is a producer and exporter of chrysanthemum. The important destinations of Ethiopia include Netherlands, United Kingdom, Germany, Norway, Arab countries etc. The zero-tariff (no import duty) adopted by the Norwegian government has promoted the imports of cut flowers like chrysanthemum, rose and carnations from Ethiopia.

CHAPTER 10: CARNATION

INTRODUCTION

1. Carnation is one of the important cut flower crops grown throughout the world, occupies 5th position among cut flowers traded on a global scale.

2. Carnation owes its cut- flower value because of attractive, wide spectrum colours, frilled shape of petals and good vase life.

3. Carnation has an excellent keeping quality, wide range of flower forms remarkable ability to rehydrate after air freight/ shipping, carnation is preferred by growers to roses and chrysanthemums in several flower exporting countries.

IMPORTANCE

1. Carnations are sold in western countries all the year round; they are in particular demand for the Valentine’s Day, Easter, Mother’s Day and Christmas. 2. Standard carnations are in great demand., spray types and miniatures are gaining popularity for their potential role in floral arrangement and also as cut flower at comparatively low price 3. Standard carnations bearing white and pink colours are in the greatest demand followed by red, yellow and bi-colour types 4. Some cultivars of carnation are used for extraction of essential oil (oil due to rich in fine aromatic compounds like eugenol, benzyl benzoate, methyl salicylate etc) and are used for making high grade perfumes 5. Generic name Dianthus – from Greek, meaning “flower of Gods” 6. Species name caryophyllus- because flowers on opening bear smell of clove oil

ORIGIN AND HISTORY

• Carnation is indigenous to the Mediterranean area • The common name carnation is originated from the Greek word “cornotion” as flowers were used to decorate the crowns of Greek athletes • Montague Allwood, a pioneer British carnation breeder opined that the present day perpetual – flowering carnation is a cross between Dianthus caryophyllus (CARNATION) and Dianthus chinensis (CHINESE PINKS) • The cultivar William Sim produced in 1939 by William Sim of USA is the greatest contribution to the present-day carnation industry. From this red flowering variety mutants were developed to white, pink, orange and several variegated forms

DISTRIBUTION

• Natural climate for carnation occurs near 300 N or S latitudes away from equator • Altitude can modify latitude as in case of Bogota, Colombia, mountain areas of Mexico and Central America and parts of Kenya in Africa • Bogota is only 40 N of equator but located at altitude 2800 metres above sea level • The climate for carnation production is quite ideal in Bogota • Carnations are cultivated on a large scale in protected structures of Holland, France, Italy, Israel and Germany

CLASSIFICATION OF CARNATION

1. PERPETUAL CARNATIONS

These are hybrids involving many Dianthus species. They are not hardy but flower all the year round. Flowers are borne on long stems and have a great ability to withstand long distance transportation that make it the best suited for cut flowers

• Perpetual carnations are further divided into two major classes, Standard and Spray. • The standard types produce larger blooms on longer flower stalks whereas spray types (miniatures) produce many flowers of smaller size and are better adapted to warm climate

2 CHABAUD OR MARGUERITE CARNATIONS

• These are annuals with single or double flowers reproducing true form seed. • Blooms are large with fringed petals, which do not last very long after harvesting as compared to perpetual flowering types., they are comparatively easier for cultivation than perpetual types

SPECIES OF DIANTHUS

• Dianthus is a genus of about 300 species out of which Dianthus caryophyllus (CARNATION), Dianthus barbatus (SWEET WILLIAM) and Dianthus chinensis (CHINA PINKS/ GARDEN PINKS) are most commonly cultivated ones.

GENETICS

• Carnation is grouped into three categories viz., single (5 petals commonly), semi doubles (30-60 petals) and super doubles (100-300 petals). • Singleness is a monogenic character and is recessive to doubleness, while heterozygotes yield semi- double flowers

BREEDING

• Different methods used for carnation improvement are introduction, selection, hybridization and mutation breeding. Breeding for disease resistance is of prime importance in carnation as there is no satisfactory chemical control when the diseases are in epidemic form. • Alternaria leaf blight, bacterial wilt, Fusarium wilt, rust and powdery mildew are major diseases

GROWTH AND FLOWERING

• When a carnation shoot develops six pairs of leaves it changes from vegetative to reproductive condition. • Temperature is the major factor influencing growth and flowering in carnation. • Carnation is a cool temperature crop and night temperature is critical for quality flower production in carnation optimum being 13 - 16°C

GROWTH REGULATORS

• Growth regulators play an important role in flowering of carnation. By spraying Chlormequat at 1000 ppm gave early flowering and increased flower production • Applying two sprays of GA3 (100 ppm), one at first pinch and second when 8-10 cm of length of axillary shoots, produced early flowering and long stems.

PROPAGATION

• Seed propagation is used for raising Marguerite carnations that breed tree from seeds. Perpetual carnations are propagated commonly through stem cuttings from vigorous, healthy and disease-free mother plants. • Mother plants are maintained in a certified nucleus block under protected conditions. Fungicidal spray (Dithane M-45 (0.25%) + Bavistin (0.1%) at fortnight intervals should be given to this nucleus stock • For standard cultivars, terminal cuttings (5 cm long) and for spray types (8-10 cm long) with four to five pairs of leaves are used for propagation. • Sand, vermiculite, perlite, damp sphagnum moss and super soil are various media used for rooting of carnation cuttings. A fungicidal treatment for 30 minutes should be given for un-rooted cuttings to avoid fungal diseases during rooting • Rooting of cuttings occurs in 3-4 weeks and rooted cuttings are then transferred to hardening chambers before transplanting in main field. In Europe and America, commercial growers adopt micro-propagation to obtain large number of disease free plants.

SPACING

• Considering spacing, standard carnations are planted at 15x15 cm and spray types at 20x20 cm • Flower size and quality will be better at a density of 32 plants/m2 • STAKING Galvanised metal wire or nylon rope of 4-5 layers fixed on frames are used for staking. First layer has to be placed at 12 cm above soil medium and remaining layers of wires are placed at distance of 15 cm from one another.

PINCHING

• It is done by removing the apex of upright growing shoot after 30-35 days of planting leaving only 6 pairs of basal leaves. • If too many leaf pairs remain on stem, flower quality may be reduced. Pinching induces rapid development of side shoots, one from each pair of leaves. • These shoots develop fast and will grow into flowering stems

MANURING AND FERTILIZATION

General recommendation of standard carnation is FYM 5 - 10 kg, N 30 g, P 20 g and K 10g (all per metre square)

• Foliar sprays of KNO3 at 0.1% , Zn (800ppm), Mn (30 ppm), Boron (1 ppm) at 10 days interval is beneficial in carnation for optimum growth and flowering of carnation

IRRIGATION

During first 3 weeks after planting overhead misting followed by drip fertigation. Afterwards, drip irrigation @ 3 cubic meter water/1000 m2 area on alternate days is better for plant growth during summer months

DISBUDDING

• In standard carnations, lateral buds below sixth node from terminal flower bud are removed to encourage production of best quality terminal flowers. The best time for disbudding is when terminal flower bud is about 15 mm diameter. • Spray type carnations need a different kind of disbudding. In this terminal bud is removed from main axis to encourage lateral flower buds.

HARVESTING

• Standard carnations are harvested when petals just show colour outside the calyx, i.e., called as the paint brush stage • Spray types are harvested when two flowers are open and all other buds have started showing colour

GRADING

• Extra Class: - include flowers of best quality, i.e., properly developed flowers with strong stems and conforming to a given cultivar. Only 3 % flowers with slight faults are allowed in this class., following are characters of Extra Class flowers • STANDARD FLOWERS: Flower Diameter: 6 - 8 cm, Stem Length: 50 – 60 cm • SPRAY FLOWERS: Flower Diameter: 3 - 5 cm, Stem Length: 25 – 30 cm

TREATMENT WITH FLORAL PRESERVATIVES

• Silver Thiosulphate 0.5 milli MOLAR + Sucrose- 100 g/ litre + Citric Acid - 300 ppm [ Treatment for 12 hours ] • Carnation is very sensitive to ethylene gas. The anti-ethylene compound 1-MCP (1- methyl cyclo propene) is mixed with floral preservatives to prevent injury of ethylene

STORAGE

• Pre-cooling of flowers quickly after harvesting reduces water loss • Flowers harvested at tight bud stage can be stored longer than those at opened bud stage • Longest post storage vase-life was obtained by maintaining storage temperature at 100C and humidity 98 %

TRADING OF CARNATIONS

• United States and many American nations celebrate functions, particularly independence day with carnations • US is a major importer of carnation • Holland is the largest exporter • 2ND largest exporter is Colombia • From Colombia, >50 commercial cultivars, >200,000 tonnes flowers fetching $500 million traded annually. Colombian exports, mainly to US (85%), and to Britain, Germany, Russia, Japan

ETHIOPIA’s FLOWER EXPORTS

• Floriculture plays a major role in Ethiopia’s efforts to beat un-employment • Floriculture is so blooming that in near future, it could even overtake coffee, the main horticultural export commodity • Low air-freight cost from Addis Ababa and proximity to European, West Asian, Middle East markets are advantages • Carnation stands 4th in flowers exported from Ethiopia, next to Rose, Geranium, Poinsettia • Out of 600 million US $ earned in 2012 by flower exports, 40 million US $ is the share of carnations • >1400 ha under Green Houses in Ethiopia, 1/6th is under carnation • Cool climatic conditions of Ethiopian high lands (with warm sunny days and cooler nights) is ideal for growing cut flowers (including carnation) even in out-door conditions

Quality of carnation flowers produced in Ethiopia, being superior than from Kenya can compete to gain supremacy among carnation exporters of Africa

CHAPTER 11: ORCHIDS

Orchids are the royalty among flower crops. They exhibit an incredible range of diversity in size, shape and colour of flowers. They are valued as cut flowers and potted plants. They are famous for their long vase life and bewitching beauty. No other plant has probably acquired the status of orchids.

