AHMS Previous Excavations at ACCOR Ibis Hotel and Riverwalk in Relation to the Study Area

SECTION 87/90 ABORIGINAL HERITAGE IMPACT PERMIT #1098622 EXCAVATION REPORT FOR SBA ARCHITECTS PTY LTD

A piece of Nobby’s Tuff manuport recovered from a sand dune deposit dated between 3,500 and 2,480 years BP.

Final Report 13 May 2011

684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report

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CONTENTS

1. Introduction ...... 15 1.1 Rational, Scope and Objectives ...... 15 1.2 Study Area...... 16 1.3 Report Structure ...... 16 1.4 Authorship...... 14 1.5 Acknowledgements ...... 14 2. Project Description ...... 15 2.1 Background...... 15 2.2 Proposed Development...... 18 3. Aboriginal stakeholder Consultation ...... 25 4. Excavation Methodology...... 27 4.1 Research Aims ...... 27 4.2 Excavation Methods ...... 28 4.2.1 Modifications ...... 29 5. Excavation Results ...... 37 5.1 General ...... 37 5.2 Geomorphology...... 56 5.3 Dating...... 70 5.3.1 Radiocarbon Samples...... 70 5.3.2 OSL Samples ...... 75 5.3.3 Interpretation ...... 80 5.4 Lithic Analysis ...... 81 5.4.1 General ...... 81 5.4.2 Assemblage Through Time...... 85 5.4.3 Post Depositional Issues...... 91 5.5 Summary ...... 91 6. Significance Assessment...... 95 6.1 Basis for Assessment...... 95 6.2 Cultural Significance ...... 95 6.3 Scientific Significance...... 99 6.4 Summary ...... 101 7. Conclusion & Management Strategy ...... 102 7.1 Recommendations ...... 103 8. References...... 106

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. General location of the study area...... 11 Figure 2. Detailed location of the study area...... 12 Figure 3. The study area at time of excavation, looking south...... 13 Figure 4. The study area at time of excavation, looking northeast...... 13 Figure 5. Map showing the location of AHMS previous excavations at ACCOR Ibis Hotel and Riverwalk in relation to the study area...... 17 Figure 6. Proposed development design showing the restaurant structure facing Hunter Street, with car parking to the rear...... 20 Figure 7. Map showing the proposed stormwater systems and water runoff of the proposed development...... 21 Figure 8. Map showing the location of proposed fill and piers for the restaurant structure.. 22 Figure 9. Map of proposed impacts to the study area, including fill, stormwater drains and retention and sand filter box and piers...... 23 Figure 10. Map showing the proposed open areas locations proposed as part of the original research design...... 31 Figure 11. Example of collapsed trench section, a frequent occurrence due to the sandy nature of the soil profile...... 32 Figure 12. Example of collapsed trench section, a frequent occurrence due to the sandy nature of the soil profile...... 32 Figure 13. Map showing the location of the original research design open area excavations, the location of a 20th Century wall and its impact upon these areas, and the proposed alternative open area that were approved under a methodology amendment to the AHIP...... 33 Figure 14. One of the large concrete footings partially excavated and located within the proposed Area 2 open area...... 34 Figure 15.Discussions with some of the registered Aboriginal stakeholder on site...... 34 Figure 16. A historic post hole located in the general vicinity of B and C 15, looking southwest...... 35 Figure 17. General location of the 16 x 3 m salvage open area in relation to the proposed development and other geographical features...... 41 Figure 18. Map showing the location of each test pit in the wider open area excavation...... 42 Figure 19. The final 16 x 3 m open area excavation, looking northeast...... 43 Figure 20. The final 16 x 3 m open area excavation, looking south...... 43 Figure 21. Test pits showing start and end levels in metres AHD...... 44 Figure 22. Test pits showing the number of spits recovered and the depth dug (in cm)...... 45 Figure 23. Spit correlations for A1 – 16 based on AHD heights taken during the excavations. . 46 Figure 24. Spit correlations for B1 – 16 based on AHD heights taken during the excavations. . 47 Figure 25. Spit correlations for C1 – 16 based on AHD heights taken during the excavations. . 48 Figure 26. Stratigraphic correlations for A1 – 16 based on AHD heights taken during the excavations...... 49

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Figure 27. Stratigraphic correlations for B1 – 16 based on AHD heights taken during the excavations...... 50 Figure 28. Stratigraphic correlations for C1 – 16 based on AHD heights taken during the excavations...... 51 Figure 29. Initial excavations in test pits B1 (foreground), B2, B3 and B5, looking northeast..52 Figure 30. Photograph following the completion of B1- 8, looking southwest...... 52 Figure 31.Excavations of A1-9 and C1-9, looking north...... 53 Figure 32. Excavations were changed for A/B/C 9 – 16 to minimise trench collapse...... 53 Figure 33. Excavations were changed for A/B/C 9 – 16 to minimise trench collapse...... 54 Figure 34. Test pit B6 (1 – 2 m below surface), looking east...... 55 Figure 35. Location of the study area on Hunter Street in relation to the made ground from the railway to the coast and the approximate 19th Century location of Cottage Creek and Honeysuckle Point...... 57 Figure 36. Photographs of the soil profile across A/B/C 1-8...... 62 Figure 37. Photographs of the soil profile through A/B/C 9 -16...... 63 Figure 38. Photographs of the deep soil profile excavated in B3, B6, B9 and B12...... 64 Figure 39. Test pits A/B/C 14, looking north east...... 65 Figure 40. Test pits A 12 – 16, looking east...... 66 Figure 41. Test pits B 2 and 3, looking east...... 66 Figure 42. Detailed photograph of re-worked/re-deposited coffee rock in test pit C1...... 67 Figure 43. Test pit B5, spit 9, looking east...... 67 Figure 44. Test pit A2, spit 5, looking east...... 68 Figure 45. Schematic Diagram showing the geomorphological history of the site...... 69 Figure 46. A dark grey feature, thought to be a hearth, located beneath a post hole in test pit B12, looking north...... 74 Figure 47. The hearth identified in B12, looking northeast...... 74 Figure 48. The hearth located in B12 after excavation, looking north...... 75 Figure 49. The locations of OSL samples 1 (AdBL 10001) and 2 (AdBL 10002) taken from test pit A3, looking east...... 77 Figure 50. OSL sample 3 (AdBL 09011) and Wk-26883 taken from one of the lowest parts of the site in test pit B3, looking south...... 78 Figure 51. Alan Williams (AHMS) and Dr. Nigel Spooner (University of Adelaide) discussing appropriate locations to take OSL samples part way through the excavations.. ... 78 Figure 52. The locations of OSL samples 4 (AdBL 10003) and 5 (AdBL 10004) from test pits A12 and B12, looking east...... 79

LIST OF TABLES Table 1. Summary of test pit information, including AHD heights and number of spits recovered...... 38

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Table 2. Summary of radiocarbon dates ...... 73 Table 3. Summary of OSL dates...... 76 Table 4. Summary of artefactual material recovered from the excavations (excluding unstratified materials)...... 82 Table 5. Raw Material Types in the Assemblage...... 83 Table 6. Tool types in the Assemblage ...... 84 Table 7. Assemblage composition by level (spits) ...... 86 Table 8. Presence of cores where Redbank A Strategy could be identified...... 87 Table 9. Raw Material composition by level (spit) ...... 87 Table 10. Tool Types by level (spit)...... 88 Table 11. The Amount and Type of Cortex on artefacts in the Assemblage...... 89 Table 12. Location of ‘worn’ artefacts within transect B...... 90

LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix 1. Section 87 Aboriginal Heritage Impact Permit #1098622. Appendix 2. Aboriginal Stakeholder Consultation Log and Correspondence. Appendix 3. AHMS Pty Ltd. 2009. Joint Section 87/90 Permit Application, Research Design & Excavation Methodology for Aboriginal Archaeological Excavation at Palais Royale, 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle. Unpublished Report to SBA Architects Pty Ltd and the Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water. Appendix 4. Geomorphological Report by Ground Truth Consulting Pty Ltd Appendix 5. Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating Report by University of Adelaide and Radiocarbon Records from the University of Waikato. Appendix 6. Excavation Plans and Sections Appendix 7. Lithic Report by Felicity Barry.

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GLOSSARY

Aboriginal Heritage A document developed to assess the archaeological and Impact Assessment cultural values of an area, generally required as part of an Environmental Assessment (EA).

Aboriginal Heritage The statutory instrument that the Director General of OEH Impact Permit (AHIP) issues under Section 87 and/or 90 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 to allow the impact and/or destruction of Aboriginal objects. AHIPs are not required for a project seeking approval under Part 3A of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979.

Aboriginal object A statutory term defined under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 meaning, ‘any deposit, object or material evidence (not being handicraft made for sale) relating to Aboriginal habitation of the area comprising NSW, being habitation before or concurrent with (or both) the occupation of that area by persons of non-Aboriginal extraction, and includes Aboriginal remains’.

Department of See OEH. Environment, Climate Change and Water (DECCW)

Environmental Planning Statutory instrument that provides planning controls and and Assessment Act 1979 requirements for environmental assessment in the development approval process. The Act is administered by DoP.

National Parks and The primary piece of legislation for the protection of Wildlife Act 1974 Aboriginal cultural heritage in NSW. Part 6 of this Act outlines the protection afforded to and offences relating to disturbance of Aboriginal objects. The Act is administered by DECCW.

Office of Environment & A State government agency that manages and regulates Heritage, Department of Aboriginal heritage under the National Parks and Wildlife Act Premier and Cabinet 1974. It is also involved in providing technical support to the (OEH) Department of Planning for projects considered under Part 3A of the Environmental Planning and Assessment Act 1979.

Potential Archaeological An area assessed as having the potential to contain Aboriginal Deposit (PAD) objects. PAD are commonly identified on the basis of landform types, surface expressions of Aboriginal objects, surrounding archaeological material, disturbance, and a range of other factors. While not defined in the National Parks and Wildlife

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Act 1974, PADs are generally considered to retain Aboriginal objects and are therefore protected and managed in accordance with that Act.

Proponent A corporate entity, Government agency or an individual in the private sector which proposes to undertake a development project. The proponent for this project is Yum! Restaurants.

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ABBREVIATIONS

AHIA Aboriginal Heritage Impact Assessment

AHIMS Aboriginal Heritage Information Management System

AHIP Aboriginal Heritage Impact Permit

AHMS Archaeological and Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd

DECCW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water

DoP Department of Planning

EA Environmental Assessment

GIS Geographical Information System

LGA Local Government Area

OEH Office of Environment and Heritage, Department of Premier and Cabinet Office

PAD Potential Archaeological Deposit

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

 This report has been prepared by Archaeological and Heritage Management Solutions Pty Limited (AHMS) on behalf of Yum! Restaurants Pty Ltd. It presents the findings of an Aboriginal heritage archaeological salvage excavation undertaken on an artefact scatter and deposit (#38-4-0831) at 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle, NSW;  Yum! Restaurants Pty Ltd is proposing to construct a fast-food restaurant on the site. The proposed development will be a two-storey structure facing Hunter Street with car parking to the rear. Due to the low lying and flood prone nature of the study area, the development would generally involve raising levels in the study area by 0.5 – 1 m with the introduction of clean fill. Establishment of this fill requires the removal of 20 – 30 cm of the current land-surface and subsequent ‘proof’ rolling of the remaining surface;  The rationale for the excavation was to undertake detailed archaeological research and salvage of Aboriginal objects identified within a sand body at the site. Studies immediately to the west of the study area recovered a similar assemblage to depths >1.5 m. Research for the current investigation was focussed on areas were the proposed development would require excavation into the sand body, most notably a drainage tank in the southeast corner. The works were undertaken in accordance with Section 87/90 Aboriginal Heritage Impact Permit #1098622;  This project was situated in the tribal boundaries of the Awabakal people. The project involved consultation with three registered Aboriginal stakeholders in compliance with the Office of Environment & Heritage’s (2004) Interim Community Consultation Requirements for Applicant and (2010) Aboriginal Community Consultation Requirements for Proponents;  The archaeological salvage entailed excavation of a 16 x 3 m (48 m2 open area in the southeast corner of the study area. The excavation area was modified several times to allow concurrent archaeological investigation of a State Heritage Registered historic period site to be undertaken in accordance a permit issued by the Heritage Branch Dept of Planning, in addition to recommendations received from the project geomorphologist. Ultimately, the excavation extended to levels between 1 and 2 m below ground surface (2.2 – 0.3 m AHD). All excavations were undertaken in 1 x 1 m test pits with matrix manually removed via 10 cm spits. All sand matrix removed was dry or wet sieved through 5mm mesh;  The excavation recovered 5,534 Aboriginal objects, in addition to revealing a complex geomorphological history. Four radiocarbon and five Optically Stimulated Luminescence dates were obtained for analysis and these support the following archaeological interpretation of the site:

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 The lowest depths of the excavation were characterised by a series of beach facies that were most likely deposited between 6,716 and 6,502 calibrated years BP. It is considered that these deposits were part of a series of lagoons or back-swamps formerly located behind the main beach to the north of the study area. They would have formed during periods of higher sea level and/or as a result of storm surges during this time. Three artefact assemblages were identified within these beach facies deposits. The lowest (stratigraphically earliest) was dominated by poor quality/de-graded Tuff. This assemblage revealed limited exotic materials (e.g. silcrete, volcanic) and only limited numbers of backed artefacts;  Immediately above, the beach facies contained a series of strandlines – thin deposits of organic and sedimentary material probably deposited as a result of flooding in nearby Cottage Creek. These deposits dated to between 6,502 and 3,500 years BP, and similarly exhibited a low density assemblage dominated by poor quality/de-graded Tuff material;  Overlying the beach facies and strand line deposits were two sand dunes. The lower dune comprised a thin orange sand (B horizon) overlying a bleached yellow sand (A2 horizon). This deposit was highly variable and a maximum of 50 cm thick. The upper dune overlying this formed the majority of the profile and was composed of an orange sand (B horizon) overlying pale bleached yellow sand (A2 horizon) and a brown/black sand (A1 horizon). Based on OSL dates, both of these deposits were formed between 3,500 and 1,933 calibrated years BP (and probably nearer 3,200 and 2,800 calibrated years BP) during a period of well-documented El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) intensification. This period also received frequent low energy inundations (perhaps indicating sporadic wetter conditions), evident by the thin gravel units present in the sand dune. Two specific occupation events were identified in the artefact assemblage: . An early occupation, evident in the lower assemblage on the top (A2 horizon) of the lower dune. This was dominated by both coarse-grained and fine-grained Tuffs and it probably dates to around 3,500 years BP. The first evidence of the use of exotic raw materials (including chert, chalcedony and silcrete) and an increasing discard of cores and tools occurred within this assemblage; . The later occupation, evident in the upper assemblage was identified on the top (A2 horizon) of the upper dune. This event dates to the period 2,480 – 1,933 calibrated years BP. Based on the date of a hearth discovered in association with the deposit it appears that the focus of occupation at this level was between 2,118 – 1,933 calibrated years BP. This assemblage was far larger (at least four times the number of artefacts) than the earlier identified assemblages. It was dominated by

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the use of two types of Tuff (with a preference towards 1 Tuff, which formed a sharper edge than others), high densities of a wide range of exotic materials and a proliferation of a wide range of tool types (especially backed blades and scrapers). This assemblage demonstrated clear evidence of standardisation of artefact production and blade production. It is considered likely to represent use of the site for secondary preparation/trimming of cores, obtained from a nearby quarry source such as Nobby’s Head or Merewether, before their transportation/trade elsewhere;  The uppermost 20 – 30 cm of the site contained a disturbed topsoil (A1 horizon) derived from the upper sand dune. It was dated to 1,933 calibrated years BP, and it contained the bulk of the archaeological material associated with historical occupation of the site after European annexation of Australia. It is unclear whether or not Aboriginal occupation of this area ended by 1,933 years BP (effectively the top of the dune) or if the upper deposits containing evidence of Aboriginal occupation have been lost as a result of historical activities. Deposits in the upper dune contained remnants of a similar archaeological assemblage to the upper assemblage (outlined above), in addition to marine shell (both Anadara sp. and Saccostrea sp.). The presence of shell indicates cultural exploitation of the local shell beds in the last 2,000 years, but the extent of disturbance of the deposits containing this material precluded dating and, it is unclear when this activity began and for how long it was undertaken.  Detailed lithic analysis of the assemblage revealed:  Three Aboriginal occupation periods dating to 6,716 – 6,502 years BP, c. 3,500 years BP, and 2,480 – 1,933 years BP. This occupation continued after 1,933 years BP, but disturbance of the upper deposits by historical use of the site precludes any meaningful interpretation of Aboriginal occupation after that time;  The long term use of Nobby’s Tuff as the main raw material utilised by Aboriginal people, with its ongoing use throughout the 6,700-year sequence;  The first appearance of exotic raw materials from around 3,500 years and their proliferation from around 2,480 years BP.  The early appearance of backed blades in the basal depths of the site, and their proliferation in the upper assemblage;  The potential for re-worked Pleistocene artefacts in the basal depths;  the appearance of the Redbank A strategy from around 3,500 years BP;  The use of the site, at least in more recent times, for blade production and secondary trimming/preparation of cores before transport/trade off site; and  The exploitation of local shell beds only after about 1,933 years BP.

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 Taking into consideration the results of archaeological excavation and consultation with local Aboriginal stakeholders, the site is considered to have high to exceptional cultural and scientific significance. Further to this, the site is considered to have ongoing contemporary cultural significance to the Aboriginal stakeholder in addition to future archaeological research potential beyond the findings of the current investigation.  Based on the findings of earlier studies at the IBIS Hotel to the east and NSW Health to the west, it is considered that this cultural landscape (i.e. the deep sand body, beach facies and associated archaeological material) extends for several hundred metres (and perhaps further) in either direction. The northern distribution of the deposit is likely to broadly follow the railway embankment, which was constructed on the historical estuary edge. The southern edge of the deposit is unknown, but given the beach facies at the base of the site, it is considered that areas to the south of Hunter Street would be characterised by lagoons and back swamps on the lee-side of a dune system. The landscape below this heavily urbanised area may retain significant archaeological deposits. Based on the soil landscape map of Newcastle, assuming these deposits have been identified as ‘Hunter’ soil landscapes and depending on existing disturbance, the area incorporating such potentially significant cultural deposits is defined by Nobbys Road/Fort Drive in the east, King Street to the south, Throsby Creek in the west and the Hunter River estuary to the north.  The recommendations of the study are as follows:  Re-consideration of the current Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP curtilage should be undertaken following the completion of the development. It has been requested by DECCW and the Aboriginal stakeholders that areas where development has not impacted, specifically those under the historical conservation zone in the southern portion of the study area, the under-lying archaeological deposit should be removed from the AHIP, thereby affording them protection under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974. Based on archaeological findings presented here, such protection should extend to depths of at least 2 m below existing ground surfaces;  Ongoing consultation should be undertaken with the Aboriginal stakeholder and OEH regarding interim curation of the artefact assemblage. Discussions to date regarding this matter indicate a preference for the development of a temporary care and control agreement to allow for the ongoing analysis and investigation of the assemblage at the University of Sydney and/or University of Armidale. If this is supported, a care and control agreement needs to be developed and endorsed to support that initiative. Long term management of the assemblage will also need to be resolved as part of such consultation.  Three copies of this report should be forwarded to the NSW Office of Environment & Heritage, Department of Premier and Cabinet Office - Planning

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and Aboriginal Heritage Section, Northeast Branch, Environment Protection and Regulation Group (A: Federation House, 24 Moonee Street, Coffs Harbour, NSW 2450);  One copy of the report should be forwarded to the Newcastle City Council (A: PO Box 489, Newcastle, NSW 2300);  One copy of the report should be forwarded to each of the following Aboriginal stakeholders: Awabakal Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation, Awabakal Descendant Traditional Owner Aboriginal Corporation and the Awabakal LALC; and  At the request of the Aboriginal stakeholders, one copy of the report should be forwarded to the Cultural Collection Unit at the University of Newcastle Library (A: University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308).

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1. INTRODUCTION

This report has been prepared by Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd (AHMS) for SBA Architects Pty Ltd on behalf of Yum! Restaurants to provide the findings of archaeological salvage excavations at 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle, NSW (hereafter ‘study area’). This site was formerly the location of the now demolished Palais Royale building, a historical structure that is frequently referenced in documentation associated with the study area.

The report was prepared in accordance with conditions attached to Section 87/90 Aboriginal Heritage Impact Permit (AHIP) #1098622 (Appendix 1). It specifically satisfies requirements for reporting on the results of salvage excavation on the ‘Palais Royale’ midden and associated deposits (#38-4-0831). The report provides background, recommendations and supporting information on the findings of the excavations and future management of the study area.

This report has been undertaken in accordance with the Office of Environment & Heritage’s (OEH) (formerly Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water) (1997) Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Standards and Guidelines Kit and (2004) Interim Community Consultation Requirements for Applicants. Where possible, OEH’s (2010) Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Consultation Requirements for Proponents has also been adopted.

1.1 Rational, Scope and Objectives

The scope and aims of the archaeological salvage were:

1. To identify, characterise and interpret the specific soil profile encountered within the study area; 2. To salvage, characterise and curate an appropriate amount of Aboriginal objects within the proposed development area; 3. To recover an appropriate sample of Aboriginal objects from the study area for analysis for development impact mitigation purposes; 4. To further assess and understand the scientific and cultural significance of the Aboriginal objects recovered and the study area as a whole; 5. To assess the impact of proposed development on scientific and cultural values identified by the investigation. The results of the impact are used to form the basis for developing recommendations for management of the site’s cultural values before, during and after the proposed development; and

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6. To continue Aboriginal stakeholder consultation and involvement during the course of the project to identify Aboriginal cultural values and provide registered Aboriginal stakeholders with the opportunity to provide comment on the results of the investigation and proposed management recommendations.

1.2 Study Area

The study area consists of a vacant block of land identified as 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle, NSW (Figure 1). This area is located within the main CBD of Newcastle and is encompassed by NSW Health and Steel Street to the east, ACCOR Ibis hotel to the west, a rail corridor to the north, and Hunter Street to the south (Figure 2).

The study area is some 60 x 40 m in size. Over the historic period, the site has had a diverse history containing the Commandant’s Cottage (1812-1818), Dangar meatworks (1848-1855), a skating rink (1888), Empire music hall (1894-1929); and the Empire Palais Royale dance hall (1929-2004). All of these structures (many of which reused the same buildings) have left various footings, post holes and other impacts throughout the underlying soil profile. In more recent years it has been used as a machine shop. While these structures were demolished by the time of the excavation (Figures 3 and 4), evidence of these activities were visible across the site in the form of a variety of deep concrete and brick footings. Some earthworks and landscaping was also evident in the northern quadrant of the study area.

For the purpose of the salvage excavation, a small area of minimal disturbance between the more extensive footings in the southeast corner of the study area was selected. This area was some 16 x 3 m in size and it contained only shallow brick footings and post holes.

1.3 Report Structure

The structure of the report is as follows:

 Section 2.0: Project description outlining proposed development of the study area and the background to the project;

 Section 3.0: Results of Aboriginal stakeholder consultation;

 Section 4.0: Excavation methodology;

 Section 5.0: Excavation results and discussion;

 Section 6.0: Significance assessment;

 Section 7.0: Potential impacts; and

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Appendices to the report include: 1. Section 87 AHIP; 2. Aboriginal stakeholder correspondence; 3. Section 87 research design; 4. Geomorphology report; 5. Radiocarbon and Optically Stimulated Luminescence Date information; 6. Excavation plans and sections; and 7. Lithic Analysis and raw lithic counts from the excavation.

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Figure 1: General location of the study area (highlighted in red).

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Figure 2: Detailed location of the study area (highlighted in red). Note in this aerial photograph, parts of the old Palais Royale Structure were still evident on the site. These had been removed by the time excavation was undertaken.

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Figure 3. The study area prior to excavation, looking south.

Figure 4: The study area, area prior to excavation, looking northeast.

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1.4 Authorship

This report was written by Alan Williams and Felicity Barry (both of AHMS). The report was reviewed by Peter Douglas (Director AHMS). Anna Biggs, Laura Matarese, Carol Croft and Kris Gallen provided assistance with fieldwork, figure and/or report compilation.

1.5 Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledges the assistance provided by Tony Salvarinas and Greg Baird (SBA Architects Pty Ltd), Sarah Paddington and Nic Pulver (OEH).

We would also like to acknowledge the assistance and valuable input provided by Shane Frost, Joshua Frost, James Frost and Wayne Saxby (Awabakal Descendent Traditional Owner Aboriginal Corporation (ADTOAC); Kerrie Brauer and Dene Hawken (Awabakal Traditional Owner Aboriginal Corporation (ATOAC); Cheryl Kitchener, Joseph Smith, Rob Smith and David Ahoy (Awabakal Local Aboriginal Land Council; and Adrian Dreyer, Roger Mehr, Susan Frowley, Ashley Hudson, and Shaun Mackey (Archaeological sub- consultants).

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2. PROJECT DESCRIPTION

2.1 Background

AHMS undertook a preliminary assessment and section 87 AHIP application of the study area in 2004.1 During the time of this assessment, the Palais Royale structure was extant and the assessment took into consideration the results of previous archaeological studies in the area, specifically the excavations undertaken by AHMS at the ACCOR Ibis hotel (immediately west of the study area), and the Riverwalk (just west of the ACCOR Ibis hotel) (Figure 5). Excavations at these previous sites revealed a large body of sand over 2 m in depth, which retained significant shell and artefactual material. Therefore, AHMS considered that the Palais Royale study area also retained high potential to contain for subsurface archaeological material.

Based on the findings of the 2004 preliminary assessment, a Section 87 Preliminary Research Permit (PRP) was sought in December 2004 to investigate these deposits. This permit was issued on 22 February 2005. However, due to significant issues and delays surrounding the demolition and removal of the existing Palais Royale structure situated on the site (and thereby restricting access to the soil profile), the PRP (#2127) was extended and re-applied for several times in 2005 and 2006. However, following the last renewal of the permit in late 2006, the project was put on hold by the client, Palais Holdings Pty Ltd, and little progress was made in developing the site until 2009. PRP #2127 expired in mid-2007.

The study area was subsequently sold to Yum! Restaurants in 2009 and archaeological issues and approvals were, again, considered. Given the lapse in time between the assessment in 2004 and the purchase of the site in 2009, AHMS undertook a site visit in late November 2008 to identify the appropriate course of action in relation to management of Aboriginal heritage. It was discovered that prior to Yum! Restaurants purchase of the site, the Palais Royale structures has been removed and some minor earthworks had occurred. This exposed the surface of the soil profile and exposed Aboriginal objects and shell debris across parts of the study area. Subsequently, AHMS recommended the development of a joint section 87/90 AHIP to allow for appropriate salvage of the archaeological site prior to the development. Specifically, the site visit concluded the following:

1 AHMS, 2004.

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...the study area is believed to encompass a complex geomorphology of Hunter River levee deposits and sand dunes reworked from this deposit. The deposits are composed of predominantly compacted sand with minimal clay and the remnants of an in situ topsoil on the surface (dependent upon historic and modern disturbances occurring sporadically across the site). The study area is situated only 140 metres from the Hunter River, while a large depression to the north of the site is thought to associated with the former line of Cottage Creek.

Excavations directly adjacent to the study area at the Ibis Hotel (700-710 Hunter Street) revealed an extensive Aboriginal artefact scatter/midden, which reached depths of 130 cm below the surface. The analysis of the assemblage revealed over 4,000 artefacts (generally of mid Holocene or later age), over 2,900 pieces of shell and over 300 fragments of animal bone. Other sites in the immediate vicinity have also recovered Aboriginal objects and/or sites from these types of deposit (i.e. beneath structures and/or sand dunal in nature).

In addition, historical excavations undertaken in 2007 within the study area to identify the potential historical remains on the site did also identify Tuff manuport and Anadara sp. shells. These objects were left on site since AHMS did not have an appropriate permit at this time. Although a recent site visit indicates these have been destroyed/removed by natural and/or human activities – the excavations did occur before the large floods in 2007. In addition, a re-visit recently with the Aboriginal communities did identify significant numbers of shell fragments and material exposed through the use of the site as an informal car park in the last few months.2

The current section 87/90 AHIP was developed in early 2009 in accordance with the OEH’s (2004) Interim Community Consultation Requirements for Applicants (which were not required or undertaken during the 2004 works). This application was lodged with OEH in February 2009 and endorsed in April 2009. Excavations were undertaken in accordance with the AHIP and associated modifications in August 2009. Post excavation analysis and reporting has been ongoing since that time.

2 AHMS, 2009.

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87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report Figure 5: Figure area the study to in relation and Riverwalk at ACCOR Ibis Hotel excavations of AHMS previous the location Map showing

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2.2 Proposed Development

Yum! Restaurants is proposing to construct a fast food restaurant on the study area. The restaurant would be a two-storey structure facing Hunter Street with car parking to the rear (Figure 6).

Due to the low lying and flood prone nature of the study area, the development would generally involve the raising of the study area by 0.5 – 1 m by the introduction of clean fill (Figure 8). The establishment of this fill would require the removal of 20 – 30 cm of the current landsurface and subsequent ‘proof’ rolling of the remaining surface. While the introduction of such fill is likely to conserve in situ, much of the underlying Aboriginal site, initial discussions with OEH indicated that this activity would be considered an impact in relation to Section 86 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974.

Further, due to the flooding issues, an extensive stormwater system is proposed as part of development. This system will involve excavation to depths greater than 1 m in several parts of the site (Figure 7). The deepest impact would be an L-shaped sediment trap situated in the southeast corner of the study area. The restaurant structure would also be raised using a series of piers spaced 4 m apart and 4 m deep across the southern section of the study area (Figure 8).

In summary, the proposed development would result in the following impacts on the Aboriginal site:

1. Establishment of a retention tank and sand filter box (Figure 7) as part of the proposed stormwater system, required excavation to depths ~150 cm below current surface across an area 37 m long by 2.5 m wide in the south-eastern corner of the study area; 2. Establishment of the stormwater system (Figure 7) required excavation for the installation of several underground pipes (ranging in diameter from 15 to 23 cm). The main impacts resulting from this were excavation of two trenches to depths less than 1 meter below grade. This would result in variable impacts to the soil profile (due to the uneven land surface and depth of proposed fill), but the disturbance would exceed 70 cm in some areas. An additional pipe feeding from the rainwater tanks to the retention tanks (some 10 m) may also impact the soil profile; 3. Levelling/Raising Fill (Figure 8): Levels at the northern end of the site will be raised by deposition of rolled fill. This will be 200 and 1,000 thick. Prior to the introduction of fill, 20 – 30 cm of the current land surface (the historical

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archaeological deposits) will be investigated and this will result in some localised disturbance of the underlying deposits containing the Aboriginal site; and 4. Piers (Figure 5): the restaurant complex located to the south of the study area will be constructed on a floating concrete slab, which would require piers to depths of 4 m at 4 - 6 m intervals. A total of some 45 - 70 piers would be required in the south end of the site. While the piers are small (<50 cm), an impact zone of up to 1 m2 is indicated.

The proposed development covers approximately 2,400 m2 and the impact assessment indicates that the proposal will result in disturbance of approximately 240 m2, which can be broken down as: 1) retention tank and sand filter box = 100 m2; 2) stormwater system = 70 m2; and 3) piers for structure support = 70 m2 (Figure 9).

Due to the introduction of ‘fill’ in the northern parts of the study area, and the necessary preparation for its introduction (namely the removal and/or rolling of the upper soil profile units), partial impacts would also occur over approximately 1,200 m2 or 50% of the study area. It is envisaged that much of the upper soil profiles would be partially or completely disturbed through this activity. However, in these areas, it is envisaged that the lower soil profiles would be relatively or completely undisturbed.

Therefore, in summary the proposed impacts would cause significant impact to some 240 m2 (10% of the study area) of the study area and surface impact to 1,200 m2 (50%) of the study area. This would leave approximately 1,000 m2 or 40% of the site undisturbed by the proposed development.

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87/90#1098622AHIP Excavation Report Figure 6: Figure the rear. to parking with car Street, facing Hunter structure the restaurant showing development Proposed

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May 2011 rner of the of rner

pipes running through the north of the study area (red). (red). area the study of the north through pipes running

87/90#1098622AHIP Excavation Report site (enlarged at right of the page), and the stormwater stormwater the of page), and the at right site (enlarged Figure 7: Figure co in the southeast located (red) box filter tank and sand the retention Note system. stormwater proposed Map showing

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87/90#1098622AHIP Excavation Report Figure 8: Figure outline). (red structure the restaurant for dots) (red and piers fill (green) of proposed the location Map showing

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w) and piers (red). (red). w) and piers nt impacts (fill (green), stormwater drains and retention and sand filter box (yello box filter and sand and retention drains stormwater (fill (green), nt impacts

87/90#1098622AHIP Excavation Report Figure 9: Map showing indicative developme

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3. ABORIGINAL STAKEHOLDER CONSULTATION

Aboriginal stakeholder consultation began informally during preliminary assessment of the study area in 2004 (before the OEH guidelines were implemented). The Awabakal Local Aboriginal Land Council was involved in the original preliminary assessment and section 87 AHIP application.

Following the re-initiation of the project in November 2009, Aboriginal stakeholder consultation was undertaken in accordance with OEH’s (2004) interim Community Consultation Requirements for Applicants.

The formal process of consultation included contacting the Native Title Tribunal, Office of Registrar, OEH and advertising in the local newspaper (Newcastle Star on 3 December 2008) to identify Aboriginal parties interested in the project (see Appendix 2 for further information). Through this process the following groups registered their interest in the project:

 Awabakal Local Aboriginal Land Council (Cheryl Kitchener);  Awabakal Traditional Owner Aboriginal Corporation (Kerrie Brauer); and  Awabakal Descendent Traditional Owner Aboriginal Corporation (Shane Frost).

The proposed section 87/90 AHIP and research design was sent to these organisations in January 2009 for consideration and comment. Alan Williams (AHMS) undertook (or attempted to undertake) meetings with the registered Aboriginal stakeholders during this time to discuss the application and proposed methodology. Following support from the ATOAC and ADTOAC, the application was lodged and the permit endorsed in April 2009.

Following receipt of the AHIP, each registered Aboriginal stakeholder was provided a copy and invited to participate in the fieldwork. Subsequently, a representative of each of the registered Aboriginal stakeholders was present throughout the excavations in August 2009.

During the field investigations, several discussions and meetings were undertaken with the registered Aboriginal stakeholders and OEH in relation to the excavation (how they were proceeding, proposed modifications to the methodology, management outcomes, etc) and the significance of the finds uncovered.

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Consultation, in the form of periodic project update e-mails and phone calls, has been ongoing since the excavations. Additional meetings were held in relation to the potential interpretation of the site (murals, signage, etc) in early 2010.

A consultation log outlining all Aboriginal consultation and correspondence during this process is presented in Appendix 2. All Aboriginal stakeholders were provided with a draft copy of this report for comment and a period of 28 days provided for comment (in accordance with OEH’s 2010 consultation guidelines). All comments received prior to finalisation are presented in Appendix 2 and addressed in the report were relevant.

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4. EXCAVATION METHODOLOGY

This section provides a summary of the excavation methodology and the research aims that were developed for the archaeological program. 4.1 Research Aims

As discussed in Section 1.1, the research design included the following objectives:

1. To identify, characterise and interpret the specific soil profile encountered within the study area; 2. To salvage, characterise and curate an appropriate amount of Aboriginal objects within the proposed development areas; 3. To recover an appropriate sample of Aboriginal objects from the study area for analysis for development impact mitigation purposes; 4. To further assess and understand the scientific and cultural significance of the Aboriginal objects recovered and the study area as a whole; 5. To assess the impact of proposed development on scientific and cultural values identified by the investigation. The results of the impact are used to form the basis for developing recommendations for management of the site’s cultural values before, during and after the proposed development; and 6. To continue Aboriginal stakeholder consultation and involvement during the course of the project to identify Aboriginal cultural values and provide registered Aboriginal stakeholders with the opportunity to provide comment on the results of the investigation and proposed management recommendations.

The research agenda the project also included attempts: 1. to characterise, analyse and salvage Contact archaeological material within the study area; 2. to characterise and analyse the pre-European geomorphology of the study area, which based on the adjacent sites is a complex combination of fluvial, tectonic and Aeolian deposits; 3. to identify the presence of intact soil profiles, and characterise the existing disturbances to these profiles; 4. where intact soil profiles are evident, assess their potential to retain Aboriginal objects and recover an appropriate sample of such objects;

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5. to address archaeological research questions; and 6. to collect and record artefacts that will be subject to development impact.