Orchids with their rich diversity of colours and forms coupled with long lasting characteristics occupy a prime position in cut flower industry. The orchid cut flower industry is growing at an annual rate of 15-20 per cent. The world orchid trade is estimated to be around nearly US $ 65 billion.

Types of Orchids: Orchids can be divided to two groups depending on the “plant structure”. These are monopodial and sympodial.

(i) Monopodial orchids grow from a single vegetative apex. They do not have rhizome or pseudo-bulbs. They are mostly climbers. Single stem is the main character of monopodials. Roots are adventitious, thick, round and photosynthetic, clinging to the supports, absorbing moisture from air. Important monopodial orchids include Arachnis, Vanda, Renanthera, Phalaenopsis, Aerides etc. (ii) Sympodial orchids are characterized by the presence of rhizomes or modified bulbs (pseudo-bulbs). They grow from a number of vegetative apices. Roots arise from the base of rhizomes / pseudo-bulbs. Cymbidium, Dendrobium, Cattelya, and Oncidium are common examples. The distinguishing feature of sympodial orchids is their limited growth. In all orchids there is a layer of spongy tissue known as “velamen” around the true roots. This tissue absorbs water and minerals and also preserves water.

According to their growth habit orchids can be divided into terrestrial, epiphytic, saprophytic, lithophytic etc.

Terrestrial orchids grow in soil and are called ground orchids. Common ground orchids are Spathoghottis, Peristeria elata, Jewel orchids etc.

Epiphytic orchids grow on other plants and are abundant in the humid tropical rain forests up to elevations of 3,000 m. Most common epiphytic orchids are Vanda, Vanilla, Dendrobium, Cymbidium etc. All epiphytes have clinging roots for support, and hygroscopic velamen roots.

Saprophytic orchids live on dead and decaying organic matter and are usually found on moist forest floor. They have no green leaves but only fleshy underground rhizome. Ex: Neottia, Galeola

Lithophytic orchids are very rare and grow in most shaded rocks and crevices of stony walls. Diplomeris, Geodorum etc. are some examples.

Orchids of Commercial importance

There are around 25000 species of orchids belonging to 700 genera and more than one lakh hybrids. Around 1000 hybrids are being added every year. Many orchids are of horticultural importance and some of them are as follows: (i) Aerides : Foxtail orchids (ii) Arachnis : Spider orchids (iii) Rhyncostylis: Their inflorescence resembles that of Aerides and hence they are also called Fox tail orchids. (iv) Oncidium : Dancing girl orchid (v) Phalaenopsis : Moth orchids (vi) Epidendrum : Holy cross orchid (vii) Spathoglottis : Ground orchid (viii) Peristeria : Dove orchid Cymbidiums are the leaders among all orchids in the global cut flower trade presently ranking eighth in top 10 cut flowers. It fetches highest price per flower on international markets. Cattelyas are widely traded for their showy large blooms, Phalaenopsis has very long vase life and Oncidiums are used as cut flower sprays. All these are highly valued as cut flowers and as potted plants. Among the tropical orchids, Dendrobiums are the most favored and account for 85% of the total trade in tropical orchids cut flowers. Vandas, Mokaras, Arandas, Arachnis etc, are also popular cut flower sprays which are traded worldwide. In USA, orchids have raised to number 2 positions in the sales of flowering potted plants.

CHAPTER 12: SOME CUT FLOWERS EXPORTED FROM ETHIOPIA

[I] GYPSOPHILA

Gypsophila paniculata (baby's breath or common gypsophila) is a species of flowering plant in the family Caryophyllaceae native to central and eastern Europe. It is a herbaceous perennial growing to 1.2 m (4 ft) tall , with many branching stems covered with mass of tiny white flowers especially in summer months (hence the common name "baby's breath"). Its natural habitat is on sandy and stony places, often on calcareous soils (gypsophila= "chalk-loving").

Cultivation It is a popular ornamental garden plant for out-door conditions; prefer well-drained alkaline to neutral soils in full sun. Important cultivars are “'Bristol Fairy” and “Rosenschleier” both of which have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Floristry Gypsophila paniculata is much used in the floristry trade (where it is often simply called "gyp") providing an effective backdrop for structured blooms in gardens and for dry flower production. It is commercially cultivated in Peru, forming a major portion of that country's flower exports. [II] STATICE [Limonium sp.]

Statice belongs to family, Plumbaginaceae. A biennial by growth habit, but usually treated as an annual, flowers are borne in open clusters of short one-sided spikes or sprays at terminal ends of stems. Flower calyx which is toothed and straw like provides colour and the real, tiny tubular flowers are inconspicuous. Flower sprays are white, rose, lavender, salmon-pink, orange-yellow, etc. They retain attractive pastel shades for a long time when dried and therefore used as ‘everlasting’ flowers in flower arrangements. The species most widely grown as cut flowers include Limonium sinuatum, L. incana, L. latifolium

Statice is propagated by seeds. Limonium is a popular filler flower widely used in both fresh and dried bouquets. It is a hardy cut flower and requires only minimum care. Popular varieties include Art Shades, Pastel Shades, Chamois Rose and Snow Queen.

[III] FREESIA

Freesia is a genus of herbaceous perennial flowering plants in the family Iridaceae, first described as a genus in 1866 by Christian Father Echlon and named after German botanist and doctor Friedrich Freese. It is native to the eastern side of southern Africa, most species being found in Cape Provinces. The plants commonly known as “freesias”, with fragrant funnel- shaped flowers, are cultivated hybrids of a number of Freesia species.

Description They are herbaceous plants which grow from a conical corm 2.5 cm diameter, which sends up tuft of narrow leaves 20–30 cm long, and a stems 30–40 cm tall bearing one-sided spike (inflorescence) of flowers. Many species have fragrant narrowly funnel-shaped flowers. Freesias are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species including Large Yellow Underwing.

Freesia

Figure 5: Freesia plant morphology

Cultivation and uses The plants usually called "freesias" are derived from crosses made in the 19th century between Freesia refracta and Freesia corymbosa . Numerous cultivars have been bred from these species mainly pink- and yellow-flowered forms. Modern tetraploid cultivars have flowers ranging from white to yellow, pink and red. They are mostly cultivated professionally in the Netherlands by about 80 growers. Though corms are the commercial propagating material, Freesias can also be readily increased from seed. Due to their specific and pleasing scent, they are often used in hand creams, shampoos, candles, etc. However, the flowers are mainly used in wedding bouquets and as cut flowers. [IV] GERANIUM OR PELARGONIUM

Pelargonium is ranked as one of the highest traded potted flowering plant sold on a global scale and also in terms of wholesale value

• Geranium is used as a bedding plant, potted flowering plant, hanging basket plant and garden ornamental • The family is Geraniaceae which contain 2 important genera that are used as ornamentals: (i) Pelargonium - the genus include more than 250 species of which 5 are important:

- Pelargonium X hortorum [Common Geranium or Ornamental Geranium ] - Pelargonium peltatum [Ivy Geranium or Hanging Basket Geranium] - Pelargonium X domesticum [Real Geranium or Queen of Garden Geranium ] - Pelargonium graveolens [Scented Geranium or Essential Oil Geranium] - Pelargonium floribunda [Cascade Geranium, evolved as a cross between Pelargonium Xhortorum and Pelargonium peltatum

(ii) Geranium – this genus also include many garden ornamentals but not very popular as the ornamentals of genus Pelargonium

ORIGIN:- Most species of Pelargonium are native of South Africa and their performance is better in the Mediterranean climate of Cape Province.

USES and CURRENT STATUS:- Geraniums have been one of the most important ornamental species mainly in the category of plant business for bedding purposes. They have some value as Exhibition Blooms but rarely used as Cut Flowers. Geraniums perform excellently as ground beds in gardens and also as potted plants (in large pots or tubs). The ivy geranium (Pelargonium peltatum) and cascade geranium (Pelargonium floribunda) are used in hanging baskets mainly in the balconies of villas when the stems with flowers will naturally trail or hang downward. All cultivated pelargoniums are perennial herbs. Flowers are an umbel inflorescence and colors include red, pink, salmon or white. Flowers may be single or double.

PROPAGATION

Commercial propagation of geranium is exclusively by asexual method (by stem cuttings). Seed propagation is practiced for professional breeding programs for the evolution of varieties. Tissue culture propagation is possible and is used in the maintenance of disease free plant population from certified (disease free) nuclear stock plants.

Scented- leaf Pelargonium

They are grown for their beauty, the species P. graveolens is important in the perfume industry for the manufacture of high grade natural perfumes. So it is cultivated and distilled for their scented oils. Scented pelargoniums exist which have smells of citrus, mint, pine, spices or various fruits, the varieties with rose scents are most commercially important. Product obtained by distillation of leaves commonly known as "scented geranium oil” is used to supplement or adulterate expensive rose oils. Scented-leafed pelargoniums can also be used to flavor jellies, cakes, butters, ice cream, iced tea and other dishes.

Herbal medicine

In herbal medicine, Pelargonium has been used for intestinal problems, wounds and Pelargonium species have also been used for fevers, kidney complaints and other conditions. Geranium (Pelargonium) oil is considered a relaxant in aromatherapy, and in recent years, respiratory/cold remedies are made from the essential oil which are sold in Europe and the United States of America.

DESA PLANTS PLC

Desa Plants PLC is a Belgian company producing cuttings of ornamental plants and is located in Ejersa, 83km from Addis Ababa. Desa Plants was established in 2007 by Ludo Decock and was originally only exporting pelargonium cuttings. The company started with 4 hectares of greenhouses in 2008 and at present has expanded to 14 hectares of greenhouses. Apart from the mass production of pelargonium cuttings, Desa Plants now also exports cuttings of dipladenia, poinsettia, bedding plants, herbs and perennials all over the world. The company now employs 750 people and is managed by a team of motivated Belgian & Ethiopian professionals. Desa Plants is committed to produce and export top quality cuttings with respect for people and environment.

Desa Plants produces about 60 million cuttings of ornamental plants and pot plants and exports the cuttings mainly to the European and Northern American markets. More recently also other global markets are added to the sales network. Customers of Desa Plants are mainly rooting stations (centres for producing rooted cuttings) and professional growers. The company in Ethiopia is involved in mass production of cuttings while Decock Plants in Belgium is the company which is the major rooting station. Products

Desa Plants exports rooted and un-rooted cuttings of pelargonium, dipladenia, poinsettia, bedding plants, pot plants, herbs and perennials all over the world.

[V] POINSETTIA

Poinsettia (Euphorbia pulcherrima) is a culturally and commercially important plant species of the plant family Euphorbiaceae that is indigenous to Mexico and Central America. It is particularly well known for its red and green foliage and is widely used in Christmas floral displays. It derives its common English name from Joel Roberts Poinsett, the first United States Minister to Mexico, who introduced the plant into the United States in 1825.

Euphorbia pulcherrima is a shrub or small tree, typically reaching a height up to 4 metres. The colored bracts—which are most often flaming red but can be orange, pale green, cream, pink, white, or marbled—are often mistaken for flower petals and gives the commercial floricultural value to the plant.

Today it is known in Mexico and Guatemala as Flor de Noche Buena, meaning Christmas Eve Flower. In Spain it is known as Flor de Pascua or Pascua, meaning Easter flower. In Chile and Peru, the plant became known as Crown of the Andes. In Turkey, it is called Atatürk's flower because Atatürk, the founder of the Republic, liked this flower and made a significant contribution to its cultivation in Turkey.

From the 17th century, the people of Mexico included the plants in their Christmas celebrations. The star-shaped leaf pattern is said to symbolize the Star of Bethlehem, and the red color represents the blood sacrifice through the crucifixion of Jesus

Poinsettias are popular Christmas decorations in homes, churches, offices, and elsewhere across North America. They are available in large numbers from grocery, drug, and hardware stores. In the United States, December 12 is National Poinsettia Day.

Cultivation

Figure 6: Euphorbia pulcherrima

In areas outside its natural environment, it is commonly grown as an indoor plant where it prefers good morning sun, then shade in the hotter part of the day. It is widely grown and very popular in subtropical climates such as Australia, Rwanda and Malta.

The plant requires a daily period of uninterrupted long days, dark nights followed by the bright sunny days for around two months in autumn in order to encourage it to develop colored bracts. Any incidental light during these nights (from a nearby television set, from under a door frame, even from passing cars or street lights) hampers bract production. Commercial production of poinsettia has been done by placing them inside a greenhouse and providing conditions inside the greenhouse which imitate the natural biological situations.

DUMMEN ORANGE PLC

The advantages of cuttings production in Ethiopia

The facility is part of the global plant breeding company and supplier of young plants operating under the name of Dümmen Orange, a company originated in the city of Rheinberg (Germany) and part of a fusion of several international firms. On a greenhouse area of 40 hectares, Dümmen Orange produces a total of approximately 50 million poinsettia and 100 million geranium cuttings in Ethiopia. For this purpose, the workers – mainly women – crop the cuttings, which are equally standardized, from the young plants. Each of these cuttings is of identical length and width and always has two large and two small leaves. The cuttings are then bunched into bundles of 10 by 10 units, which are done to painstaking accuracy. One worker can process around 1,200 cuttings per day, and some workers only need a few hours to complete the work. That way, between six and seven million cuttings is transported to Europe and to the USA by airplane every week. As soon as they arrive at their destination, the cuttings will be used for further cultivation in nurseries in order to obtain flowering plants of 30 to 40 centimeters height which will or sale in local supermarkets.

Figure 7: The cutting of flower to the recommended height

Greenhouses in Ethiopia, a country with a lot of sunshine and an almost Mediterranean climate, is offer ideal temperatures, sunshine all year long and only serve to keep pests and insects away from the plants.

The former family business of Dümmen, which is now part of Dümmen Orange, has been operating in Ethiopia since 2004. 100 hectares of wasteland have been leased from the government so that the cultivated area of currently 40 hectares can be further enlarged in the future. In addition, Dümmen Orange focuses on sustainability – both in environmental and social terms. The idea is to reduce the use of pesticides gradually and to replace them with microbiological organisms.

Dümmen Orange has now taken a further step and has had the company certified by Fairtrade. Retailers of Fair-trade have already ordered 500,000 poinsettia cuttings – in Germany, Austria, Norway, Switzerland, and in Nothern Italy.

Figure 8: Euphorbia pulcherrima

Fair-trade

What does Fair-trade imply? Fair-trade stands for fair working conditions, reliable employment contracts, occupational health and safety. In addition, 10 percent of the revenues earned from the sale of cuttings are paid as a Fair-trade bonus.

The objectives of Fairtrade are:

• protection of basic social rights, • reduction of the use of pesticides (in accordance with European Union directives) • controlled water management.

FAIRTRADE INTERNATIONAL

Who carries out the certification procedure?

FLOCERT is the independent certification company of Fairtrade International. The company certifies producers of plants, traders in about 115 different countries according to the Fairtrade

62 standards. In this context, more than 100 highly qualified inspectors verify on site production of flowers/ cuttings, whether the Fairtrade standards are strictly followed.

Any farm in Africa, Latin America and Asia that produce cut flowers and plants may have themselves certified according to the Fairtrade standards. By means of a valid Fairtrade certificate, these farms will then be allowed, in principle, to sell their entire product range to any Fairtrade-certified buyer, e. g. to an importer, under Fairtrade terms.

CHAPTER 13: OTHER CUT FLOWERS

[I] GERBERA

Gerbera is a genus of plants in the Asteraceae (daisy family). It was named in honour of German botanist and medical doctor Traugott Gerber who travelled extensively in Russia and was a friend of Carl Linnaeus. Gerbera is native to tropical regions of South America. The first scientific description of a Gerbera was made by J.D. Hooker in Curtis's Botanical Magazine in 1889 when he described Gerbera jamesonii, a South American species also known as Transvaal daisy. Gerbera is also commonly known as the African daisy. Gerbera species bear a large capitulum (inflorescence head) with striking, two-lipped ray florets in yellow, orange, pink or red colours. The capitulum, which has the appearance of a single flower, is actually composed of hundreds of individual flowers (ray florets which are the showy outer ones and disc florets in the centre). The flower heads can be as small as 7 cm (Gerbera mini 'Harley’ in diameter as or more than 15 cm diameter (Gerbera ‘Golden Serena’. Gerbera is very popular and widely used as a decorative garden plant and the popular cut flower, traded internationally. The domesticated cultivars are mostly a result of a cross between Gerbera jamesonii [South American species] and another South African species Gerbera viridifolia. The cross is known as Gerbera hybrida. Thousands of cultivars exist in Gerbera hybrida. They vary greatly in shape and size. Colours include white, yellow, orange, red, and pink. The centre of the flower is sometimes black. Often the same flower can have petals (ray florets) of several different colours. Gerbera is very important commercially. It is the fifth most used cut flower in the world (after rose, carnation, chrysanthemum, and tulip). Gerbera contains naturally occurring coumarin derivatives. Gerbera is a tender perennial plant. It is attractive to bees, butterflies and/or birds.