4.2 Excavation Methods

The investigation was undertaken in accordance with the research design entitled Joint Section 87/90 Permit Application, Research Design & Excavation Methodology for Aboriginal Archaeological Excavation at Palais Royale, 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle3 (Appendix 3) and subsequent modifications (Section 4.2.1 and Appendix 3). It should be noted that significant modifications were made to the original excavation program outlined below following identification of specific disturbances. Therefore, this section should be read in conjunction with Section 4.2.1.

Initially it was proposed to undertake two open area excavations, each some 25 m2. The two open areas were to be located in areas where the greatest construction impacts would take place. These were indicated in the vicinity of the sand and retention box in the southeast corner of the site (designated as Area 1) and within the centre of the site, where the new stormwater system was proposed (Area 2) (Figure 10). The permit allowed excavation within each of these areas to be expanded up to 49 m2 if significant archaeological material was identified. In the end though, only one open area (Area 1) of 48 m2 was undertaken in the southeast corner of the study area (see Section 4.2.1 for discussion).

Investigation of this area was manually undertaken by excavation of a series of 1 m2 test pits. Soil matrix in these test pits was removed by excavation in 10 cm spits, with all material being bucketed and sieved through a 5 mm mesh. All archaeological material was retained for analysis. This material is currently stored at AHMS’ Sydney office pending the completion of this project.

Initially (for the first 8 x 3 m excavated – A, B and C 1-8), levels/heights were taken at the top and bottom of each test pit. However, due to a number of factors including differential excavation skill , compression of sand units during excavation, uneven surface and frequent collapsing of the friable sands in the trench cross-sections (Figures 11 and 12), this approach proved unsatisfactory. Subsequently, levels were taken at the top and bottom of each spit excavated for test pits A/B/C 9-16 (see Section 5.1 for further discussion).

3 AHMS, 2009.

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A surveyor with a Trimble® differential GPS and a Total Station was engaged to record the location and relative levels of the salvage excavations with reference to AHD. Levels taken using this method were subsequently transcribed on the site records.

All test pits were recorded using standardised soil descriptions and a Munsell® colour chart, in addition to sketches, photographs and geomorphological interpretation. Dr. Peter Mitchell (Groundtruth Consulting) also undertook detailed geomorphological analysis of several of the test pits (Section 5.1 and Appendix 4).

Dr. Nigel Spooner (University of Adelaide) took three OSL samples during the fieldwork, with a further two being undertaken by AHMS personnel (Appendix 5). OSL samples were taken in light-resistant tubes that were struck into a cleaned back trench section. All samples were greater than 20 cm from a soil unit change. Each tube was stored in a light-resistant bag and taped for transport. Additional samples were taken from around the tubes for other required measurements. All samples were recorded on the scaled drawings of the trench.

Radiocarbon samples were collected, placed in tin foil and plastic bags for storage/transport. Their location was documented on relevant cross-section drawings and via photography. All radiocarbon samples were sent to University of Waikato for analysis (Appendix 5).

A scaled plan of the excavation was produced and scaled cross-section drawings of the excavations were prepared.

4.2.1 Modifications

During the excavation, a number of modifications were made to the excavation proposed in the research design (Section 4.2 and Appendix 3).

The most notable change involved undertaking only one open area in the southeast corner of the study area, instead of two (Figure 13). This open area was ultimately 3 x 16 m (or 48 m2) in size. The shape and location of the open area was modified, in consultation with the Aboriginal stakeholders and OEH, for the following reasons:

1. The southeast corner of the study area proved to have very little historical impact, which was extensive in other parts of the site (most notably through large concrete piers and footings from a machine shop formerly located on the site – Figure 14); 2. The open area was only 3 m in width, since the southeast corner of the study area retained only a 3 m wide strip of undisturbed ground with deep concrete footings present on either side (Figure 15);

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3. The central part of the study area, where the second open area was proposed, retained several large concrete piers (> 1 m2) and a State Heritage significant structure (which was found in the historical excavations immediately preceding the Aboriginal excavation). This historic heritage item could not be disturbed without additional consents from the Heritage Branch. On that basis, it was decided to reconfigure the proposed Aboriginal archaeological programme so that the historic site was avoided; 4. Dr. Peter Mitchell, geomorphologist, identified beach and sand dune deposits in both the initial open area (which was 3 x 8 m in size in the southeast corner of the study area) and historical post holes immediately north of the open area (Figure 16). It was concluded that the relationship between the beach deposits and the sand dunes would be critical in understanding the archaeological material found in both deposits. It was therefore decided to expand the initial open area northwards to further investigate these relationships, rather than open a new excavation in another part of the site; and 5. Due to the depth of archaeological material in the southeast corner (> 2 m), cost and time constraints on completion of the excavation did not allow for additional salvage or testing in other parts of the study area.

One further change involved the management of the Aboriginal objects recovered during the excavation. Due to vandalism of the site hut, it was decided that leaving the recovered archaeological material on site was inappropriate. It was, therefore, kept by the Excavation Director at his accommodation overnight and then returned to the site each morning. This was in contravention to the AHIP and was subsequently identified during a OEH audit of the excavations in August 2009. A formal methodology amendment allowing for the removal of Aboriginal objects from site each evening was subsequently lodged and approved by OEH (Appendix 3).

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. The red squares show the proposed proposed the show squares . The red Figure 13 search design. These were were design. These re search described in the original and as shown 4.2.1 and in Section as shown

87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report to areas of these expansion indicate potential blue squares The investigated. to be areas open 2 . Area 1 was proposed in the southeast corner of the study area, Area 2 was proposed in the middle to the north to the north the middle in proposed 2 was Area the study area, of corner in the southeast was proposed 1 . Area 2 initial two 25 m Map showing location of proposed open area excavations excavations area open of proposed location Map showing outlined in as subsequently modified 49m of the study area. of the study Figure 10.:

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Figure 11: Example of collapsed trench section, a frequent occurrence due to the sandy nature of the soil profile.

Figure 12: Example of collapsed trench section, a frequent occurrence due to the sandy nature of the soil profile.

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87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report 20th Century wall (black) and its impact upon these areas, and the proposed alternative open area (green – 3 x 8.5 m, and green (green area open alternative and the proposed these areas, upon its impact wall (black) and 20th Century and purple – 3 x 16.5 m) approved under a methodology amendment to the AHIP. The underlying green, yellow and red coloured coloured and red yellow green, The underlying AHIP. the to amendment a methodology under – 3 x 16.5 m) approved and purple impacts.. development indicate areas Figure 13. Figure 7 x 7m), the l – m, and blue – 5 x (red proposed as originally excavations, area of open the location Map showing

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Figure 14. One of the large concrete footings partially excavated and exposed within the proposed Area 2 open area.

Figure 15. Discussions with some of the registered Aboriginal stakeholder on site. Note the large concrete strip footing to the right of the photograph, constraining possible expansion of excavation in this direction.

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Figure 16. An historic post hole located in the general vicinity of B and C 15, looking southwest. The soil profile visible in the wall of this post hole (which was over 1 m deep), led to the expansion of the original Area 1 open area (evident in the background of this photograph) in this direction to further explore stratigraphic relationships across the site.

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5. EXCAVATION RESULTS

This section presents the results of archaeological test excavations, including the results of detailed geomorphological, dating and lithic analysis.

5.1 General

The excavation was undertaken in accordance with the Section 87/90 methodology outlined in Section 4.2 and modifications described in Section 4.2.1 (and Appendix 3).

A total of forty-eight 1 m2 test pits were excavated to form a large 16 x 3 m open area in the southeastern corner of the study area (Figures 17 – 20, Appendix 6). All test pits were excavated to a depth of 1 m, with four being undertaken to 2 m below the current ground surface (Table 1 and Figures 21 and 22). Due to the uneven surface of the study area, and the varying level of experience of the participants, in most cases spits between test pits did not always precisely correlate, although detailed levels on the top of all test pits/spits allowed for corrections to be undertaken during the post excavation analysis (Figures 23-25). Stratigraphic correlation with the soil profile was also undertaken in this way (Figures 26-28).

The excavations began with individual test pits B1, B3, B5, and B7 (Figure 29), each of which were excavated to 1 m depth. Subsequently, B2, B4, B6 and B8 were excavated leaving a 1 x 8 m trench through the centre of the initial open area (Figure 30). Test pits A1 - 8 and C1 - 8 were then excavated using this trench as an access point (Figure 31). While initially, test pits A1 - 8 and C1 - 8 were excavated to a depth of one metre, the frequent collapsing of trench walls led to the excavation of all of these test pits at the same time spit by spit (i.e. the entire open area was excavated to a similar depth at the same time through excavation of multiple test pits until 1 m was reached) (Figure 31). Frequent wetting of the trench sections and shoring was also implemented to prevent such collapses.

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Table 1. Summary of test pit information, including AHD heights and number of spits excavated.

Test Pit Start Level End Level Sediment No. Spits Column Row (metres AHD) (metres AHD) Excavated (cm3 /approx. kg) A 1 2.161 1.185 97.6 (2000) 10 A 2 2.158 1.160 99.8 (2000) 10 A 3 2.105 1.230 87.5 (2000) 10 A 4 2.205 1.225 98.0 (2000) 10 A 5 2.190 1.185 100.5 (2000) 10 A 6 2.070 1.300 77.0 (1,800) 9 A 7 2.055 1.255 80.0 (1,800) 9 A 8 2.020 1.215 80.5 (1,800) 9 A 9 2.290 1.275 101.5 (2,200) 11 A 10 2.245 1.215 103.0 (2,200) 11 A 11 2.273 1.195 107.8 (2,200) 11 A 12 2.225 1.055 117.0 (2,200) 11 A 13 2.280 1.085 119.5 (2,200) 11 A 14 2.285 1.085 120.0 (2,200) 11 A 15 2.100 1.130 97.0 (2000) 10 A 16 2.145 1.035 111.0 (2,200) 11 B 1 2.283 1.248 103.5 (2000) 10 B 2 2.311 1.283 102.8 (1,800) 9 B 3 2.329 0.260 206.9 (4,000) 20 B 4 2.340 1.309 103.1 (1,800) 9 B 5 2.274 1.320 95.4 (2000) 10 B 6 2.390 0.540 185.0 (4,000) 20 B 7 2.378 1.293 108.5 (2,200) 11 B 8 2.356 1.275 108.1 (2000) 10 B 9 2.275 0.235 204.0 (4,000) 20 B 10 2.275 1.195 108.0 (2,200) 11 B 11 2.261 1.185 107.6 (2,200) 11 B 12 2.179 0.375 180.4 (3,600) 19 B 13 2.101 1.095 100.6 (2,200) 11 B 14 2.160 1.095 106.5 (2,200) 11 B 15 2.180 1.130 105.0 (2,200) 11 B 16 2.105 1.130 101.0 (2,200) 11 C 1 2.099 1.040 105.9 (2000) 10

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C 2 2.186 1.020 116.6 (2000) 10 Test Pit Start Level End Level Sediment No. Spits Column Row (metres AHD) (metres AHD) Excavated (cm3 /approx. kg) C 3 2.089 1.040 104.9 (1,800) 9 C 4 2.098 1.025 107.3 (2000) 10 C 5 2.154 1.075 107.9 (2,200) 11 C 6 2.201 1.235 96.6 (2000) 10 C 7 2.252 1.245 100.7 (2000) 10 C 8 2.170 1.220 95.0 (2000) 10 C 9 2.269 1.240 102.9 (2,200) 11 C 10 2.270 1.175 109.5 (2,200) 11 C 11 2.263 1.165 109.8 (2,200) 11 C 12 2.223 1.115 110.8 (2,200) 11 C 13 2.171 1.115 105.6 (2,200) 11 C 14 2.155 1.100 105.5 (2,200) 11 C 15 2.399 1.155 124.4 (2,600) 13 C 16 2.105 1.025 108.0 (2,200) 11 Average 2.211±0.094 1.100±0.245 111.15 11 ± 2 (2,237) Total 5,335.5 538 (107,400)

Due to the frequent collapsing of the soil profile, and the inaccuracies with levels in test pits A/B/C 1 - 9, the expansion of the open area with A/B/C 9 – 16 was excavated differently. Specifically, the excavations were undertaken into the northern section of the open area in three test pit increments (i.e. A9, B9, C9 were all excavated to 1 metre, recorded and then A10, B10, C10 were all excavated to 1 m, and so on) (Figures 32 and 33). This approach ensured only a 3 m section was ever exposed at any one time and minimised collapses. It also minimised the number of people in the trench and allowed greater control on documenting the heights of each spit excavated. However, this approach only allowed minimal recording of stratigraphy within B9 – 16 (as evident in Figure 27).

Due to the presence of artefacts in the lowest depths of the initial excavation, further excavation was undertaken to greater depths in B3, B6, B9 and B12. These test pits were selected because they were in the centre of the overall open area and would not breach OHS protocols in relation to excavation at depth. These test pits were excavated to a depth of 1.8 – 2 m below the surface (between 0.2 and 0.5 m AHD). Arefacts were also identified in the lowest depths of these test pits, but excavation

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 39 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report was discontinued here as a result of proximity to the water table; this assisting the undercutting and collapse of wall in these test pits – Figure 34).

Ultimately, 538 spits were excavated with an average of 11 spits per test pit. B3, B6, B9 and B12 each required excavation of between 19 and 20 spits.

In other words, approximately 53.335 m3 or 107,400 kg of soil matrix was excavated and sieved as a result of salvage excavations within the 16m x 3 m open area examined by the archaeological investigation.

Based on AHD level data recorded during the excavation, the open area on average began at 2.21±0.09 m AHD and finished at 1.10±0.25 m AHD (or 1.17±0.09 m AHD if lower heights from B3, B6, B9 and B12 are removed).

It should be noted that in the earlier excavations, several centimetres of historical fill deposit were evident above the natural soil profile (generally between 2.10 and 2.30 m AHD). Initially, these were recovered and sieved, but it was demonstrated that they retained significant late 19th and early 20th century debris and were placing significant stress upon the trench sections. Subsequently, it was removed and discarded across most of the site. This removal accounts for the some of the differences in start heights across the open area. It is most effectively demonstrated in Figures 23 - 28, which shows that in some test pits (predominantly A/B/C 1 – 8) between two and three spits represent the overlying historical fill unit.

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87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report GPS co-ordinates are in MGA 56. Figure 17. Figure f geographical and other development the proposed to in relation area open of the 16 x 3 m salvage location General

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Figure 18. Map showing the location of each test pit in the wider open area excavation. GPS co-ordinates are presented in MGA 56.

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Figure 19. The final 16 x 3 m open area excavation, looking northeast. The deeper test pits, B3, B6, B9 and B12 are covered by boards for OHS reasons (B12 is visible in the background). The uneven trench walls are the result of sand collapsing after excavation was completed.

Figure 20. The final 16 x 3 m open area excavation, looking south.

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Figure 21. Test pits showing start and end levels in metres AHD. All co-ordinates are in MGA 56.

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Figure 22. Test pits showing the number of spits recovered and the depth dug (in cm). All co-ordinates presented in MGA 56.

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87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report Figure 23. Figure the excavations. during AHD heights taken on A1 – 16 based for Spit correlations

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87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report Figure 24. Figure the excavations. during AHD heights taken on B1 – 16 based for Spit correlations

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87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report Figure 25. Figure the excavations. during AHD heights taken C1 – 16 on based for Spit correlations

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49 is

May 2011 a historic coffee rock formation (orange) rkening of the section and some and some the section of rkening ts (green) and beach deposits (blue). Some post deposition deposition Some post (blue). deposits and beach ts (green)

87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report considered to represent a storm flood or wash-over beach deposit, the latter represented the remains of a an earlier dune. dune. a an earlier of remains the represented latter the deposit, beach wash-over or flood a storm represent to considered in both dune profiles. A thin unit of gravel (purple) was also evident generally overlying a coffee rock hard pan – the former former pan – the hard rock a coffee overlying generally evident was also (purple) of gravel A thin unit profiles. dune in both fill unit (no colour) overlying two dune profiles composed of a sandy A1 horizon (dark brown), overlying a sandy A2horizon line deposi strand were deposits dune these Beneath (yellow). da through evident had occurred profile the soil to modification Figure 26. Figure of composed was The site the excavations. AHD heights taken during on A1 – 16 based for correlations Stratigraphic

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May 2011 21. Note that

87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report due to a change in excavation approach, the sections of B9, B10, B12,-15 were not documented (with the exception of B11, of the exception (with documented not were B9, B10, B12,-15 of sections the approach, a change in excavation to due in this figure. as clear shown are and hence was identified), a hearth where Figure 27. Figure as Figure are colours Key the excavations. AHD heights taken during on B1 – 16 based for correlations Stratigraphic

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May 2011 21.

87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report Figure 28. Figure as Figure are colours Key the excavations. AHD heights taken during on C1 – 16 based for correlations Stratigraphic

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Figure 29. Initial excavations in test pits B1 (foreground), B2, B3 and B5, looking northeast. Note the concrete foundations to the left of the open area inhibiting expansion in this area. At completion, the open area almost extended to the second orange fence in this photograph.

Figure 30. Completion of B1- 8 (closest to photographer), looking southwest. This trench was used for access and excavation of A1-9 (bottom of photograph) and C1-9 (top). Note some collapse has already occurred as shown by the wider test pits in the bottom of the photograph.

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Figure 31. Excavation of A1-9 and C1-9, looking north. Note the shoring to maintain the trench sections and the stepped nature of the excavations. All test pits were excavated spit by spit across the area to minimise trench collapse.

Figure 32. The excavation method was changed for A/B/C 9 – 16 to minimise trench collapse. Subsequently excavations were undertaken concurrently in three test pits working from north to south (in contrast to the approach shown in Figure 31).

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Figure 33. Excavation in A/B/C 9 – 16. Note the historic period post hole to the left of this photograph. This is the same post hole as presented in Figure 16.

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Figure 34. Test pit B6 (1 – 2 m below surface), looking east. The watertable is visible at the base of the excavation. Also, note the change from sand dune deposit to beach deposit just above this. The water table led to undercutting and collapsing of the deep test pits as shown here.

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5.2 Geomorphology

Geomorphological analysis of the study area was undertaken by Dr. Peter Mitchell of Groundtruth Consulting Pty Ltd. His report is provided in Appendix 44, a summary of which is included below.

Dr. Mitchell’s analysis included two site visits and the analysis of two trenches, one in the original location of Area 2 (which was excavated to remove a large concrete foundation when this area was originally considered for excavation), and A7 and B3 (which Mitchell incorrectly identifies as B4 in his Appendix 4) in the main open area excavation. Subsequent discussions were undertaken with Mitchell during the post excavation analysis to further clarify interpretation of the deeper deposits.Summary results of those discussions are incorporated in this section, and may not be included within his original report.

Using previous studies by AHMS and other publications, Mitchell outlined the general location of the study area. Specifically, the study area was considered to have been located close to the original Hunter River estuary on Honeysuckle Point – a sand bar on the mouth of Cottage Creek, which ran to the west of the study area:

The original geomorphic context of the site appears to have been a sand body, probably a beach and low dune, close to the edge of the Hunter River estuary.

Early maps (in AHMS 2008 and Newcastle Town Plan 1916) show that high- water mark was at the northern edge of the site and that the site was located on the broadest part of a low sand spit between Honeysuckle Point and a meander loop in the tidal reach of Cottage Creek (Figure 1) [Figure 35]. Some maps (AHMS 2008, Figure 8) hint at the presence of a low flat along the creek that was probably tidal and covered in salt marsh. A few mangroves may have been present but the density of these was probably much less during the 19th Century than in the river today. The name Honeysuckle Point would have referred to the presence of Banksia spp., probably Banksia serrata, which is a common tree in coastal sand communities. To be useful for farming the land

4 Please note that Mitchell documented the soil sections and stratigraphy from street level, which allowed for the descriptions of the historic fill units above the excavations to be included in his assessment. However, since these deposits were generally removed, the excavations were documented from the top of the natural soil profile, not street level. Therefore, there is frequently about a 40 cm difference between Mitchell’s descriptions and the levels presented in this report. AHD heights have been used in this section of the report to ratify this disparity.

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must have been well drained and readily tilled, although coastal sand deposits are not very fertile.

a bleached A2-horizon over brown to orange soft pans. Such a description is consistent with a relatively young profile (mid-Holocene) as expected in a body of coastal sand and this would normally be described as having been emplaced when post-glacial sea level reached its present level between 6,000 and 7,000 years ago. None of the descriptions note the presence of indurated pans or ‘coffee rock’. Sequential development of podzol profiles in coastal sand bodies have been described by several authors such as Bowman (1989) who provides the best-dated sequence in New South Wales and the profiles on this site are consistent with his descriptions. In the field however there are features in the trenches that raise questions about the details of this interpretation.

Figure 35. Location of the study area on Hunter Street in relation to the made ground from the railway to the coast and the approximate 19th Century location of Cottage Creek and Honeysuckle Point.

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Mitchell identified the following soil/sedimentary units within the excavations (Figures 36-38):

1. 2.3 – 2.4 m AHD - Concrete slab; 2. 2.15 – 2.3 m AHD – Modern rubble, charcoal, occasional estuarine shell and other European debris (shown as (1) in Figures 36-38). The lower parts of this unit frequently retained a thin brownish black organic fine sand believed to be a disturbed part of the A1 horizon; 3. 1.9 – 2.15 m AHD – Brownish black (10 YR 3/1m) organic fine sand (shown as (2), in Figures 36-38). This unit was the original undisturbed topsoil (A1 horizon); 4. 1.25 – 1.9 m AHD (highly variable) – Dull yellow orange (10 YR 7/3m) bleached single grained fine sand (shown as (3) in Figures 36-38). Little evidence of bioturbation, but extensive burrowing above and below this unit indicated it has occurred. This unit represented an A2 horizon; 5. 0.95 – 1.75 m AHD (highly variable) – Dull yellowish brown (10 YR 7/3m) uncemented single grain sand (shown as (4) in Figures 36-38). This unit was considered to represent a B horizon. It contained frequent pebbles (too low to identify primary bedding) and occasional rounded lumps of cemented, very dark brown (7.5 YR 2/3) ‘coffee rock’ pan. The latter was had not developed in situ, but was considered to have been transported from elsewhere; 6. 0.6 – 1.10 m AHD (variable) - Dull yellow orange (10 YR 7/3m) bleached single grained fine sand (shown as (6) in Figure 38). This unit represented an A2 horizon of an earlier dune profile; 7. 0.6-0.75 m AHD (only present in test pits B3 and B12) - Dull yellowish brown (10 YR 7/3m) uncemented single grain sand (shown as (7) in Figure 38). This unit was considered to represent a B horizon of an earlier dune profile; 8. 0.4 – 0.65 m AHD – Dark organic sand with occasional granules to 5 mm and abundant fragments of weathered and sub rounded black coal (shown as (8) in Figure 38). Some charcoal and fine plant roots were present. This unit was considered to represent a series of strand lines that were probably deposited on the edge of Cottage Creek during high water conditions; and 9. 0.26 – 0.4 m AHD – Slightly clayey grit and gravel with fine sand matrix (shown as (9) in Figure 38). Coring indicated that this deposit extended at least 30 cm below the lowest excavations (-0.04 m AHD). This deposit was considered to represent storm and wash over beach deposits.

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In addition to the units described above, Mitchell noted a ‘coffee rock’ hardpan in a historic post hole (which he refers to as B14 in Appendix 4), which was eventually incorporated within the completed open area at its northwest corner. This hard pan was also identified by the open area excavations, which revealed that it estended across the base of A/B/C 9 – 16 (evident as (7) in Figures 38 -40) – an elevation of 1.1 – 1.2 m AHD. Mitchell noted the following in relation to this hardpan:

Dark brown, cemented ‘coffee rock’ pan, not examined closely but it appears to have an unconformable relationship to the gravel above. Assuming that this relationship is confirmed when the trench is fully excavated and the section visible then it is an important feature indicating that a body of dune sand with a strong podzol profile existed on the site prior to the emplacement of the present sand body. ‘Coffee rock’ is usually taken to indicate a Pleistocene age for the sediment and that older soil/sediment may have contained older Aboriginal artefacts.

While not visible in the trench sections, there was also extensive evidence of sporadic and minor flooding events within the soil profile. This is referred to by Mitchell in his identification of re-deposited coffee rock (Figures 41 and 42), which appeared to have been transported from the hard pan in the north to the dune deposits in the south. (Figures 39 and 40).

Such flooding can be further corroborated by the presence of charcoal samples, which dated to ages significantly older than the dune deposit itself (Section 5.3), and by the presence of rounded pebbles found during excavation (Figures 43 and 44). The charcoal was considered to represent flotsam from the Hunter River catchment, which was deposited on the dune during time of flood, along with the rounded pebbles.

The tightly constrained dates within the A2 horizon indicate that the dune was unlikely to represent multiple phases of formation, and therefore the remains of these flood deposits must have covered the dune – possibly as low energy events – before being integrated into the soil profile through bioturbation and deflation processes. While not recorded in detail (due to their ephemeral nature), several thin bands of fine gravels and small stones were identified throughout the A2 horizon and indicate multiple phases of flooding occurred between around 2,000 – 3,000 years

Based on the information above, in addition to the chronological information presented in Section 5.3, the geomorphological evolution of the study area can now be considered. Specifically, the study area contained a complex series of dune formations inter-mixed with high water and/or storm surge deposits from Cottage

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Creek and/or the Hunter River that formed over the last 6,000+ years (Figure 45). Chronologically, the landscape would have changed as follows:

1. The northern part of the study area retained a sand dune with significant podsolisation leading to the formation of a coffee rock hard pan (evident as (7) in Figures 36 -38). Given the degree of development of the pan, the dune was probably Pleistocene in age; 2. Higher sea level and/or storm surges caused the destruction/erosion of the Pleistocene sand dune, leaving only the coffee rock hard pan. This pan would have formed a berm or outcrop which would only be affected by high water or storm surge deposition from Cottage Creek and/or the Hunter River. These sediments are evident as the beach facies described in (9) above). This accounts for the likely older hard pan deposits being higher in elevation than the mid-Holocene beach facies. It is likely that any Aboriginal objects from the older dune, would have ended up in the beach facies (or further afield) now located at the base of the soil profile. Based on radiocarbon data, these deposits were laid down before about 6,500 years BP; 3. The beach/berm feature could have caused the formation of small lagoons or water holes behind the beach (as is evident in several parts of the east coast of Australia), which would have fluctuated over time and led to the deposition of strand lines (effectively debris along high water marks, etc), which are described in (8) above. Some storm surges and/or wash-over beach deposits may also have contributed to this deposit over time. Based on radiocarbon data, these deposits would have formed between about 6,500 and 3,000 years BP – a period known as the mid-Holocene Climatic Optimum; 4. From about 3,000 – 2,000 years BP, a period of increased El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) drying, dune systems re-mobilised and a series of two sand dunes form on the site. Initially, a small dune formed (evident as (6) and (7) above) and underwent some post depositional modification ((7) above). This was subsequently covered, along with the still exposed Pleistocene coffee rock hard pan, by a larger dune (evident as (3), (4), and (5)), which also underwent some podsolisation ((5) above). This was the last phase of dune building, evident by the presence of an A1 horizon ((2) above) still remaining in the upper parts of the dune. Based on a radiocarbon date from the hearth, located just beneath the A1 horizon, stabilisation and occupation of this dune occurred around 2,000 years BP; 5. Infrequent flooding of the study area was likely to have occurred through the presence of several thin bands of small – moderate sized rounded pebbles and gravels found through out the dune deposits. Given the constrained range of the dates within the dune deposit, it is considered that these were relatively low energy events and would have caused only limited erosion or destruction of Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 60 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report

the dune system. While initially, these deposits would have been situated on the surface of the dune, they have subsequently become bioturbated/deflated into the dune deposits. Their location below the main artefact concentrations in the top of the dune and the base of the dune, suggest that they occurred between 2,000 – 3,000 years BP; and 6. Historical activities occurred on top of the dune, which led to the deposition of the upper 30 cm of soil profile. It is unclear if no deposition/topsoil development occurred after 2,000 years BP, or if these latter deposits were integrated/removed by these historical activities. ((1) and (2) above).

While sea-level is known to have changed on parts of the NSW coast line during the mid- and late-Holocene (5,000 – 2,000 years BP), the elevations of the strandlines and beach facies on this site do not allow for such an interpretation here. In most cases these deposits are within 0.75 m of current sea level and are therefore within the normal tide range and could have been formed under conditions similar to those of today. It is considered likely, however, that the removal of the Pleistocene sand dune, which must have occurred by 6,500 years BP may have been the result of sea level change, which has been documented as occurring during this time. This is about the time that sea level is usually thought to have reached the present level or just a little above after the LGM.

The lithic assemblage from the excavation is discussed in detail in Section 5.4, but in general it indicates three different phases of Aboriginal occupation on the site. The earliest assemblage was recovered from the lowest deposits, specifically the beach facies and strandlines. It seems likely that this assemblage was deposited by about 6,500 years BP and either was contemporaneous with that date or came from earlier sites situated on the now destroyed Pleistocene dunes. The appearance in these lower spits of artefacts without water-rolled damage suggests a later use of the area most likely exploitation of the of the beach facies between 3,500 and 6,800 years BP and reflects the use of the lagoons/waterholes behind the dune system and/or the use of the berm as a windbreak/shelter. At spits 10 and 11, a further assemblage was identified, which probably represented the use of the earlier dune around 3,000 years BP. A further period of occupation was evident by the majority of the assemblage, which occurred in the upper profile, and was dated to approximately 2,000 years BP.

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Figure 36. Photographs of the soil profile across A/B/C 1-8. A/B/C 1-8. across the profile of soil 36. Photographs Figure

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Figure 37. Photographs of the soil profile through A/B/C 9 -16.

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Figure 38. Photographs of the deep soil profile excavated in B3, B6, B9 and B12. in B3, B6, B9 and excavated profile the soil of deep 38. Photographs Figure

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Figure 39. Test pits A/B/C 14, looking north east. The dark band across the test pit is composed of hardpan coffee rock and frequent small pebbles and gravels. This unit is believed to represent the remains of an earlier dune system, possibly Pleistocene.

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Figure 40. Test pits A 12 – 16, looking east. Note the hard pan coffee rock in the base of the test pit with frequent small stones and gravels, considered to be the remains of an earlier dune system.

Figure 41. Test pits B 2 and 3, looking east. Note the nodules of coffee rock, which are considered to have been re-worked/re-deposited from elsewhere (rather than having formed in situ). A further indication of flooding episodes either during or prior to dune formation within the study area.

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Figure 42. Detail of re-worked/re-deposited coffee rock in test pit C1.

Figure 43. Test pit B5, spit 9, looking east. Note the rounded pebbles located in the corner of the test pit, indicative of a flooding event.

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Figure 44. Test pit A2, spit 5, looking east. Initially, through to be a knapping event, these stones and pebbles most likely represent a flooding episode across the site.

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87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report Figure 45. Figure the site. history of the geomorphological showing Schematic Diagram

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5.3 Dating

Due to the complex geomorphological history of the site, extensive radiometric and Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating was undertaken in an attempt to produce a thorough interpretation of the archaeological excavation results. Radiometric samples were processed by the Radiocarbon Laboratory at the University of Waikato, New Zealand (Appendix 5), and OSL samples were processed by the University of Adelaide (Appendix 5).

5.3.1 Radiocarbon Samples

All charcoal samples collected for radiocarbon dating were thoroughly documented prior to their recovery during excavation. The recovered samples were stored in tin foil within sealed plastic bags, labelled with provenance data. Only charcoal identified during the excavations or in the trench sections was sampled. No dateable material from the sieves was retained to avoid potential contamination. While shell was collected and could potentially be dated, it was largely found only in the upper historical fill units, and therefore no shell was submitted for dating.

Four charcoal samples were submitted for radiocarbon dating. The results of this dating are presented in Table 2 and Appendix 5.

Two of the samples, Wk-26328 and Wk-26346, were taken early in the excavation. They comprised discrete or individual charcoal in the larger sand body. The dates for these two samples were significantly old (56,702 – 44,723 and 48,201 – 42,201 calibrated years BP, respectively) and proved contradictory to the geomorphological record (which indicated that the site had to be less than 10,000 years in age based on the absence of hard pan development). It was subsequently determined that these dates probably reflect flotsam and other debris from the sporadic flood deposits evident in the sand body. Therefore, while the dates are accurate (i.e. they are not the product of a processing or measuring error), they do not relate to the cultural occupation at the site. Instead, they are considered to represent older deposits from further up the Hunter River/Cottage Creek that were washed onto the site and then mixed into the dune sand body via bioturbation. These dates should, therefore, be discounted when considering the age of the archaeological material and soil profile at the site.

Two further dates were obtained during the excavation (Wk- 26882 and Wk-26883). Wk-26882 was taken from a diffuse charcoal feature considered to represent a hearth or cooking pit (Figures 39 – 41). This hearth was found in association with the

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 70 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report majority of the lithic assemblage in spits 4 and 5. The hearth was dated to between 2,118 and 1,933 calibrated years BP, which correlates with chronological markers within the artefact assemblage (such as backed artefacts for example). This date is younger than the comparable OSL date (AdBL10004 – 3,000 ±170 years ago), but it is considered that the artefact assemblage and hearth have moved down the soil profile through bioturbation and natural processes, and this may explain the discrepancy between the two dates.

Wk-26883 was considered to represent the basal or earliest date for cultural occupation of the site. It consisted of a large lump of charcoal removed from the beach facies in spit 20. This date indicated that the lowest deposits on the site were laid down between 6,716 and 6,502 calibrated years BP. This date broadly corresponds to periods of higher sea level identified in other parts of NSW during the early-mid Holocene:

Present sea level was attained between 7900 and 7700 cal. yr BP, approximately 700–900 years earlier than previously proposed. Sea level continued to rise to between +1 and +1.5 m between 7700 and 7400 cal. yr BP, followed by a sea-level highstand that lasted until about 2000 cal. yr BP followed by a gradual fall to present.5

The deposition of the beach facies and strand lines in the lower parts of the site are, therefore, considered to represent depositional episodes associated with the higher sea levels at this time.

Of note, is the large disparity between this date and AdBL 09011 (2,120 ±190 years ago), which were both taken from similar levels. Discussions with Frances Williams and Nigel Spooner indicated that the OSL sample had very different background radiation levels from other samples on the site, possibly due to its location within the strand lines (which retained a mixture of soil and debris material). Such radiation levels may have led to complications with the sample, and the radiocarbon date is, therefore, considered to be more reliable.

It should be noted that the presence of shell material rarely occurred below spit 4, indicating that the exploitation of nearby shell beds only occurred in the last 2,000 years.

No dates were obtained from the upper deposits, which generally consisted of disturbed topsoil and other soil deposits modified by historical occupation. As a result,

5 Sloss et al. 2007:1.

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 71 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report it cannot be determined whether or not the Aboriginal site was abandoned by 2,118 years BP or whether deposits associated with such occupation were disturbed and redeposited within the upper portions of soil profile, or truncated and removed by activity undertaken during the historic period.

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73 †‡ BP)

Minimum Minimum May 2011 Calibrated Age (years

‡ BP) Maximum Calibrated Age (years

† Age Error (years BP) Radiocarbon BP) Age (years Radiocarbon

† pMC (‰) error 4 0.2 2,055 5 0.1 30 5,812 2,118 1,933 31 6,716 6,502 (‰) pMC*

† C 14 0.6 0.2 0.1 48.660 2,324 56,702 44,723 1.2 0.7 0.1 40,425 1,604 48,201 42,201 δ (‰) error C 14 (‰) δ

† C 13 δ (‰) error C 13 (‰) δ -24.2 0.2 -225.7 2.0 77. -24.2 0.2 -514.9 1.3 48.

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∫ ∫ Summary of radiocarbon dates dates radiocarbon of Summary 26882 26883 Lab Code

Depth Table 2. (m AHD) Spit Spit Number B5 9 -25.1 0.2 -997.7 0.589 Wk-26328 Wk- B3 20 0.285 A6 A6 4 -24.9 0.2 -993.5 1.815 Wk-26346 pit AMS measurement. Errors presented to one standard deviation. Calibrated ages presented at the 95.4% confidence level using INTCAL 09. B12 3 Wk- 1.925

Test

684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section * Percent modern carbon. † ‡ ∫ ArchaeologicalHeritagePty & Management Solutions Ltd 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report

Figure 46. A dark grey feature, thought to be a hearth, located beneath a post hole in test pit B12, looking north. Note the dark charcoal smudge to the right of the photograph, which was interpreted as raking out of the hearth at some point.