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Figure 9: Gerbera viridifolia

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Figure 10: Gerbera jamesonii

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Figure 11: Gerbera × hybrida

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Figure 12: Red Gerbera Daisies

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Figure 13: Gerbera with pink and white ray florets

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Figure 14: Gerbera jamesonii in Orange [II] MARIGOLD

Tagetes is a genus of mostly annual and rarely perennial, herbaceous plants in the sunflower family (Asteraceae or Compositae). It was described as a genus by Linnaeus in 1753. The genus is native to North and South America, but many species have become naturalized around the world. One species, Tagetes minuta, is a noxious invasive plant in some countries. Figure 15: Tagetes - various species

Marigold on an altar in Mexico

Marigold is very significant in Nepalese and Indian cultures, where marigold garlands are used almost in every household, especially during the festivals and ceremonies. It is always sold in the markets for daily worships and rituals. Marigold was regarded as the flower of the dead in pre-Hispanic Mexico, parallel to the lily in Europe, and is still widely used in the Day of the Dead celebrations. The marigold is also widely cultivated in India and Thailand, particularly the species Tagetes erecta, Tagetes patula and Tagetes tenuifolia. Vast quantities of marigolds are used in garlands and decorations like weddings, festivals, and religious events in India and Nepal. In Ukraine, Tagetes erecta, Tagetes patula and the signet marigold, Tagetes tenuifolia are regarded as one of the national symbols, and are often mentioned in songs, poems, and tales.

CHAPTER 14: NEW GENERATION CUT FLOWERS

Today, floriculture has transformed into a viable agri-business. Ornamental industry is unique among agricultural industries in that novelty is an important attribute. Consumers always seek ‘something new’. In the increasingly competitive international cut flower market, novelty crops play an important role in maintaining and expanding the market share. These crops are somewhat different from regular carnations, chrysanthemums and rose type of crops. The definitions of new crops are:

▪ A newly discovered genera or species. ▪ Newly introduced cultivars of plants grown in earlier years, but forgotten or without complete cultural information. ▪ Crops that can be produced with new production technologies that can enhance crop quality and shorten the total production time. Although traditional cut flower crops will continue to play key role in the floriculture trade, a distinct trend towards increasing share of new crops is clearly evident in recent years. These new cut flowers normally fetch higher prices than traditional crops for a certain period but quite often the prices drop when market is saturated. By that time new cut flowers should be ready to enter the market. In this context, introduction of new cut flowers is of paramount importance. FACTORS DETERMINING IMPORTANCE OF NEW CUT FLOWERS

➢ Local markets as well as international markets are saturated with all traditional flowers; therefore expansion is possible for many more new cut flower crops. ➢ Limiting factors in cut flower production is water and other resources. Floriculture has high return per unit area of cultivation (either in poly houses or out-doors). . ➢ Ethiopia has suitable climate for production of traditional as well as new cut flowers.

CHECKLIST USED WHEN NEW SPECIES AND VARIETIES ARE USED FOR PRODUCTION AS NEW- GENERATION CUT FLOWERS

➢ Overall attractiveness as a cut flower ➢ Stem length ➢ Uniformity of individual flowers ➢ Flower colour and its range ➢ Use potential (centrepiece or filler use) ➢ Shipping life (need for preservatives, temperature requirements, ethylene tolerance) ➢ Vase life ➢ Harvest (timing and duration) ➢ Ease and cost of production ➢ Cost of propagation material ➢ Production methods (green house or open field) ➢ Hardiness

➢ Pest and disease tolerance ➢ Uniqueness (Is it similar to other more common cut flowers?) (www.agf.gov.bc.ca/ornamentals/floriculture/crit cuts.htm)

[I] Lisianthus (Eustoma russellianum)

Lisianthus is a newly introduced, high value cut flower. It has potential to compete with tulip for its beauty. Flower is elegant in form and is easily mistaken for a rose. It belongs to family Gentianaceae and originated from Central America and Texas. A perennial plant, in most cases treated as an annual produces flowers in a range of colours.

Presently, more than 70 varieties are available with varied colours and petal shapes. Single flowering Lisianthus is appealing in form; however there appears to be a strong consumer preference for double flowering varieties. Doubles have 10-20 flower petals that present a rose-like appearance when fully open.

Lisianthus is commercially propagated by seeds. Seeds are sown in trays containing peat-perlite mixture. Two-month old seedlings at 4-6 leaf stage are transplanted. It prefers well drained porous media with good nutrient status. Even though, the plants grow in soil, in commercial production, peat-perlite (1:1) mixture is used in foreign countries. Lisianthus grows the best at 24oC day temperature and 18oC night temperature. Temperatures below 18oC significantly slow root and shoot growth but do not hinder subsequent flower development. Temperature has significant effect on flowering time and quality of flowers.

Lisianthus produces good quality flowers with excellent post-harvest life when fed with nitrogen and potassium in a 1: 1.5 ratio. Inflorescence can be harvested when at least two flowers open and other buds develop characteristic colour. Harvesting is usually carried out in morning hours when two flowers are open. For fresh market sales, wait for up to 4 flowers to open before harvesting. Prior to shipping, the cut flower stems are pre-cooled to 55oF.

Cut flower qualities of Lisianthus:

➢ It has good keeping quality with minor flower shattering. ➢ It retains good quality for approximately 2 weeks after being cut. ➢ It is easy for transporting by shipment and air freight ➢ Not highly susceptible to ethylene gas.

[II] Sugar bush (Protea spp.)

Sugar bush or honey pot belongs to family Proteaceae. It is a native of South Africa. The flowers are large, mainly oval in shape and the colour varies from light pink, pinkish-red to white. Flowers are surrounded by brightly coloured bracts, covered in silky hairs which are very attractive. Main advantage of Protea flowers is their conspicuous and showy nature,

69 which renders them ideally suited as standard blooms which form the focus or centerpiece of large floral arrangements.

Crop is usually propagated by seed or from semi-hardwood cuttings. Most commercial varieties are propagated by using approximately 20 cm long terminal semi-hardwood cuttings. A 5 second basal dip in IBA (4000 ppm) is used and cuttings are planted in a well aerated medium with intermittent misting.

Spectacular flower arrangements with Protea will provide 2 to 3 weeks of fresh and colorful visual pleasure. When flowers finally lose their freshness, they may be left in vase without water to dry for an enduring dried flower arrangement.

[III] Wind flower (Anemone spp.)

Anemone coronaria or poppy anemone is the most widely grown species. Originated in Western Asia and possibly, the Mediterranean, it belongs to family, Ranunculaceae. Stem terminates in an attractive single, velvety, cup-shaped flower with a darkish centre. Petals are enclosed in a circle of green sepals.

Anemone is propagated by seeds and from divisions of rootstocks or by root cuttings. Seeds are mainly used to produce mutants and breed new hybrids. Seeds are rubbed with sand to remove fuzz and are sown in clean beds in hot weather. Plants take six months to flower. Divisions of tuber or root cutting are made in early spring before growth starts.

Harvesting is done early in the day when buds are barely open, as there is no market for half-open flowers. Great care must be taken in packing and transporting flowers and to avoid stems bending over, bunches should be wrapped in paper and placed upright in containers of water. Cut flowers remain in good condition for 8 days in moderate temperatures.

[IV] Calla lily (Zantedeschia spp.)

Calla lily, the National flower of Ethiopia is a member of family Araceae. It is a typical African monocotyledonous plant with a long tuberous rhizome and a large spathe. Plant is suited for cool upland areas. New Zealand is the world leader in calla lily production and export. It is a potential flower that has been commercialized in India recently.

Flower consists of a spadix, upper part of which bear male flowers and lower part bearing female flowers. Spathe which surrounds spadix is large and very decorative. It is cornet-shaped, scented and the diameter of spathe ranges from 8-12 cm.

Two species of calla lily are popular as cut flowers

- Zantedeschia aethiopica (with white spathe) - Zantedeschia elliotiana (with yellow spathe)

Since calla lily is basically a marsh plant, a soil which has good moisture retaining properties is required for optimum growth. Their tolerance for moisture makes them excellent for growing in clay soils. A high content of organic matter is also essential. Plant grows well under open conditions. They also grow well on dry land if adequately irrigated and they do beautifully well in pots also. Growth retardants are used to reduce height of plants.

The tuberous rhizomes produce a type of offset which can be divided into fragments and used for propagation. Tubers need to be treated with gibberillic acid to overcome dormancy. In general, it takes about 11 to 14 weeks for plants to flower and about 8 weeks in hybrids. Bright light is required for best quality and flowering.

Flowers are picked as soon as they are completely formed and before they begin to open. Flowers are fragile and so they have to be handled with great care.

[V] Zingiberaceous cut flowers

Zingiberaceae family is characterized by many strikingly beautiful plants which are valued for their display and cut flower value by virtue of their post-harvest longevity. The red gingers, torch gingers and ornamental Curcumas are the most prominent among them.

Ornamental Curcuma (Curcuma spp.)