Figure 47. The hearth identified in B12, looking northeast. The hearth was already identified, but only became clearly visible in plan at the top of spit 4 (1.925 m AHD). Radiocarbon sample Wk-26882 was recovered from the top of the hearth after it was cleaned.

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Figure 48. The hearth located in B12 after excavation, looking north

5.3.2 OSL Samples

Five OSL samples were collected from the excavations (Table 3, Figures 43-45, and Appendix 5).Three samples, AdBL 10001, 10002 and 09011, were collected by Dr. Nigel Spooner, University of Adelaide. These samples had background radiation and nuclides measurements taken in the field by a gamma spectrometer. The remaining two, AdBL 10003 and 10004, were collected by AHMS personnel with their measurements being undertaken at the University of Adelaide.

AdBL 10001, 10002, 10003, and 10004, were all taken from the two dune sand bodies evident on the site (between 0.4 and 1.9 m AHD) (Figure 45). AdBL 10001, 10002 and 10004 were all taken from the upper dune deposits (both the A2 and B horizons), AdBL 10003 was taken from the lowest dune sand (A2 horizon), and AdBL 09011 was taken from the strandlines at the base of the excavation (the beach facies were not exposed at time of sampling, and hence the dating of the strandlines rather than the beach facies).

With the exception of AdBL 09011, the OSL dates are well constrained. AdBL 10001, 10002, 10003 and 10004 all indicate the deposition of both dune profiles occurred between 3,600 and 2,480 years ago, a period of intense El Niño conditions.6 When

6 Shulmeister, 1999.

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∏

May 2011 Age hen s a minor s a Plasma Total Dose Rate (Gy/ka) Water Water Content (%) Cosmic Dose Rate (Gy/ka) 0.195±0.020 3.4±0.3 0.195±0.020 3,050±260 0.695±0.023 5.3±0.5 0.188±0.019 3,380±220 0.690±0.022 12.1±1.2 0.174±0.017 2,120±190 1.092±0.028 (FGS) and (Inductively Coupled

‡ Th (ppm)

1.90±0.13 1.82±0.002 1.99±0.13 1.60±0.05 5.13±0.20 5.43±0.18

∫ 0.53±0.07 0.46±0.01 0.44±0.07 0.41±0.01 1.05±0.11 1.11±0.02 U (ppm) U † tter uses AD 1950 as a reference point for dates. Therefore, w K (%) 0.256±0.0002 0.292±0.002 0.449±0.004 t, i.e. AdBL 10001 is 3,050 years ago from AD 2010. This cause ically field gamma spectrometry Equivalent Equivalent Dose (Gy) 2.12±0.17 0.282±0.010 2.33±0.13 0.312±0.012 2.32±0.16 0.351±0.015 Method* ICPAES/MS ICPAES/MS ICPAES/MS

87/90#1098622AHIP Excavation Report Lab Code Code Lab Rate Dose Summary of OSL dates. of Summary

Depth (m AHD) Table 3. number number Test pit Spit FGS 7 A3 AdBL10001 FGS 1.750 AdBL10002 10 A3 1.405 FGS AdBL09011 B3 17 0.555 B12 A11/A12 5 15 0.810 1.915 10003 10004 1.91±0.18 ICPAES/MS AdBL 2.38±0.21 ICPAES/MS AdBL 0.318±0.002 0.324±0.003 0.40±0.01 0.47±0.01 1.90±0.07 2.00±0.07 3.6±0.4 0.175±0.017 4.4±0.4 0.198±0.020 2,750±270 0.694±0.019 3,000±170 0.741±0.022 K = Potassium. The ages are presented using present day as their reference poin U = Uranium. T = Thorium. * Analysis of the samples utilised two different methods, specif Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICPAES/MS). These methods were used to measure the background radiation and nuclides required to interpret the ‘dose rate’ from each of the samples. † ∫ ‡ ∏ 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section discrepancy between the OSL and radiocarbon samples, since the la comparing the two different datasets, a further difference of 60 years should be considered. ArchaeologicalHeritagePty & Management Solutions Ltd 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report

Figure 49. The locations of OSL samples 1 (AdBL 10001) and 2 (AdBL 10002) taken from test pit A3, looking east. .

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Figure 50. OSL sample 3 (AdBL 09011) (red circle) and Wk-26883 (red rectangle) taken from one of the lowest parts of the site in test pit B3, looking south. .

Figure 51. Alan Williams (AHMS) and Dr. Nigel Spooner (University of Adelaide) discussing appropriate locations and taking OSL samples part way through the excavations. The yellow cap in the section covers OSL Sample 1 (AdBL10001).

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Figure 52. The locations of OSL samples 4 (AdBL 10003) and 5 (AdBL 10004) from test pits A12 and B12, looking east. OSL sample 4 was the lowest of the two samples, with OSL sample 5 being taken later for correlation with Wk-26882.

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 79 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report taking the average of these dates, a more constrained period of 3,275 and 2,815 years ago, can be considered for their formation. The age reversal of AdBL 10003, the lowest of these dates, suggests that the formation of these dunes was fast and probably involved some reworking of the existing sand deposits on the site.

AdBL 09011 was the taken from the lowest deposits revealed by the excavation, specifically spit 17 of test pit B3. However, the sample proved to be one of the youngest on the site, 2,120 ± 120 years ago, and in contradiction to the other radiocarbon and OSL samples. As outlined in Section 5.3.1, it was considered that the background levels of Uranium, Thorium and Potassium were unusual in this area of the site – probably reflecting the multiple phases of deposition within the strandlines, which also retained material and debris from other parts of the Newcastle catchment – and that this date should be rejected or interpreted with caution. This is further demonstrated by the good correlation between the remaining radiocarbon and OSL samples for the site, all of which can be correlated with known environmental changes when this date is removed from the sequence.

5.3.3 Interpretation

Based on the four radiocarbon and five OSL samples, chronological interpretation of the site can be undertaken. Using the geomorphological history of the site outlined in Section 5.2 and Figure 45, the following site history can be inferred:

1. Between 6,716 and 6,502 calibrated years BP, the beach facies in the lowest part of the site were deposited, most likely during higher sea level conditions. It is likely that the Pleistocene sand dune (evident through the coffee rock hard pan to the north of the open area) was destroyed at this time, with Aboriginal objects and other elements of it being re-worked into the beach facies; 2. Between 6,502 and around 3,500 years BP, the site received several periods of inundation, most likely from Cottage Creek, leaving a series of strandline deposits. Aboriginal occupation is evident during this time and probably reflected a period of ephemeral use during drier phases with frequent re-working of material during inundations; 3. Between 3,500 and 1,933 calibrated years BP (and probably nearer 3,200 and 2,800 calibrated years BP), intensification of El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) conditions led to the re-activation of the dune systems and deposition of two sand bodies representing the majority of the soil profile excavated. This period also received frequent low energy inundations (perhaps indicating sporadic wetter conditions), evident by the thin gravel units present in the sand dune. At least one period of Aboriginal occupation occurred during this time; 4. Between 2,480 and 1,933 calibrated years BP (with a focus on 2,118 – 1,933 calibrated years BP), the highest concentration of Aboriginal objects were deposited on the

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surface of the dune (and they were subsequently redeposited by bioturbation into the top of the A2 horizon in spits 3 and 4). This period saw significant use and/or occupation of the dune by Aboriginal people compared with earlier periods; and 5. Between 1,933 calibrated years BP and the historical period, deposits contain abundant shell and other Aboriginal objects (frequently mixed in with historical debris) suggesting an exploitation of local shell beds began during this period. It is unclear given the lack of dates and disturbance when these activities began or how long they occurred for.

5.4 Lithic Analysis

Appendix 7 provides a detailed analysis of the artefact assemblage recovered during the excavations. This section provides a summary of the findings, highlighting specific points of interest.

5.4.1 General

In summary, 5,534 stone artefacts and/or manuports were recovered from the excavations. Of these, 346 of the artefacts were recovered from un-stratified deposits, either from surface collection or where test pit edges collapsed and were subsequently sieved, leaving 5,188 artefacts and/or manuports being included in the analysis (Table 4). This equated to an average of 115.3 artefacts/m2 within the excavations and with frequent occurrences of greater than 100 artefacts occurring in any one test pit (e.g. B9 retained 492 artefacts). Using minimum number of flakes, 2,207 complete flakes (39.9%) were present in the assemblage.

The assemblage was dominated by Tuff (probably Nobby’s Tuff) with 5,221 (94.3%) of the objects forming the assemblage being composed of two varieties of this material (Table 5). The two varieties of Tuff were considered to represent the wide variation of Nobby’s Tuff that is evident along the beaches of Nobby’s Head and Merewether. Specifically,1 Tuff” resembled a tuff (dull/dry in texture with sharp edges and colours mostly focused on grey, with some pink and yellow, however the more weathered/water-rolled version of this material was of similar colour and texture but not sharp edged and was rounded. In comparison, “2 Tuff” more closely resembled a chert than a tuff in appearance. It comprised a soapy often lustrous or grainy appearance with rounded edges. These categories both contained evidence of wear or water-rolling likely as a result of environmental factors. Other exotic materials, including fine, medium and coarse grained silcrete and quartz, were also present in smaller numbers, mainly occurring in the upper four spits.

The assemblage contained limited evidence of artefacts with cortex (24.5%), but where present these objects were generally water-rolled and the cortex covered the dorsal surface

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 81 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report of artefacts, suggesting that Nobby’s Head or Merewether Beach were the main source of the stones. The analysis did explore the artefacts, which exhibited evidence of concretion, but following geomorphological analysis (Section 5.3) that identifies this as post depositional modification, it is not considered to have any bearing on the artefact assemblage. The source of the silcrete and other materials are unknown, but several sources > 11 km away are documented (Appendix 7).

A wide variety of tools were evident within the assemblage, including hammer-stones, anvils, grinding stones, pebble (chopping) tools, scrapers and backed blades (Table 6). Complete flakes recovered were dominated by expanding/elongated blade shapes and they were a standardised size, all indicative of early stages of flake production. Evidence of ridge- straightening flakes, overhang removal and split flakes all indicated that flake production or core preparation was undertaken on site. Few cores were recovered from the assemblage (n=39), a ratio of 1 core: 43.6 flakes, further indicating that trimming/preparation of raw materials (in the form of cores) was undertaken before the objects were transported or traded elsewhere. Dorsal scars on the cores, along with other information, indicated that blade production was also a primary activity on the site. High numbers of complete and broken backed blades similarly indicated that production of blades was a primary activity undertaken on site. Extensively used scrapers, probably discarded during replacement, were also observed.

Table 4. Summary of artefactual material recovered from the excavations (excluding un-stratified materials). Row A Count % Row B Count % Row C Count % A1 75 1.4 B1 62 1.1 C1 16 0.3 A2 22 0.4 B2 61 1.1 C2 39 0.7 A3 43 0.8 B3 317 5.7 C3 57 1.0 A4 46 0.8 B4 88 1.6 C4 28 0.5 A5 28 0.5 B5 36 0.7 C5 17 0.3 A6 42 0.8 B6 249 4.5 C6 30 0.5 A7 23 0.4 B7 46 0.8 C7 30 0.5 A8 45 0.8 B8 88 1.6 C8 53 1.0 A9 323 5.8 B9 492 8.9 C9 60 1.1 A10 140 2.5 B10 132 2.4 C10 81 1.5 A11 335 6.1 B11 379 6.8 C11 197 3.6 A12 193 3.5 B12 348 6.3 C12 220 4.0 A13 90 1.6 B13 116 2.1 C13 72 1.3 A14 57 1.0 B14 50 0.9 C14 43 0.8 A15 84 1.5 B15 17 0.3 C15 40 0.7 A16 48 0.9 B16 42 0.8 C16 88 1.6 Total A 1594 28.8 Total B 2523 45.6 Total C 1071 19.4

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Assemblage Assemblage Assemblage Total Assemblage 5,188 100.0

Table 5. Raw Material Types in the Assemblage

Material Count % Maximum Dimension (mm) Mean Std. Dev. Fine Grained Silcrete 28 0.5 13.8 4.5 Medium Grained Silcrete 50 0.9 18.5 7.7 Coarse Grained Silcrete 7 0.1 30.2 20.8 Chalcedony 1 0.0 8.9 Chert 189 3.4 19.4 10.2 FGS 17 0.3 29.6 29.4 Crystalline Quartz 3 0.1 10.2 1.2 Milky Quartz 3 0.1 12.1 8.0 Quartzite 2 0.0 77.2 52.3 Sandstone 4 0.1 33.6 12.6 Volcanic 8 0.1 46.9 28.9 Glass 1 0.0 11.7 Tuff1 2,944 53.2 20.2 12.6 Tuff2 511 9.2 22.7 13.7 Tuff3 1,041 18.8 23.7 13.7 Tuff4 725 13.1 26.9 15.5 Total Tuff 5,221 94.3 22.1 53.2 Total 5,534 100.0

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Table 6. Tool types in the Assemblage

Tool Type Count % Backed Retouch Backed Fragment 32 21.1 Complete Backed 8 5.3 Core Tool (Backed) 1 0.7 Bondi Point fragment 25 16.4 Complete Bondi 22 14.5 Elouera fragment 1 0.7 Complete Elouera 2 1.3 Subtotal 91 59.9 Scalar Retouch Complete Stepped scraper 1 0.7 Core Tool Stepped scraper 1 0.7 Complete Tool Concave 1 0.7 scraper Core Tool Scraper 3 2.0 Complete Tool Endscraper 3 2.0 Scraper (fragment) 17 11.2 Complete Scraper 16 10.5 Subtotal 42 27.6 Usewear Complete Usewear 8 5.3 Usewear (fragment) 1 0.7 Ground implement 1 0.7 (usewear) Subtotal 10 6.6 Other Tools Denticulate retouch 2 1.3 (fragment) Notched retouch (fragment) 1 0.7 Broken Hammerstone 1 0.7 Complete Hammerstone 1 0.7 Anvil 1 0.7 Pebble Tool (chopper) 1 0.7 Ground implement (grinder) 2 1.3 Subtotal Other Tools 9 5.9 Total 152 100.0

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5.4.2 Assemblage Through Time

Previous sections of the report have identified that the site revealed several different time and climatic periods over the last 6,700 years BP, and this can similarly be seen in the artefact assemblage. Specifically, when considering the assemblage by spit, three areas of occupation can be determined (through higher densities of artefactual assemblage) (Table 7):

 (corrected)7 spits 18, 19 and 20, which equates to the beach facies and lower strandlines and can be dated between 6,716 and 3,500 years BP. It is considered highly likely that these spits can be further split into two separate occupation events, one associated with the beach facies, the other with the later strandlines (see below);  (corrected) spits 9, 10 and 11 which equates to the interface between the top of the A2 horizon of the primary dune and the base of the B horizon of the later dune and was dated to between 3,500 and 2,480 years BP. Given the location of this occupation period, a date of closer to 3,500 years BP is considered more realistic for this event; and  (corrected) spits 2-4, which broadly equated to the top of the A2 horizon of the upper dune, and was dated via a hearth in association to between 2,118 and 1,933 years BP.

Analysing the assemblage using these three periods reveals several points of interest. Table 7 clearly demonstrates an increasing use of the site through time, with a greater focus on tool production and core-preparation/trimming only occurring in the upper spits. The presence of tools, cores or other formalised tool types were sporadic in the lower occupation horizon. Table 8 shows the location of cores where Redbank A strategy (a type of artefact manufacture) was present within the excavations. Importantly, the development of this type of strategy by prehistoric people has yet be documented - results here indicate its introduction into the site around 3,500 years BP.

Table 9 shows the use of raw materials through time, and reveals that Nobby’s Tuff was used continuously over the last 6,700 years. It also reveals that the use of exotic materials, including silcrete, volcanic, sandstone, quartzite and others, only occurred in the upper occupation periods, i.e. <2,480 years BP. There is some evidence that the type of 2 Tuff

7 Due to a wide variation of the upper surface of the excavation, correlation between the 48 test pits was required for the lithic analysis. This mainly affected only the upper spits, most notably in transect B, which had a higher proportion of historical fill materials on the surface. Where correlation has occurred and spits have moved, they have been referred to as ‘corrected’. Generally test pits are between 2 and 3 spits lower than those presented in Figures 26-28.

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 85 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report through time did change with the cherty soapy material being greater in the lower deposits, and a rising dominance of 1 Tuff in the last few thousand years.

Table 10 provides a breakdown of tool types through time, and shows clear proliferation of backed artefacts in the upper deposits (n=90, 60% in spits 2-4), as is commonly found elsewhere in eastern Australia. However, backed artefacts and scrapers were both recovered from the lower spits and indicate their presence in deposits >5,000 years, a significant find comparable with early appearances of these tool types at Mangrove Creek and Capertee 3 (Hiscock & Attenbrow, 1998). Table 11 provides a breakdown of the material sources through time, and indicates that similar sources, predominantly derived from fluvial/marine origins, were utilised over the last 6,700 years, which is not unsurprising given the location of Nobby’s Tuff is predominantly along the Newcastle beach zone.

Table 12 shows the presence of wear on artefacts within the assemblage. The deepest units clearly showed significant wear and this may indicate that they have been re-worked from earlier deposits, most likely the Pleistocene dune deposits to the north.

Table 7. Assemblage composition by level (spits)

Level Angular Complete Broken Complete Broken Cores & Other Total Fragments Flakes Flakes Tools Tools Core Fragments Un- 32 72 110 10 19 103 346 strat 1 28 87 102 7 3 4 84 315 2 23 255 331 17 17 11 102 756 3 107 526 527 20 32 6 226 1,444 4 35 181 232 4 2 3 149 606 5 17 51 55 4 1 1 77 206 6 22 40 57 2 2 38 161 7 13 37 61 41 152 8 4 29 51 2 1 13 100 9 13 49 69 1 2 1 19 154 10 23 140 194 10 33 400 11 25 67 92 3 6 2 49 244 12 3 9 22 1 1 36 13 3 16 17 4 40 14 4 10 14 1 7 36 15 12 18 32 1 1 31 95 16 4 16 22 1 1 9 53

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17 3 9 12 24 18 17 37 63 2 1 20 140 19 13 12 10 35 20 12 40 58 1 1 79 191 Total 400 1,702 2,133 72 80 52 1095 5,534

Table 8. Presence of cores where Redbank A Strategy could be identified.

Level (amended) Number of cores with Redbank A Strategy 0 4 1 2 2 1 3 3 4 1 6 1 8 1 9 1 11 2 Total 16

Table 9. Raw Material composition by level (spit) Level Chert Chalcedony Fine grained Silcrete Medium grained Silcrete Coarse grained Silcrete Quartzite Volcanic FGS Crystalline Quartz Milky Quartz Glass Sandstone Total 1 Tuff 2 Tuff Un- 12 1 254 74 1 2 2 346 strat 1 8 30 222 44 2 5 1 2 1 315 2 11 11 3 703 25 1 1 1 756 3 80 12 13 4 1305 27 1 1 1 1444

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4 31 1 3 1 453 116 1 606 5 1 2 1 104 93 2 3 206 6 73 88 161 7 1 50 98 3 152 8 5 42 49 1 2 1 100 9 3 1 1 58 88 3 154 10 10 178 212 400 11 1 106 137 244 12 2 34 36 13 1 10 29 40 14 1 9 26 36 15 7 28 60 95 16 2 3 48 53 17 2 7 15 24 18 9 1 33 97 140 19 1 1 33 35 20 4 28 159 191 Total 189 1 28 50 7 3,669 1,552 2 8 17 3 3 1 4 5,534

Table 10. Tool Types by level (spit)

Level Backed Scraper Usewear Other Total Un-strat 3 2 2 1 8 1 5 4 1 10 2 25 3 3 2 33 3 38 13 1 52 4 3 2 1 6 5 2 2 1 5 6 1 1 2 7 8 2 2 9 2 1 3 10 4 6 10 11 1 6 1 1 9 12 1 1 13 14 1 1 15 1 1 2 16 1 1 17

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18 2 1 3 19 20 1 1 Total 91 42 10 6 149

Table 11. The Amount and Type of Cortex on artefacts in the Assemblage Level Secondary Primary Concretion Worn Total Source Source (Water- (Rough/Rind) Rolled) Un-strat 86 27 12 11 136 1 43 21 2 5 71 2 67 36 4 5 112 3 176 47 46 17 286 4 42 20 104 18 184 5 18 3 89 20 130 6 8 2 86 20 116 7 6 2 64 16 88 8 11 1 19 12 43 9 6 5 32 16 59 10 33 9 35 16 93 11 23 1 17 16 57 12 12 1 13 13 8 3 11 14 8 2 10 15 4 19 3 26 16 8 1 4 13 17 3 1 7 11 18 33 4 1 3 41 19 1 2 3 20 15 8 17 40 Total 626 194 528 195 1,543

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1 90 16 11

May 2011

1 1 15 4 6 15 5 5 3 1 2 30 30 17 13 1 1 1 1 1

1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 28 2 5 1

8 6 3 3 2 2 4 21 130

2 19 16 12 2 14 17 5 1

9 8 3 6 3 5 12 10 39 1 9 3 1 7 7 18 30 23 15 12 22

1 6 7 1 3 4 1

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1 8 2 20 27 11 Location of ‘worn’ artefacts B. within transect

4 7 5 2 1 3 1 2 2 5 9 48 25 41

5 4 12 13 Table 12.

7 3 2 2 6 4 8 4 6 4 8 3 2 7 4 1 4 4 3 1 1 B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16 B15 B14 B13 B12 B11 B10 B8 B9 B5 B6 B7 B2 B3 B4 B1

0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

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5.4.3 Post Depositional Issues

Conjoin analysis and size sorting of the assemblage revealed that horizontal and vertical displacement had occurred in several areas (Appendix 7). Three conjoins in particular revealed evidence of movement of artefacts between spits 2 and 5, a vertical distance of up to 40 cm. Spatially, these conjoins are spread between two test pits, but the excavation approach (in 1 x 1 m squares), unfortunately, meant that they could have been less than 5 cm or more than 2 m apart.

Size sorting was evident within the soil profile with the size of artefacts declining below each of the occupation events. This explains the presence of artefacts occurring in the deposits below each of the main occupation events through bioturbation and/or deflation. Indeed, the upper occupation event, which has been dated by the associated hearth is actually several spits lower than its original location, due to deflation based on the differences in dates between the hearth and associated sand dune material.

5.5 Summary

The excavations of 48 m2 in the southeast corner of the study area recovered 5,534 artefacts and/or manuports within a 2 m deep stratigraphic profile. The stratigraphic profile revealed a complex geomorphological and archaeological past over a 7,000 year timeframe, specifically:

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 Overlying the beach facies and strand line deposits were two sand dunes. The lower dune comprised a thin orange sand (B horizon) overlying a bleached yellow sand (A2 horizon). This deposit was highly variable and a maximum of 50 cm in depth. The upper dune overlying this formed the majority of the profile and was composed of an orange sand (B horizon) overlying a pale bleached yellow sand (A2 horizon) and a brown/black sand (A1 horizon). Based on OSL dates, both of these deposits were formed between 3,500 and 1,933 calibrated years BP (and probably nearer 3,200 and 2,800 calibrated years BP) during a period of well-documented El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) intensification. During this period the site also received frequent low energy inundations (perhaps indicating sporadic wetter conditions), as demonstrated by the thin gravel units observed in the sand dune. Two specific occupation events were identified in the artefact assemblage: 1) a lower assemblage identified on the top (A2 horizon) of the lower dune, dominated by both coarse-grained and fine-grained Tuffs, and probably dating close to 3,500 years BP. The first appearance of exotic raw materials (including chert, chalcedony and silcrete) and the increasing discard of cores and tools occurred within this assemblage. This is also the assemblage within which the Redbank A strategy appears; and 2) the upper assemblage, located on the top (A2 horizon) of the upper dune and dated to 2,480 – 1,933 calibrated years BP (with an occupation focus at 2,118 – 1,933 calibrated years BP based on the date of an associated hearth). This assemblage was far larger (at least four times the number of artefacts) than the other assemblages and it was dominated by all types of Tuff (but with a preference towards 1 Tuff, which formed a sharper edge than others), in addition to high densities of a wide range of exotic materials and a proliferation of a wide range of tool types (especially backed blades and scrapers). This assemblage demonstrated clear evidence of standardisation of artefact production and blade production. It probably indicates that at this time the site was used for secondary preparation of cores that had been obtained from a nearby quarry source such as Nobby’s Head or Merewether, before the objects were traded or transported elsewhere.  The uppermost 20 – 30 cm of the site contained a disturbed topsoil (A1 horizon) derived from the upper sand dune and which dated to 1,933 calibrated years BP, in addition to deposits modified as the result of historical occupation. It is unclear based on the excavation whether or not occupation of the site ended by 1,933 years BP (effectively the top of the dune) or if the upper deposits were removed during the historic period. The upper deposits in the dune reveal the remnants of a similar archaeological assemblage to the upper assemblage (outlined in (2) above), as well as the appearance of marine shell (both Anadara sp. and Saccostrea sp.). The presence of shell indicates exploitation of the local shell beds only in the last 2,000 years. However, it is

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unclear, given the lack of dates and the extent of disturbance, when these activities began, or the duration of such shellfish gathering activity.

Two findings of specific interest include the potential for the site to contain evidence of Aboriginal occupation during the Pleistocene period and the relatively early appearance of backed blades.

As described previously, an iron hardpan was identified in the northern quadrant of the excavations. It was considered that this deposit was a hardpan from a former dune system destroyed by sea-level change, storm surges or a combination of the two. Fragments of this hard pan were evident throughout the stratigraphy and indicate fluvial movement from the main hardpan to the north of the site. The presence of an earlier dune system, dating to before 6,700 years BP, with extensive hard panning, also suggests a Pleistocene (>10,000 years) origin for these deposits. While it could not be definitively demonstrated, the presence of water-rolled and damaged artefacts in the lower depths of the excavation may indicate that they are re-worked and originate from this earlier dune system.

Along with other sites in eastern Australia, the proliferation of backed artefacts during occupation of the site between 3,500 and 1,933 years BP was demonstrated by the Palais Royale excavation. This timeframe is well-documented as a period of intense ENSO that would have caused dune re-mobilisation, as well as intense floods (evident by the large pebble layers throughout the stratigraphy). The development of a ‘mobile toolkit’, which included backed artefacts is also well-documented in the archaeological literature. Of interest, however, is the presence of backed artefacts throughout the stratigraphy, including at least one and probably several other backed blades in the beach facies. The presence of backed blades in occupation deposits predating 4,500 years BP is rare and its occurrence here further strengthens Hiscock and Attenbrow’s (1998) argument that this tool type has an early Holocene origin. Additionally, the lower assemblage revealed evidence of the Redbank A strategy and provides a date for the inception of this type of artefact manufacturing,. Unsurprisingly, this correlates with the increasing appearance of backed blades in the assemblage (an outcome of this type of manufacture).

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6. SIGNIFICANCE ASSESSMENT

6.1 Basis for Assessment

The significance of Aboriginal archaeological sites is assessed using three criteria: Scientific archaeological (scientific), Cultural (Aboriginal) and Public Significance. These criteria recognise that Aboriginal sites are valuable in a number of ways. Namely:

 To the Awabakal people as an aspect of their cultural heritage and as part of continuing traditions;  To the broader community, for educational, historical and cultural enrichment values; and  To the scientific community for potential research value.

The guidelines outlined in the NSW National Parks and Wildlife (now OEH) (1997) Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Standards and Guidelines Kit provide the basis and background for the following evaluation of site significance.

6.2 Cultural Significance

This area of assessment concerns the relationship and importance of sites to the Aboriginal stakeholders. Aspects of cultural significance include people’s traditional and contemporary links with a given site or landscape as well as an overall concern by Aboriginal people for sites and their continued protection.

Unmodified natural features in the landscape can signify sacred sites/places of significance. As such they are archaeologically invisible and can only be identified with the aid of Aboriginal interpretation. If such sites are known they hold particular cultural significance to contemporary Aboriginal people. Furthermore, sites of significance are not restricted to the period prior to contact with Europeans. Often events related to the Contact-period, and at times to the period since European settlement, may be so important to the local Aboriginal stakeholders that they become significant. If these events relate to a specific place in the landscape, then that place (i.e. the site) may become sacred or highly significant to the local Aboriginal stakeholders.

Discussions with the Aboriginal stakeholders on site with OEH, additional discussions through the post excavation analysis process and responses received from the distribution of the draft

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 95 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report report, all indicate that this area is considered to posses exceptional cultural values (Appendix 2).

Subsequent feedback from the Awabakal Traditional Owner Aboriginal Corporation in relation to the region was as follows:

The Newcastle Region is an iconic landmark that features prominently within its surrounding landscape. This regions mythology, mystery and organic presence that are quite simply, uniquely Awabakal still to this day has an undeniable amount of fascination and attention regarding its cultural value and purpose.

The Awabakal Traditional Owners have a personalised and ever-revitalised bond with our ancestors’ culture, tradition & heritage. This inexplicable connection is reverberated within the surrounding landscape of the Awabakal region. Additionally, we appreciate our unique role and responsibility for the care and protection of the integrity of this landscape, for and on behalf of its original First Peoples and their descendants.

We would like to take this opportunity to assert our focus on the critical flow of intergenerational equity and aim to ultimately safeguard the immeasurable life- changing impact to this and future generations. Intergenerational equity lays the foundation for identifying, assessing, protecting and maintaining the important cultural and heritage values of landscapes, resources, places, objects, customs and traditions so that we, and generations to come, can enjoy, learn from them, and appropriately manage these values

The Newcastle Region is organically and historically imbedded into the Awabakal landscape and is romanticised, photographed, talked about, visited, fought over, and all the time having its substructure relentlessly undermined for its natural resources. And yet, this landscape still hums a very distinctive ‘human story’ that still reverberates today. We believe that the principles of the Awabakal tradition and culture still exist today to keep intact the moral and spiritual fibre of this land. Equally, we also believe it is essential to nurture new visions that are inspired by the cultural integrity of our ancestral family and we are encouraged that so many people in this town are focused on gaining an ever growing respect and understanding for the Awabakal Peoples, this land and environment.

This land has had a wealth of knowledge walk over it, with each one of us deepening the footprints of our ancestral family, the Awabakal People (Awabakal Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation 10 & 30 March 2010). (Letter to AHMS dated 29 April 2011 – see Appendix 2)

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The Awabakal Descendant Traditional Owner Aboriginal Corporation also provided a statement of significance for the site:

This area is part of the Traditional Land of the Awabakal People and is considered by us to be of great importance within our Cultural Heritage. There are many and varied reasons our People have utilised this location over thousands of years. One of the earliest written accounts of the importance of this area to our People is attributed to the Rev. L.E. Threlkeld who lived side by side with our People learning our language and many of the Cultural aspects of the Awabakal for 16 years. It is reported by he himself that it was on this very site that he and his family took up residence for a period of around12 months after first arriving in Newcastle in the end of 1824. He, along with others, reported that many places within the Newcastle and Lake Macquarie area have a spiritual significance for the Awabakal People. There are many other early accounts within an array of documents which detail the occupation of this area by the Awabakal People and relate the subsequent impacts that settlers have had on the Cultural Heritage and ultimately the lives of our People as these settlers moved into areas outside of what were then the known limits of the settlement.

This area, known by our People as Mulubinba, has not just a physical presence within the Cultural Heritage of the Awabakal People but it is part of our oral history and a place of spiritual significance. The landforms and resources of this locale fulfilled not just the basic needs that underpinned our Peoples subsistence but also satisfied the many other aspects that made up what can be described here as being part of the very Cultural foundations of our People.

Obviously, our people have had a long history within this area which is unsurpassed (as shown by the collection of data within the draft report). Our apical Ancestor, Mahrahkah, an Awabakal woman and her two daughters were recorded by Rev. L. E. Threlkeld and Jonathon Warner the Brisbane Water Police Magistrate in 1833 (after whom the modern day Warners Bay is named) as living in and around the Lake Macquarie, Newcastle and other areas which all formed part of their Traditional Country. It is also well documented that Charlotte (of whom we are descended) and one of Mahrahkah’s daughters, was born in Newcastle. This apart from everything else makes it a very important location for our family, knowing that our Ancestor, Mahrahkah, walked this area before any white man was ever seen in the Newcastle and Lake Macquarie areas. She was intrinsically acquainted with her Land and she has left a legacy for us to carry on in this day and age and to pass onto our Descendants.

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occupation on varying levels by our People in the Newcastle and Lake Macquarie region. Traditionally these areas were the supply of rich resources of which our people have depended on for thousands of years. There are also physical reminders left by our Ancestors, some in the form of stone tools (artefacts as shown in the draft report) and in other areas there are Cultural reminders such as grinding grooves which provide us as Descendants of the Awabakal People an opportunity to make a connection through time with our Ancestors. This connection is brought about in a variety of ways, one is through the physical senses such as touch or knowing we are seeing where they lived or what they used, or by holding or touching something our Ancestors handled or something they made, possibly many thousands of years previously. This connection is one of those avenues that produce in us the sense of perception, appreciation, familiarity and recognition of who we are and where we belong as Awabakal Descendants.

There is a great need for the protection and preservation of what is vital to our People in maintaining those Physical, Spiritual and Oral connections which are evidence of what our Ancestors have left us and which ultimately connects us through the combination of all these attributes of our Cultural Heritage to our Traditional Country.

As already pointed out the significance of place to our people is paramount but does not solely rely on the presence of artefacts, grinding grooves, scarred trees or any visible evidence associated with the area. Although what does remain in the physical realm whether small or large, does in part connect us to our Ancestors and our Cultural Heritage being the physical reminder of what helped govern and guide the everyday lives of our people. We can hold these stones (artefacts) that they (our Ancestors) worked and fashioned into tools. We can visit the rock shelters and know they used these thousands of years previously. While at the grinding groove sites we can imagine being there with them as we touch the very surface of the sandstone they were sitting on and utilising in the production of an axe or to sharpen a spear.

In this day and age it has become too easy due to ignorance, lack of connection and insufficient understanding of the entire picture, not to mention so called progress, to devalue and demean our People and our Cultural Heritage which have belonged and survived in our Traditional Country for thousands of years. The fact that this area is a contributing part of what makes us who we are and where we come from cannot be defined just as something tangible. The feeling of the area and the extensive connection we have with it and the awareness of knowing this is a connection that is confined to just a handful of people living today. Knowing because it was OUR ancestors, Awabakal People that walked upon it, this is sufficient enough for us to be

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adamant in conveying that we then have become part of the reason of what makes this place significant.

Our People, the Awabakal, have for centuries looked after this area as part of our greater Traditional Tribal Country; it in turn has looked after us. It holds many secrets which are significant to us and the many stories from the past connect us to it and these stories will continue to live and be significant because they live in us and are what connects us and makes us by birthright, Awabakal People. (Letter to AHMS dated 9 May 2011 – see Appendix 2)

6.3 Scientific Significance

Scientific value is assessed according to the research potential of a site. Rarity and representativeness are also related concepts taken into account. Research potential or demonstrated research importance is considered according to the contribution that a heritage site can make to present understanding of human society and the human past. Heritage sites, objects or places of high scientific significance are those which provide an uncommon opportunity to inform us about the specific age of human occupation in an area, or provide a rare glimpse of artistic endeavour or provide a rare chronological record of changing life through deep archaeological stratigraphy.

The comparative rarity of a site is a consideration in assessing scientific significance. A certain site type may be “one of a kind” in one region, but very common in another. Artefacts of a particular type may be common in one region, but outside the known distribution in another.

The integrity of a site is also a consideration in determining scientific significance. While disturbance of a topsoil deposit with artefacts does not entirely diminish research value, it may limit the types of questions that may be addressed. A heavily cultivated paddock may be unsuited to addressing research questions of small-scale site structure, but it may still be suitable for answering more general questions of implement distribution in a region and raw material logistics.

The capacity of a site to address research questions is predicated on a definition of what the key research issues are for a region. In this region the key research issues revolve around the chronology of Aboriginal occupation and variability in stone artefact manufacturing technology. Sites with certain backed implements from the Holocene are very common, but sites with definite Pleistocene evidence are extremely rare, and hence of extremely high significance if found.