Curcuma family has quite an interesting and unique group of flowers. They come in many forms, shapes and colours. Thailand is one of the leading producers, although Israel also has also good cultivation using tissue cultured plants.

Popular species are Curcuma alismatifolia, Curcuma parviflora and Curcuma gracillima. They are propagated by rhizomes which can be handled and shipped easily as they are small and are less heavy compared with other bulbous crops such as lilies and hyacinths. They can be stored at room temperature for a relatively long period of time, up to 3 months for shipping by air or by sea.

Performance of Curcuma under greenhouse conditions revealed that the cultivars Precious Petuma, White Angel and Chiang Mai Pink produced marketable pot plants irrespective of shading intensity.

Ornamental Musa (Musa spp.)

Several wild species of Musa are ornamental in nature, particularly plants belonging to the section Rhodochlamys (Musa velutina, M. ornata and M. laterita) and also section Callimusa (Musa coccinea). They are well adapted to humid tropical conditions and tolerate full sun to partial shade. They are propagated by suckers. Plants usually attain 1.5 to 2.1 m height and bloom year round. A vase life of 12 to 14 days is observed in distilled water.

Table 5: Distribution of the different species of ornamental banana [Musa spp.]

Species Distribution

Musa ornata North India, Myanmar, Thailand Musa velutina North India Musa laterita Myanmar, Thailand Musa coccinea China, Indonesia, Thailand

FUTURE STRATEGIES

➢ Introduction and acclimatization of new cut flowers. ➢ There is need for providing research support on new cut flowers. ➢ Exploration and exploitation of indigenous new ornamentals. ➢ Information on consumer attitudes which influence floral purchasing to be collected. ➢ Coordinated well-focused research programme and policy of new crops for development should be given priority.

Table6: Characters of New Generation Cut Flowers

Common name Nativity Major producing Research Vase countries life(days)

Lisianthus C. America Japan, Texas, Japan, Florida, 7-14 Norway Australia

Sugar bush S. Africa Australia, S. Africa Australia, S. Africa 14-21

Kangaroo paw S.W. Australia Australia, Australia 5-8

Israel (Queensland)

Wax flower W. Australia Israel Australia 7-14

Wind flower W. Asia U.S.A U.S.A 5-8

Statice Unknown U.S.A U.S.A 12-16

Calla lily Africa New Zealand New Zealand, 4-8

U.S.A

Gingers Asia Hawai Hawai 7-14

Curcumas Thailand Thailand, U.S.A, Korea, 12-15

Israel Thailand

Musas Asia Thailand Thailand 12-14

CHAPTEER 15: DRY FLOWER PRODUCTION

A PROFITABLE FLORICULTURE BUSINESS

Dry flowers are natural flowers, dried and preserved which have an everlasting value that can be used for decoration for longer periods. Dry flower production is labour intensive, provides self-employment and job opportunities for a large number of workers and aids in development of subsidiary industries. Apart from obvious uses in bouquets and flower arrangements, dried flowers can be used in topiaries, swags, wreaths, flower-pictures, greeting cards, pomanders, festive decorations etc. International Market of Dried Flowers 1. Dried flowers and plant parts in bulk This is a high volume, well established business, which has international market outlets. Dried flowers are then sold by retail florists and in supermarkets. The varieties of plants used include (i) Statice (ii) Helichrysum (iii) Gypsophila (iv) Straw flower (v) Nigella (vi) Marigold (vii) selected species of Roses (viii) Globe amaranth (ix) Celosia 2. Potpourri Potpourri is a mixture of dehydrated flowers, berries and leaves, exported as scented flowers. It is usually packed in small muslin bags and placed in wardrobes and drawers as clothe fresheners. This is also used for providing natural fragrance and as a decorative feature in rooms. Major flowers used in potpourri are (i) bachelor’s buttons (globe Amaranth) (ii) cocks comb (Celosia cristata) (iii) marigold flowers (Tagetes sp.) (iv) neem leaves (Azadirachta indica) (v) stones/seeds from fruits like plums, peaches or apricot. Generally, potpourri materials should have a strong natural colour. 3. Arrangements with dried plant materials This is used in wreaths and swags where artistic input is the determining factor. The common products marketed are cotton pods, large cones of pines (Pinus sp.) and other conifers, dried capsicums (Capsicum annum), seed pods of legumes, inflorescence heads of cereals, exotic grasses, unfurling fern fronds etc. 4. Floral handicrafts This includes flower pictures, cards and covers (pressed, dried flowers and foliage). Innovative items like candle stands, table lamps, picture frames, floral jewellery, arrangements in glass containers are also made.

TECHNIQUES OF DRYING FLOWERS Various methods are used for drying flowers all over the world. They range from traditional air drying methods to modern freeze drying method. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. [I] Air drying method (Drying in shade) This is a simple method. The plant parts are dried in well-aerated dark rooms free of moisture and humidity. (a) Hanging upside down: This is the most popular method under air drying. The bunches of flowers or foliage are hung upside down on horizontally placed poles or wires. (b) Drying upright: This is done in two ways. (1) Plant material is left to stand in empty vase and allowed to dry (2) Plant material is kept in 5cm of water and allowed to dry. (c) Drying Flat: Here the plant materials are laid on any absorbent surface like cardboard, newspaper or wooden piece. [II] Sun drying method Flowers can also be dried under sun. Flowers embedded in suitable drying medium in non- metallic containers are exposed to sun daily till it gets dried. [III] Press Drying Method Fresh flowers and leaves are placed between folds of blotting sheets and kept one above the other. Corrugated boards of same size are placed in between folds to allow water vapour to escape. The whole set up is then placed in plant press. The plant press has to be tightened regularly. This process takes 2 to 3 months for drying. [IV] Desiccants: desiccants or drying agents like silica gel, borax, alum and sand are used for drying flowers. Silica gel is the best desiccant. Stem ends of fully opened flowers are cut and are placed over 3 cm layer of desiccant in a container. Desiccants are poured over flowers to completely cover in between the petals. After drying, desiccants are poured off to expose flowers. Loose particles should be dusted away with soft camel hair brush. [V] Oven Drying Method: in this method, flowers or foliages embedded in desiccants and are kept in electrically operated hot air oven at specific (controlled) temperature for an appropriate time. [VI] GLYCERIN METHOD OF PRESERVATION The flowers and foliages are placed in glycerin and warm water solution in the ratio of 2: 3. Mostly, foliages are suited for this method. The plant material absorbs the mixture. As the

75 water gradually evaporates, it gets saturated with glycerin. Glycerin preserved materials remain supple, pliable and long lasting so they might be used over longer periods. [VII] BLEACHING, DYEING AND PAINTING Bleaching and dyeing are the two important processes related to commercial dry flower production. Bleaching is important in processing of plant material that is to be marketed. Various bleaching agents include sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen peroxidase and sodium sulphite etc. which are widely used to remove colour from plant tissues. Dyeing of dried plants is a creative fun and they are highly adaptable for home decoration. The lasting quality is one of the greatest assets. Both natural and artificial dyes are popularly used. Natural dyes are obtained from onion skin, marigold petals, rasp berries, blue berries, mulberries, strong tea, sunflower hulls, Hibiscus leaves etc. Artificial dyes like Basic Methylene Blue, Basic Auromine Yellow and Basic Rhodamine are widely used. Painting of dried plant materials can be done using enamel, poster paint, interior paint and tube paint.

CHAPTER 16: BONSAI

Bonsai is a Japanese art form of dwarfing trees for growing in containers. Similar practices exist in other cultures, including the Chinese tradition of penjing from which the art actually originated. The word bonsai is often used in English as an umbrella term for all miniature trees grown in containers or pots.

The purposes of bonsai are primarily is to give beauty for the viewer., by contrast with other plant cultivation practices, bonsai is not intended for production of food or for medicine. Instead, bonsai practice focuses on long-term cultivation and shaping of one or more small trees for growing in a container for giving aesthetic value/ beauty to the viewers.

A bonsai is initiated and created with a specimen of “source material”. This may be a cutting, seedling, or small tree of a species suitable for bonsai development. Bonsai can be created from nearly any perennial woody-stemmed tree or shrub species that produces good branches and can be cultivated to remain small (dwarf) through pot culture with crown and root pruning. Some species of gymnosperms are popular as bonsai material because they have characteristics, such as small leaves or needles that make them appropriate for the compact visual scope of bonsai.

Figure 16: Bonsai morphology

Figure 17: Equipment’s for cutting bonsai

BONSAI TOOLS: - 1. Leaf Trimmer 2. Rake with Spatula 3.Root Hook 4.Coir Brush 5.Concave Cutter 6. Knob Cutter 7.Wire Cutter 8.Small, Medium & Large Shears

Shallow Bonsai Figure 19: Shallow pots for bonsai growing

Techniques

The practices of bonsai development incorporate a number of techniques as follows:-

• Leaf trimming, the selective removal of leaves (for most varieties of trees) or needles (for coniferous trees) from a bonsai's trunk and branches. • Pruning the trunk, branches, and roots of the bonsai tree. • Wiring branches and trunks allows the bonsai designer to create the desired general form (shape) and make detailed placement of branches • Clamping using mechanical devices for shaping trunks and branches. • Defoliation, which can provide short-term dwarfing of foliage for certain deciduous species.