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Our assessment of the scientific significance of Aboriginal objects found during test excavation is set out below.

Research Potential

The artefact assemblage recovered from the complex stratigraphy at this site is considered to be of high to exceptional research potential. There are few open sites in Australia that can demonstrate clear chronological stratigraphy in combination with a large artefact assemblage. While significant archaeological information was obtained by the investigations described in this report, the remaining un-disturbed deposits at the site retain significant research potential, including the potential to yield valuable data regarding past Aboriginal occupation of the locality, chronological information regarding that occupation sequence (perhaps from other hearths in the dune), and potential to contain non-human and human skeletal material (due to the high pH). Therefore, while extensive excavation and analysis has been undertaken within the deposit, it is still considered to retain high to exceptional research potential that would be relevant for a range of disciplines that examine Australia’s past.

It should also be noted that an extensive artefact assemblage was identified within the lowest deposits excavated at the site. Despite excavation being discontinued at 2 m below current ground level, it is considered that the base of the cultural deposits within this dune were not reached and that significant archaeological material, all of which would be greater than 6,700 years BP in age, exists at depths below 2 metres.

Condition / Integrity

The condition and integrity of the deposit was excellent. While bioturbation and vertical movement through insect and historical cultural activities was evident, especially in the upper spits, the artefact assemblage was generally well constrained within three specific occupation events. Several dates obtained by radiocarbon and OSL analysis provided broadly coherent ages and the site can therefore be considered to have good integrity. The only area where the site’s integrity was poor was in the upper spits, where historical activities have probably truncated parts of the A1 horizon.

Representativeness

The site is poorly represented in the both the local, regional and national contexts. The presence of stratigraphically controlled archaeological material through much of the Holocene period is not well represented. The sites potential to contain evidence of Aboriginal occupation during the Pleistocene period and the relatively early appearance of backed blades are also rare and not well represented. Therefore, while the site is primarily composed of a series of artefact scatters, which are highly represented in the local and regional area,

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 100 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report the occurrence of such material within a stratigraphic profile and in association with a hearth is poorly represented.

Rarity

Archaeological sites that retain dateable material (and can therefore provide an age of the site) are rare. Activities within this site of collecting and discarding manuport from a local source is also not well documented in the archaeological literature and must be considered rare. The presence of a hearth, a further site type that is not well represented in the region, must be considered rare. The presence of stratigraphic archaeological materials with the potential for Pleistocene archaeology is rare in the local and regional contexts. The size of the assemblage along with its division through time into three occupation events is rarely found in open sites.

6.4 Summary

The archaeological assemblage, along with the stratigraphic profile within the study area is considered to be highly to exceptionally scientific significant in terms of its heritage values. Few open sites in the local, regional or national contexts retain a large artefactual assemblage within a well-dated chronological soil profile. The ability to divide these assemblages into three different occupation events, all of which can be correlated with well- documented climatic events is of high research potential. The inability to reach the base of the artefactual material and the large assemblage further indicate that there is still significant research potential within the assemblage, the site and the wider area.

The large assemblage, the presence of a hearth, the potential for re-worked Pleistocene archaeology, and the early appearance of backed blades in the sequence are all points that make the site of low representativeness and of high to exceptional rarity.

Subsequent responses received from the Registered Aboriginal Parties through the project in meetings, site visits and communications identify the site as of exceptional cultural significance.

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7. CONCLUSION & MANAGEMENT STRATEGY

Excavations undertaken at 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle, revealed an exceptional culturally and scientifically significant site. An open area excavation of 48 m2 in the southeast corner of the site revealed an archaeological assemblage of 5,534 Aboriginal objects within a stratigraphic profile dating back some 6,700 years BP.

Geomorphologically, the site reveals multiple sedimentary units including early Holocene beach facies (6,716 – 6,502 years BP), overlain by Cottage Creek flood deposits (6,502 -3,500 years BP), overlain by two dune deposits (3,500 – 1,933 years BP) overlain/truncated by historical deposits. The remnants of a Pleistocene sand dune were also thought to have been evident within the northern parts of the excavation. The dating of this stratigraphy was undertaken using five OSL dates and four radiocarbon dates.

Within this profile, were at least three phases of Aboriginal activity, the lowest one occurring within the beach facies, a middle one on the top of the earliest dune, and the largest component of the assemblage occurring on the top (now deflated) of the upper dune. The upper assemblage was some four times the size of earlier assemblages and was found in association with a hearth. An analysis of the assemblage revealed:

 three occupation periods dating to 6,716 – 6,502 years BP, c. 3,500 years BP, and 2,480 – 1,933 years BP. Occupation was continuing after 1,933 years BP, but the site was heavily truncated by historical activities;  the long term use of Nobby’s Tuff as the main raw material, with its ongoing use throughout the 6,700-year sequence;  the first appearance of exotic raw materials from around 3,500 years and increasing use from around 2,480 years BP.  the early appearance of backed blades in the basal depths of the site, and their proliferation in the upper assemblage;  the appearance of Redbank A strategy from around 3,500 years BP;  the potential for re-worked Pleistocene artefacts in the basal depths;  the use of the site, at least in more recent times, for blade production and secondary trimming/preparation of cores before transport/trade off site; and  the exploitation of local shell beds only after 1,933 years BP.

A significance of the site indicates it is of high to exceptional cultural and scientific significance, retaining both importance to the Aboriginal stakeholders and ongoing research potential despite the analysis already undertaken in this report.

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The salvage of #38-5-0831 was done in accordance with Section 87/90 AHIP #1098622. Following the completion of the activities associated with this AHIP, legislatively, the site within 684 Hunter Street is considered ‘destroyed’. Following discussions with OEH, SBA Architects Pty Ltd and AHMS, it was considered that given the significance of the site, following completion of the development, areas where impacts had not occurred would be removed from the current section 90 AHIP curtilage, thereby returning protection to them under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974. Given much of the development was raised above the original ground surface, it is considered that much of the deposit (and especially the deeper deposits) may be protected following the development.

Based on the findings of earlier studies at the IBIS Hotel to the east and NSW Health to the west, it is considered that this cultural landscape (i.e. the deep sand body, beach facies and associated archaeological material) extends for several hundred metres (and perhaps further) in either direction. The northern distribution of the deposit is likely to broadly follow the railway line, which sites on the historical estuary edge. The southern edge of the deposit is unknown, but given the beach facies at the base of the site, it is considered that areas to the south of Hunter Street would be characterised by lagoons and back swamps on the lee-side of a dune system. They may similarly retain significant archaeological deposits. Based on the soil landscape map of Newcastle, assuming these deposits have been identified as ‘Hunter’ soil landscapes and depending on existing disturbance, an area between Nobbys Road/Fort Drive in the east, King Street to the south, Throsby Creek in the west and the Hunter River estuary to the north.

More widely, the excavations and analysis presented here indicate a significant archaeological resource is present along Hunter Street and future management by OEH and Newcastle City Council should ensure detailed archaeological works are undertaken on future developments in this region.

7.1 Recommendations

The following recommendations are based upon:

 the legal requirements of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 (as amended), in conjunction with;  the results of the archaeological test excavation which are documented in this report;  the assessments of significance and heritage impact which are presented in this report; and  the views expressed by the local Aboriginal stakeholder.

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It is recommended that: 1. Re-consideration of the current Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP curtilage should be undertaken following the completion of the development. It has been requested by OEH and the Aboriginal stakeholders that areas where development has not impacted, specifically those under the historical conservation zone in the southern portion of the study area, the under-lying archaeological deposit should be removed from the AHIP, thereby affording them protection under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974. Based on archaeological findings presented here, such protection should extend to depths of at least 2 m below existing ground surfaces; 2. Ongoing consultation should be undertaken with the Aboriginal stakeholders and OEH regarding interim curation of the artefact assemblage. Discussions to date regarding this matter indicate a preference for the development of a temporary care and control agreement to allow for the ongoing analysis and investigation of the assemblage at the University of Sydney and/or University of Armidale. If this is supported, a care and control agreement needs to be developed and endorsed to support that initiative. Long term management of the assemblage will also need to be resolved as part of such consultation. 3. Three copies of this report should be forwarded to the NSW Office of Environment & Heritage, Department of Premier and Cabinet Office - Planning and Aboriginal Heritage Section, Northeast Branch, Environment Protection and Regulation Group (A: Federation House, 24 Moonee Street, Coffs Harbour, NSW 2450); and 4. One copy of the report should be forwarded to the Newcastle City Council (A: PO Box 489, Newcastle, NSW 2300); 5. One copy of the report should be forwarded to each of the following Aboriginal stakeholders: Awabakal Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation, Awabakal Descendant Traditional Owner Aboriginal Corporation and the Awabakal LALC; and 6. At the request of the Aboriginal stakeholders, one copy of the report should be forwarded to the Cultural Collection Unit at the University of Newcastle Library (A: University of Newcastle, University Drive, Callaghan, NSW 2308).

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8. REFERENCES

AHMS Pty Ltd. 2004. Section 87 Application for Palais Royale Development Site. Unpublished Report to Span Architects and the Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water.

AHMS Pty Ltd. 2009. Joint Section 87/90 Permit Application, Research Design & Excavation Methodology for Aboriginal Archaeological Excavation at Palais Royale, 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle. Unpublished Report to SBA Architects Pty Ltd and the Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water.

Hiscock, P. & Attenbrow, V. 1998. Early Holocene Backed Artefacts from Australia. Archaeology in Oceania,33: 49- 62.

Shulmeister, J. 1999. Australasian evidence for mid-holocene climate change implies precessional control of Walker Circulation in the Pacific. Quaternary International, 57/58: 81-91.

Sloss, C.R., Murray-Wallace, C.V., Jones, B.G. 2007. Holocene sea-level change on the southeast coast of Australia: a review. The Holocene 17/7: 999-1014.

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APPENDIX 1: SECTION 87 AHIP #1098622 AND ASSOCIATED AMENDMENTS

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011

AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

Our Ref: 080709-1 Your ref: AHIMS No. 3098/doc09/7855 (Document no: 1099285)

10 August 2009

Brett Nudd Manager NSW Department of Environment & Climate Change Planning & Aboriginal Heritage Section Northeast Branch Federation House, 24 Moonee Street, Coffs Harbour NSW 2450

Cc: Ciaron Dunn, Sarah Paddington

Re: Section 87/90 AHIP # 1098622: Methodology Amendment Request for Palais Royale, 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle, NSW

Dear Brett,

As you may be aware, the Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water (DECCW) has recently issued a section 87/90 Aboriginal Heritage Impact Permit (AHIP) to SBA Architects for a salvage excavation at the Palais Royale, 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle, NSW. Archaeological and Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd (AHMS) developed the methodology for the AHIP, and has been subsequently engaged by SBA to undertake the salvage works. This letter seeks to undertake an amendment to this methodology following discussions with DECCW personnel and advice from a geomorphologist.

Recently, Sarah Paddington and Nick Pulver (DECCW) attended the site to ensure the AHIP and associated works were being undertaken accordingly. During this time, AHMS personnel raised concerns that one of the two open area excavations proposed under the methodology was heavily disturbed and impacted by historical and more recent demolition activities, and that a more appropriate area of investigation to the east of the site should be considered. This latter area is immediately north of the current open area undertaken as part of the original methodology (Figure 1).

A site visit on the 10 August 2009 by Dr. Peter Mitchell, a geomorphologist, further identified a number of key issues with where investigation should be undertaken, specifically:

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 1 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

1. The central area of the site proposed for the second open area is, indeed, heavily disturbed and bioturbated. Therefore, any archaeological material recovered would be stratigraphically questioned, while chronological control would also be problematic; 2. The area currently being investigated in the southeast corner of the study area (Figures 2 and 3) is likely to have been a series of dunes situated behind a beach, which is located some 6 m north of the study area and visible in an historic post hole feature excavated several weeks ago (Figures 4 and 5). The beach is 1.15 m AHD, and is therefore likely to represent the mid –Holocene high stand (around 7,000 years or younger)1 and provide a basal age for the area being investigated; 3. However, within the base of the dune deposits currently being excavated, are a number of heavily water-rolled Aboriginal objects in association with fragments of coffee rock (which itself is only present in a unit beneath the beach gravels to the north). Dr. Mitchell, therefore, concluded that these objects most likely came from the marine inundation of an earlier Aboriginal site (on or beneath the beach to the north of the excavation), which is then washed onto (and eventually integrated within) the dune periodically during storms, etc. This means that these objects, which are now buried in a (potentially) 7,000 year old dune are probably older, perhaps of Pleistocene age (>10,000 years old).

To potentially identify and recover a Pleistocene archaeological site is a significant discovery for the project. However, to do this, and to prove Dr. Mitchell’s hypotheses, AHMS would need to investigate the beach gravels and coffee rock to the north of the current excavation area. Therefore, AHMS is proposing to move the second open area excavation from the centre of the study area where it was originally proposed, to immediately north of the existing open area (Figure 1). This would provide a continuous cross-section from (and beneath) the mid Holocene beach and through the dunes behind it. It would further permit dating of the beach and dune sequence to gain a better understanding of the archaeology in this area, as well as further understanding of sea level change in this region.

Ultimately, therefore, AHMS proposes to undertake an open area some 3 x 16 m in length along the eastern border of the study area, rather than the methodology originally proposed.

AHMS has consulted with the registered Aboriginal stakeholders, all of whom have a representative present during the excavations, on this issue and has received no specific issues with the methodological change. However, in the interest of transparency, this letter will be sent to each of them for consideration and comment.

AHMS will provide Dr. Mitchell’s interim report to DECCW and the Aboriginal communities for further understanding on this issue when it becomes available.

1 AHMS has already submitted two express radiocarbon dates from charcoal recovered within the dune to clarify its age

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 2 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

As eluded to above, the excavations for this project are currently underway, and the location of the second open area will need to be decided upon by Wednesday 19 August 2009 to ensure no disruption to the excavation program.

If you have any questions, please contact Alan Williams on 0408 203 180.

Yours sincerely,

Alan Williams Senior Archaeologist

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 3 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

Figure 1: Map showing the location of the original research design open area excavations (red – 5 x 5 m, and blue – 7 x 7m), the location of the 20th Century wall (black), the location of the post hole retaining beach gravels, the existing excavation (green), and the proposed alternative open area excavation outlined within this modification (powder blue – 3 x 8 m). All locations presented here are approximate.

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 4 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

Figure 2: Photograph showing the early stages of the excavation in the southeastern corner of the study area.

Figure 3: Photograph showing the section within the southeast corner of the study area. The upper units are historical fill layers overlying a disturbed topsoil (dark band), the remnants of an undisturbed topsoil (black sand), dune sands (white sands) and the early formation of coffee rock (orange sand). Water rolled Aboriginal objects are found within the lower white and orange sands and probably relate to an older beach to the north.

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 5 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

Figure 4: Photograph showing the location of this historic post hole containing beach gravels, looking southeast. Note the post holes relationship with the open area excavation shown in Figure 2 and seen here in the top left of the photograph.

Figure 5: Photograph showing the section of the post hole in Figure 4. Beach deposits and gravels can be identified as a brown sand just above the orange/dark brown coffee rock evident in the base of the post hole. The white dune sands and overlying topsoil shown here can be considered comparable with those in Figure 2.

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 6 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS

684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report

APPENDIX 2: ABORIGINAL STAKEHOLDER CORRESPONDENCE

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 Aboriginal Community Consultation Log- Palais Royale

Date Action 01.12.08 Search requests emailed to:  National Native Title Tribunal; and  Office of the Registrar

02.12.08 Notification letters posted to:

Shane Frost, Awabakal Descendants Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation (and emailed); Kerrie Brauer, Awabakal Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation; DECC; Newcastle City Council; and Awabakal LALC.

Newspaper notification to be published in the Newcastle Star on the 3rd December 2008.

Notification period ends on 17th December 2008. 02.12.08 Kerrie Brauer contacted and spoke to Alan Williams:

Awabakal Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation (ATOAC) has registered their interest in the project. 4.12.08 Shane Frost contacted and spoke to Alan Williams:

Awabakal Descendant Traditional Owners Aboriginal Group (ADTOAC) has registered their interest in the project. 15.12.08 ATOAC responded via email to register their interest in the project 12.1.08 Alan Williams spoke with Cheryl Kitchener of the Awbakal LALC (ALALC) who registered their interest. 12.1.08 Contacted the three registered stakeholders to arrange a meeting to visit the site and discuss the revised methodology. 16.1.09 Distributed methodology to all registered stakeholders and DECC for comment. 19.1.09 Phoned ALALC to discuss methodology – left message. Subsequently discussed and e-mailed methodology to Sarah at the ALALC. 20.1.09 Met with Shane Frost and Kerrie Brauer to show them the site and discuss the methodology. 22.1.09 E-mailed a summary of the meeting outcomes from the 20.1.09 to Shane Frost and Kerrie Brauer. 22.1.09 E-mailed revised section 87 application and associated attachments to ALALC, ATOAC and ADTOAC for comment. 26.1.09 ATOAC provided comments on the proposed methodology. 27.1.09 ADTOAC provided comments on the proposed methodology. 30.1.09 E-mail discussion with Cheryl Kitchener (Awabakal LALC) to arrange a meeting to discuss the methodology. 9.2.09 Alan Williams went to the Awabakal LALC offices to discuss the project with Cheryl Kitchener as arranged, but Cheryl was unavailable and no meeting ultimately occurred. 10.2.09 E-mail sent to Awabakal LALC seeking a phone discussion with Cheryl Kitchener to discuss the methodology. 13.3.09 E-mail sent to Awabakal LALC seeking a phone discussion with Cheryl Kitchener to discuss the methodology. 18.3.09 E-mail sent to Awabakal LALC seeking a phone discussion with Cheryl Kitchener to discuss the methodology. 25.3.09 Contacted all registered stakeholders to discuss the eventual location of the artefacts and their views on a Care and Control Agreement. 14.4.09 S87/90 permit was sent to all registered stakeholders Late April and Advised the registered stakeholders that the project was going out to May 09 tender and that I would advise if AHMS was successful. 8.7.09 Advised all registered stakeholders that AHMS would be undertaking the investigations/salvage in late July and August, and sought availability and interest in being involved. 9.7.09 – 7.8.09 Ongoing liaison with the registered Aboriginal stakeholders to identify ongoing interest, arrange costs and rates, availability, and to update on issues on sites including modifications to the proposed methodology. 10.8.09 – 30.8.09 Undertook site investigations with a representative of each of the registered Aboriginal stakeholders. 21.8.09 – 4.4.11 Ongoing consultation in the form of project update e-mails, informal phone calls and other communication (generally during other projects) on how the post excavation analysis is tracking). Some discussion on interpretation signage,etc, also undertaken with SBA Architects. 4.4.11-9.5.11 Distributed draft report to all Aboriginal stakeholders for comment. 30.4.11 ATOAC provided comments on the draft report. 8.5.11 ATDOAC advised that comments would be provided by the end of the week. 9.5.11 Advised ATOAC that I had made changes were possible. Some issues were not addressed, since they were dealt with in the historic report, which would be lodged in the various repositories with this report. 9.5.11 ATOAC replied to my earlier e-mail and re-iterated their wish that the report was placed in the Newcastle University Library. 11.5.11 ATDOAC provided comments on the draft report.

ATOAC Awabakal Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation P.O.Box 253 Jesmond NSW 2299 Phone: (02) 49156 947 Mobile: 0412866357 Email: [email protected] ABN: 90 203 408 309 ICN 4411 27 January 2009

AHMS Atten: Alan Williams 349 Annandale Street Annandale NSW 2038

Re: Comments for the Proposed Section 87/90 Permit Application & Methodology for the Palais Royale Project

Dear Alan,

With regard to the Proposed Section 87/90 Permit Application & Methodology for the Palais Royale, we recognise the proposed evaluation and methodology by Archaeological and Heritage Management Solutions (AHMS) appears to be reasonably comprehensive.

We believe that the application for the combined Section 87/90 is appropriate and agree with the proposed philosophy, method and approach for how the proposed excavation methodology would proceed for the Palais Royale Project Site.

The protection of all artifacts is crucial to the Awabakal Descendants, and it is imperative to protect what unites us with our culture both physically and spiritually. Clearly this would require us to have final say in the relocation of any Aboriginal artifacts discovered that are associated with our people for the duration of the proposed project. We reserve the right to obtain a care and protection permit for the artifacts retrieved.

We believe that the Methodology adequately addresses the many aspects related to the perspectives and diversity that is associated with Aboriginal Cultural Heritage. We would like to mention our appreciation of the informative process that the representative from AHMS outlined during the consultation process and the due diligence in addressing adequately to our concerns.

The Newcastle region is regarded highly significant to the Awabakal people, and in our view the region is part of the land that facilitates and completes the landscape that echoes the ethos of our cultural heritage.

If you require any further information please do not hesitate in contacting me.

Yours sincerely,

Kerrie Brauer Secretary and Public Office

PO Box 86 Clarence Town NSW 2321

Date: 25 January 2009

Attention: Alan Williams (Senior Archaeologist) AHMS 349 Annandale Street Annandale NSW 2038

Re: Joint Section 87/90 Permit Application, Research Design & Excavation Methodology for Aboriginal Archaeological Excavation at Palais Royale, 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle.

ALLA Alan,

This letter Alan is in response to your request from the Awabakal Descendants Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation for feedback in regard to the research design and excavation methodology you have supplied to us and of which you propose to employ regarding the section 87/90 permit application for the former Palais Royale site which is located at 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle.

This area is of great importance to our people, being a place utilised both pre and post European. It is vitally important to take every advantage of the situation at hand if a section 87/90 is realised and gather as much information as possible from these excavations. It must also be pointed out that there could be the possibility of burials being present given the sandy soil and also from early European documented evidence that the paddocks around the town site of early Newcastle were places where it was witnessed that Aboriginal people were buried. This being the case, should it be noted that in the event of a burial being uncovered, that extra time be afforded/extended to the excavation period so as to accommodate the process which accompanies such a discovery?

The Awabakal Descendants Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation would like to indicate that we do support the research design and excavation methods that you intend to use in regard to the draft section 87/90 application if successful and for the artefacts to be temporarly collected and housed at the AHMS office and that the primary care of the artefacts be allotted to AHMS during the research phase of the project allowing for the retention of the artefacts to be assessed using the various scientific research analysis (as outlined on page 42-45 of the proposed methodology, ‘3-Research Questions’) so as to possibly ascertain the nature of their origin, use etc. After this research phase relating to the analysis of the artefacts is completed by AHMS we would like to see the artefacts returned to the Newcastle area allowing for the Traditional Awabakal Descendants to care for the artefacts.

We would like to take this opportunity to thank you Alan for devising such a comprehensive methodology which incorporates many ways to ascertain an understanding of the lives our people lived both before and after Europeans arrived in our Traditional Country. It is imperative that we look for answers to our questions when given opportunities like this, and the prospect of gaining a bit more knowledge through what has been a quite turbulent and fractured time for Awabakal People over the last couple of hundred years. So we thank you for your understanding attitude and the consideration you display regarding our Awabakal Cultural Heritage and also your recognition of the importance for the utmost care to be afforded when dealing with these significant areas and pressing cultural issues.

Please feel free to contact me ASAP Alan if you need to discuss anything more with me in regard to this matter.

NGI NOA Shane Frost Chairman: Awabakal Descendants Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation Email:[email protected] Phone: 49964362 Fax: 49964325 Mobile: 0428320671

29 April 2011

AHMS Alan Williams Senior Archaeologist 349 Annandale Street Annandale NSW 2038

Dear Alan,

Re: Comments Regarding the Draft for the Section 87 / 90 Aboriginal Heritage Impact Permit # 1098622 Excavation Report for the Palais Site Project

With regard to the Draft Report for the Section 87 / 90 Aboriginal Heritage Impact Permit #1098622 Excavation Report for the Palais Royal Site Project, we recognise the evaluation by AMHS appears to be reasonably comprehensive.

We believe that the Draft Report encompasses and provides a broad and informative overview regarding the many aspects associated with the Aboriginal Culture Heritage concerning the project.

We would like to highlight our appreciation of the informative process that the representative from AHMS outlined during the fieldwork excavation and the due diligence in addressing any of our concerns.

Statement of Cultural Significance of the area to the Awabakal Traditional Owners

Additionally, we appreciate our unique role and responsibility for the care and protection of the integrity of this landscape, for and on behalf of its original First Peoples and their descendants.

We would like to take this opportunity to assert our focus on the critical flow of intergenerational equity and aim to ultimately safeguard the immeasurable life-changing impact to this and future generations. Intergenerational equity lays the foundation for identifying, assessing, protecting and maintaining the important cultural and heritage values of landscapes, resources, places, objects, customs and traditions so that we, and generations to come, can enjoy, learn from them, and appropriately manage these values

1 The Newcastle Region is organically and historically imbedded into the Awabakal landscape and is romanticised, photographed, talked about, visited, fought over, and all the time having its substructure relentlessly undermined for its natural resources. And yet, this landscape still hums a very distinctive ‘human story’ that still reverberates today.

We believe that the principles of the Awabakal tradition and culture still exist today to keep intact the moral and spiritual fibre of this land. Equally, we also believe it is essential to nurture new visions that are inspired by the cultural integrity of our ancestral family and we are encouraged that so many people in this town are focused on gaining an ever growing respect and understanding for the Awabakal Peoples, this land and environment.

Our comments to the contents of the Draft Report are as follows:

Page 12, 4th dot point, We believe that another descriptive word could have been used within this paragraph instead of the word… “exploited by Aboriginal people”…, as this word can invoke a negative meaning. We suggest that the word… “utilised by Aboriginal people”…would be more appropriate to describe how our people made use of their resources.

Page 12, last dot point, We believe that the reference made to ‘Aboriginal community representatives’ within the Report should be changed to ‘Aboriginal Stakeholders’, as the meaning of ‘community’ has a wider group connotation, whereas the meaning of ‘Stakeholders’ referrers to independent parties, and is more accurate and specific. Therefore, we would like the Report to consistently refer to the ‘Awabakal Stakeholders’ instead of a generic ‘Aboriginal community representatives’.

It is our interpretation that Aboriginal communities consist of Aboriginal people many of whom have relocated into other Aboriginal Nations traditional lands and should therefore respect the culture and heritage of the region and the rights of the traditional descendants of the area. The Hunter and Lake Macquarie regions consist of many Aboriginal community members who have no cultural association with this land; nonetheless they feel a sense of belonging.

Page 16, 1.2, With regard to the Study Area within the Report, we would recommend that this section should also include some of the historical elements that are associated with the Study Area.

The Newcastle area is rich in historical events as the Palais Royal was not the first building to be erected on the site. It is our understanding that the house that was constructed on the site was known as Governor Macquarie Cottage where the Reverend Lancelot Threlkeld had resided at, from time to time.

Another example, …”During Governor Macquarie's visit to Newcastle in1818 he recorded that he was entertained by Jack Burigon, King of the Newcastle tribe along with about forty men, women and children who performed a "Carauberie" (Corroboree) in the area at the rear of the Newcastle Government House. There are numerous colonial artworks showing Aboriginal occupation in and around the Government House site and as well as Corroborees”. (http://www.heritage.nsw.gov.au/07_subnav_02_2.cfm?itemid=5060998)

2 We consider that the “Cultural Heritage perspective” pertaining to the Aboriginal Cultural Heritage aspects of the study area is excluded from the Report, and believe that the writings of the Reverend Lancelot Threlkeld are an informative adjunct to the Awabakal Peoples lifestyle that would indeed broaden the context of the Report and the local area.

Page 18, 2.2, We are concerned that the Registered Stakeholders were not afforded any consideration to observe or collect any unearthed artefacts prior and during any excavation works considering the high amount of cultural materials that were contained within a comparatively small area within the project site.

Page 37, 5.1, With regard to the General Excavation Results we agree that the excavation was undertaken in accordance with the Section 87/90 methodology outlined within the Report, and we would like to request a copy of the Historical Excavation Report if possible, as we believe that the Aboriginal and Colonial perspectives are an essential part of our collective history.

Page 95, 6.1, first dot point, We believe that the reference made to ‘Aboriginal community’ within this paragraph be change to ‘Awabakal People’ as the dot point is referring to aspects of ‘Awabakal traditions’.

We recommend that there may be a need for a definition regarding the difference between ‘Aboriginal Community’ and the ‘Traditional Descendants’ of the area to bring more clarification concerning the difference between attachment and association.

For example: Aboriginal Traditional Owner - the term ‘Traditional Owner’ are those people who, through an Apical Ancestor, have a responsibility for caring for their particular Traditional Country (Ask First: A guide to respecting Indigenous heritage places and values, Australian Heritage Commission, 2002).

Page 95, 6.2, We believe that the reference made to ‘Aboriginal communities’ within this section should be changed to ‘Aboriginal Stakeholders’, as the meaning of ‘community’ has a wider group connotation, whereas the meaning of ‘Stakeholders’ referrers to independent parties and is more accurate and specific.

With regard to the Cultural Significance within this section, we again propose that there may be a need to outline the differences between the attachment and association between ‘Aboriginal Community’ and the ‘Awabakal Traditional Descendants’ of the area, as these differences pertaining to the Cultural Significance of an area would imply difference of connection.

Page 96 – 98, 6.3 – 6.4, We agree with and support the scientific findings regarding the significant values this particular area contains, and we believe that the artefact assemblages’ recovered are considered to be of exceptionally high research potential.

With regard to the Conclusion & Management Strategy within the Report, we agree with the recommendation that…”areas where impacts had not occurred would be removed from the current section 90 AHIP cartilage, thereby returning protection to them under the Nation parks and Wildlife Act 1974”.

With regard to the result concerning the findings of earlier studies surrounding the project area, we ask that AHMS and the DECCW take into consideration a wider perspective regarding the damage and destruction to Aboriginal Cultural Heritage within future Section 90 Impact Permits.

In summary with regard to the Recommendations within the Report, our Comments and Recommendations are that:

3 • the reference made to ‘Aboriginal communities’ within the Report should be changed to ‘Aboriginal Stakeholders’

• ATOAC confirm our request that the areas where development has not impacted be removed from the Section 90 AHIP

• ongoing consultation should be undertaken with the Registered Stakeholders and DECCW regarding the artefacts recovered

• an agreement to allow for the ongoing analysis and investigation of the assemblages’

• the temporary care and control agreement to include how long the analysis and investigation of the assemblages’ will take, and to also include where the artefacts are to reside permanently after the analysis and investigation of the assemblages’ has been completed.

• three copies of the Final Report should be forwarded to the Government Departments listed in Recommendation 3

• a copy of the Final Report be forwarded to the Newcastle City Council

• a copy of the Final Report be forwarded to each of the Registered Stakeholders listed in Recommendation 5

• a copy of the Final Report be also forwarded to the Cultural Collections Unit of the University of Newcastle as a Historical resource for the Newcastle region

The principal vision and aim of the Awabakal people is to protect the cultural heritage of our ancestors. Therefore the residual evidence of our people is held in high degree and is regarded as a cultural reminder that unites us with our country and spirituality.

The Newcastle region is regarded as highly significant to the Awabakal people, and in our view believe that the district is part of the land that echoes the ethos of our cultural heritage. Therefore, any artefacts and/or residual evidence of our people are held in high regard and are considered a cultural reminder that unites us with our land and sea country, our past and spirituality and provides us with a visual generational legacy.

We reserve the right and reluctance to share our cultural heritage with others with respect to aspects of the cultural significance enabling us to protect our cultural knowledge and values.

We would like to thank AHMS for the opportunity to comment and request a copy of the Final Report demonstrating how you have addressed all the Aboriginal Stakeholder comments be forwarded to the Awabakal Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation at your earliest convenience, and If you require any further information please do not hesitate in contacting me.

Yours sincerely,

Kerrie Brauer Director | Administration

Awabakal Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation ABN: 90 203 408 390 | ICN: 4411 PO Box 253 Jesmond NSW 2299 Australia T: 61 2 49 58 81 70 | E: [email protected] | www.awabakal.com.au

PO BOX 86 CLARENCE TOWN NSW 2321

Date: 9 May 2011

Attention: Alan Williams

Re: Draft Report - Section 87/90 Aboriginal Heritage Impact Permit #1098622 Excavation Report for SBA Architects Pty Ltd.

ALLA Alan,

This letter is in response to your correspondence requesting feedback/comments from the Awabakal Descendants Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation in regard to the Draft Report - Section 87/90 Aboriginal Heritage Impact Permit #1098622 Excavation Report for SBA Architects Pty Ltd.

We would like to take this opportunity to complement you and your staff for producing such an outstanding draft report which underlines the archaeological significance of this site. May we say that although it was hard for us to see the destruction of such a significant site as this, we would hope that the information gathered and presented in the draft report will hopefully be used by the relevant authorities to manage and mitigate future developments affording the appropriate level of protection and preservation of the Cultural Heritage of our People within the Newcastle and Lake Macquarie region for all future generations. Having said this, there are a couple of changes we would like to see added to this draft report document one of them being the statement outlining the reason why this area is important to us as Awabakal People.

 On page 14 of the draft report section 1.5 Acknowledgements you have failed to include the name of James Frost as part of input provided by ADTOAC. We would like to see this rectified.

 We agree with all the recommendations on page 100 of the draft report section 7.1 Recommendations and stress the need for priority to be placed on seeing recommendation 1, the re-consideration of the current section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP to be implemented without delay so that the areas not impacted through this development will regain the appropriate protection and preservation to the site for future generations.

 Also, we would like the inclusion within the draft report of the following statement of significance by the Awabakal Descendants Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation (ADTOAC).

Statement of Significance of this area to Awabakal Traditional Descendants

Mahrahkah’s daughters, was born in Newcastle. This apart from everything else makes it a very important location for our family, knowing that our Ancestor, Mahrahkah, walked this area before any white man was ever seen in the Newcastle and Lake Macquarie areas. She was intrinsically acquainted with her Land and she has left a legacy for us to carry on in this day and age and to pass onto our Descendants.

As previously stated, this area is of very high significance to our People and therefore it is expected that after generations of our People have walked the pathways of their Ancestors, there are many areas that contain evidence of this connection through occupation on varying levels by our People in the Newcastle and Lake Macquarie region. Traditionally these areas were the supply of rich resources of which our people have depended on for thousands of years. There are also physical reminders left by our Ancestors, some in the form of stone tools (artefacts as shown in the draft report) and in other areas there are Cultural reminders such as grinding grooves which provide us as Descendants of the Awabakal People an opportunity to make a connection through time with our Ancestors. This connection is brought about in a variety of ways, one is through the physical senses such as touch or knowing we are seeing where they lived or what they used, or by holding or touching something our Ancestors handled or something they made, possibly many thousands of years previously. This connection is one of those avenues that produce in us the sense of perception, appreciation, familiarity and recognition of who we are and where we belong as Awabakal Descendants.

We thank you Alan for the opportunity to contribute these comments in regard to this project. We hope this addresses any queries you may have, if not and further information is required please don’t hesitate to contact us ASAP. Our contact details are as follows.

NGI NOA Shane Frost: Managing Director-Awabakal Descendants Traditional Owners Aboriginal Corporation Email:[email protected] Phone: 49964362 Fax: 49964325 Mobile: 0428320671

684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report

APPENDIX 3: SECTION 87/90 AHIP ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESEARCH DESIGN AND EXCAVATION METHODOLOGY (AHMS, 2009).

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

23 January 2009

Brett Nudd Manager NSW Department of Environment & Climate Change Planning & Aboriginal Heritage Section Northeast Branch Federation House, 24 Moonee Street, Coffs Harbour NSW 2450

Cc: Roger Mehr

Re: Joint Section 87/90 Permit Application, Research Design & Excavation Methodology for Aboriginal Archaeological Excavation at Palais Royale, 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle.

Dear Brett,

Background

Archaeological and Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd (AHMS) has been involved in the Aboriginal heritage management of the Palais Royale site at 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle, since late 2004. Following several assessments in the immediate vicinity of the site by AHMS, it was determined that the site had high potential to retain subsurface archaeological deposits and a Section 87 Preliminary Research Permit (PRP) was sought in December 2004 to investigate these deposits. This permit was issued on 22 February 2005.

Due to significant issues and delays surrounding the demolition and removal of the existing Palais Royale structure situated on the site (and thereby restricting access to the soil profile), the PRP (#2127) was extended and re-applied for several times in 2005 and 2006. However, following the last renewal of the permit in late 2006, the project was put on hold by the client, Palais Holdings Pty Ltd, and little has occurred on the project until recently. It is our understanding that the permit expired in mid-2007.

In mid-2008, the site has been purchased from Palais Holdings Pty Ltd by Yum! Restaurants Australia who are proposing to place a fast food restaurant on the site. Yum! Restaurants

______1 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

Australia has engaged AHMS to re-instate the project and address the Aboriginal heritage issues identified, but never resolved, in 2004.

The Study Area

Annexure 1 provides the original1 section 87 PRP application, which includes information and discussion on the archaeological resource of the study area.

However, in summary, the study area is believed to encompass a complex geomorphology of Hunter River levee deposits and sand dunes reworked from this deposit. The deposits are composed of predominantly compacted sand with minimal clay and the remnants of an in situ topsoil on the surface (dependent upon historic and modern disturbances occurring sporadically across the site). The study area is situated only 140 metres from the Hunter River, while a large depression to the north of the site is thought to associated with the former line of Cottage Creek.

Therefore, based on this information, we believe that the entire study area retains significant archaeological deposits to depths in excess of 100 cm. The age of these deposits is uncertain, although probably of mid-Holocene based on previous studies. However, an aim of this study will be to obtain absolute dating for any archaeological material recovered. The upper parts of this resource are believed to have been impacted by historical and more recent activities. Based on historical excavations undertaken in 2007, we know that there is between 30- 40 cm of historical deposits overlying the study area.

More recently, it should be noted that the study area has received significant modern impacts with the removal of the Palais Royale structure using bulldozers and/or excavators. As such, the upper deposits are likely to be heavily disturbed/removed in some areas. Figures 1 and 2 show the current appearance of the study area now.

1 Due to the extensive number of studies within the immediate vicinity of the study area, most notably the Ibis Hotel and Riverwalk, a formal impact assessment was not undertaken for the original section 87 PRP application. It was determined that the archaeological potential of the study area could be made using these existing studies, most of which were undertaken by AHMS and were concurrent at the time of the original permit application. ______2 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

Figure 1: Photograph of the study area, looking southwest.

Figure 2: Photograph of the study area, looking northeast. Note the depression to the back of the site is artificially created through the construction of the railway embankment (just in front of the building in the left background).

______3 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

However, based on the information above, for the purpose of this study, we have identified the entire study area as a midden with associated archaeological deposit.

This Application

This document incorporates a new application and associated information required to obtain a new Section 87 PRP for the study area. In addition, following the investigation of the site for historic purposes and a number of recent site visits, in combination with the previous excavations at IBIS hotel, we believe the archaeological resource of the site can be characterised and are therefore seeking a section 90 application simultaneously with the section 87. Hence, we are seeking a joint section 87/90 application, the latter only being required for three specific impacts outlined below.

The section 90 component of the application is seeking to only partially impact the archaeological resource of the study area for three activities outlined in Annexure 2, namely the installation of a stormwater system (and associated retention tank and sand filter box), the installation of between 50 and 70 piers/piles and the filling of the north end of the site. Overall, these activities will cause high impacts to ~240 m2 (or 10%) of the study area and surface/upper soil profile impacts to ~1,200 m2 (or 50%) of the study area. The remaining 40% of the study area would be un-impacted and retained through this development. Therefore, the section 90 application is only seeking partial impact to the study area in accordance with Annexure 2: Figure 4.

Should DECC determine that a joint section 87/90 permit is inappropriate in this situation, please proceed with the processing of the section 87 component of this application without the section 90 component to minimise the time delays for the project. In this situation, our proposed excavation methodology would not change.

While this application utilises much of the data from 2004 – 2007, it should be noted that due to the project delays and the significant change of proposed development, the revised permit application and associated research design is quite different from that of PRP #2127.

Specifically, due to the introduction of the Department of Environment and Climate Change’s (DECC) (2004) Interim Community Consultation Requirements for Applicants, significant Aboriginal consultation in accordance with these guidelines has now had to be undertaken as part of this application.

In relation to the revised development, Palais Holdings Pty Ltd proposed to situate a multi- storey residential complex with basement parking on the site, which would have caused significant removal of the dune sands believed to be situated on the site (see above and Annexure 1 for further discussion). Whereas, the current development proposes to place a single storey restaurant and car park with minimal excavation. In fact, much of the current proposed development will require the site to be raised or ‘filled’ to a level above the flood zone (generally between 50 -150 cm above the current surface). Although several impacts are proposed to the site through this development, and these are presented in Annexure 2.

______4 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

The excavation methodology proposed below has been discussed with Roger Mehr (Regional Archaeologist, DECC) and proposes to investigate two open areas, largely within the boundaries of proposed impacts, to enable an appropriate salvage of the archaeological resource, and to offset the need for extensive small scale excavations across the study area. Several post excavation analyses are also proposed to enable a multi-disciplinary approach, with the aim of producing an academic publication, as well as to offset the need for extensive and costly on-site investigations.

The focus of the investigation will be predominantly in areas where high impact is being proposed. Due to the proposed nature of the ‘open area’ excavation, some minor areas outside of specific impacts may also be investigated as part of the salvage strategy. However, rather than investigating each specific impact (which will produce an extensive number of small test pits), we propose to investigate to key areas of the study area using large scale open area excavations. This approach is based on a ‘salvage’ philosophy and to ensure recovery of a significant and well documented volume of archaeological material for subsequent analysis. This approach is also based on a pragmatic and OH&S approach, since excavations at the adjacent IBIS indicated that the sand deposits routinely collapse, and hence small test pits would be both hard to excavate and dangerous.

The two key areas of salvage include: 1) the southeast corner where significant impact is proposed and where we believe the site to retain the most intact deposits; and 2) in the middle of the site (partially within the stormwater system’s impacts) where ethnographic information suggests Aboriginal people camped in the early historical period, and hence where Contact archaeology is a significant possibility. While impacts occur outside of these two areas, we are not proposing to undertake any further excavation, rather try and undertake further post excavation analysis, including geochronology, to permit sufficient information (if present) to develop academic quality publications on the site.

It should also be noted that there is significant historical archaeological remains within the study area’s curtilage, and AHMS will also be involved in managing and mitigating this resource should it be required.

As outlined above, there is significant potential for Contact archaeology on this site. This type of archaeology is likely to occur within the historical deposits situated in the upper 30 cm of the study area. While investigations of these deposits falls within the mandate of the historical archaeological program (given the significant nature of deposits here), nominated personnel involved in this application will be heavily involved in their development of the historical archaeological research design and the subsequent excavations. However, it is understood that any Aboriginal objects recovered during the historical excavations are still protected under the National Parks and Wildlife Act, 1974, despite their occurrence in historical deposits. Therefore, we will require the section 87 PRP incorporates the collection of Aboriginal objects within historical contexts across the study area (since the historical archaeological excavations may be in different areas or locations to the excavations proposed within this application). All Aboriginal objects recovered from the historical excavations will be investigated following recovery as outlined in Section 5 of Annexure 5 of this application.

This document contains the following information:

______5 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

1. Annexure 1: the original Section 87 application, which retains the regional and local archaeological context for the study area; 2. Annexure 2: a description of the proposed development and identification of potential impacts to the archaeological resource; 3. Annexure 3: a detailed description of the Aboriginal community consultation undertaken as part of this application; 4. Annexure 4: a copy of the Development Approval for the project (if available); 5. Annexure 5: a research design and excavation methodology; 6. Annexure 6: a signed and completed copy of the section 87 permit application form; and 7. Annexure 7: copies of comments from the registered Aboriginal communities (if provided); 8. Annexure 8: Revised site card incorporating the more recent historical excavations and findings for the site; 9. A cheque for the required amount.

The applicant on the permit is Greg Baird, SBA Architects Pty Ltd, who is managing the project. The nominated archaeologist undertaking the archaeological investigations and/or salvage is Alan Williams, Senior Archaeologist AHMS.

With regard to validity period of the permit, we request that the section 87/90 PRP is for at least five years.

Please don’t hesitate to contact me on 02 9555 4000, if you have any questions about our research design and methodology.

Yours sincerely,

Alan Williams Senior Archaeologist

______6 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

Annexure 1: AHMS’ Preliminary Aboriginal Archaeological Assessment, June 2008

______7 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

23rd December 2004

NSW Dept of Environment & Conservation, Northern Aboriginal Heritage Unit. PO BOX 914, COFFS HARBOUR, NSW, 2450.

Re: S.87 Application for Palais Royale Development Site.

Dear Sir/Madam,

Please find enclosed a Preliminary Research Permit application under Section 87 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 for test excavation at the Palais Royale development site, 684 Hunter Street Newcastle. The site is located on the northern side of Hunter Street, opposite the intersection with Steel Street in the Newcastle West CBD.

Proposed development at the Palais Royale site follows on from recent development of the adjacent ACCOR Ibis Hotel site and Riverwalk Development site (700 – 710 Hunter St). As you will be aware, the Ibis Hotel and Riverwalk sites were subject to historical and Aboriginal archaeological excavation undertaken by AHMS Pty Ltd2.

Span Group Architects have engaged AHMS Pty Ltd to undertake historical and Aboriginal archaeological test excavation at the Palais Royale development site in advance of a development application to Newcastle City Council. This approach will enable Span Group Architects to identify Aboriginal and historical archaeological cultural heritage constraints prior to lodging their DA and to prepare a plan for managing the site’s Aboriginal and historical heritage during the development process. It also represents a willingness on the part of Span Group Architects to actively engage with heritage early in the planning process.

The purpose of the current application is to have a PRP in place during historical archaeological excavations at the site, the subject of a Section 140 application to the NSW Heritage Office recently prepared by Peter Douglas of AHMS Pty Ltd. Previous investigations across the adjacent Ibis and Riverwalk sites have found Aboriginal stone

2 AHMS [Steele, D.] (Sept 2001) IBIS Hotel Site; 700 Hunter Street Newcastle, NSW; Interim Report on Archaeological Test and Salvage Excavations at the Site. Report to ACCOR Asia Pacific; and AHMS [Wheeler, J.] (2005) Riverwalk Development Site; Aboriginal Archaeological Salvage Excavation Report. IN PREP. ______8 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle artefact and midden deposits within remnant original soils3 (refer to Figure 1 overleaf). Accordingly, we consider it prudent to have a PRP in place in order to test any remnant A horizon soils that may be revealed during historical archaeological excavation at the site. Because the adjacent Ibis and Riverwalk sites have been the subject of recent Aboriginal heritage impact assessments, test excavations and salvage excavations, the local archaeological resource has been studied and assessed at length. Therefore this document is designed to summarise the results of previous work, incorporate site specific information and development impact assessment to accompany our Section 87 application.

Figure 1 – Location plan showing nearby sites.

This document presents the following information in support of our PRP application:

• A description of proposed development and its potential impact on Aboriginal sites and objects (if present); • A summary of previous archaeological investigations at the ACCOR Ibis Hotel and Riverwalk sites and their implications for the current study area; • The results of a site inspection; • A summary of historical use and occupation of the site and implications for survival of original soils with potential to contain Aboriginal sites / objects; • A predictive model of the potential location, nature and significance of Aboriginal sites and objects across the proposed development area; and

3 ibid ______9 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

• An approach to undertaking Aboriginal archaeological test excavation.

Attachments to this letter include PRP application form (Attachment 1), supporting research design and methodology (Attachment 2), letter of support from the Awabakal Local Aboriginal Land Council (Attachment 3) and an AHIMS (Aboriginal Sites Register) recording form (Attachment 4).

Development Impact Span Group Architects are engaged in the pre-DA planning stage to build a mixed commercial and residential complex at the site. The proposed development will include basement parking requiring bulk excavation at least 3 metres below current ground across the development footprint (refer to Figure 2 and Figure 3 below). Any Aboriginal sites or objects within this area will be disturbed by development.

______10 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

Figure 2 – Basement plan showing proposed carpark across the site footprint

______11 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Joint Section 87/90 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

Figure 3 – South elevation (Hunter St frontage) showing proposed 9 storey complex and basement carpark.

______12 ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle

Previous Investigations The closest known Aboriginal sites were found during archaeological excavations at the Ibis Hotel site (2001)4 and the Riverwalk Development site (2004)5 on the north side of Hunter Street (700 – 710 Hunter Street). These sites are adjacent to the current study area on the western side of the Palais Royale site. Aboriginal midden and stone artefact deposits were found within disturbed and intact original soils below historical levels.

Aboriginal sites were also found during historical archaeological investigations at the former Convict Lumberyard and Stockade (1987) and the Catholic Education Office (CEO) site (2000).6 The former site is situated approximately 2km to the east of the current development area whilst the latter is located on 'The Hill', some 1.5km to the east. Flaked stone artefacts have also been reported at the Newcastle Civic Site7 on Hunter Street, approximately 1km to the east of the site, whilst an open campsite (NPWS Site #38-4-0048) was identified and recorded in Dixon Park, Merewether, 2km to the south of the study area.

Each of these sites were identified and recorded during the course of historical archaeological excavation projects. The principal findings of these investigations are summarised in the following section to provide background and context for the current study.

Ibis Hotel No Aboriginal archaeological sites were identified during an initial site inspection. The failure to detect any Aboriginal archaeological sites or objects was directly related to a complete lack of original ground exposure. The modern surfaces comprised footings, rubble and hard surfaces. These modern ground surfaces were built over the top of the former Newcastle West Catholic and Presbyterian cemetery and surviving original topsoil.

A combined program of historical and Aboriginal archaeological test excavation was undertaken for the IBIS development at 700 Hunter Street in August 2001. The methodology entailed excavation of 1m x 1m test squares at five metre intervals along trenches where the impact assessment suggested that the base of excavation required for the hotel building (i.e. the “construction end levels”) would disturb intact soil deposits. An area encompassing approximately 80m2 was subject to manual excavation during the archaeological investigation program and varying amounts of deposit ranging in depth from between 10cm and 1.3m were removed.

The test excavation recovered surface evidence of numerous historic grave cuts, scattered human remains (disturbed by a partial exhumation of the historic cemetery in c1916), and a range of Aboriginal objects (flaked stone artefacts and shells etc) in the deposits at the site. Excavation of the contiguous 1m by 1m squares revealed a total of 55 intact historic burials, 5 backfilled exhumations and a number of minor localised disturbances, areas of natural topsoil situated between the above features were also

4 AHMS [Steele] 2001 5 AHMS [Wheeler] 2005 (in prep) 6 AHMS [Steele] 2001. 7 Godden Mackay. 1997.

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 13 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle exposed. These soils profiles (along with the grave fills encountered and deposits associated with their exhumations) were found to contain considerable quantities of Aboriginal cultural material.

The Aboriginal archaeological assemblage comprised approximately 5,734 pieces of stone8. A proportion of this sample consisted of un-worked pebbles and cobbles of stone types that may occur naturally within the local soil profiles. Although only 83 (representing only 3.4% of the total excavated assemblage from Phase 1) artefacts were identified as formal tool types, it is estimated that upwards of 4,000 flaked stone artefacts related to Aboriginal use of the area. The low proportion of formal tool types represented in the assemblage suggested the site was in close proximity to a raw material extraction (quarry) location. Artefacts recovered from quarry sites are characterised by a large proportion of debitage resulting from the testing and shaping of cores to be taken away for use elsewhere.

Tuff comprised 89.7 percent of the assemblage, followed by silcrete (9.5 percent) and quartz (0.7 percent). These findings are similar to other sites in the Newcastle area, which is probably due to the abundance of tuff sources in the area. Three possibilities exist for sources of this tuff. The site is located on a levee bank of the Hunter River, basal deposits of which contain tuff gravels. These may have been exposed at various times immediately to the north of the site. A second source may have been these same gravels exposed by fluvial erosion in the adjacent Cottage Creek. Thirdly, coastal outcrops to the east of the site, e.g. Nobby’s Head, may have been a source. Prehistoric and ethnographic examples studied in Australia indicate that primary reduction, which includes the testing of raw material quality and decortication, occurs at or near source.

Reduction strategies on the site were indicative of Bondaian technology. In particular, the Redbank A strategy, which is dated to between 3120+/- 70 years BP9 and 1320-820 years BP10. The reduction strategies are predominantly geared towards producing microliths, although other tools are represented. The range of stone artefacts represented all stages of the reduction process, tool manufacture and some evidence of tool use and maintenance.

There was a paucity of Late Bondaian components, i.e. quartz bipolar reduction. This was probably a function of the lack of locally available quartz and the relative abundance of tuff. However, the dates available for the Redbank A strategy fall within all but the last 800 years or so of the Late Bondaian. The truncation of the upper stratigraphic levels may explain the absence of more recent technology.

The archaeological assemblage also included a total of some 2,939 whole and fragmentary shells and approximately 326 pieces of animal bone. The faunal component of the excavated assemblage was dominated by locally available estuarine shellfish species such as cockle and mud whelk. Mammal, bird and fish bones were

8 Information in this section is largely drawn from the Interim Report on Archaeological Test and Salvage Excavations (AHMS [Steele] Sept 2001) 9 Moore 2000 10 P. Hiscock, “Technological Change in the Hunter Valley and its Implications for the Interpretation of Late Holocene Change in Australia.” Archaeology in Oceania 21 (1):40-50. 1986

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 14 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle also represented in smaller quantities. In combination with the stone artefact collection, the evidence demonstrated the place was subject to repeated Aboriginal visitation and use for a range of purposes including tool manufacture, maintenance and/or replacement, along with a range of other activities including food procurement, consumption and discard.

The Riverwalk Development A combined program of historical and Aboriginal archaeological excavation at the Riverwalk development followed on from excavation at the IBIS site11. The Riverwalk site is adjacent to (west of) the IBIS site at 710 Hunter Street and is also contains part of the former historic cemetery. A similar excavation methodology was employed as that used at the IBIS site.

Excavation of footing trenches to the base of development end levels mostly encountered historical fills and disturbed, re-deposited topsoil relating to the former cemetery surface and 1916 cemetery resumption levels. Only small pockets of intact original soil were found within the development footprint (i.e. the salvage excavation area). A total of 513 stone pieces were recovered12, the vast majority from disturbed deposits. Accordingly, these objects had no stratigraphic integrity and very little archaeological research potential.

The collection was dominated by tuff pieces, many of which exhibited abrasion consistent with sand blasting by wind. The abrasion rounded the edges of the tuff pieces and flakes, in some cases removing any diagnostic features that may have been present. These objects may derive from deposits excavated at depth during grave digging or the 1916 cemetery resumption. The deep deposits may date to the period when the dune was mobile, probably some time before 3,500 BP, during which time stone artefacts deposited by Aboriginal people would have deflated through the profile as the dune moved. This would explain the sand abrasion seen on the artefacts.

No data is currently available on the quantity or species of shell found during excavation. Post-excavation is currently in progress.

Convict Lumberyard and Stockade The Aboriginal site located at the former Newcastle Convict Lumberyard site (situated between Bond & Scott Streets in Newcastle East) has been the subject of archaeological investigations of varying detail since 1987. A number of flaked stone artefacts were identified at this locality in 198713 and during subsequent historical archaeological investigations in 198914 and 199315.

11 AHMS [Wheeler] 2004 (in prep) 12 Based on preliminary sorting. Detailed data is not available yet pending completion of post-ex analysis. 13 D. Bairstow & J.W. Turner (1997) The Newcastle Convict Lumber Yard. Historical archaeological report. Report to the Department of Environment and Planning. 14 D. Bairstow & M.W. Walker (1989) Newcastle Lumber Yard Site. 1989 excavation report. Report to the Heritage Council of New South Wales and Newcastle City Council:49-50. 15S. Lavelle & D. Mider, (1993) Report on archaeological monitoring of works at the Convict Lumber Yard/Stockade Site, Newcastle, New South Wales. Report to the Council of Newcastle City Council and the Heritage Council of New South Wales.

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A test excavation undertaken at the Lumberyard in 199816 revealed a considerable quantity of ‘stone rubble’ in 6 trenches. This was initially interpreted as railway ballast associated with the later historic period of site use. Subsequent re-analysis of the material identified the ‘stone rubble’ material as being largely of Aboriginal origin because flaked stone artefacts were present amongst un-worked cobbles and boulders17. Find locations ranged in depth from 0-50cm, and up to 70cm18. Analysis indicated that the raw material consisted almost entirely of Nobby’s Tuff.

Analysis of the assemblage suggested an absence of ‘Bondaian’ forms such as backed artefacts.19 It was also suggested that the ‘non-Bondaian’ character of the assemblage may simply be a result of the area being an extraction site before and/or during the ‘Bondaian’ period where large cobbles or small boulders of tuff were flaked to test raw material quality.

The historical archaeological analysis20 indicated the ‘stone rubble’ layer was unlikely to be in situ. Rather, it may have been imported onto the site (probably from a coastal exposure of the tuff (Nobby’s Head to Swansea) from an early Holocene or late Pleistocene stone extraction or primary reduction site. The historical archaeological investigation suggests the stone was subsequently reused and re-deposited during the historical period.

Catholic Education Office (CEO) Site An open campsite (NPWS Site #38-4-0525) was recorded in 1999 by NPWS staff within the boundaries of the CEO redevelopment site on 'The Hill' at Newcastle. However, recent historical test excavations and monitoring indicates Aboriginal objects at the site were in situ but within 2-3m of fill deposited on the site during the last 20-50 years. The precise origin of the artefacts is presently unclear.

Excavation of historical-archaeological features and deposits situated below these fill deposits also revealed two 1860s postholes found to be packed with midden materials comprising partially heap-burnt shell (for the provision of lime) and numerous flaked stone artefacts. Again the exact origin of this midden material is unknown. It is unlikely that the material was transported far given mid nineteenth century transportation capabilities and the sites location on top of a steep hill. An isolated find has also been located within one of the few patches of remnant topsoil found at the site, indicating a limited presence of in-situ material at the site.

Newcastle Civic Site Historical archaeological investigations undertaken within the footprint (and beneath the floor) of the Frederick Ash Building located three flaked stone artefacts. These

16 Higginbotham & Associates, (1998a) Report on the Aboriginal relics located during the archaeological test excavation of the Convict Lumber Yard and Stockade, Newcastle, NSW. Report to Newcastle City Council. 17 AMBS, (1998a). Assessment of excavated stone from Newcastle as Aboriginal flaked artefacts. Report to Edward Higginbotham & Associates Pty Ltd. 18 Higginbotham & Associates, (1998b) Report on the archaeological test excavation of the Convict Lumber Yard and Stockade, Newcastle, NSW. Report to Newcastle City Council.12-13. 19 AMBS, (1998b). Analysis of Aboriginal flaked stone artefacts recovered from Newcastle Convict Lumber Yard. Report to Edward Higginbotham & Associates Pty Ltd. 20 Higginbotham & Associates, 1998b.

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 16 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle items were recovered from Quaternary sands (of the Hamilton soil landscape) overlying stiff estuarine clay deposits.

The three artefacts were retrieved from the upper 5-8cm of a light grey to white sand unit. A number of small fragments of glass and ceramic were also recovered from this layer. Given the permeability and softness of the sandy substrate, the European artefacts were considered likely to have been deposited on the surface of the layer and then pressed down by people walking across. No Aboriginal or European artefacts were retrieved below this layer.

The three flaked stone artefacts were small (<3cm in maximum dimension) in size and manufactured from silcrete, chert and a coarse acid volcanic stone.

Implications Previous archaeological investigations clearly indicate the potential for Aboriginal cultural material to survive within deposits underlying buildings in the Newcastle CBD. Prior to the discovery of finds such as those discussed above, the orthodox view held by archaeologists was that sites within built up urban areas were unlikely to contain any remnants of such material because of the impact of repeated development over some two hundred years. The growing body of evidence derived from urban excavations has demonstrated this interpretation is far too simplistic. Evidence of Aboriginal occupation prior to the arrival of European people clearly exists on some urban sites that contain remnant upper portions of the original soil profile.

Site Inspection The site was inspected by Peter Douglas on the 2nd of December 2004. At present, the development site is covered by hard surfaces and the Palais Royale building, so the extent to which remnant original soils survive beneath the building footprint is unclear. There is no evidence that the original landscape has been substantially modified through cutting or benching. Therefore it is likely that remnants of the original soil profile survive beneath hardsurfaces and fills, and between footings and service lines. Upper portions of the original soil profile may have been truncated or disturbed during early 19th century use of the site for agriculture. Lower portions of the original soil profile may be intact below fills and hardsurfaces.

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Figure 4 – View across the site looking south showing hard-surfaces and the Palais Royale building covering original ground.

Historical Use and Occupation Historical evidence relating to Aboriginal use, occupation and contact history at Newcastle has been discussed at length in previous AHMS reports on the Riverwalk and Empire Hotel sites21. The purpose of this section is to present a brief summary of European use and occupation of the site in order to gauge the likely effects of past land use on original soils and any Aboriginal objects within those soils.

The first phase of European development in Newcastle’s West End was the Convict Commandants Farm. The farm operated as a part of the penal establishment. Contemporary documents indicate that it included at least one built structure – a cottage, visited by Governor Lachlan Macquarie in 1812 and 1818, known locally as the Government Cottage22. Turner suggests that the cottage may have functioned as a guardhouse. If this is correct then the Farm may have also included a range of ancillary buildings used by convict work gangs and/or in association with the operation of the place23. The cottage was located on the Palais Royale site, 10 - 12 metres north of Hunter Street24.

21 AHMS Pty Ltd [Wheeler, J] (2004) Riverwalk Development: 710 Hunter St Newcastle; Aboriginal Heritage Impact Assessment. Report to Hunter Land Pty Ltd; and AHMS Pty Ltd [Wheeler, J] (2004) The Empire Hotel 643-651 Hunter St Newcastle; Aboriginal Heritage Impact Assessment. Report to Rory F O’Brien Pty Ltd. 22 Turner (1994):1. This cottage may have been located on the Palais Royale site (see annotations on plan NRL LH Map A333.3/51 Parish of Northumberland 1884). The cottage burnt down at an unspecified date (NMH 4 March 1902:6). The cottage shown on this block on late nineteenth century plans appears to have been a replacement. 23 Turner (1994): 1. This may be based on a newspaper report (NMH 4 March 1902:6) “on the banks of the creek there formerly stood a cottage occupied by an officer who controlled the prisoners engaged in making the roads”. 24 1830 Report from Supt. Public Works, Newcastle, 30 April 1830, cited in C. Hunter, “Government Cottages …” p.136

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The cottage grounds also appear to have been a camping spot for local Aboriginal people in the early 19th century. During a visit to the cottage in 1825, Threlkeld noted that “The blacks chose our place of residence for their new encampment, they having been so frequently molested by many of the prisoners of the crown who perambulated the settlement in the night for purposes that would not bear the light of day”25.

During the mid 19th century the land appears to have been the site of Dangar’s Meatworks (c1848-55), a short-lived commercial operation. The exact location and configuration of the meatworks on the study area is not known.

The site is currently occupied by a building known as the Palais Royale, a locally well- known band venue in recent years. It was established in 1888 as the Elite Skating Rink. Later the building housed the City Arcade and Western Markets. In 1894 the Empire Music Hall was opened in the same building and in 1929 it became the Empire Palais Royale dance hall.

Historical use and occupation of the study area described above is likely to have disturbed and truncated portions of the original soil profile. Following initial vegetation clearance for the Convict Farm and subsequent agriculture, upper portions of the sandy soil profile are likely to have been removed through sheet and rill erosion. Subsequent development of buildings, infrastructure and services associated with the Commandants Cottage, Dangar’s meatworks and the Palais Royale are likely to have involved excavation of portions of original soil. Lower portions of the original soil profile between footings and service lines may survive intact.

Predictive Model The purpose of predictive modelling for the current site is to assess the likely nature of the archaeological resource, which informs both the research design and excavation methodology as described in Attachment 2. The model set out below presents predictions about the nature of Aboriginal occupation and use of the site prior to European settlement.

The topography and distribution of natural resources relating to the study area indicates an area of potential for open artefact scatter sites and shell middens. Surveys in the Hunter Valley indicate a high density of sites along the Hunter River and associated drainage networks. The proximity of Cottage Creek (for drinking water, raw materials and procurement of animal and plant food resources) indicates a high potential for sites in the local area. The study area is also in close proximity to the original shoreline of the Hunter estuary. This would have allowed ready access for foraging estuarine resources such as shell fish, fish and littoral vegetation such as mangroves.

The Palais Royale site is located in a former resource intersection zone, in close proximity to a wide variety of resource-zones ranging from the Hunter River estuary to the brackish-freshwater Cottage Creek and nearby swamps. These zones contained

25 N. Gunson (ed.) Australian Reminiscences and Papers of L.E. Threlkeld, Missionary to the Aborigines 1824-1859, Canberra, 1974, pp.44-45

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 19 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle distinct flora and fauna communities that collectively would have provided a wide variety of animal and plant resources for food and equipment making. It has been argued26 that Aboriginal camp sites were preferentially located at resource intersection zones in order to capitalise on a broader range of resources. This would suggest the study area was a favourable area for Aboriginal occupation and use, and therefore indicates a potential for archaeological deposits. In particular, slightly elevated, dry areas adjacent to Cottage Creek, the Hunter River and/or swamp were likely to have been the focus for Aboriginal occupation and use in the past.

Illustrations by Joseph Lycett produced in the 19th century depict Aboriginal occupation in the vicinity of the study area. Ethnographic records also indicate ceremonial activities were carried out in the vicinity of the Gasworks, well into the 19th century. The Gasworks were located approx 200 – 250 m south of the present study area in the vicinity of the Marketown Shopping Centre on King Street. If these records are correct, the area in the vicinity of the Palais Royale site was used and occupied by Aboriginal people and may have been an important gathering or ceremonial place.

Proposed Approach to Test Excavation Span Group Architects engaged AHMS Pty Ltd to undertake historical archaeological test excavation at the development site and to prepare the attached PRP application to DEC to undertake Aboriginal archaeological test excavation in the event that remnant original soils are found between or below historical levels during the historical archaeological investigation. At present, the development site is covered by hard surfaces, so the extent to which remnant original soils survive is unclear.

Taking the results of previous archaeological investigations at the adjacent Ibis and Riverwalk development sites into account, and recent discussions with Ron Gordon of Awabakal Local Aboriginal Land Council, we consider it prudent to have a PRP in place whilst historical archaeological excavation is undertaken. This will enable us to undertake manual testing of remnant topsoil deposits if they survive beneath the building footprint. Our proposed research design and excavation methodology is included in Attachment 2. The Awabakal Local Aboriginal Land Council have provided written endorsement of our Section 87 PRP application and our proposed excavation methodology (Refer to Attachment 3 for ALALC correspondence).

Please don’t hesitate to contact me if you wish to discuss the application or any other aspects of the project.

Yours sincerely,

Jim Wheeler. (Archaeologist)

26 Aitken 1985; Hynes & Chase 1982

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Annexure 2: Description of the Proposed Development and Potential Impacts.

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Project Description

As outlined in the cover letter above, the proposed development at the Palais Royale site has significantly changed following new ownership of the site by Yum! Restaurants Australia.

The original proposal required the construction of a multi-storey residential apartment block with basement parking, which would have caused significant impact to the soil profile and associated archaeological resource.

Conversely, the currently proposed development is for a one storey structure (located to the north of the study area) and associated car park (Figure 1). In addition, the proposed development in most areas will be raised above current ground level to avoid flooding issues (note the reduced levels (RL) in Figure 1) (Figure 2).

In addition, the study area is proposed to have introduced fill in the northern section to raise the site between 20 – 100 cm. The implementation of this fill will require the removal of 20 – 30 cm of the current landsurface and subsequent ‘proof’ rolling of the remaining surface. The structure will also be raised using a series of piers spaced 4 m apart and 4 m deep across the southern section of the study area.

Based on the development design, there is potential for a number of impacts to the soil profile within the study area, specifically:

1. Retention tank and sand filter box (Figure 2): as part of the proposed stormwater system, the proposed development includes a large L-shaped tank located in the south-eastern corner of the study area. This tank will be 37 m long by 2.5 m wide and will require excavation to depths ~150 cm below current surface. A site visit by AHMS in late 2008 showed this area to be retained between a bitumen layer, and hence this activity is proposed in potentially the most intact part of the study area; 2. Stormwater system (Figure 2): the development will require the installation of a stormwater system composed of several underground pipes (ranging in diameter from 15 to 23 cm). The main impact is composed of two pipes and associated drains running broadly east-west across the north of the study area. Spatially, both pipes are some 35 – 40 m with a likely installation impact of <1 m. Impacts to the soil profile from this system are variable (due to the uneven land surface and depth of proposed fill), but will exceed 70 cm in some areas. An additional pipe feeding from the rainwater tanks to the retention tanks (some 10 m) may also impact the soil profile; 3. Levelling/Raising Fill (Figure 3): the north area of the site is proposed for elevation above its current surface level due to flooding issues. The development will require the introduction of between 20 and 100 cm of fill overlying the study area. However, prior to the introduction of fill, 20 – 30 cm of the current land surface (the historical archaeological deposits) will require removal and the remaining surface will require ‘proof rolling’ with a 2 tonne roller; and 4. Piers (Figure 3): the restaurant complex located to the south of the study area will be floated on a concrete slab, which will require piers to be situated at 4 - 6 m intervals to depths of 4 m. A total of some 45 - 70 piers will be required in the south

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end of the site. While the piers are small (<50 cm), an impact zone of up to 1 m2 should be expected.

While these restaurants typically retain a grease trap (used for collecting and removing grease and oils from the cooking), which generally takes the form of an underground tank, in the case of this development the grease trap will be above ground. Therefore, the grease trap is not considered an impact for the purpose of this study.

In general, the study area will remain relatively intact when compared with the previous development. The study area is approximately 2,400 m2 in size, while the proposed impacts will be approximately 240 m2, which can be broken down as: 1) retention tank and sand filter box = 100 m2; 2) stormwater system = 70 m2; and 3) piers for structure support = 70 m2 (Figure 4).

Due to the introduction of ‘fill’ in the northern parts of the study area, and the necessary preparation for its introduction (namely the removal and/or rolling of the upper soil profile units), partial impacts will also occur to approximately 1,200 m2 or 50% of the study area. It is likely that much of the upper soil profiles are partially or completely disturbed anyway due to recent historical and/or modern activities on site. However, in these areas, it is envisaged that while the lower soil profiles would be relatively undisturbed by this activity, the upper profile would be impacted.

Therefore, in summary the proposed impacts will cause significant impact to some 240 m2 (10% of the study area) of the study area and surface impact to 1,200 m2 (50%) of the study area. This leaves approximately 1,000 m2 or 40% of the site un-impacted by the proposed development.

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Figure 1: Proposed Development Design showing the fast food restaurant fronting Hunter Street.

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Figure 2: Map showing the proposed stormwater systems and water runoff of the proposed development. Note the retention tank and sand filter box (red) located in the southeast corner of the site and enlarged at the right of the page, and the stormwater pipes running through the north of the study area (red).

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Figure 3: Map showing the location of proposed fill (green) and piers (red dots) for the restaurant structure (red outline).

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Figure 4: Map of proposed impacts to the study area, including fill (green), stormwater drains and retention and sand filter box (yellow) and piers (red dots).

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Annexure 5: Research Design and Excavation Methodology

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Research Design and Methodology

This section provides a research design and excavation methodology to investigate areas of low and high impact within the study area.

1 - Basis for the Application / Rationale

This research design and methodology contains information compiled to support a section 87/90 application for Aboriginal archaeological excavations/salvage within a vacant lot, previously the site of the Palais Royale, at 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle.

The program of excavation outlined in this document would be undertaken prior to development. It is conceived as a piece of archaeological research designed to address research questions set out in the research design. The ‘open area’ nature and extensive post excavation analysis proposed is in accordance with pure research investigations and principles, and therefore will produce information that would allow academic publications to be undertaken (dependent upon the findings of the study).

Due to our existing knowledge of the site, retention of several areas of the site (over 40 % un- impacted and a further 50% only partially impacted), and our proposed ‘salvage’ excavations, we have sought a combined section 87/90 application. Therefore, this research design is the only proposed investigation/salvage of the study area, and hence seeks to be research driven and of an appropriate level of mitigation.

The methodology proposed here has been developed following discussions with DECC (Roger Mehr) on 8 and 19 January 2009. Aboriginal community discussion and feedback in relation to the method are presented elsewhere in this documentation.