Care

Small trees grown in containers, like bonsai, require specialized care. Unlike houseplants and other plants of container gardening, tree species in the wild, in general, grow roots up to several meters long and structures surrounding the roots will accommodate several thousand liters of soil. In contrast, a typical bonsai container is less than 25 centimeters in its largest dimension and minimum 2 to maximum 10 liters in volume. Wild trees typically grow very tall when mature, whereas the largest bonsai rarely exceed 1 meter and most specimens are significantly smaller.

Maintaining the long-term health of a tree in a container (bonsai) requires some specialized care techniques:

• Watering must be regular and controlled watering is practiced depending on dry or wet soil. • Repotting must occur at intervals depending on the vigor and age of each tree. • Tools have been developed for the specialized requirements of maintaining bonsai. • Soil composition and fertilization must be specialized to the needs of each bonsai tree, although bonsai soil is almost always a loose, fast-draining mix of components

• Location and overwintering are different for different species of bonsai especially when kept outdoors and also different species require different light conditions. It is important to note that few of the traditional bonsai species can survive inside a typical house, due to the usually dry indoor climate.

CHAPTER 17: FOLIAGE PLANTS

Foliage or Non-flowering Herbaceous Plants:

Foliage plants come in all shapes - rounded, spread, upright, cascading or weeping, oval etc. They can be maintained in dishes, terrariums, hanging baskets totem poles, large individual pots, troughs, or boxes. They can range in height from a few inches to 20 feet or more in large patios or entries. They cover a wide color range and may have small flowers or may not have flowers.

Popular shade- loving foliage plants are excellent for indoor use in houses, offices as potted plants, in hanging pots etc.

These plants can also be displayed in the front side, steps or terrace of the house.

Sun-loving foliage plants are essential components in gardens for direct planting in fields and also for display in pots.

Small-scale entrepreneurs who are good marketers can make substantial profits in spring and summer seasons even on a part-time basis by growing certain foliage plants in 3,000-square-foot greenhouse. A least costly greenhouse could be used for multiplying and maintaining foliage plants. Talented horticulture growers sometimes branch out (diversify) from foliage plants into interior-scaping, the newest service in horticulture nursery business.

Problems facing foliage plant cultivation

Pest challenges facing foliage plant producers are among insects, whiteflies, thrips, spider mites, mealy bugs, leaf miners and among diseases, powdery mildew, Xanthomonas, Rhizoctonia, Fusarim, and Phytophthora. The biological-control approach to pest / disease management is usually recommended. Other problems facing foliage plant growers in green houses are nutrient deficiencies, excess / inadequate light and humidity, chilling, plant spacing, air pollution etc.

Some popular examples of foliage plants are: -

1. Coleus blumei, 2. Sansevieria trifasciata, 3. Dieffenbachia seguine, 4. Caladium hortulanum, 5. Chloropytum comosum, 6. Tradescantia spp., 7.Begonia rex, 8.Calathea zebrine, 9.Iresine spp., 10. Colocasia esculenta, 11. Maranta leuconeura, 12. Peperomia spp., 13. Fittonia verschaffeltii, 14. Nephrolepis, 15. Aspenium, 16. Dionaea muscipula

Cut foliage plants:

These are plants which can be cut and put in vases or cases inside homes, offices, restaurants, ceremonial occasions etc. Cut foliage plants are plants which are now grown by professional

81 horticulturists and finds good sales especially in domestic markets., they are generally native plants and those which survive well after cut from their stems. Cut foliage plants also usually have a long, straight stem for flower arrangement.

Table 7: Some popular examples of cut foliage plants are: -

Sl. No. COMMON NAME Scientific Name 1 Queensland Silver Wattle Acacia podalyriifolia 2 Bull Banksia Banksia grandis 3 Banana Croton Codiaeum 'Banana' 4 Nerve Croton Codiaeum variegata 5 Corkscrew Hazel Corylus avellana 'Contorta' 6 Desfontainia Desfontainia spinosa 7 Sticky Hop Bush Dodonaea viscosa 8 Broom Reed Elegia capensis 9 Curly Mallee Eucalyptus gillii 10 Anna Red Flax Phormium 'Anna Red' 11 Bronze Baby Flax Phormum ‘Bronze Baby’ 12 Bird of Paradise Strelitzia reginae 13 Zebra Plant Aphelandra squarrosa 14 ZZ Plant Zamioculus zamiifolia 15 Peperomia Peperomia pellucida 16 Calathea Calathea makoyana 17 Lucky Bamboo Dracaena braunii 18 Coral bead Nertera granadensis

CHAPTER 18: LANDSCAPING

Landscaping may be defined as the use of plants and inanimate objects in outdoors to fulfill aesthetic and functional purposes. Landscaping is an activity in which beauty as well as function may be determined by the customer.

To one person, landscaping may mean some fruit trees or just ornamental plants in the property. To another customer, plants in the landscape must not only be carefully selected but also be strategically arranged.

GOALS OF LANDSCAPING

In fulfilling aesthetic and functional purposes, landscaping may be used to accomplish the following goals.

• Enhance the aesthetic appeal of an area • Blend concrete/ architectural creations into the natural scenery • Control vehicular and pedestrian traffic • Modify environmental factors • Create recreational grounds • Provide hobby activities for people • Improve and conserve natural resources • Reduce noise and environmental pollution

CATEGORIES OF LANDSCAPING

The categories of landscaping may vary depending on the requirements of people. But the general principles of landscaping are applied in each category to provide the best results by integrating function and aesthetics.

(i) Residential Landscaping : Also called home landscaping, this is undertaken to meet the requirements of individual home owners. For example, a residential community called “Pine Acres” may have a large number and variety of pine trees where as “Cedarville” may have a large number of cedar trees.

One peculiarity in residential landscaping is that when home- owners design their homes, they take keen interest in the landscape design also. Residential landscaping often has a strong personal touch to it, reflecting the taste and needs of the home- owner.

(ii) Public Landscaping : Cities and towns are mere places of concrete, brick and mortar. They are designed to look beautiful and this goal is achieved by blending civil engineering/ architectural design. However, when plants are also used to beautify the frontage, surroundings and interiors of buildings, there will be a perfect combination of engineering skills and natural concepts.

Parks:- are designed and located for a variety of purposes. In the middle of sprawling skyscrapers, small parks in strategic locations can provide period rest and relaxation to pedestrians and any public person. Community parks, recreational landscapes, playgrounds, ball grounds, tennis courts, trails, pools, ponds etc provide god relaxation and recreation to public in city areas.

(iii) Commercial Landscaping : Commercial places often may have lots of space for parking. Commercial landscaping is found in places such as shopping malls, aerodromes, banks, hotels, restaurants etc. When designing Commercial Landscaping with the public and the business in mind, one important factor to be considered is safety. The landscaping installed should not pose a danger to the business workers or patrons.

(iv) Specialty Landscaping : This is used in places such as botanical gardens, zoological gardens where formal designs are used. A botanical design apart from in aesthetic design will also has a strong educational component. The landscape design and exhibits are organized and designed in such a manner that is very attractive to viewers.

Golf courses are landscaped to provide the requirements of game (without any obstacles) as well as for providing scenic beauty.

Zoological gardens adopt landscape designs that are functional with respect to animals that are displayed. A jungle environment may be created in an inner-city zoo to simulate (imitate) the natural habitat of jungle animals.

Theme Parks and Amusement Parks often adopt a commercial form of Specialty Landscaping.

LANDSCAPE PROFESSIONALS

Landscape Architect: A Landscape architect is a professional who possess the skills of designing, planning and installation of plants and inanimate objects (man-made) outdoors to fulfill aesthetic and functional purposes.

A landscape architect is a consultant who designs a site plan and planting plan for clients so as to beautify their landscape or environment. The landscape architect also provide his clients about how to install the landscape design in the specific landscape and also monitor the project until its completion. In most cases portions of the main project are sub-contracted to other professionals. [Landscape architects include civil/ architecture/ structural engineers, Horticulturists and other professionals].

Site Plan:- A drawing of the locations of plants and inanimate objects in a landscape.

Planting Plan:- It is a drawing that specify by means of symbols the types and names of plant species, the number of each species and their locations in a landscape.

LANDSCAPE DESIGN

The use of plants and inanimate objects to fulfill aesthetic and functional purposes:

Landscaping: is a very complex subject Several different groups of people are involved in landscaping processes These groups are usually: - Landscape Architects Landscape Designers Extension-service specialists and property owners

Landscape Architect

Licensed profession Better trained in graphic arts and in engineering and architectural technology Conceptualize and plan the outdoor environment or landscape for residential and commercial clients, has the ability to create designs for everything from small intimate gardens to new cities and parks of varying sizes Has skill in: Drafting, art writing and understanding detailed specification

Why design landscapes?