Rather than undertake a large number of small discrete test pits, we are proposing to undertake two open area excavations within the study area. Based on the IBIS Hotel excavations (adjacent and immediately to the west of the study area), we are confident of the likely stratigraphy, composition and content of the archaeological resource present within the study area, and hence the aim of this investigation is to recovery or ‘salvage’ a large sample of archaeological material in a confined and controlled program of excavations. This approach will also provide us with a new suite of information, rather than re-confirming the excavations at undertaken at the IBIS hotel.

To ensure the stratigraphy between the study area and IBIS hotel are broadly similar, we are proposing to undertake an initial augering of the site by AHMS personnel to provide a stratigraphic map. This will be undertaken prior to the final placement of the open areas. Therefore, our project can be considered a controlled salvage excavation based on our knowledge of the immediate environment, rather than an investigative approach.

Our methodology involves the focussed investigation of two specific areas of the site in two open area excavations (each 25 to 49 m2). The reasons for undertaking this type of approach are discussed in detail below, but in general, based on excavations in the adjacent property there is a high likelihood of archaeological material being present within the study area. This approach allows the spatial and temporal investigation and recovery of a large assemblage for

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 36 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle subsequent analysis. Rather than an approach involving an extensive number of small 50 cm2 or 1 m2 test pits, which would not enable such inter and intra site comparisons.

Other logistical issues for undertaking open area rather than smaller test pitting include the collapsible nature of the sediments, which based on the IBIS Hotel excavations was a key problem throughout the excavations. Undertaking extensive small test pits would propagate this issue, in contrast to open area excavations, which would reduce the number of sections in addition to enabling shoring, etc to be installed. In addition, the investigation of extensive numbers of small test pits, rather than two areas, is cost prohibitive, taking far more time and manpower.

The position of the two open areas have been based on: 1) the location of the highest impact, in this case the retention and sand filter box in the southeast corner of the site, as well as some of the proposed structural piers; and 2) the potential for Contact archaeology to occur in the Commandant’s garden (located to the centre and north of the study area) based on ethnographic information by Reverend L.E. Threlkeld in the early 19th Century. This latter area is also within areas of impact, specifically part of a stormwater pipe, the ‘fill’ activities and the piering. While it is believed that Contact archaeology will be situated within the historical archaeological deposits above the deposits proposed for investigation here (see discussion below), some post taphonomic activity may have moved these types of materials (such as glass and/or metal objects) down the soil profile, and hence the rationale for our proposed investigations in this location.

In summary, Area 1 (Figure 2) will encompass a significant portion of the proposed impact of the retention tank and sand filter box. We believe that of the 25 m2 of Area 1, at least 16 m2 will fall within the footprint of the retention tank and sand filter box. The remaining 9 m2 will encompass or be in the close vicinity four proposed pier locations and associated installation impacts. Should this be expanded to 49 m2, further piers and associated installation impacts would be encompassed. Area 2 has been selected largely for its location within the historical Commandant’s garden, and hence potential for Contact archaeological material. However, it is situated within one of the proposed stormwater pipes, as well as the associated ‘fill’ activities for the proposed car park to the north of the study area. The southernmost parts of Area 2 may also encompass part of the structure and hence some of the proposed pier locations (which are still conceptual at this stage). Therefore, 5 – 10 m2 of Area 2 are within areas of proposed high impact, while the remaining 15 m2 are within areas of low impact from the fill activities.

Overall, the proposed development will cause high impact to some 240 m2 (or 10%) of the study area in very specific locations (Figure 1). The most notably impacts occur through the installation of a retention tank and sand filter box to the southeast, a series of stormwater drains across the north of the study area in an east-west orientation, and the installation of 45-70 piers for the restaurant structure. In addition, the introduction of fill will cause impact to about 1,200 m2 (or 50% of the study area) to depths of 30 cm and ‘proof’ rolling on the remaining land surface. Hence, impact to the upper soil profile is likely, although much of the soil profile removal will be constrained to historical archaeological deposits.

Please note that there is a high likelihood of Contact archaeology within the study area. The investigation of this material will fall into the mandate of the historical archaeological

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 37 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle excavations (the design and recovery of which may differ from the investigations proposed here). While, we do require the permit to allow for the recovery and analysis of Contact Aboriginal objects on the site, no methodology on their excavation is put forward in this application. Following the completion and endorsement of the historical investigation research design by NSW Heritage Branch, Department of Planning, AHMS will forward copies of this document to DECC and other relevant stakeholders for their information. In addition, personnel involved in this application will participate in the historical excavations to ensure Contact archaeology is appropriately identified and recorded.

While the Contact archaeology methodology is still being developed (for endorsement under section 140 of the Heritage Act, 1977), we can broadly outline the proposed excavation model here. Given the shallow nature of the historic deposits and the requirement of 30 cm of removal by the fill activities across the northern section of the study area(Annexure 2), the historical investigations are likely to be shallower but more spatially extensive that those proposed in this application. Excavations would be undertaken of the areas of proposed fill, as well as parts of the other impacts outlined in Annexure 2. In addition, specific historic excavations will be undertaken directly over the proposed open areas within this application to ensure a complete soil profile can be compiled for the study area at the end of the project. Given the shallow nature of the deposits, they are likely to be excavated by hand in spits with sieving (for both historic and Contact Aboriginal materials) of all sediments being undertaken.

2 – Research Design Objectives

General Objectives

The project has several general objectives, specifically:

1. to undertake excavation work in partnership with the local Aboriginal community; 2. to undertake a structured but flexible excavation that focuses upon proposed disturbance and natural soil profiles; 3. where possible (and if present) obtain a large sample of archaeological material to overcome small sample biases27 in order to draw meaningful conclusions about the range and characteristics of the assemblage, inferred cultural behaviour and site function(s); 4. undertake appropriate post-excavation analyses in order to address the research questions set out in Section 3 below; and 5. prepare an excavation report presenting the results of excavation, post-excavation analysis and addressing the research questions in accordance with the permit conditions.

Project Specific Objectives

The excavation has several project specific objectives:

27 Hiscock, P, 2001, Sizing up Prehistory: Sample Size and Composition of Artefact Assemblages. Australian Aboriginal Studies, 2001/1.

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1. to characterise, analyse and salvage Contact archaeological material within the study area; 2. to characterise and analyse the pre-European geomorphology of the study area, which based on the adjacent sites is a complex combination of fluvial, tectonic and Aeolian deposits; 3. to identify the presence of intact soil profiles, and characterise the existing disturbances to these profiles; 4. where intact soil profiles are evident, asses their potential to retain Aboriginal objects and recover an appropriate sample of such objects; 5. to address archaeological research questions; and 6. to collect and record artefacts that will be subject to development impact.

Our review of the study area (refer to the cover letter and Annexure 1), with specific reference to the local archaeological picture, suggests that below a layer of historical and modern fill (ranging from 20 – 40 cm), there may be potential for intact or only partially disturbed soil profiles of significant depths. Importantly, based on excavations at the IBIS hotel adjacent and to the west of this study area, a complex picture of fluvial and Aeolian deposits was identified. These deposits retained significant archaeological materials (over 4,000 artefacts and associated shell and faunal remains) to depths over 100 cm.

As part of this project, and to ensure close compilation with the IBIS hotel, we propose to undertake an augering program prior to excavation to ensure a good understanding of the stratigraphy prior to the decision on the final location of the open areas.

Of equal archaeological importance is the documented evidence of Aboriginal use of the area after Newcastle was settled. Hence, the potential for Contact Archaeology is high. While the excavations and collection of such material will fall within the historical excavations proposed for the study area, personnel within this application will play an active role in differentiating any Aboriginal material within these archaeological deposits during the historical excavations. In addition, all Contact material identified and recovered will be studied under the umbrella of this permit. One of the proposed open areas (Area 2) is also situated within an area of known Contact use to ensure that any movement of Contact objects (such as glass and/or metal) will be recovered through this investigation.

The condition of the soil profiles within the study area is unknown, but AHMS believe that only minimal disturbance has occurred to the upper units through the construction and subsequent demolition of structures previously on the site (most notably the Palais Royale itself). The study area is generally flat (most likely levelled by historical and modern activities) with a distinct depression along the northern edge. It is believed that the depression may relate to the former alignment of Cottage Creek, although significant modification through the construction of the nearby Great Northern Railway embankment is likely. A site visit in late 2008 indicated that the area where the proposed retention tank and sand filter box (Annexure 2) is likely to retain the most intact soil profile, since it still retained a bitumen covering, and hence had not been impacted by the removal of the Palais Royale structures or the extensive floods in 2007.

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The proposed impacts have been outlined in detail in Annexure 2. A total of ~240 m2 (10% of the study area) will be impacted by the installation of a retention tank and sand box filter, a series of stormwater drains and the installation of 45-70 piers for supporting the proposed structure. Depths of these activities are variable, but generally will exceed 70 cm below current land surface, and hence have been identified as of ‘high’ impact.

In relation to the ‘filling’ activities, which are only proposed to the north of the study area, activities will include the removal of 30 cm of the upper soil profile (largely the historical deposits) followed by ‘proof rolling’ of the remaining land surface. Hence, impacts to the upper soil profile are likely due to the filling activities, and we have determined that 1,200 m2 (or 50%) of the study area will receive low to moderate impacts from these activities.

Therefore the objectives of this project, which were developed in consultation with DECC, are to characterise the original geomorphology of the study area (i.e. the landforms present in pre-European times); identify the condition and integrity of any natural pre-European soil profiles that may be present beneath the historical and modern fill; investigate and recover any Contact Aboriginal objects within or below the historical fill; undertake a detailed investigation and salvage of two large open areas for archaeological material present within the pre-European deposits.

The results of the excavation will be used to address a number of research questions that have been designed to structure the investigation and to contribute to our archaeological knowledge about the Newcastle region. If natural soil profiles and/or archaeological material are recovered, this will assist in answering a number of archaeological questions (see Section 4) in relation to Aboriginal use and occupation of the area. In addition, the presence or absence of archaeological material will provide information on the survivability and condition of archaeological material within Newcastle and other areas where historic development has occurred. AHMS’ aim is to produce high quality research, in some cases at the expense of on- site time, to enable the development of academic publications on the site in question.

Overall, these objectives provide a simple and linear path to investigate, characterise and assess the archaeological potential and significance of the study area. By answering these objectives, AHMS will be able to provide clear and concise management advice in relation to Aboriginal heritage within the study area.

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Figure 1: Areas of proposed impacts based on the proposed development design, including filling activities (green), stormwater systems (yellow) and piers/piles (red dots). See Annexure 2 for further information.

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3 – Research Questions

Research questions are included within the research design to guide excavation and provide a focus in relation to the findings of the overall project. In the case of this project, there are two quite different types of research goals or questions; 1) scientific and/or geomorphological questions that discuss the excavation in terms of the site condition and integrity; and 2) if archaeological material is identified, questions discussing the use and importance of the area for Aboriginal people.

Geomorphological/Scientific Questions

Are natural soil profiles present within the study area, and what is the extent of historical and recent disturbance to them?

Identify and characterise the stratigraphy of the study area to identify areas of pre-European landscape versus those that have been extensively or completely disturbed. The geotechnical information identifies a thick layer of fill situated across the site as levelling material and it is unclear on the extent to which this fill will have impacted the original soil profile beneath. Historically, fill is likely to have been placed directly over the existing soil profile, and hence truncation of the original soil profile may be minimal. While there may have been mixing of the natural soil profile with the historical fill through natural integration/mixing and/or human impacts, this does indicate that the remains of parts of the original soil profile (often the A2) may be present.

Based on studies at IBIS hotel adjacent the study area, it is believed that a significantly deep soil profile will be present within the study area. Excavations at this site revealed a combination of grey, yellow and dark brown sand units overlying a dark brown sands and gravel unit to depths of over 2 m (although archaeological material was only found to depths of 130 cm). These deposits were identified as a mixture of in situ and reworked levee deposits associated with the Hunter River and/or the nearby Cottage Creek.

Hence, one of the focuses of the study will be to identify the natural soil profile (if present) and its condition and integrity.

What is geomorphological landscape of the study area?

As outlined above, the geomorphology of the study area is likely to be highly complex based on the adjacent IBIS site (as well as several other sites nearby). It is likely to be a combination of fluvial and Aeolian deposits, possibly with evidence of tectonic activity.

Hence, an aim of this study will be to utilise appropriate techniques to characterise and interpret the geomorphological picture of the study area. This will permit a greater interpretation of any archaeological material identified during the investigation.

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How does the geomorphology and stratigraphy relate to other archaeological sites within Newcastle, and what does this mean for archaeological site distribution in the local and regional context?

The geomorphology and presence/absence of natural soil profiles within the study area – regardless of archaeological material or not – will provide significant information on the condition and integrity of a pre-European soil stratigraphy in this type of disturbed/modern environment.

A comparison of the condition and integrity of this soil stratigraphy within the study area, in combination with other archaeological studies in the Newcastle region, will allow the development of a model for archaeological material presence and survivability within this type of historically built up conurbation and adjacent the Hunter River. This type of model can overlay existing Newcastle and Hexham Swamp models and permit a further layer of resolution and understanding in relation to archaeological site distribution and survivability, to ensure archaeological materials within the region (and other historical towns) are appropriately identified and documented in the future.

Given the small size of the study area, and general absence of archaeological studies within the Newcastle region (especially that consider geomorphological issues), any model developed is likely to be preliminary, but will allow further refinement and development as more work is undertaken in the region.

Archaeological Questions

How long did Aboriginal people use the site?

Identification of technologies and formal types (such as backed artefacts) will provide an indication of how long Aboriginal people have used the site. Shell, animal bone and/or charcoal samples (particularly from hearths) within intact deposits could be used for radiocarbon dating.

Where possible, AHMS will also attempt Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) dating. Given the sandy nature of the visible surface of the study area, and the findings of the IBIS site adjacent, AHMS is confident that OSL dates would be successful. Hence, we propose to undertake OSL samples throughout the sequence to provide an indication of the age of these deposits. Such dates would also assist with the geomorphological interpretations of the study area outlined above. Please note, while AHMS will take several OSL samples, due to their cost only a fraction of these are likely to be processed.

What stone materials were used and where did they come from?

Post excavation analysis will identify stone raw material types, such as silcrete, quartz, indurated mudstone or tuff, and their relative proportions. A review of previous studies in the area, previously identified Aboriginal stone sources, and geological mapping may provide an indication about where raw materials were gathered for making stone tools. Standard metric and volumetric measures used in the stone artefact analysis will provide data to compare with

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 43 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle distance-decay models regarding the pattern of dispersal and use of silcrete from silcrete sources within the local area.

Post-excavation analysis will examine the type and percentage of cortex remaining on stone artefacts and relative proportions of different stages of the reduction sequence represented in the assemblage. This may assist in determining more specifically where the stone used for making artefacts was sourced from, in particular, whether the stone came from river gravels, outcrops or lag deposits within the soil. The analysis will aim to determine whether the assemblage represents on-source or off-source reduction.

What types of artefacts were produced and what were they used for?

The stone artefact analysis methodology described in Section 5 will aim to determine what artefact types were produced and/or discarded on site and how the raw materials were reduced to make the artefacts. Excavation of deposits with vertical integrity may show changes in artefact manufacture over time. A conjoin analysis may indicate how the artefacts were reduced and whether the reduction sequence is consistent with those previously reported by Flenniken & White, Hiscock, White and others.

The functional analysis methods described in Section 5 will aim to detect use-wear evidence on a sample of stone artefacts recovered from the site. If use wear evidence is found, it may provide an indication of what different artefacts were used for. If there is potential for retention of residues on finished implements, residue analysis may determine what kinds of plants or animals were being processed with particular tools.

What activities did Aboriginal groups carry out at the site in the past and is there any relationship between site function(s) and the local distribution of natural resources? Was there a wide range of activities or a very limited range of activities, and what does this tell us about site function(s) in the past?

An analysis of the range, distribution, density and types of artefacts recovered may indicate the type of activities carried out in the past. Discrete activities or ‘events’ such as a knapping floor, a heat-treatment pit or a hearth may provide evidence of site uses. An assessment of this evidence in relation to the local topography and distribution of resources such as water, workable stone material and food sources, may indicate a relationship between site activities and the environmental setting.

When compared with the range of resources in the local area and the results of previous and subsequent excavations, it may assist in providing an indication about how different parts of the landscape were used and conceived in the past. For example, home bases (broad based, repeated occupation and diverse uses) may be distinguished from more specialised sites (such as dinnertime camps focused on specific resource foraging and consumption or primary ‘on- source’ reduction sites near stone sources). Further analysis may detect relationships between particular landforms / environments and site functions.

What was the nature of occupation – was it repeated over time (ie. overlapping events) or individual discrete events? What can we learn about the use and arrangement of space within the site?

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The excavation may reveal whether cultural activity comprises discrete, separated events across the excavation area or whether the archaeological deposits reflect repeated overlapping uses of the site. Analysis of the vertical and, to a lesser extent, horizontal distribution of material across the excavation area may indicate whether there has been one- off use(s) of the site or repeated overlapping occupation episodes. If there have been overlapping occupation events, can they be distinguished through vertical separation, and if so, do they indicate continuity in site use / function? By analysing the vertical and horizontal distribution of artefacts and of discrete events we may be able to learn how space was arranged within the site and whether there was continuity of site use and function over time.

How does the study area compare to other Aboriginal sites excavated in the local area and the results of open-area excavations in Newcastle and surrounding region?

Inter-site comparison of the excavated stone artefact assemblage, discrete features, faunal assemblage and plant remains with those retrieved from previous excavations in the area will provide a means of comparing and contrasting the results. This will include analysis of whether functionally similar sites have been reported in association with similar landforms or resource zones. Of particular interest would be a comparison with the IBIS hotel and Riverwalk Development sites, since they are not only nearby but would also in combination with this excavation contribute significantly to an understanding of the use of the local area.

AHMS understands that Umwelt Australia Pty Ltd is undertaking studies of deep soil profiles in this region, and we would also seek to liaise with them to produce a more thorough regional picture of Aboriginal use and occupation.

Please note that such comparative analysis will be limited by the available published data, which in some cases is relatively sparse.

Is there any evidence of a contact period Aboriginal site described by Threlkeld when he visited the Convict Commandants cottage in 1825, and if present, what does the evidence indicate about Aboriginal lifestyle and acculturation during the early 19th century?

Aboriginal occupation at the site during the contact period may be indicated by the presence of implements manufactured from European materials such as glass and ceramic. It may also be indicated by characteristic Aboriginal material culture during the period such as “King Plates”.

One aim of both the historical and Aboriginal investigations is to identify Contact archaeological remains and undertake appropriate analyse. If found such material may provide an indication of the level of European/Aboriginal interaction, trade, welfare of the Aboriginal people in this area, types of material used (both Aboriginal and European) for traditional purposes, issues of acculturation, etc.

It should be noted however that Aboriginal occupation during the contact period may be indistinguishable from European occupation (i.e. both populations using similar material culture) and rendered archaeologically invisible.

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4 – Excavation Methodology

Initially, AHMS will undertake a brief augering program across the study area to identify the condition and integrity of the soil profile, as well as to enable comparisons to be made with the nearby IBIS hotel findings. This will be undertaken using simple hand operated auger equipment to depths of between 150 – 200 cm. Spatially, an auger hole every 10 m across the site (or 24 in total) will be attempted to provide a comprehensive 3D model of the stratigraphic nature of the study area. The aim of this investigation is not to find archaeological material, but to develop a stratigraphic model of the site.

The proposed excavations will consist of two open area excavations as presented in Figure 2. As outlined elsewhere, the locations of these areas are based on several factors, most notably proposed impact locations, preservation of intact soil profiles and the potential for Contact archaeology. Please note that the locations of these open areas are approximate and some modification may occur to their specific location following the augering program at the discretion of the Excavation Director.

The initial open areas would be some 25 m2 in each location, which would be investigated as 25 1 m2 test pits, and giving a total of 50 m2 between the two areas. Should archaeological material be recovered and at the excavations discretion, these areas may be further opened up to 49 m2 (or 49 1 m2 test pits in each open area). While specific criterion on when such areas will be expanded cannot be identified at this time, but rationale for doing so may include high densities of artefacts, occurrence of specific features such as hearths, knapping events, specific occupation units and/or investigation of specific sedmentological units (for geochronological, geomorphological and archaeological purposes).

At this stage, the open areas are proposed to be square in shape, although should specific features or areas of archaeological interest become identified during the excavation, this shape may be modified to more appropriately recover the archaeological materials in question. In addition, should time permit and/or research questions still cannot be answered additional test pitting at the discretion of the Excavation Director in consultation with the Aboriginal communities may be undertaken.

Each test pit will be assigned an alpha-numeric identifier, and it is envisaged that each test pit will ultimately be labelled as test pits A1, A2 and A3 for example.

All test pits will be excavated manually and in 10 cm spits to permit stratigraphical control upon any archaeological material recovered. Manual excavation will be undertaken by mattock, shovel, trowel and brush. Manual excavation will be undertaken until sterile units, the bedrock or geological units (such as the brown sands and gravels within this area) or the depth of the proposed impact is reached. In general, excavations will be undertaken to between 70 and 150 cm below the land surface.

Where artefacts are identified during the excavations, they will have X, Y and Z co-ordinates recorded against a temporary (or permanent if available) datum within the study area. This will permit a general 3D map of the archaeological material present within the study area to be generated. Where high densities of artefacts (>15 lithics/m2) are identified, excavation of

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5 cm spits or less may be considered. This will only be undertaken if the stratigraphy suggests fine resolution information can be obtained (i.e. the stratigraphy reveals multiple phases, rather than a simple duplex soil) and worthwhile archaeological data recovered.

In some cases, test pits are likely to exceed 1.2 m in depth. For OH & S reasons Where this occurs, the Excavation Director will determine how to best proceed. Specifically whether to; 1) step/shore the test pits and continue should archaeological material be present and of significance; 2) whether the open area nature of the excavation permit such depths to be undertaken in safety with no further stepping/shoring; or 3) stop excavation. Note that stepping the test pits may require excavation beyond the spatial extent of the proposed open areas, although this will be avoided where possible.

Where specific archaeological features, such as hearths, are identified, excavation will investigate only a portion of the feature (typically 50%). Excavation will be undertaken with care and (if possible) 100% of excavated sediment/archaeological material will be recovered for subsequent analysis.

Should a natural soil profile and/or archaeological feature be encountered, all sediments will be recovered from the test pits (in buckets to provide a rough indication of volume) and either dry and/or wet sieved depending upon the composition of the soil stratigraphy (i.e. sand can be easily dry sieved, whereas clay will require wet sieving). Sieving will be undertaken initially with only a 5 mm mesh. However, where artefacts are identified during excavation/sieving all sediments will also be sieved through a 3 mm mesh.

All archaeological material will be collected and documented (with regard to location, spit, depth, sieve size, etc) for subsequent analysis.

Summary

The proposed excavation methodology is as follows:

Excavation

• Excavation will include two open areas of between 25 and 49 m2 (50 and 98 1 m1 test pits) undertaken by hand, using shovels, mattocks and trowels; • All remnants of a natural soil profile will be removed, recorded and sieved in 10 cm arbitrary spits and/or by soil unit; • Soil samples will be retained from each sieved unit for pH testing, soil description, geomorphological examination and palynological analysis (if warranted); and • Charcoal, animal bone and/or shell found (if any) within intact cultural deposits will be retained for C14 dating. Samples of the sand matrix (if present) will be retained for potential OSL dating.

Sieving

• Excavated soil will be placed into plastic buckets of uniform size and a tally of buckets from each spit will be recorded; and

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• The sediment will be wet-sieved through 5mm, and where artefactual material is identified through 3mm nested screens.

Recording

• Archaeological material recovered from sieving will be retained in plastic clip-lock bags and labelled with the provenance details including: date, site name, excavation square (alpha-numeric coordinates) and spit; • A standard site recording form will be used for each spit. Details will include site name, date, site recorder, spit number and depth, square ID, description of finds, description of soil, sketch plan of excavation (if relevant to show feature), end of spit levels, soil pH and a bucket tally; • A survey datum will be established in order to record the levels of deposits and features; • A photographic record will be made. An overall site plan will be produced and sections of each square will be drawn. The total station will be used to record long sections at the end of the excavation and to provide a framework to tie in the manually recorded square sections; and • Soil pH will be measured.

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Figure 2: Map showing the approximate location of test pitting within the study area. The red squares show the initial two 25 m2 open areas proposed for investigation. The blue indicates potential expansion of these areas to 49 m2. Area 1 is located in the southeast corner of the study area, Areas 2 is in the middle to the north of the study area.

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5 - Post Excavation Methodology28

The post-excavation analysis will be designed to yield data comparable to that for assemblages found during previous investigations in Newcastle and more regionally and to address the research questions. Results of analysis will be presented in relation to comparative site data where possible and useful in addressing the research questions.

Post excavation analysis may involve the completion of the following procedures:

Stone Artefact Analysis

A qualified lithics specialist will undertake descriptive and functional recording of recovered artefacts. The analysis will be consistent with that undertaken by AHMS for several recent excavations, such as those at IBIS Hotel and Riverwalk Development, in order to facilitate data comparison between AHMS excavations. Specifically, the analysis will aim to determine the following:

• Quantity of stone, by counts and weight; • Suspected origin of the stone (whether from quarries where the rock is in place, or dispersed along riverbeds); • Identification of the artefacts; • Interpretation of finished implements among the artefacts, including function of the implements and what they indicate about how the makers lived; • Patterns in spatial and chronological distributions of the artefacts within the site; • Age of the site; and • Archaeological research potential and significance of the site.

These aims will be achieved through analysis of raw material type, core-flake ratio, utilisation, secondary flaking characteristics, reduction sequence, cortex percentage and formal tool/technological identification.

If considered worthwhile by the lithic specialist, use wear analysis of at least 10 % of the recovered assemblage will be undertaken using a x10 stereo microscope with an oblique light. This analysis will examine features on artefacts that may provide evidence of taphonomy or use wear. Such features may include edge wear, edge damage, abrasive striations and silica polish.

Faunal Analysis

A faunal (or archaeo-zoology) specialist will be engaged to identify and analyse shell, fish bone and animal bone recovered during excavation. The analysis will aim to determine:

28 Please note that post excavation analysis will only be undertaken if natural, and preferably undisturbed, soil profiles are identified. Several of these analyses would be ineffective when considering a disturbed soil profile. For several the pre-requisite of artefactual material being recovered will also dictate their implementation or not in this project.

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• Faunal species represented at the site; • Evidence of butchery, burning or other use of animal, shellfish or fish remains; and • Evidence of change in diet / subsistence through time.

These aims will be achieved through production of a catalogue that identifies faunal species, elements, counts, evidence of weathering, burning, butchery or alteration, for each spit. Jim Wheeler and Adam Paterson would undertake analysis of animal bone and we would engage Paul Irish to analyse shell (if required).

Conjoin Analysis

A programme of conjoin analysis (re-fitting) on a sample of artefacts would be undertaken if higher density concentrations (greater than 30 artefacts per square metre) are found during the excavation. Knapping floors and concentrations of artefacts suspected to be discrete knapping events would be analysed.

In order to undertake the conjoin analysis we may need to mark the individual stones with an individual identifier so that the provenance of each stone is retained. If required, we will use a temporary removable medium such as labelling on removable tape. If a permanent medium is required, we would seek specific approval from DECC, ADCO and the Aboriginal stakeholder groups.

Geomorphology

Dr Peter Mitchell may be engaged to analyse the soils and examine soil profiles revealed during excavation. Peter would report on site formation processes (disturbance, bioturbation etc) and their implications for the integrity of the deposits. We would also ask Peter to provide us with an interpretation of the pre-1788 landscape, hydrology and geology to provide a context for interpreting the site. This would include an identification of potential local outcropping stone sources.

Palynology

Dr Mike McPhail may be engaged to undertake an analysis of pollen (if the soil properties are considered likely to have preserved an intact pollen record) to determine the nature of pre- European vegetation across the site. This would also assist with providing a context for interpreting the results of excavation.

Radiocarbon Dating

Carbon dating of charcoal from hearths and/or shell and animal bone securely associated with cultural activity would be undertaken. The University of Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Lab would undertake the analysis.

Optically Stimulated Luminescence Dating

Samples of any sand matrix in association with archaeological material would be obtained during the excavations for possible OSL dating. Ideally, this approach would be used in

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 51 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS AHMS Section 87 Application Palais Royale, Newcastle conjunction with radiocarbon dating. AHMS are currently working closely with Prof. John Prescott of Adelaide University on other projects involving OSL, and we would continue that relationship in this project should it be required.

Residues

If finished tools with potential to retain residues relating to use are found, we may engage Dr Richard Fullagar to undertake a residue analysis to determine what types or plants or animals the individual implement may have been used to process. In combination with the use-wear analysis, this may indicate the function of the tool and provide a direct form of evidence regarding site use / functions.

Reporting

The results of investigation will be documented in an initial preliminary report immediately following excavation and a final report following completion of post-excavation analysis. Reporting will be consistent with the best practices suggested by the DECC (1997) Aboriginal Cultural Heritage Standards & Guidelines Kit.

A plain English report would be prepared for the local Aboriginal community.

6 – Project Team

Alan Williams as Excavation Director will undertake supervision of the excavation, post- excavation analysis and reporting. Depending on availability, the excavation crew will be built around the following core team:

• Alan Williams (Excavation Director); • Jim Wheeler (alternate Excavation Director); • Felicity Barry (Site Supervisor); • Laura Matarese / Sophie Brettell (Archaeologists); and • An undefined number of representatives of the local Aboriginal community (Assistants).

Preparation of preliminary and final reports documenting the results of the Aboriginal archaeological investigations at the site will be written by Alan Williams.

ABORIGINAL, HISTORIC & INDUSTRIAL HERITAGE 52 • SURVEY & ASSESSMENT • CONSERVATION PLANNING • STRUCTURAL RECORDING • EXCAVATION & ANALYSIS 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report

APPENDIX 4: GEOMORPHOLOGICAL REPORT BY GROUND TRUTH CONSULTING PTY LTD

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 Groundtruth Consulting Dr P.B. Mitchell. ABN: 66 179 449 249 P.O. Box 515, GLADESVILLE 1675 Phone: + 61 (0)2 9817 4859 [email protected]

31 August 2009

To: Archaeological and Heritage Management Solutions P/L 349 Annandale St. Annandale NSW 2038

Attn: Alan Williams Senior Archaeologist [email protected]

Geomorphology and soil materials of the Palais Royale site, Hunter Street, Newcastle.

Groundtruth Consulting was commissioned by Archaeological and Heritage Management Solutions P/L (AHMS) to examine the soil and landscape of the Palais Royale site on Hunter St., in Newcastle, NSW. Test excavations were in progress at the time of the field inspections on August 14 and 25, 2009 and the sections were discussed in the field with the archaeologists Mr Alan Williams and Ms Felicity Barry. This report replaces a draft dated 19 August, 2009.

Landscape setting, land use and soil materials on site. Examination of early survey maps show that the subject land (Lot 11, DP 872463, Parish of Newcastle, County of Northumberland) was originally located just above the high-water mark on the right bank of Cottage Creek at its junction with the Hunter River at Honeysuckle Point (Figure 1).

The original geomorphic context of the site appears to have been a sand body, probably a beach and low dune, close to the edge of the Hunter River estuary. The history of land use has been reviewed by AHMS (2008). Briefly by 1812 the land was being used as a Government Farm at the convict settlement of Kingstown. A brick- nogged cottage and possibly other buildings were on the site by that date. In the mid 19th Century a meat canning establishment occupied part of the site and by 1854/7 the coast margin was being pushed back in land reclamation projects that eventually extended the coast about 100m and the railway was constructed. In the late 19th Century the site contained an ice skating rink that later became the Western Markets and then the Palais Royale dance hall (1929). This building stood on the site until it was demolished in 2008.

Elsewhere around Newcastle coal mining and coal transport were major industries along with steelworks. Coal fragments became part of the coastal sediments and fine

1 carbon particulates washed out of the air would have accumulated in the soil over more than a century.

Figure 1. Location of the site on Hunter St in relation to the made ground from the railway to the coast and the approximate early C19 location of Cottage Creek and Honeysuckle Point.

Google Earth image with historic features drawn from early maps.

At the time of inspection the site was cleared and nearly level with the ground surface close to 2.5m ASL. Archaeological investigations revealed European building foundations along with Aboriginal stone artefacts in natural soil. Surface materials were dominated by demolition debris beneath which were stratified European sediments, disturbed original topsoil and then a natural soil profile in fine-grained quartz sand, over primary depositional layers of organic sand and gritty sand that are interpreted as estuarine beach facies. Aboriginal artefacts and weathered pebbles of local tuff were recovered from two levels in the soil and sediment and this report attempts to place these in their geomorphic context.

The entire surrounding area has been urbanized and very little trace of the original topography or natural soil is discernable except in excavations. Early maps (in AHMS 2008 and Newcastle Town Plan 1916) show that high-water mark was at the northern edge of the site and that the site was located on the broadest part of a low sand spit between Honeysuckle Point and a meander loop in the tidal reach of Cottage Creek (Figure 1). Some maps (AHMS 2008, Figure 8) hint at the presence of a low flat along the creek that was probably tidal and covered in salt marsh. A few mangroves may have been present but the density of these was probably much less during the 19th Century than in the river today. The name Honeysuckle Point would have referred to

2 the presence of Banksia spp., probably Banksia serrata, which is a common tree in coastal sand communities. To be useful for farming the land must have been well drained and readily tilled, although coastal sand deposits are not very fertile.

Soil Landscape mapping by Matthei (1995) noted the general extent of site disturbance and placed the area in the Hamilton Soil Landscape, which has well- drained podzols on Quaternary sand. The type profiles described include a bleached A2-horizon over brown to orange soft pans. Such a description is consistent with a relatively young profile (mid-Holocene) as expected in a body of coastal sand and this would normally be described as having been emplaced when post-glacial sea level reached its present level between 6,000 and 7,000 years ago. None of the descriptions note the presence of indurated pans or ‘coffee rock’. Sequential development of podzol profiles in coastal sand bodies have been described by several authors such as Bowman (1989) who provides the best-dated sequence in New South Wales and the profiles on this site are consistent with his descriptions. In the field however there are features in the trenches that raise questions about the details of this interpretation.

Field descriptions At the time of the field inspections there were two open trenches and a small pit with the following features:

Trench 1 A trench 2x1m adjacent to a large concrete foundation block approximately in the centre of the site (Figure 2). 0-17cm. European fill of brick rubble, ash and charcoal, and scattered estuarine shells in dark fine sand. Sharp boundary to:

17-26cm. Disturbed original topsoil of brownish grey 10YR4/1d loamy sand with European debris. Abundant earthworm fills to 3mm diameter. A section on the south face of the pit suggests that this material may have been cultivated. Clear to:

26-29cm. Concentration of charcoal fragments on top of undisturbed topsoil probably burnt wood from original land clearing (circa 1802/4) at about the maximum depth of former cultivation.

29-40cm. Well bioturbated sand with colour becoming lighter and merging into the bleached A2-horizon below. Prominent infilled burrows of rodents or lizards 7x4cm and 4 cm diameter (Figure 2).

45-110cm. Bleached A2-horizon, light grey 7.5YR8/1d, clean fine sand. The material is so uniform that no mixing by organisms is evident but burrow patterns in the layers above and below show that it must have occurred. Gradual to:

110-120cm+. Greyish brown colour pan, soft, moist and uncemented. Bioturbation again evident.

In the centre of the face is a column of dull orange 7.5YR7/3m weakly cemented sand with a 1mm thick layer of slightly clayey sand surrounding it.

Figure 2. Trench 1 showing layer of charcoal from early C19 land clearing, large infilled burrows and central pinnacle of cemented sand. Depth of the pit approximately 120cm.

The scattered estuarine shells on and near the surface are species (including Pyrazus sp.) that were used for food by Aboriginal people but they are also found in dredge spoil. The origin of these shells is unclear and the quantity involved is very small.

Trench 2 The main archaeological trench 3m wide with the final length expected to be 14m, located in the southeast corner of the site and oriented parallel to Steel Street. The soil materials along the trench can be traced through all excavation squares. A representative profile in A7 (Figure 3) was: 0-12cm. Concrete slab.

12-20cm. Plaster rubble.

20-27cm. Charcoal and ash from a building fire.

27-47cm. Multi-layered sand with European debris, and occasional estuarine shells, extensively disturbed topsoil.

47-52cm Brownish black 10YR3/1m organic fine sand original A1-horizon, clear to:

52-93cm. Dull yellow orange 10YR7/3m bleached A2-horizon of single grained fine sand. Gradual shift in colour with depth and little evidence of bioturbation but extensive burrow patterns above and below this unit indicate that it has occurred.

93-140cm. Colour B-horizon, dull yellowish brown 10YR5/4m uncemented single grained sand. Aboriginal artefacts are found in this material along with rounded and moderately weathered pebbles of local tuff or siltstone up to 5cm in diameter. At the northern end of the trench scattered polished pebbles to 1cm in diameter are found. Pebble concentration is too low to identify any primary bedding. Occasional rounded lumps to 5cm of cemented, brown 7.5YR4/3m to very dark brown 7.5YR2/3, ‘coffee rock’ pan occurs in the sand

4 matrix. These do not appear to have formed in place but have been transported a short distance.

A charcoal sample taken from the top of the colour B-horizon gave a radiocarbon date of >48,000 years (Williams pers com). This date is totally inconsistent with all geomorphic and pedologic evidence that firmly places the site as a mid-Holocene feature and contamination of the sample by Permian coal or atmospheric fallout of coal combustion products from smelters elsewhere in Newcastle is suspected.

Figures 3 and 4. Left: Profile in square A7, Trench 2. European debris above the board. Disturbed and undisturbed topsoil below the board merging into a bleached A2-horizon and then a colour B-horizon. Depth of the pit about 140cm. Right: Extension of the profile in a pit at the base of the trench in square B4. 1. = Base of the B2-horizon pan in dune sand. 2. = Organic fine sand that is partly floating load strand line containing weathered and sub-rounded coal fragments probably deposited on the edge of Cottage Creek. 3. Mottled clean sand with faint bedding. 4. Bedded clean fine sand. 5. Slightly clayey grit and gravel with a fine sand matrix, stormwave or wash-over deposit. 6. Level of standing groundwater.

5 Test pit at B14. A small diameter pit 145cm deep was located at approximately B14 on the grid of Trench 2. The base of this pit was inaccessible and it could only be viewed from above therefore the following description may be incomplete.

The upper parts of the profile are essentially the same as in Trench 2 but it differs at the base:

105-130cm. Fine quartz sand containing granules and fine pebbles (1-12mm diameter, mean size about 4mm) in dull yellowish brown 10YR5/4m fine sand. Rounded quartz grains are common, larger grains of weathered tuff or siltstone have a prominent surface coat of very dark brown 7.5YR2/3, ‘coffee rock’ pan. Only 5% of this unit is coarse grained but the fretted and drying face of the pit reveals these to be discrete layers. The top of this unit has an elevation of 1.14m ASL. This is the same material as level 5 in B4 (Figure 4) where the top of it has an elevation of 0.60m ASL confirming the visual impression that the deeper sediments dip gently toward Cottage Creek.

130-145cm+. Dark brown, cemented ‘coffee rock’ pan, not examined closely but it appears to have an unconformable relationship to the gravel above. Assuming that this relationship is confirmed when the trench is fully excavated and the section visible then it is an important feature indicating that a body of dune sand with a strong podzol profile existed on the site prior to the emplacement of the present sand body. ‘Coffee rock’ is usually taken to indicate a Pleistocene age for the sediment and that older soil/sediment may have contained older Aboriginal artefacts.

The fine gravel layer was interpreted as a beach facies and therefore three additional 1x1m pits were excavated in the floor of Trench 2 to the water table. The profile in square B4 (Figure 4) was:

140cm. Base of the main trench

Level 1 in Figure 4. 140-165cm. Base of the B2-horizon soft pan in dune sand. Sharp boundary to:

Level 2 in Figure 4. 165-170cm. Dark organic sand with occasional granules to 5mm and abundant fragments of weathered and sub-rounded black coal. Some charcoal and fine plant roots are present Interpreted as a floating load strand line that was probably deposited on the edge of Cottage Creek during high water conditions. Clear to:

Level 3 in Figure 4. 170 to 180/185cm. Mottled clean sand with faint bedding.

Level 4 in Figure 4. 180/185 to 200+cm. Bedded fine clean sand.

6 Level 5 in Figure 4. 200-240cm+. Slightly clayey grit and gravel with a fine sand matrix, stormwave or wash-over beach deposit. Coring 30cm below this showed that the gravel layer continued and it was reported that it contained occasional balls of plastic clay. Individual gravel fragments were well rounded and polished but as their primary source is from Permian conglomerates this degree of rounding is not indicative of a long period of wave activity on the beach.

Level 6 in Figure 4. Level of standing groundwater at about 240cm.

Site interpretation. The sequence through Trench 2 is oriented almost at right angles to the original coastline and is estimated to be located about 30m back from the made ground beneath the railway line. The upper part of this section is a coastal sand flat or frontal sand dune that has attained a reasonable degree of soil development with a podzol profile. The profile has a topsoil horizon that originally carried trees and was suitable for cultivation. It also has a moderately developed bleached A2-horizon and a colour pan, both features being consistent with expectations of the sand body being less than 6,000 to 7,000 years old.

All the materials below Level 1 (Figure 4), that is, below the dune sand, show primary bedding and are interpreted as beach deposits. As the thickness and depth of the gravel unit increases to the south it is suggested that at least some of these sediments (Layers 2, 3, and 4) were deposited in the estuarine section of Cottage Creek rather than the Hunter River. The origin of the gravel layer (Layer 5) is more difficult to be certain of and three suggestions are put forward with the first being the most likely.

1. Layer 5 is best interpreted as a primary beach deposit concentrated by higher energy waves and as it contains artefacts these may have been derived from a pre-existing (Pleistocene) occupied dune. In the pit at square B14 the gravels appear to unconformably overlie cemented ‘coffee rock’ pan. This point should be confirmed when the trench is fully excavated. The fact that a few isolated pieces of ‘coffee rock’ pan were observed higher in the soil profile within the colour pan also suggest that there has been some reworking of an older profile.

2. Layer 5 may have been created during a period in the mid-Holocene when sea level on the East Coast was slightly higher than present (Young et al., 1993, Baker et al., 2001, Haworth et al., 2002, Lambeck 2002, Sloss et al., 2007. and others). Or it may have been formed by a single large event such as a big storm, or a tsunami washover. On the present evidence it is not possible to differentiate these formative causes and the last possibility cannot be excluded as Young et al., (1993) suggested that the central coast of NSW is likely to have been impacted by up to three tsunami events in the past 3,000 years. It should be noted however that not all workers agree with the interpretation of the evidence presented by those authors and in this case the gravel feature is not in itself proof of such an event.

3. It was suggested that Layer 5 could be coarse material concentrated as a lag in the hollow of a deflation surface (blowout) in the possible Pleistocene dune.

Trench 2 is reported to contain two separate concentrations of Aboriginal artefacts. Those found in the bleached A2-horizon of the dune are considered to be an accumulation of young artefacts originally deposited on the soil surface and lowered to their present position by bioturbation (see Johnson 1989, 2002, and Dean-Jones and Mitchell 1993 for discussion of the mechanisms involved). Those found in the beach gravel (Layer 5) are probably reworked from their original place of deposition and they must be older and may be significantly older than those above them. Many of these artefacts are stained by pan material but they do not show much evidence of abrasion suggesting that they were deposited within the gravel after being eroded from the ‘coffee rock’ pan of the postulated older dune. A critical question then becomes what is the best way to date these materials and concentrations of artefacts?

The younger artefacts in the dune sand are vertically displaced from their original point of discard but they may have conjoins and retain evidence of site patterning such as knapping floors. The dune material does contain charcoal and shell that could be used for dating but as noted above the first radiocarbon date returned from this section is beyond the detection limits of 14C and is totally inconsistent with the geomorphology and pedology of the site. Contamination by coal or coal combustion products is thought to have occurred. Any other samples of ‘charcoal’ collected for radiocarbon dating should be inspected carefully with a binocular microscope before submission for dating. The entire sand body above level 2 Figure 4 has been extensively bioturbated therefore any luminescence date obtained from it will be of low quality because any sample is likely to include both older and younger grains.

In the deeper sediments (Layers 2 to 5, Figure 4) luminescence dating will be more reliable as these materials retain original bedding and have not been visibly bioturbated. Layer 2 contains charcoal but it is mixed with weathered coal fragments and it may be difficult to separate charcoal from coal sufficiently well to get an uncontaminated sample. The archaeologists noted shell fragments in Layers 2 and 5, and if a sufficient quantity of these can be found they could also be dated.

Conclusions. The Palais Royale site contains two concentrations of Aboriginal artefacts in a complex sediment/soil sequence. It is postulated that the geomorphic history of the site is as follows:

1. Accumulation of dune sand sometime in the Pleistocene in which a well developed podzol soil profile formed containing a strong ‘coffee rock’ pan.

2. Aboriginal people camped on this dune and left artefacts behind.

3. The dune was eroded down to or below the level of layer 5, Figure 4, probably by a mid-Holocene higher sea level, or storm events of about the same age. Artefacts in the original dune became included in the gravel beach deposit of layer 5.

8 4. Strand line sediments containing a floating load of weathered coal and some charcoal (level 2, Figure 4) accumulated with bedded fine sand on the beach facing Cottage Creek.

5. New sand built up on the beach gravels as a sand sheet or low dune formed. This sand included detached clasts of ‘coffee rock’ pan from the original dune and in time a new podzol soil profile developed in it. This profile has the hallmarks of being no older than mid-Holocene.

6. The new land surface became stabilised and was occupied by Aboriginal people who deposited the upper layer of artefacts that have subsequently been moved lower into the soil profile by ongoing bioturbation.

In view of the apparent contamination of the first dated sample it is recommended that any further dating should use luminescence techniques rather than radiocarbon unless suitable shell samples can be obtained.

It is recommended that AHMS should provide copies of this report to their client, to the Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water, and to all participating Aboriginal groups.

Dr P.B. Mitchell

References. Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd 2008. Former Palais Royale site, Newcastle, research design. Report to: Yum! Restaurants Australia. 62pp.

Baker, R.G.V., Haworth, R.J. and Flood, P.G. 2001.Inter-tidal fixed indicators of former Holocene sea levels in Australia: a summary of sites and a review of methods and models. Quaternary International 83–85: 257–273

Bowman, G.M. 1989. Podzol development in a Holocene chronosequence. I. Moruya Heads, New South Wales. Aust. J. Soil Res. 27: 607-628

Dean-Jones, P. and Mitchell, P.B. 1993. Hunter Valley Aboriginal sites assessment project. Environmental modelling for archaeological site potential in the central lowlands of the Hunter Valley. Report to NPWS. 84p

Haworth, R. J., Baker, R. G. V. and Flood, P. G. 2002. Predicted and observed Holocene sea-levels on the Australian coast: what do they indicate about hydro- isostatic models in far-field sites? J. Quaternary Sci., 17: 581–591

9 Johnson, D.L. 1989. Subsurface stone lines, stone zones, manuport layers, and biomantles produced via pocket gophers (Thomomys bottae). American Antiquity. 54: 370-389.

Johnson, D.L. 2002. Darwin would be proud: Bioturbation, dynamic denudation, and the power of theory in science. Geoarchaeology (Special Issue: Site Formation Processes in Regional Perspective: Part I.) Vol. 17(1): 7-40

Lambeck, K. (2002), Sea level change from mid-Holocene to recent time: an Australian example with global implications. Ice Sheets, Sea Level and the Dynamic Earth, Geodynamics Series 29, American Geophysical Union, 33-50.

Matthei, L. 1995. Newcastle Soil Landscape Series. Sheet 9232. Soil Conservation Service. NSW

Newcastle Town Plan 1916. Department of Lands Plan Number 10855601

Sloss, C.R., Murray-Wallace, C.V. and Jones, B.G. (2007). Holocene sea-level change on the southeast coast of Australia: a review. The Holocene, 17 (7), 999-1014.

Young, R.W., Bryant, E.A., Price, D.M., Wirth, L.M. and Pease, M., 1993. Theoretical constraints and chronological evidence of Holocene coastal development in central and southern New South Wales, Australia. Geomorphology, 7: 317-329.

10 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report

APPENDIX 5: RADIOCARBON DATA (UNIVERSITY OF WAIKATO) AND OSL DATA (UNIVERSITY OF ADELAIDE)

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011 The University of Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory

Private Bag 3105 Hamilton, New Zealand. Fax +64 7 838 4192 Ph +64 7 838 4278 email [email protected] Head: Dr Alan Hogg

Report on Radiocarbon Age Determination for Wk- 26883 ( AMS measurement )

Submitter A.N. Williams Submitter's Code Sq. B3, sample 3 Site & Location Palais Royale, Hunter Street, Newcastle, NSW, Australia

Sample Material Charcoal Physical Pretreatment Sample cleaned.

Chemical Pretreatment Sample washed in hot HCl, rinsed and treated with multiple hot NaOH washes. The NaOH insoluble fraction was treated with hot HCl, ﬁltered, rinsed and dried.

δ13C -24.2 ± 0.2 ‰ D14C -514.9 ± 1.3 ‰ F 14 C% 48.5 ± 0.1 % Result 5812 ± 31 BP

Comments

12/1/10

• Result is Conventional Age or Percent Modern Carbon (pMC) following Stuiver and Polach, 1977, Radiocarbon 19, 355-363. This is based on the Libby half-life of 5568 yr with correction for isotopic fractionation applied. This age is normally quoted in publications and must include the appropriate error term and Wk number.

• Quoted errors are 1 standard deviation due to counting statistics multiplied by an experimentally determined Laboratory Error Multiplier.

• The isotopic fractionation, δ 13 C , is expressed as ‰ wrt PDB.

• F 14 C% is also known asPercent pMC (percentModern Carbonmodern (pMC)carbon). The University of Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory

Private Bag 3105 Hamilton, New Zealand. Fax +64 7 838 4192 Ph +64 7 838 4278 email [email protected] Head: Dr Alan Hogg

Report on Radiocarbon Age Determination for Wk- 26882 ( AMS measurement )

Submitter A.N. Williams Submitter's Code B12 spit 3, sample 4 Site & Location Palais Royale, Hunter Street, Newcastle, NSW, Australia

Sample Material Charcoal Physical Pretreatment Sample cleaned.

Chemical Pretreatment Sample washed in hot HCl, rinsed and treated with multiple hot NaOH washes. The NaOH insoluble fraction was treated with hot HCl, ﬁltered, rinsed and dried.

δ13C -24.2 ± 0.2 ‰ D14C -225.7 ± 2.0 ‰ F 14 C% 77.4 ± 0.2 % Result 2055 ± 30 BP

Comments

12/1/10

• Quoted errors are 1 standard deviation due to counting statistics multiplied by an experimentally determined Laboratory Error Multiplier.

• The isotopic fractionation, δ 13 C , is expressed as ‰ wrt PDB.

• F 14 C% is also known asPercent pMC (percentModern Carbonmodern (pMC)carbon). The University of Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory

Private Bag 3105 Hamilton, New Zealand. Fax +64 7 838 4192 Ph +64 7 838 4278 email [email protected] Head: Dr Alan Hogg

Report on Radiocarbon Age Determination for Wk- 26328

Submitter A.N. Williams Submitter's Code B5 - NE charcoal sample Site & Location Dunal deposits located on Hunter Street, Newcastle, NSW, Australia , Australia

Sample Material Large piece of charcoal found in the base of an archaeological test pit. More in Physical Pretreatment Possible contaminants were removed. Washed in ultrasonic bath.

Chemical Pretreatment Sample washed in hot 10% HCl, rinsed and treated with hot 1% NaOH. The NaOH insoluble fraction was treated with hot 10% HCl, filtered, rinsed and dried.

13 δ C -25.1 ± 0.2 ‰ 14 D C -997.7 ± 0.6 ‰ 14 F C% 0.2 ± 0.1 %

Result 48,660 ± 2324 BP

Comments

28/8/09

• Result is Conventional Age or % Modern as per Stuiver and Polach, 1977, Radiocarbon 19, 355-363. This is based on the Libby half-life of 5568 yr with correction for isotopic fractionation applied. This age is normally quoted in publications and must include the appropriate error term and Wk number.

• Quoted errors are 1 standard deviation due to counting statistics multiplied by an experimentally determined Laboratory Error Multiplier.

• The isotopic fractionation, δ 13 C , is expressed as ‰ wrt PDB.

• F14 C% is also known as pMC (percent modern carbon). The University of Waikato Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory

Private Bag 3105 Hamilton, New Zealand. Fax +64 7 838 4192 Ph +64 7 838 4278 email [email protected] Head: Dr Alan Hogg

Report on Radiocarbon Age Determination for Wk- 26346

Submitter A.N. Williams Submitter's Code Palais Royale - Sq. A6, spit 4 Site & Location Corner of hunter and steel street, Newcastle, NSW, Australia, Australia

Sample Material Charcoal Physical Pretreatment Possible contaminants were removed. Washed in ultrasonic bath.

Chemical Pretreatment Sample washed in hot 10% HCl, rinsed and treated with hot 1% NaOH. The NaOH insoluble fraction was treated with hot 10% HCl, ﬁltered, rinsed and dried.

δ13C -24.9 ± 0.2 ‰ D14C -993.5 ± 1.2 ‰ F 14 C% 0.7 ± 0.1 % Result 40,425 ± 1604 BP

Comments

18/9/09

• Quoted errors are 1 standard deviation due to counting statistics multiplied by an experimentally determined Laboratory Error Multiplier.

• The isotopic fractionation, δ 13 C , is expressed as ‰ wrt PDB.

• F 14 C% is also known asPercent pMC (percentModern Carbonmodern (pMC)carbon).

REPORT ON OPTICALLY STIMULATED LUMINESCENCE (OSL) DATING OF SAMPLES FROM PALAIS ROYALE, NSW

Frances Williams

Environmental Luminescence School of Chemistry and Physics University of Adelaide

22nd March 2010

1. Introduction

Five samples were provided for analysis. They had been collected from Palais Royale site, Newcastle, NSW, by Alan Williams of Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd.

The sample numbers and corresponding laboratory record numbers are shown in Table 1.

The laboratory record numbers should be quoted in any publication of this data.

2. Sample preparation

The samples were prepared using standard procedures, summarised as follows. A 10% solution of hydrochloric acid was used to digest carbonates, followed by treatment with sodium hydroxide solution to break up clay aggregates and remove any small amounts of organic material. Grains in the range 150 – 250 μm were selected by sieving and etched for 40 minutes in 40% hydrogen fluoride to remove feldspar and other non- quartz material, and to remove the outer 9 μm of the quartz grains. This eliminates the effect of alpha particle contribution to the irradiation of the grains. The material was then re-sieved at 125 – 180 μm to remove any remaining feldspar particles, washed in warm 10% hydrochloric acid to remove fluorides and floated in 2.67 gm/cc lithium polytungstate to remove heavy minerals.

An adequate quantity of quartz grains in the selected size range was obtained from all five samples.

3. Determination of environmental dose rates.

U, Th and K concentrations for samples AWOSL1, AWOSL2 and AWOSL3 were measured in the field by Dr Nigel Spooner using gamma spectrometry. The same nuclide concentrations were measured for all the samples by Genalysis Laboratories using ICPAES (Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy) for U and Th and ICPMS (Inductively Couples Plasma Mass Spectrometry) for K.

Water content of the material as received was measured by weighing, drying overnight at 125ºC, and re-weighing. The water content is shown in Table 1 as % of dry weight. Possible variations in the water content during the depositional history of the sample may affect this value. It should be noted that an increase of 1% in water content results in an increase of approximately 1% in the measured age.

The cosmic ray contribution was obtained using the relationship between cosmic ray penetration, depth and latitude determined by Prescott and Hutton (1994).

Nuclide concentrations, water content and cosmic ray contributions are shown in Table 1, together with the calculated dose rates.

4.Luminescence measurements

Luminescence measurements were carried out using the RisǾ TL/OSL reader in the School of Chemistry and Physics, University of Adelaide,.. Radiation was applied using a 90Sr/90Y β source, luminescence was provided using blue light-emitting diodes of wavelength 470 nm and detected using a EMI 9236QB photomultiplier and U340 filter.

24 (20 in the case of AWOSL2) small aliquots, each containing 50 to 100 grains, were run for each sample using the Single Aliquot Regeneration (SAR) protocol devised by Murray and Wintle (2000). This procedure enables the equivalent dose (ED), which is equal to the total dose received by the material during burial, to be determined. Four regeneration points were used, plus a repeat of the first point to test for acceptable recycling and a zero point to test for recuperation. A final irradiation followed by a preheat and shinedown under Infra-Red light was used to confirm the absence of feldspar.

5. Analysis of the results

All the aliquots produced measurable luminescence, a smooth exponential regeneration curve, recuperation less than 10% and a recycling ratio of 85% or higher. All were therefore used in the final analyses.

The measured EDs of the 24 (20 for AWOSL2) aliquots were plotted for each sample in the form of a weighted histogram (also referred to as a probably density plot) (Figure 1). Each of the plots showed a distinct peak, followed by a “tail” of higher values. This pattern was particularly pronounced for samples AWOSL1, AWOSL2 and AWOSL3. It implies that a proportion of the grains making up the sample were not fully bleached at burial. The method described by Prescott et al (2007) was used to determine the mean ED of the most thoroughly bleached material. Essentially, this method assumes that the ED distribution of fully bleached grains will be approximately Gaussian. Hence, larger ED values are progressively removed from the distribution until an approximately Gaussian distribution is obtained. Figure 1 illustrates the result of this process. In the case of AWOSL4 a spurious low value was also removed. The histogram for AWOSL5 showed a two-humped peak. This could be real, or simply a function of limited aliquot numbers (i.e. if further aliquots were measured the peaks might merge). The weighted average of the two-peaked distribution was used in the ED calculation. Figure 1 shows in addition an alternative interpretation based on using the lower peak only. This would make only a very small difference to the weighted mean ED, within the measurement uncertainty.

The weighted mean EDs of the resulting distributions are shown on Figure 1 and in Table 1.

Ages were determined by dividing the equivalent doses by the dose rates.

Where two methods had been used to determine the environmental dose rates, these were found to be agreement within the error limits. The weighted average of the two values was therefore used in the age determination.

6. Summary

The OSL ages of the samples are given in Table 1 and are as follows (to 2 significant figures):

AWOSL1 3.1 ± 0.2 Ka AWOSL2 3.4 ± 0.2 Ka AWOSL3 2.1 ± 0.2 Ka AWOSL4 2.8 ± 0.3 Ka AWOSL5 3.0 ± 0.2 Ka

7. Comment

The ages of all five samples are very similar; AWOSL1, AWOSL2, AWOSL4 and AWOSL5 being within measurement error of each other. AWOSL3 is an exception. Although it has a similar ED to the others, the contents of U, Th and K are much higher (more than double in the case of U and Th), giving a high overall dose rate and accounting for the significantly younger measured age. The water content of this sample is also high. It appears that this horizon might have accumulated extra U and Th late in its history. In order to determine whether this is the case it would be necessary to carry out further investigations to test whether radioactive disequilibrium is present.

7. References

Prescott, J.R., Hutton, J.T., 1994. Cosmic ray contribution to dose rates for luminescence and ESR dating: large depths and long-term variations. Radiation Measurements, 23, 497-500.

Murray, A.S., Wintle, A.G., 2000. Luminescence dating of quartz using an improved single-aliquot regenerative dose protocol. Radiation Measurements, 32, 57-73.

Prescott, J.R., Williams, F.M., Hunt, C.D., 2007. Comparison of TL multiple aliquot, single grain GLSL SAR and C-14 ages for the Puritjarra, Australia, rock shelter. Quaternary Geochronology, 2, 344-349. Figure 1. Probability density plots for AWOSL samples. Left-hand side: all aliquots; right-hand side: aliquots selected as explained in text. ED is the weighted average value.

N = 24 Mean = 15.1± 4.85 N = 18 Mean = 15.5± 1.21 AWOSL1 N = 24 Mean = 15.1± 4.85 N = 18 Mean = 15ED.5± 1.21 15.5 ± 1.2 sec 2.12 ± 0.17 Gy Rel. Prob. Rel. Rel. Prob. Rel. Rel. Prob. Rel. Rel. Prob. Rel.

12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0

12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0 Equivalent Dose 0.0 50.0 100.0 150.0

Equivalent Dose Less bottom 2 and top 4 Equivalent Dose

AWOSL2 N = 20 Mean = 17.2± 6.14 N = 10 Mean = 15.7± 0.51ED 15.7 ± 0.5 sec 2.33 ± 0.13 Gy Rel. Prob. Rel. Rel. Prob.

12.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0

0.0 40.0 80.0 Equivalent Dose

Equivalent Dose Less top 10

AWOSL3 N = 24 Mean = 19.2± 7.43 N = 14 Mean = 17.1± 0.97ED 17.1± 1.0 sec 2.32 ± 0.16 Gy Rel. Prob. Rel. Rel. Prob.

12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0

0.0 40.0 80.0 120.0 Equivalent Dose

Equivalent Dose Less top 10

AWOSLB4 N = 24 Mean = 14.1± 1.52 N = 21 Mean = 14.0± 1.29ED 14.0± 1.3 sec 1.91 ± 0.18 Gy Rel. Prob. Rel. Rel. Prob.

8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0

0.0 20.0 40.0 Equivalent Dose

Equivalent Dose Less top 1, bottom 1 and 1 with poor recycle and big error

AWOSLB5 N = 24 Mean = 17.6± 1.48 N = 23 Mean = 17.5± 1.34 N = 12 Mean = 16.4± 0.77 Rel. Prob. Rel. Rel. Prob.

8.0 12.0 16.0 20.0 24.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0

Equivalent Dose Equivalent Dose ED 16.4± 0.8 sec 10.0 20.0 30.0 ED 17.5± 1.3 se 2.23 Gy

Equivalent Dose 2.38 ± 0.21 Gy Less top 12: first peak only Less top 1 Table 1. Dose rates: Palais Royale

Sample Laboratory Dose rate U content Th content K content gamma H2O depth cosmic ray Total dose Mean dose no measurement dose rate content contribution rate rate method ppm ppm % Gy/Ka % m Gy/Ka Gy/Ka Gy/ka

AWOSL1 AdBL10001 FGS 0.53 ± 0.07 1.90 ± 0.13 0.282 ± 0.010 0.224 ± 0.005 3.4 ± 0.3 0.6 0.195 ± 0.020 0.724 ± 0.024 0.695 ± 0.023 ICPAES/MS 0.46 ± 0.01 1.82 ± 0.06 0.256 ± 0.002 n/a 0.665 ± 0.021

AWOSL2 AdBL10002 FGS 0.44 ± 0.07 1.99 ± 0.13 0.312 ± 0.012 0.227 ± 0.005 5.3 ± 0.5 0.96 0.188 ± 0.019 0.724 ± 0.024 0.690 ± 0.022 ICPAES/MS 0.41 ± 0.01 1.60 ± 0.05 0.292 ± 0.002 n/a 0.655 ± 0.020

AWOSL3 AdBL09011 FGS 1.05 ± 0.11 5.13 ± 0.20 0.351 ± 0.015 0.442 ± 0.010 12.1 ± 1.2 1.72 0.174 ± 0.017 1.058 ± 0.028 1.092 ± 0.028 ICPAES/MS 1.11 ± 0.02 5.43 ± 0.18 0.449 ± 0.004 n/a 1.126 ± 0.027

AWOSL4 AdBL10003 ICPAES/MS 0.40 ± 0.01 1.90 ± 0.07 0.318 ± 0.002 n/a 3.6 ± 0.4 1.65 0.175 ± 0.017 0.694 ± 0.019 0.694 ± 0.019

AWOSL5 AdBL10004 ICPAES/MS 0.47 ± 0.01 2.00 ± 0.07 0.324 ± 0.003 n/a 4.4 ± 0.4 0.45 0.198 ± 0.020 0.741 ± 0.022 0.741 ± 0.022 684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report

APPENDIX 6: EXCAVATION AND SECTION DRAWINGS

Archaeological & Heritage Management Solutions Pty Ltd May 2011

684 Hunter Street, Newcastle - Section 87/90 #1098622 AHIP Excavation Report

APPENDIX 7: LITHIC ANALYSIS BY FELICITY BARRY

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Stone Artefact Report Appendix

Introduction

This report provides an analysis of stone artefacts recovered during a salvage excavation of a site (#38-4-0831) located at 684 Hunter Street, in the Newcastle Central Business District (CBD). It is also known as the Palais Royale after an historical building which was once located at this site (PR09). The test excavation occurred in August and September 2009.

The results of this investigation should be read in conjunction with an Excavation Report prepared for SBA Architects Pty Ltd on behalf of Yum! Restaurants and an Archaeological Research Design and Methodology prepared AHMS in 20091. This report forms an Appendix of the Excavation Report. Research Questions

The following research questions were posed by the AHMS Research Design and have been used to structure this stone arefact report. A summary of this report has been used in the main body of the AHMS Excavation Report for the PR09 site. This document provides all tables referenced in the summary in addition to further investigation and discussion of results.

1. How long did Aboriginal people use the site?

2. What stone materials were used and where did they come from?

3. What types of artefacts were produced and what were they used for?

4. What activities did Aboriginal groups carry out at the site in the past and is there any relationship between site function(s) and the local distribution of natural resources? Was there a wide range of activities or a very limited range of activities, and what does this tell us about site function(s) in the past?

5. What was the nature of occupation – was it repeated over time (i.e. overlapping events) or individual discrete events? What can we learn about the use and arrangement of space within the site?

1 AHMS 2009c

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6. How does the study area compare to other Aboriginal sites excavated in the local area and the results of open-area excavations in Newcastle and the surrounding region?

Is there any evidence of a contact period Aboriginal site described by Threlkeld when he visited the Convict Commandants cottage in 1825, and if present, what does the evidence indication about Aboriginal lifestyle and acculturation during the early 19th century?

Artefact Analysis Methodology

The artefacts were cleaned, individually analysed and entered into the software program ‘Entrer’ (E4) loaded with a configuration file written for this specific purpose. This program prompts the user to record all relevant attributes through a series of menus based on the artefact type2. This enables a comprehensive typological, technological and metrical analysis of the assemblage. Analysis was aided by the use of a 10x hand lens and measurements were made in millimetres to one decimal place using a standard digital vernier calliper. The data was then stored and analysed using a relational database, Microsoft Access, and Microsoft Excel (Appendix A). A definition of the terms used for the artefact types and their attributes can be found in Appendix A of this report with a technological flow chart of artefact types employed in Appendix B.

Conjoining (or refitting artefacts) is often undertaken on large samples of artefacts usually found together in dense concentrations3. Conjoin analysis can be used to identify the following trends in an assemblage including4:

 Evidence of post depositional disturbance (both vertical and horizontal movement of artefacts;  Identification of distinct activities (e.g. removal of elongated flakes or blades for tool manufacture) and links between different activity (flaking) areas;  Understanding the geomorphology of a site with a complex depositional history (i.e. the site has complex site formation processes);  Combining the spatial distributions of refitted artefacts can assist in site interpretation e.g. evidence for multiple vs. single occupations, intra-site

2 McPherron & Holdaway 1996 3 As seen in Cooper & Qui 2006; Marks and Volkman 1987; Delagnes and Roche 2005; Petragalia 1992; Jodry 1992; Wyckoff 1992 identified a much smaller sample (157 artefacts) to conjoin, however it was identified as a specific cache (or density). 4 Marks and Volkman 1987:11 and Hofman 1981: 691

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activities, the presence of particular activities (flaking) areas and palimpsests (i.e. more than one occupation);  Identification of stone reduction processes (otherwise known as core reduction strategies); including the identification of tools made but missing from the sample (i.e. removed for ongoing use);  Identification of recycling and reworking of tools including morphological variation (i.e. where a tool (usually broken) has been modified through reworking or maintenance to increase the usefulness of the tool;

Conjoining analyses tend to focus on refitting flakes back to the core they were detached from. This has been compared to refitting a 3-dimensional puzzle5. The premise underlying this method is that the artefacts will reattach to the core in the manner they were removed. This is achieved by using the artefact’s characteristics such as raw material types, the location and type of cortex (if present) on the artefacts, the colour and raw material qualities (e.g. grain size and fracture patterns in the stone).

The research design stated that conjoin analysis would be undertaken where 30 or more artefacts were recovered per square metre6. The conjoin analysis was limited to squares containing artefacts with similar attributes such as raw material type, colour, grain size and texture, and size. Due to wear seen on artefacts throughout the assemblage the conjoin investigations found that tuff 1 and other materials such as silcrete were best to attempt this analysis which essentially limited the analyses to the upper levels (i.e. 1-4) throughout the assemblage. Authorship

The artefact analysis and reporting was undertaken by Felicity Barry (AHMS). It was peer reviewed by Dr. Trudy Doelman and Alan Williams (AHMS). General Composition

 A total of 5534 stone artefacts including tuff manuports were recovered from the excavation at the PR09 site (Tables 1 and 15);

 The total amount excavated equaled 48m2 with a total of 551m3 overall. The overall density within the excavated area was 115.3 artefacts per square metre.

 The unstratified artefacts recovered from each of the three columns totaled 6.2% (n=346) of the overall assemblage and will not be discussed in any further

5 Cooper and Qui 2006: 987 6 AHMS 2009c

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detail in this analysis. Discounting the unstratified artefacts, the assemblage totaled 5188 stone artefacts (Table 1).

 The minimum number of flakes (MNF) determined at the PR09 site was 2207, which equates to some 39.9% of the entire assemblage. This indicates that flakes were likely manufactured at PR09.

 Correlations between levels excavated in each of the three Columns (A, B and C) have meant some modification of the spits recorded was necessary in the analysis. This has generally been resolved by the following:

1) removing spits 1 and 2 from Column B for Rows 1 through to 5, meaning spit 3 in Column B Rows 1-5 equals spit 2 in Columns A, Rows 1 through 5. It also equals Column C1 spit 1, Column C2 to C4 spit 2 and Column C5, spit 3;

2) removing spits 1, 2 and 3 from Column B for Rows 6 through 8, meaning spit 4 in Column B6 equals spit 1 in A6 and spit 2 in C6. Column B7 equals spit 1 in A7 and spit 2 in C7.

3) Removing spits 1, 2 and 3 from Column B8 meaning spit 4 in B8 equals spit 2 in Column A8 and spit 1 in Column C8;

4) Removing spit 1 from Column A9 through to A11 meaning spit 2 in A9-A11 equals spit 1 in B9-B10 and spit 2 in B11; spit 2 in Columns A9-A11 also equals spit 1 in Columns C9 and C11 and spit 2 in Column C10;

5) Removing spit 1 from Column C12 through to C14 meaning spit 2 in C12 – C14 equals spit 1 in Columns B12-B14 and spit 1 in A12-A14;

6) Removing spits 1, 2 and 3 from Column C15, meaning spit 4 in C15 equals spit 1 in Column A15 and spit 1 in Column B15.

 The following layers were then considered in the analysis, particularly the spatial and chronological analyses.

C001 – Historic Fill C002 – A1 horizon (Sandy brown dune) shown dark brown C003 – A2 horizon (Sandy brown dune) shown light brown/yellow C004 – Strand Line deposits shown green C005 – Beach deposits shown blue C006 – post depositional modification to soil profile shown orange C007 – gravels possibly from an earlier dune shown purple C008 – unidentified context in the analysis

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Table 1. Location of excavated artefacts

Row A Count % Row B Count % Row C Count % UNSTRAT UNSTRAT UNSTRAT A 77 1.4 B 130 2.3 C 72 1.3 A1 75 1.4 B1 62 1.1 C1 16 0.3 A2 22 0.4 B2 61 1.1 C2 39 0.7 A3 43 0.8 B3 317 5.7 C3 57 1.0 A4 46 0.8 B4 88 1.6 C4 28 0.5 A5 28 0.5 B5 36 0.7 C5 17 0.3 A6 42 0.8 B6 249 4.5 C6 30 0.5 A7 23 0.4 B7 46 0.8 C7 30 0.5 A8 45 0.8 B8 88 1.6 C8 53 1.0 A9 323 5.8 B9 492 8.9 C9 60 1.1 A10 140 2.5 B10 132 2.4 C10 81 1.5 A11 335 6.1 B11 379 6.8 C11 197 3.6 A12 193 3.5 B12 348 6.3 C12 220 4.0 A13 90 1.6 B13 116 2.1 C13 72 1.3 A14 57 1.0 B14 50 0.9 C14 43 0.8 A15 84 1.5 B15 17 0.3 C15 40 0.7 A16 48 0.9 B16 42 0.8 C16 88 1.6 Total A Total B Total C Assemblage 1594 28.8 Assemblage 2523 45.6 Assemblage 1071 19.4

Multiple Rows UNSTRAT 67 1.2

Total Assemblage 5534 100.0

Sources of Stone Raw Materials

In order to address the research question regarding the origin of stone raw materials at the PR09 site, raw material composition and cortex within the assemblage was investigated. This involved looking at the frequency and types of raw materials present; the frequency and presence of cortex (the type of outer stone surface present which can indicate different sources that the stone was gathered from) and the location of nearby know stone sources. Raw Material Composition

 The assemblage was dominated by tuff artefacts (n=5221, 94.3% - Table 2), however there was some differentiation in the types of tuff observed. Four categories were initially determined, which condensed to two categories according to the level of ‘wear’ observed (1 Tuff and 2 Tuff).