Aesthetic Benefits

Attractive landscapes make people feel better Provides color and fragrance Spaces made useful, comfortable, relaxing, stimulating and contribute much to enjoyable living

Functional Benefits

Blocks wind and glare Privacy Reduce odor Reduce pollution

Environmental Benefits

Regulate Temperature Control the drainage of surface water Stabilization of Slope Provide a habitat for all kinds of wildlife.

Categories of Landscaping

Residential landscaping - improving the appearance and aesthetic appeal of the area surrounding a home Commercial – for delighting customers & demonstrating company's commitment

Specialty landscaping- include hiking, mountain climbing, skiing, skating, running and fitness trails or paths, golf field, public restrooms, boat ramps, picnic facilities, etc Public landscaping - commonly incorporates public parks, playgrounds, gardens, running and fitness paths, bridle paths, sports field and courts, public restrooms, and picnic facilities. A park in cities and other incorporated places offer ample recreation facilities and provide enough green space to residents and visitors.

ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPING

1. Use of Colours in a Landscape • Changing distance perspective - warm colors and tints give advance effects - Cool colors and shades provide receding effects • Attracting attention in the landscape: Light colors and tints tend to attract attention as do bright, vivid colors. Considerations to be taken when using colors are: Year round colors which change by seasons are excellent in landscapes During day time various colors are enjoyed

Figure 20: The warm and cool flower colors

2. Line

• Line is related to eye movement or flow. • The concept and creation of line depends upon the purpose of the design and existing patterns. • Horizontal line is inferred by bed arrangement and the way these beds fit or flow together. • Vertical line is created by changes in plant height and structures.

Figure 21: Line

3. Form

• Form is the outline or three dimensional shape of an object. It is related also to the size of an object or area. • Form is basically the shape and structure of a plant or mass of plants. Thus it can be discussed in terms of individual plant growth habits or as the planting arrangement in a landscape. • Plant forms include upright, oval, columnar, spreading, broad spreading, weeping, etc. Structures also have form and should be considered as such when designing the area around them

Figure 22: Form

4. Texture

• Texture describes the surface quality of an object that can be seen or felt • Surfaces in the landscape include buildings, walks, patios, groundcovers, water surfaces and plants. • Coarse, medium or fine could be used to describe texture but so could smooth, rough, glossy or dull. • The texture of plants differs as the relationships between the leaves, twigs and branches differ. • Generally plants with large leaves have coarse texture while those with smaller leaves are finer. Similarly those with compound leaves are finer than those with uni-leaves. • Fine texture = eyes move easy • Course texture = focus eyes • Texture is relative. Comparison is how we determine texture in a landscape. One plant might be fine in certain surroundings but in others course.

Figure 23: Texture which has different sizes

5. Scale

• Scale refers to the size of an object or objects in relation to the surroundings. • Size refers to definite measurements while scale describes the size relationship between adjacent objects. • The size of plantings and buildings compared to the human scale must be considered.

Figure 24: Scale

PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

1. Unity

• Unity is obtained by the effective use of components in a design to express a main idea through consistent style. • Unity means that components are grouped, placed or arranged in such a way that several individual components appear to have a sense of oneness. • A desirable appearance need to be achieved from all points of view. • A repetitive pattern can be used to create unity. Example: If you are placing rocks in the garden, use the same rock type throughout the garden, rather than assortment of different rocks with varying colors, texture and shape. Large gardens can be divided into smaller units, in each unit different rock type can be used. However over all unity of the design should be maintained.

Figure 25: Unity

2. Balance

• Balance refers to the equilibrium or equality of visual attraction. • Symmetrical balance is achieved when one side of the design is a mirror image of the other side. There is a distinct dividing line between the two sides. Equal lines, forms, textures or colors are on each side of a symmetrical design • Asymmetrical balance uses different forms, colors and textures to obtain balance of visual attraction. These opposing compositions on either side of the central axis create equal attraction. For example, mass may be opposed by color or linear dimension by height.

Figure 26: Balance

3. Transition (Sequence)

• Transition is gradual change of color or object. • Transition in color can be illustrated by the radial sequence on the color wheel (monochromatic color scheme). • Transition of object can be obtained by the arrangement of objects with varying textures, forms, or sizes in a logical sequential order. For example - Textures: coarse to medium to fine - Form: prostrate round to oval plant An unlimited number of schemes exist by combining elements of various size, form, texture and color to create transition • Transition from taller to shorter plants with textural changes from coarse to fine along focal lines emphasizes the beauty of a lake scene. • Transition from shorter to taller plants and from fine to coarse textures would enframe the scene and makes it appear closer, like a painting on a wall. Generally, transition assists in the gradual movement of a viewer's eye to the design and within it.

Figure 27: Transition

4. Proportion

Refers to the size of parts of the design in relation to each other, and to the design as a whole. It is the sense or requirement that the size of the individual components or groups of components in landscape fit into the whole landscape harmoniously. • Tall trees are not in proportion if used in a small courtyard, nor do a small shrub in the middle of large expanse of lawn. • One large towering tree may compliment an office building but would probably dwarf a single story residence. • A small pool would be lost in a large open lawn but would fit beautifully into a small private area. • A giant fountain would dominate a private garden but could enhance a large city plaza or city square.

Figure 28: Proportion

5. Focalization

• This involves the leading of visual observation toward a feature by placement of this feature at the vanishing point between radial or approaching lines. • Straight radial lines create a strong focalization when compared to curved lines. The viewer's eye is quickly forced along straight lines to a focal point. • Transition of plants or other objects along these lines can strengthen or weaken the focalization. Curved lines are stronger when curved toward each other than when curved outward. Indirect focalization is created by lines curved in the same direction.

Figure 29: Focalization (Fountain at Haramaya University, Ethiopia)

6. Rhythm

• Rhythm is a conscious repetition of equal or similar components in a landscape. • Rhythm is achieved when the elements of a design create a feeling of motion which leads the viewer's eye through or even beyond the designed area. • Tools like color schemes, line and form can be repeated to attain rhythm in landscape design. Rhythm reduces confusion in the design

Figure 29: Rhythm

7. Contrast

• Contrast in landscape is using of elements that are opposite to each other or contrast each other such as contrasting colors and texture. • Contrast is in opposition to harmony and should not be overdone. • Occasional contrasts are used to create eye-catching features in a garden. • Example: contrasting foliage texture, color, form provides focus in a garden

8. Repetition

• Repetition refers to the repeated use of features like plants with identical shape, line, form, texture and/or color. • Too much repetition creates monotony but when used effectively can lead to rhythm, focalization or emphasis. • Unity can be achieved better by no other means than repetition. • Think of repetition as not having too much variety in the design which creates a cluttered or busy appearance.

Figure 30: Repetitions of flowers

9. Simplicity

• Simplicity is the reduction of a design to its simplest, functional form, which avoids unnecessary cost and maintenance. • That is to say simplicity is used for understanding what is, and is not important in a landscape design. Details that will not have a major impact on the landscape are omitted to keep it uncluttered. Too much variety or detail creates confusion of perception.

GARDEN STYLES – FORMAL and INFORMAL GARDENS

FORMAL GARDEN

This is a garden laid out with complete regularity on formal lines and in accord with the methods of classic design. Hard landscaping is usually used to define the main lines of the design, although planting may also be symmetrically arranged in rows or geometric beds. Formal garden design echoes the classical architecture of Greece and Italy. Although some of the earliest Islamic gardens were based on strong geometric lines, and may be considered the earliest of formal gardens, classical and Renaissance influences have had a much stronger impact on formal garden design over the centuries. Among the most famous formal gardens are Versailles and Fontainebleau, both of which were designed by Andre Le Notre. Although these gardens are massive in scale, the structure and balance of formal garden design can also work well on a much smaller scale.

Figure 31: Formal garden

Figure 32: Formal garden

Key elements of a formal garden design include: -

Symmetry

Symmetry about an axis or central line, this could be a pathway or lawn, or even a central planting bed. Generally, the axis focuses on a dominant feature, such as a sculpture, statue, or ornament. If space allows, cross-axes can be created; some larger gardens have multiple axial routes that create views along and across the garden. When designing a formal garden, the space is usually divided into halves or quarters. Larger gardens can be partitioned further, but divisions should be as sizeable as possible to maximize the visual impact of long vistas, or the repetition of topiary or trees. Parterres, water pools, and expanses of lawn are also common features in formal garden designs.

Prominent Focal Point

Sculpture is commonly used as a focal point in formal garden design. In traditional gardens, statues of gods and mythological creatures were frequently used. In modern designs, a wider range of subjects and abstract works are used as focal points more frequently.

Topiary

Clipped hedging, typically box or yew for evergreen structure, is often used to define space within a formal design. Topiary provides structure, and dwarf box hedges may be used to form patterns in parterres.

Ornament

Large, ornate urns, often on plinths or balustrades, provide focal points or punctuation in traditional formal designs. Modern formal gardens may use the same technique, but with simpler designs.

Natural Stone

Paving provides an architectural element for pathways and terraces. Sawn and honed natural stone slabs can create regular patterns, or may be used to edge lawns and gravel paths.

INFORMAL GARDEN

This is a casually designed garden with few straight lines, often depending on curving, organic lines. It may draw inspiration from natural habitats. This style of garden is sometimes referred to as naturalistic.

The overriding feature of a formal garden is the use of regular lines with plants arranged in symmetrical locations and geometrical designs. Plants are usually arranged in rows or other regular patterns. In informal gardens, in contrast, plants are often positioned in clumps (a circular group of three or more plants) or drifts (an elongated grouping of plants). Clumps and drifts are most often planted with an odd number of the same kind of plant to give the appearance of a more natural grouping. As noted, informal gardens are often naturalistic, echoing the surrounding landscape.

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Figure 33: Informal garden

Figure 34: Informal garden

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The informal garden

Informal gardens tend to be large to medium sized gardens. Usually implemented on uneven landscape and even sloped to accommodate the uneven landscape. One can immediately think of the tropical or cottage type of garden as examples of informal gardens. What also comes to mind are the Japanese garden, the Mediterranean garden, container gardening, Italian, succulent, indigenous gardens, the herb garden, the vegetable garden and vegetable container gardening, patio shade, and woodland gardens, to mention a few.

Since this site is a landscape and gardening for beginners site and as such aimed at the novice and do it yourself gardener we will tend to lean more towards the informal style of gardening. The informal garden lends itself open to many possibilities and yields a more natural look and feel to a landscape or garden. You can have more than one theme in your garden and it would feel natural. In time to come we will make it our mission to publish more detailed information on different types of garden styles. A few types of informal gardens are:-

Trench gardening

The trench garden presents the gardener with an easy method for organic gardening with health benefits for both the soil and the gardener. The creation of a trench garden will enable to grow one’s own nutritious vegetables. Trench gardening can also be described as vegetable garden design in that it also facilitates design elements.

Container gardening

Gardening in containers is almost as old the practice of horticulture itself. In nurseries plants are grown in containers and pots to be sold and even later be planted in pots in gardens. Apart from the nursery practice some plants are happier in pots and can stay there for their entire lifetime. When space is a problem it cannot be used as an excuse to not grow your own vegetables as the vegetable garden can be successful implemented in container gardening.

Shade gardens

Shade gardens are essentially for the enjoyment of the outdoors in hot, sunny climates. There is nothing better than enjoying a cold drink or a picnic lunch in the cool green shade on a long hot summer afternoon. In this garden trees reign supreme. A possible area where you can sit and relax also indicates the need for garden furniture, landscape lighting and even garden statues for focal interest.

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The Japanese garden and the Zen garden

The basic principles of the Japanese garden and the Zen garden are simplicity, symbolism, tranquility and minimalism. Here inspiration is taken from the simplicity of nature itself. This type of garden with its principle of minimalist simplicity fits perfectly with the restricted townhouse gardening concept. It is also a water wise garden.

Meadow gardens

The meadow garden requires full sun, un-enriched soil and loads of patience. This type of gardening will only yield results in approximately four years as this is the amount of time it will take before a meadow forms a stable community. Seasonal interest would be the main feature in this garden.

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CHAPTER 19: TURF PRODUCTION AND USES

Before starting a discussion on lawns and turf grasses, it is important to distinguish between the term lawn and turf grass.

LAWN: is a piece of land on which grass is grown in residential and small recreational areas. Ordinarily, grass used in the landscape is referred by as a lawn.

Figure 35: Lawn

TURF: is use by horticulturists to refer grass is mowed (cut) and maintained which is used in commercial areas, parks, large recreational areas, educational institutions etc.

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Figure 36: Sprinkler irrigation (Turf)

Figure 37: Sod ready for transportation

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Lawns and Turfs are very important in landscaping due to several reasons.

(i) The aesthetic value of the landscape can be very much appreciated when a good area of the landscape is covered by lawn / turf (ii) Lawn / Turf provides a relatively inexpensive ground cover that protects the soil against erosion. (iii) Apart from conserving the soil, this ‘natural carpet” reduces dust on dry days, mud on wet days, heat/ glare from the ground on sunny days. (iv) Lawns have recreational use in both residential settings and public places where people gather to relax or play.

A beautifully laid out lawn / turf is obtained by careful selection of suitable grass species for the locality, followed by good management practices including mowing, irrigating, fertilizing, pest and disease control.

CHOOSING GRASS SPECIES FOR LAWN / TURF

Warm – Season Grasses

1. Bermuda Grass: Cynodon dactylon Bermuda grass is a dense-growing, vigorous grass. It is propagated by rhizomes and stolons. It is drought and salt tolerant but turns brown in winter. It is a multipurpose grass that can be used as a decorative lawn in residential plot or in large sport fields. It makes a good turf grass for layout on a large Golf Course. CULTIVARS: Texturf 10, Cheyenne, Tifway 2. Centipede Grass: Eremochloa ophiouroides

Centipede grass is dense growing and vigorous. It require relatively low maintenance and can perform well on poor soils. It is suitable for large landscapes including sports fields.

CULTIVARS: Centennial, Centiseed 3. Saint Augustine Grass: Stenotaphrum secondatum

This grass is dense, vigorous and propagated by stolons. One advantage that that it is adapted to shaded areas in residential landscapes. The grass requires periodical mowing.

CULTIVARS: Sunclipse, Bitter Blue, Floratam

4. Buffalo Grass: Buchloe dactyloides This is a slow growing grass, fine-textured, adapted to dry and hot areas. It needs only little fertilization and irrigation. CULTIVARS: Bison, Prairier

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Cool – Season Grasses

1. Colonial Bent Grass: Agrostis tenuis

It is a shallow rooted grass, tolerant to light shade and suitable for home landscapes. The lawn looks puffy, coarse textured and good for decorative decorative lawns.

CULTIVARS: Astoria, Exeter 2. Kentucky Blue Grass: Poa pratensis

This grass makes one of the most beautiful lawns in residential gardens and small decorative lawns. Also suited for small sports fields, but needs periodical plant protection as it is susceptible to diseases.

CULTIVARS: Touchdown, Baron, Pennstar

PLANTING LAWNS / TURF GRASS

Several methods are used for establishing new lawns. The most common methods are:

(i) Use of seed and seed (ii) Other methods are Plugging, Sprigging and Stolonizing

SEEDING: Plots of residential areas and small plots of landscapes can be effectively seeded by hand but this method has the dis-advantage of un-even spreading. Mechanical seeders like drilling, gravity feeding or broadcasting are effective methods.

SODDING: is the establishment of lawn by using sod which is a carpet of grass with compact top soil that is bound by grass roots, harvested and sold in narrow strips.

PLUGGING: is the method of lawn establishment that involves the transplanting of small pieces of sod which are raised in plug holes.

SPRIGGING: Pieces of short stems or runners of grasses (called sprigs) are used to establish a lawn. It is done by placing the sprigs in shallow furrows (2.5 to 5cm) and planted at 15 cm spacing. The sprigs are covered such that at least one-fourth of the stem/ runner is above ground.

STOLONIZING: is a form of sprigging in which the recommended number of sprigs per unit area are spread uniformly over prepared soil for landscaping. It is also called broadcast sprigging. After spreading the sprigs, they are partially covered with soil and light rolling is done. This method is usually adopted for planting large areas.

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MOWING A LAWN / TURF:

Mowing is an art and technique of cutting the grass to a specific height (depending on species of grass) in a lawn / turf by using cutters (mowers) at periodical intervals so as to maintain the lawn in a vibrant, carpet like form, to maintain the grass in healthy condition and also for rejuvenated growth of the grass.

Mow the lawn when the grass is dry. Diseases spread readily on damp turf and the wet grass can clog the mower. However, don’t mow during the hottest part of the day. Intense heat isn’t healthy for the lawn.

Mow in a different direction each time to promote even, upright growth. Otherwise, the grass will lean towards the direction in which it is mowed.

Leave the short clippings so that they will decompose and can return valuable nutrients to the lawn. There is no set time for mowing the lawn, but most lawns will require mowing at least once in two weeks during spring and summer seasons.

To keep the lawn healthy, don’t remove more than one-third of the height at each mowing. Removing more grass can affect healthy root growth, which means the lawn will need more water during warm, dry months.

Cutting the lawn too close can also increase the lawn’s vulnerability to pests and weeds. As a general rule of thumb, a length of about 3 inches during the summer, looks good and promotes deep, healthy roots.

Grasses turn to be dormant and grows very little during extreme hot, dry weather and also severe winter. Lawn will be healthier if it is not mowed frequently during periods of drought.

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Conclusions

The selected observations mark the beginning of a new era in floriculture. A new era driven by major global events, such as the uncertainty caused by the current global geopolitical turmoil (more protectionism, difficult business environments), the fast-developing digital world and the rising importance of sustainability in floriculture. To be a leader rather than a laggard, floriculture suppliers should be prepared for the unexpected. This implies that floriculture businesses may need to become more flexible and robust at the same time, in order to cope with various future scenarios. Furthermore, companies may need to explore opportunities to spread into other markets and/or sourcing countries/regions, enter digital marketing channels and adopt more sustainable supply chains.

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