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 “1 Tuff” resembled a tuff (dull/dry in texture with sharp edges and colours mostly focused on grey, with some pink and yellow, however the more weathered/water-rolled version of this material was of similar colour and texture but not sharp edged and was rounded. Whereas “2 Tuff” more closely resembled a chert than tuff in appearance. It comprised a soapy often lustrous or grainy appearance with rounded edges. These categories both contained evidence of wear or water-rolling likely as a result of environmental factors.  The average size and standard deviation in maximum dimension of the two varieties of tuff were approximately equal to one another (i.e. ‘1 Tuff’ Av and stdev was 21.5 ± 13.5mm and ‘2 Tuff’ Av and Stdev was 23.4 ± 13.7mm) (Table 2). This indicates that the tuff pieces found at PR09 were of similar size. Greater variation in sizes of cobbles and material would be expected given the close proximity to local tuff sources such as Nobby’s Headland and Mereweather Beach.  There was quite a bit of variety present in the raw material types within the assemblage, although these materials were found in small frequencies (Table 2). This suggests that although Tuff was the preferred material at PR09 other materials were also present and in use.  Some limited silcrete (both fine, medium and coarse grained) was also identified within the site. The majority of this material (1.3% of silcrete, n=73) was identified in upper spits 1, 2 and 3 (Table 3).  Quartz artefacts were also present, although again in limited frequencies (0.1%, n=6) and the majority of these artefacts (0.1%, n=5) were recovered from the upper 4 spits (i.e. 1-4) (Table 4).  The 1 Tuff variety appeared to vary with depth in three main bands – upper units (spits 1-5) held the most artefacts of this variety, with middle units 10-11 holding the next highest amount and the basal units (18-20) holding the lowest frequency. This indicates that this type of Tuff varied with depth indicating a change in the use of this material over time with a preference for it in upper (or more recent) times (Table 5).  The 2 Tuff variety was also found to vary with depth, however this material appears to have been preferred at the mid-range levels (i.e. spits 10-11) (22.5%, n=349) as well as in the upper level (i.e. spits 4-7) (n=395, 25.5%) (Table 6). However the frequency of artefacts found in the lower levels (spits 18-20) (n=289, n=18.6%) was also relatively quite high. This suggests that 2 Tuff was used throughout the occupation of PR09 with episodes of increased use during more recent phases of that use (Table 6).

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Table 2. Raw Material Types in the Assemblage

Material Count % Maximum Dimension (mm) Mean Std. Dev. Fine Grained Silcrete 28 0.5 13.8 4.5 Medium Grained Silcrete 50 0.9 18.5 7.7 Coarse Grained Silcrete 7 0.1 30.2 20.8 Chalcedony 1 0.0 8.9 Chert 189 3.4 19.4 10.2 FGS 17 0.3 29.6 29.4 Crystalline Quartz 3 0.1 10.2 1.2 Milky Quartz 3 0.1 12.1 8.0 Quartzite 2 0.0 77.2 52.3 Sandstone 4 0.1 33.6 12.6 Volcanic 8 0.1 46.9 28.9 Glass 1 0.0 11.7 1 Tuff 3669 66.3 21.5 13.5 2 Tuff 1552 28.0 23.4 13.7 Total Tuff 5221 94.3 22.1 53.2 Total 5534 100.0

Table 3. Silcrete varieties recovered by depth

Level that Silcrete Varieties Count % were recovered 1 1 0.0 2 34 0.6 3 17 0.3 4 25 0.5 5 5 0.1 10 1 0.0 19 1 0.0 20 1 0.0 Total Silcrete in Assemblage 85 1.5

Table 4. Quartz varieties recovered by depth

Level that quartz varieties Count % were recovered 1 1 0.0 2 1 0.0 3 1 0.0 4 2 0.0 9 1 0.0 Total Quartz in Assemblage 6 0.1

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Table 5. 1 Tuff variety recovered by depth

Level that Tuff varieties 1 Count % and 4 were recovered Un-stratified 254 6.9 1 222 6.1 2 703 19.2 3 1305 35.6 4 453 12.3 5 104 2.8 6 73 2.0 7 50 1.4 8 42 1.1 9 58 1.6 10 178 4.9 11 106 2.9 12 2 0.1 13 10 0.3 14 9 0.2 15 28 0.8 16 3 0.1 17 7 0.2 18 33 0.9 19 1 0.0 20 28 0.8 Total Tuff in Assemblage 3669 100.0

Table 6. 2 Tuff variety recovered by depth

Level that Tuff varieties 2 Count % and 3 were recovered Un-stratified 74 4.8 1 44 2.8 2 25 1.6 3 27 1.7 4 116 7.5 5 93 6.0 6 88 5.7 7 98 6.3 8 49 3.2 9 88 5.7 10 212 13.7 11 137 8.8 12 34 2.2 13 29 1.9 14 26 1.7 15 60 3.9 16 48 3.1 17 15 1.0 18 97 6.3 19 33 2.1 20 159 10.2 Total Tuff in Assemblage 1552 100.0

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Cortex

The cortex (or chemically weathered surface of the parent rock, Appendix A) can often provide information about the type of stone sources used (i.e. a primary or secondary source). Artefacts with a rough cortex are argued to have originated from a primary source (or outcrop of stone). Artefacts with a smooth or water-rolled cortex, often with small round circular percussion marks originated are argued to have originated from a secondary source (such as a river cobble), which may mean the stone has travelled along a waterway a considerable distance from the original source before it was acquired7.

Two main types of cortex were recorded during the analysis (water-rolled/water- rolled and rough/weathered/rind)8. The amount of cortex present on stone artefacts, in addition to other attributes, can indicate the distance the artefacts were transported from the source9. A high percentage of cortex on an artefact often indicates the source of stone is closer than those artefacts which have less cortex10.

 Most of the Assemblage contained no cortex on artefacts (85.2%, n=4714) (Table 7). However of those artefacts with cortex, most was water-rolled (74.9%, n=614) (Table 9).  The frequencies of cortex on artefacts indicates that 72.3% (n=600) of artefacts contained greater than 26% of cortex compared to 26.8% (n=220) of artefacts with less than 25% of cortex (Table 8, Figure 1). The presence of increased quantities of cortex on artefacts is expected close to a raw material source11.  Given that most of the artefacts at PR09 were varieties of Tuff, the above results indicate that the nearby stone sources of tuff known as Nobby’s Head and Mereweather Beach (both within 3.5km of the PR09 site) are the most likely locations for material at PR09 to have been gathered from (Table 10).  The average and standard deviation of maximum dimensions for water-rolled (secondary sourced) (32.2±19.6mm) artefacts were slightly larger than those sourced from rough (primary sourced) artefacts (30.0±18.5mm) (Figure 2). A greater variation in size is expected closer to a raw material deposit12. This may indicate that the water-rolled material may have been closer to the PR09 site than the stone material sourced from primary deposits.

7 Attenbrow et al. 2008: 10 8 See Appendix to this report for definitions of primary and secondary cortex applied during the analysis. 9 Hiscock and Mitchell 1993: 12-17 10 Barry 2005 and Hiscock 1984 11 Barry 2005:101, Hiscock 1984:185 and Kooyman 2000:51 12 Hiscock 1984: 183, Barry 2005: 105 and 138

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Table 7. Frequency of Cortex in the assemblage

Frequency of Cortex Count % No Cortex 4714 85.2 Cortex 820 14.8

Table 8. Percentage of Cortex

Cortex Frequency Count Percentages 1-25% 220 26.8 26-50% 147 17.9 51-99% 220 26.8 100% 233 28.4 TOTAL 820 100.0

Table 9. Frequency and Type of Artefacts with Cortex in the assemblage

Cortex Type Count % Rind 97 11.8 Rough 13 1.6 Weathered 84 10.2 Water-Rolled 614 74.9 Water and Rough 12 1.5 Total with Cortex 820 100.0

100

40 Frequency (%) 28.4 30 26.8 26.8 17.9 20

0 1-25% 26-50% 51-99% 100% Percentages of Cortex on Artefacts

Figure 1. Frequency of Cortex on Artefacts

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Table 10. The Amount and Type of Cortex on the Raw Material Types

Material % of Cortex Count % Secondary Primary Source Source (Rough/Rind) (Water- rolled) Chert 1-25% 20 2.4 14 6 26-50% 8 1.0 7 1 51-99% 14 1.7 13 1 FGS 1-25% 1 0.1 1 26-50% 1 0.1 1 51-99% 2 0.2 1 1 100% 6 0.7 6 Fine Grained 1-25% 1 0.1 1 Silcrete 26-50% 1 0.1 1 Medium 1-25% 2 0.2 2 Grained Silcrete 51-99% 1 0.1 1

Coarse 26-50% 3 0.4 3 Grained Silcrete 100% 1 0.1 1 Milky Quartz 100% 1 0.1 1 Quartzite 51-99% 1 0.1 1 1 Tuff 1-25% 148 18.0 82 66 26-50% 92 11.2 69 23 51-99% 143 17.4 113 30 100% 155 18.9 130 25 2 Tuff 1-25% 48 5.9 34 17 26-50% 41 5.0 35 6 51-99% 59 7.2 54 5 100% 69 8.4 60 9 Volcanic 26-50% 1 0.1 1 100% 1 0.1 1 Total 820 626 194

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35.0 32.2 30.0 30.0 ) 25.0

19.6 20.0 18.5

15.0

10.0 Maximum Dimension (mm

5.0

0.0 primary source secondary source

AvMD stdevMD

Figure 2. Size Difference between cortex types on artefacts

Proximity to local deposits of stone resources

There are several known sources of stone raw materials within the Newcastle region including quartzite, silcrete and indurated mudstone/tuff/chert (IMTC) found within 10 kilometres of the Study Area (Table 13 and Figure 3).

 Results from PR09 indicate that tuff varieties were the preferred material for manufacturing stone materials in the area and a review of the closest locations indicates that a source at Nobby’s Headland and Mereweather Beach are most likely to have been the sources used by Aboriginal people at the PR09 site (Table 11, Figure 3).  Table 12 shows the relationship of colour to material type for silcrete complete flakes in the assemblage. Although limited in frequency the silcrete colours indicate a possible preference for pink and yellow silcrete materials Colour can be a useful reference in understanding trends in an assemblage, however problems in using colour to determine sources of silcrete have been noted13.  Most of these artefacts were made from fine grained silcrete (61.1%, n=11) (Table 12).

13 Corkill 1999 and Corkill 1997:54-55

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Table 11. Distances of known stone deposits in the Hunter Region relative to PR09 14

Distance of Stone deposit Silcrete Quartz Quartzite Igneous/ IMTC sources to Locations Volcanic site 0-10km Study Area Nobbys Headland Possibly Yes Nobbys Tuff Possibly Yes Mereweather Beach Glenrock Lagoon Yes Jewells Swamp, Dudley - Quarry Yes # 38-4-003915 Beresfield Golf Yes 11-20km Course16 Fennell Bay Yes Richardson Road, Yes Yes Tomago Grahamstown Storage Yes Yes Reservoir Tomago (Shortland Yes Yes Tuff)

Table 12. Raw Material Colours in the Assemblage as seen in Complete Flakes

Material Colour Count Mean Axial Axial Length Length (mm) Std. Dev Fine Silcrete Pink 5 8.1 2.0 Red 1 7.6 Yellow 4 11.1 4.9 Yellow/red 1 14.5 Medium Silcrete Light grey 1 0.0 Pink 2 22.5 18.2 Yellow/white 1 15.7 Coarse Silcrete Pink 1 20.5 Yellow 2 13.3 1.6 Total 18

14 Pers com. Shane Frost 2009; and Tomago, Richardson Rd, Grahamstown Storage Reservoir and Quarry site 38-4-0039 were all cited in MDCA 2004: 94 and 90 15 Dyall 1972, as cited in Higginbotham 1998: 18 16 Pers com. Shane Frost 2009

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Figure 3. Plan showing Study Area (in red) in relation to nearby deposits of stone raw material (shown pink)

Assemblage Composition

 A wider variety of tools were present in the assemblage (e.g. an anvil, hammerstone and broken hammerstone, several (n=3) grinding stones and a pebble (chopping) tool. These tools were found in addition to the more commonly recovered scrapers and backed artefacts within the assemblage (Table 13).  Flake manufacture was occurring on site. E.g. platform rejuvenation flakes, ridge straightening flakes, overhang removal and complete split flakes were all present which indicate some standardization of core platforms prior to the removal of flakes (Table 13).

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 13.2% (n=733) of the assemblage comprised stone material determined to be manuports and cobbles/split cobbles. This material was water-rolled and often concreted and it could not be distinguished if it comprised artefacts or not. Where this could not be clearly determined (i.e. if this material was artefactual or not) it was identified in this manner as it was not clear if it was brought to the site by natural or cultural means (Table 13).

Table 13. Assemblage Composition Technological Class Count % Mean weight Stdev weight (g) (g) Core 39 0.7 82.6 85.2 Core Fragment 13 0.2 7.3 13.0 Complete Flake 1702 30.8 2.4 5.9 Total Broken Flakes 2133 38.5 Complete Split Flakes 104 1.9 1.1 1.6 Broken Flake 1002 18.1 1.0 3.0 Proximal Flake 453 8.2 2.1 7.3 Distal Flake 562 10.2 1.7 5.0 Erraliure Scar 12 0.2 0.3 0.5 Total Complete Tools 72 1.3 Complete Tool 61 1.1 13.1 35.7 Core Tool 5 0.1 98.4 94.5 Pebble Tool 1 0.0 68.6 Anvil 1 0.0 394.0 Grinding Stone 3 0.1 249.6 149.7 Hammerstone 1 0.0 596.0 Total Broken Tools 80 1.4 Broken Tool 31 0.6 2.2 6.7 Proximal Tools 12 0.2 5.1 6.7 Distal Tools 36 0.7 1.9 3.7 Broken Hammerstone 1 0.0 80.0 Subtotal 4039 73.0 Angular Fragments 400 7.2 3.0 9.4 Spall 3 0.1 3.4 2.7 Heat Shattered Artefacts 359 6.5 1.1 2.7 Subtotal Artefacts 4801 86.8 Manuports 690 12.5 13.5 38.7 Split Cobbles and Cobbles 43 0.8 41.9 68.7 Subtotal Manuports etc 733 13.2 Total 5534 100

Cores

 Few cores were recovered from the assemblage (0.7%, n=39). Those recovered comprised a mixture of core types (i.e. the direction that the cores were flaked from which indicates variation in the cores, which is expected at or close to a raw material source (Table 16).

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 56.4% (n=22) of cores had in excess of 6 scars indicating most of the cores had been well used, suggesting most of the cores recovered had been discarded (Table 16).  The ratio of cores to complete flakes indicates that cores were being removed from the site (i.e. 43.6 flakes to every 1 core), whereas the complete flake to broken flake ratio indicates almost a 1:1 ratio (i.e. 0.8 complete:1 broken). The ratio of flake breakage also indicates some post depositional influence on the assemblage as the amount of breakage is high (Table 14).  Post depositional influences on artefacts may include breakage during manufacture, trampling, impacts of the later historical occupation on the site and/or mis-identification of complete flakes with step/hinged terminations as proximal flakes17.  Few of the cores contained cortex, however most of the material was sourced from secondary (water-rolled) sources (Table 15).  46.1% (n=18) of the scars on cores were elongated and/or blade shaped suggesting that this form of flake was being deliberately removed (e.g. for backed artefact manufacture) (Table 16).  41.0%, n=16 of the cores were manufactured on a flake body, which indicates most of the cores were formed using a particular strategy known as ‘Redbank A’ for reducing stone which is common of the Hunter Valley area (Table 16)18.  Most of the cores contained few cortical platforms (41.0%, n=16) which does not tend to support a local use of stone raw materials (as you would expect more cortex on cores closer to a source. It is possible given the number of cores recovered with a flake form (41.0%, n=16) that these cores were prepared according to the Redbank A strategy and that a by-product of the production of these flakes was the removal of cortex (Table 16).  Most of the scars on the cores were elongated/blade (46.2%, n=18) indicating a preference for flake forms which may have been used for backed artefact manufacture (Table 16).  Few of the cores retained evidence of flakes removed with step and hinge terminations. This can indicate that the cores were of sufficient size that fewer of these types of terminations were occurring. This would be characteristic of material being located closer to a raw material source. Hinge and step terminations can indicate that the material is becoming too small to flake or thin flakes (relative to length) were being removed, indicating the core is reaching the limit of its usefulness19. The lower frequency of this type of termination indicates fewer mistakes in the flaking process but can also be

17 This last possibility has been observed at Ponui in New Zealand – Holdaway & Stern 2004: 133-135 18 Hiscock 1986 and Hiscock 1993 19 Cotterell & Kamminga 1987: 700-701 and Whittaker 1994:106

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related to a low angle of the core’s platform (i.e. the cross sections of the cores are not yet approaching 90 degrees) 20 . This type of termination on flake scars would be expected to increase in frequency as the size of the core gets smaller. This indicates that the material in this instance is likely closer to a raw material source21 (Table 16).  The cores were varied in size/weight (average 82.6g ± stdev 85.2g and 57.9mm on average with ± stdev 20.2mm) (Table 17). This level of variation in size and weight is expected closer to a raw material source.

Table 14. Ratio of core, complete flake and complete tool frequencies

Ratio Complete flake : core 43.6 : 1 Complete flake : broken flake 0.8 : 1 Complete flake : complete tool 23.6 : 1

Table 15. Cortex on cores by raw material types

Material % of Cortex Count % Secondary Primary Source Source (Water- (Rough/Rind) rolled) Chert 0% 1 2.6 Chert 1-25% 3 7.7 3 Chert 51-99% 2 5.1 2 FGS 51-99% 1 2.6 1 Tuff1 0% 11 28.2 Tuff1 1-25% 6 15.4 4 2 Tuff1 26-50% 2 5.1 2 Tuff1 51-99% 3 7.7 3 Tuff2 0% 1 2.6 Tuff2 1-25% 2 5.1 1 1 Tuff2 51-99% 1 2.6 1 Tuff3 0% 1 2.6 Tuff3 26-50% 1 2.6 1 Tuff3 51-99% 2 5.1 2 Tuff4 1-25% 1 2.6 1 Tuff4 26-50% 1 2.6 1

20 Whittaker 1994: 106; 109 21 Renfrew 1977: 72 and see discussion in Barry 2005: 13, 83

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Table 16. Characteristics of cores in the assemblage

Core Type Count % Unidirectional 10 25.6 Bidirectional 5 12.8 Bifacial 4 10.3 Micro-blade 2 5.1 Multi-directional 15 38.5 Test 2 5.1 Tranchet 1 2.6 Core body Block 2 5.1 Flake 16 41.0 Nodule 9 23.1 Non Diagnostic 12 30.8 Core section Conical 1 2.6 Lenticular 4 12.8 Rectangular 21 53.8 Square 12 30.8 Scar form Blade 2 5.1 Elongated 16 41.0 Expand 12 30.8 Mixed 9 23.1 Core Scars 1-2 8 20.5 3-5 9 23.1 6-10 15 38.5 >10 (10 or more) 7 17.9 Cortical platforms 1 16 41.0 2 12 30.8 3 7 17.9 4 3 7.7 5 1 2.6 Steps 0 22 56.4 <5 (Less than 5) 15 38.5 >5 (5 or more) 2 5.1 Hinges 0 10 25.6 <5 (Less than 5) 23 59.0 >5 (5 or more) 6 15.4

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Table 17. Size dimensions measured on cores in the assemblage

Mean (mm) Std. Dev. Weight (g) 82.6 85.2 Length (Max Dim) 57.9 20.2 Width 43.5 15.5 Thickness 25.9 12.3 Core Face (max Length from working platform) 38.5 15.7 Scar Length (Longest scar) 25.6 11.9 Scar Width (Longest scar) 19.8 11.3

Complete Flakes

 The average size of platforms on complete and proximal flakes was 2.6-2.5mm with a standard deviation of 2.4-2.3mm. This indicates that flakes removed were of a standardized and small size (Table 18).  69.2% of flakes had up to 3 dorsal flake scars (n=1178) which when considered with other attributes on flakes (i.e. Most dorsal scars were initiated from 1 quadrant (68.2%, n=1160) and most of the platforms were unifacial (74.2%, n=1263)). This indicates that the cores being flaked here were mostly at an early stage of core reduction (Table 20).  Most of the flakes in the assemblage were of a mixture of expanding and elongated/blade shapes. The expanding form is often indicative of uses like scrapers, whereas the elongated form is most often linked to the manufacture of backed artefacts like bondi points or end scrapers (Table 20).  The presence of platform rejuvenation flakes, ridge straightening flakes and platform overhang removal indicates that the preparation of cores was occurring on site for continued flaking (Table 20).  Most of the flakes recovered were removed from 1 platform (68.2%, n=1160). This indicates that most of the cores used here were in the early stages of reduction as limited core rotation had occurred (Table 20). This is expected close to a raw material source.  Bipolar flaking is a technique in core reduction which is often used when a core has become small and is difficult to hold22. Increases in bipolar flaking have been associated with the increased use of quartz raw materials and in the later Bondaian period (i.e. 1,600 years to 1788AD)23.  Limited bipolar flaking was observed amongst the flakes (14.2%, n=242). This evidence was most prominent in upper levels 2 – 4, which indicates that bipolar flaking was more frequent in upper levels compared to lower levels of the assemblage (Table 21).

22 Odell 2003: 59-60 23 Attenbrow 2002: 153-158

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 The average weight of complete flakes was low (2.4g) with a low standard deviation of 5.9g) indicating most of the flakes were of a small weight (Table 19). The average length (17.7mm) was slightly longer than the average width (16.1mm) which supports the results of flake scars on cores (Tables 16 and 20).  A very limited frequency of complete flakes which were smaller than or equal to 5mm in size (maximum dimension and axial length) were present (n=4, 0.1%). This small size of complete flakes has been noted at other sites as evidence of insitu backing flakes24. This suggests that backing was taking place on site.

Table 18. Mean platform thickness of complete and proximal flakes

Count Mean (mm) StDev Minimum Maximum Complete flake 1702 2.6 2.4 0 17.1 Proximal Flake 453 2.5 2.3 0 17.5

Table 19. Size dimensions of Complete Flakes in the Assemblage

Size Mean (mm) StDev Weight 2.4 5.9 Maximum dimension 22.4 12.1 Axial Length 17.7 11.0 Width 16.1 8.5 Thickness 4.0 3.1 Platform width 9.1 6.2 Platform thickness 2.6 2.4

24 Attenbrow et al. 2008

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Table 20. Characteristics of the Complete Flakes in the Assemblage

Flake Form Count % Bipolar 1 0.1 Blade 33 1.9 Block 283 16.6 Elongated 570 33.5 Expand 594 34.9 Indeterminate 151 8.9 Platform overhang removal 23 1.4 Platform rejuvenation25 19 1.1 Ridge Straightening 26 28 1.6 Flake Scars 0 201 11.8 <3 (less than 3) 1178 69.2 >3 (greater than 3) 323 19.0 Termination Feather 1138 66.9 Hinge 446 26.2 Plunge 40 2.4 Abrupt (Step) 51 3.0 Cortical 10 0.6 Crush (bipolar) 3 0.2 Platform 1 0.1 N/A 13 0.8 Platform Type Unifacial 1263 74.2 >Bifacial 131 7.7 Cortical 57 3.3 Crush (bipolar) 242 14.2 Facet 5 0.3 N/A 4 0.2 Dorsal Scars 1 (initiated from platform end) 1160 68.2 90 (initiated at right angles to platform) 224 13.2 180 (initiated from opposite end to platform) 105 6.2 Radial (both right angles to platform) 14 0.8 n/a 199 11.7

25 A further 15 flakes and tools (both complete and broken) were identified with a form of platform rejuvenation in addition to the 19 complete flakes 26 A further 15 flakes and tools (both complete and broken) were identified with a form of ridge straightening in addition to the 28 complete flakes

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Table 21. Frequency of bipolar complete flakes within the assemblage

Level Crushed Platforms (Count) Percentage Un-stratified 9 0.5 1 11 0.6 2 40 2.4 3 65 3.8 4 27 1.6 5 5 0.3 6 11 0.6 7 10 0.6 8 4 0.2 9 8 0.5 10 12 0.7 11 10 0.6 12 3 0.2 13 14 3 0.2 15 3 0.2 16 3 0.2 17 18 7 0.4 19 3 0.2 20 8 0.5

Tools  A wide variety of tools were present in the assemblage (e.g. an anvil, hammerstone and broken hammerstone, several (n=3) grinding stones and a pebble (chopping) tool. These tools were found in addition to the more commonly recovered scrapers and backed artefacts within the assemblage (Table 13).  The anvil, hammerstones, grinding stones and pebble tool were recovered from spits 5 and upwards (i.e. to the unstratified levels) (Table 28).  The broken tools in the assemblage were almost equal (n=80, 52.6%) to the number recovered which were complete (n=72, 47.4%) (Table 18). This indicates that a high frequency of complete tools were lost and/or discarded at this site and/or that post depositional disturbance had damaged them (Tables 20 and 22).  The backed artefacts recovered were highly fragmented indicating discard as a result of breakage during use or manufacture (63.7%, n=58) (Table 22).  There were more backed tools than other types recovered at PR09 (n=91, 59.9%), this when considered with evidence of small (=/<5mm) complete flakes recovered indicates that backing manufacture was occurring (Table 20).  The tools recovered were manufactured from a variety of stone raw materials including Tuff, two varieties of silcrete, FGS, chert and volcanics (Table 21).

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 Most of the complete scrapers in the assemblage (63.2%, n=12) displayed high frequencies of retouch, i.e. 3 quadrants of 4 displayed retouch (Table 24). Scrapers with higher levels of retouch are expected close to raw material sources where they may have been discarded prior to replacement but may also be expected at some distance from a source.27  The average axial length of backed artefacts was small (8.3mm) with some variation in size (stdev 15.8mm) with much smaller weights (av 1.4g ± stdev 3.5g). These results are similar to those of complete flakes in the assemblage (Tables 18 and 23).  However scrapers displayed larger average sizes and variation (28.3mm±27.9mm). These results indicate some standardisation in the backed artefacts but greater variation in the size of scrapers overall. This may be linked to different uses of these tool types – e.g. scrapers used by hand vs attaching backed artefacts to another implement (Table 23).

27 Barry 2005:135

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Table 22. Tool types in the Assemblage

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Table 23. Raw Material Quality of Backed Artefacts and Scrapers

Material Type Tool Type Count % Chert Scraper 2 0.0 Backed Artefact 2 0.0 FGS Grinder 1 0.0 Fine grained silcrete Backed Artefact 6 0.1 Medium grained Backed Artefact 1 0.0 silcrete Quartzite Anvil 1 0.0

Tuff 1 and 4 Usewear 5 0.1 Scraper 21 0.4 Chopper 1 0.0 Backed Artefact 72 1.3 Denticulate 2 0.0 Hammerstone 1 0.0 Tuff 2 and 3 Usewear 5 0.1 Scraper 19 0.3 Backed Artefact 10 0.2 Notched 1 0.0 Volcanic Grinder 1 0.0 Hammerstone 1 0.0 Total 152 2.7

Table 24. Fragmentation of Backed Artefacts

Tool Type Count % Broken (medial) 26 28.6 Proximal 5 5.5 Distal 27 29.7 Complete 33 36.3 Total 91 100.0

Table 25. Size Dimensions of Complete Tools

Tool Type Count Mean Axial Axial Length Mean Weight Weight Length Std. Dev (g) Std. Dev (mm) (mm) (mm) Scraper 42 28.3 27.9 39.8 67.6 Backed 91 8.3 15.8 1.4 3.5 Usewear 10 44.2 33.1 63.9 112.8 Denticulate Retouch 2 0.0 0.0 12.4 8.8 Notched Retouch 1 0.0 4.1

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Table 26. Number retouched edges on complete flakes (scrapers) by raw material

Material Number of Retouched Count Edges (by Quadrants) Tuff 1 1 1 2 3 3 7 Tuff 2 3 4 Tuff 3 1 2 2 1 3 1 Total 19

Table 27. Location of all ‘worn’ Backed Artefacts

Level Count Count Worn Backed Artefacts All Backed Artefacts 0 3 1 5 2 25 3 38 4 3 5 1 2 6 7 8 2 2 9 1 2 10 1 4 11 1 1 12 1 1 13 14 1 15 16 1 17 18 2 2 19 20 1

Table 28. Location (depth) of Other Tool Types

Level Other type of tools Count Percentage 0 Anvil 1 57.1 Ground implement 2 Hammerstone 1 1 2 Broken Hammerstone 1 14.3 3 4 Pebble tool (chopper) 1 14.3 5 Ground implement 1 14.3 Total 7 100.0

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Post Depositional Disturbance Evidence of post depositional effects (i.e. influences to the artefacts once they were discarded) on the PR09 Assemblage can be seen in three main ways – heating/cooling of artefacts, size sorting and conjoin analysis.

Heat Damage Rapid heating and cooling of artefacts as a result of e.g. a bushfire or being thrown into a fire was also identified at the PR09 site. This evidence is referred to as heat fracture and consists of evidence such as potlids (small spalls of the stone which pop off the artefact) and crazing. This has been distinguished from intentional heat treatment, which implies a more regulated regime of heating and cooling by Aboriginal people.

 8.1% (n=434) artefacts were affected by heat (heat fractured) with an additional 6.5% (n=359) artefacts which were identified as artefacts but they were too heat affected to be identified any further. This totaled some 14.3% (n=793) of artefacts in the assemblage were heat affected.

Size Sorting Size sorting is the downward movement of smaller, lighter artefacts within the soil profile. It can indicate post depositional disturbance on an assemblage.

 Size sorting (i.e. where smaller artefacts deflate in the soil profile) was visible within the assemblage with a decrease in average size (i.e. larger artefacts remained at the top and smaller moved down in the profile) in upper spits (spit 1-4) for complete flakes (Table 29). A similar trend was observed with all artefacts with average size in upper spits (1-3) (Table 30).  However below about spit 4 (Tables 29 and 30) the sizes varied, generally with a higher average size for one spit, followed by a decrease in size for the next and an increase for the spit following etc. E.g. in Table 31 spit 12 had an average size of 24.1mm and in the next spit (13) the average size was 19.3mm, whereas the average size in spit 14 was 20.4mm and in spit 15 it was 17.5mm. This trend continues throughout the soil profile in Tables 31 and 32 below spit 4 to the base of excavation (i.e. down to spit 20). This fluctuation indicates that below spit 4 there was likely disturbance to the soil profile likely through re-deposition of deposits.  These results indicate that size sorting was occurring within the assemblage, but the assemblage also displays evidence of post depositional factors likely as a result of re-deposition of the sand dune (and its stone artefacts) over time.

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Table 29. Size sorting of complete flakes by depth in the assemblage Material Count Length Standard Weight Standard Min. Max. Mean (mm) Deviation Mean (g) Deviation weight weight S1 87 19.3 10.7 2.7 4.7 0.1 35.5 S2 255 19.3 11.5 2.3 4.8 0.0 46.2 S3 526 17.9 10.7 2.0 5.5 0.0 69.7 S4 181 16.6 11.5 2.2 4.5 0.0 29.9 S5 51 18.4 11.8 4.7 9.2 0.0 45.6 S6 40 21.5 11.9 3.8 5.8 0.1 33.4 S7 37 20.5 13.0 5.9 16.6 0.2 93.6 S8 29 15.8 10.9 1.9 3.9 0.0 19.3 S9 49 15.2 8.8 1.3 1.7 0.1 9.2 S10 140 14.6 8.7 1.5 3.2 0.1 32.1 S11 67 17.0 11.3 3.0 7.1 0.1 34.0 S12 9 16.5 10.6 3.1 6.6 0.1 20.6 S13 16 18.1 13.9 4.3 11.7 0.1 47.7 S14 10 12.1 4.0 0.7 0.6 0.1 2.1 S15 18 12.1 8.1 1.1 1.6 0.1 4.7 S16 16 18.8 8.8 2.3 3.4 0.2 14.0 S17 9 14.2 7.2 0.5 0.4 0.1 1.1 S18 37 17.0 9.5 2.7 5.1 0.1 21.4 S19 13 16.2 15.5 1.6 3.6 0.1 13.0 S20 40 18.4 10.7 3.3 4.8 0.1 17.7

Table 30. Size sorting of all artefacts by depth in the assemblage Material Count Length Standard Weight Standard Min. Max. Mean (mm) Deviation Mean (g) Deviation weight weight S1 315 23.5 15.4 5.9 20.1 0.01 224 S2 756 21.3 12.8 3.2 12.7 0 196 S3 1444 20.5 12.2 2.7 10.9 0 240 S4 606 22.2 14.8 4.7 13.8 0 190 S5 206 25.7 14.8 6.3 14.4 0.01 112 S6 151 25.9 13.4 5.1 9.7 0.07 79 S7 152 23.0 11.8 3.8 9.4 0.01 93.6 S8 100 19.5 9.1 1.6 2.9 0 19.3 S9 154 20.6 10.2 2.1 4.9 0.08 43.4 S10 400 19.4 9.2 1.4 2.8 0.04 32.1 S11 244 19.7 9.9 1.9 4.8 0.04 34 S12 36 24.1 11.2 2.7 5.2 0.11 23.9 S13 40 19.3 10.7 2.2 7.5 0.01 47.7 S14 36 20.4 10.0 1.4 2.6 0.08 14.7 S15 95 17.5 9.3 1.4 3.6 0.01 24.0 S16 53 24.9 11.7 4.3 10.7 0.09 59.4 S17 24 16.2 6.3 0.5 0.4 0.09 1.4 S18 140 22.8 12.0 4.2 14.5 0.09 150 S19 35 17.4 9.9 0.9 2.2 0.06 13 S20 191 20.9 12.0 4.5 32.5 0.07 446

Worn and Concreted Artefacts

 During the analysis 528 artefacts in the assemblage displayed evidence of a concretion (Tables 31, 33). The concretion consisted of a light to dark brown coloured outer covering to which sand particles adhered either totally or

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partially covering the artefact. This concretion was attributed during analysis to post depositional site factors (i.e. movement of water within the profile) causing a coffee-rock type appearance to these artefacts.  The presence of this concretion implies that these artefacts were more likely to have situated in a stable location within the soil profile while this outer surface formed over time. It is possible that this may also be related to changes in sea level over time.  A large amount of ‘wear’ was also identified during the analysis on some artefacts (Tables 32 and 33).28 It was also noted however that the concreted artefacts also displayed evidence of this form of ‘wear’.  The location (depth) of both the concreted and worn artefacts within the entire assemblage indicates that they were focused in the middle to upper spits (i.e. spit 11 to 3) (93.2%, n=492) (Table 31) and (71.1%, n=1317) (Table 32). This indicates that the wear is also likely to result from post depositional factors on the stone material and is not necessarily an indicator of age.  Very few worn artefacts were recovered from basal units. It is expected that more worn artefacts would be recovered from lower units if they had been affected by water erosion as a result of dune formation/remodelling (Table 32 and Figure 5). However it is also possible that this trend was a result of changes in water levels (perhaps by storms and/or inundation from sea level changes) further supporting the hypothesis that this type of affect noted on artefacts was a result of post depositional influences on the site.  Analysis of the location of the concreted and worn artefacts by both depth and across space (i.e. across the excavated area) revealed that both types of post depositional attributes were concentrated in all Rows within the first 9 to 12 columns with a decrease in the concentration from about column 9 to 16 (closer to the original foreshore) (Figures 4-5). This result indicates the sloping nature of the site (i.e. the dune sloping down towards the seashore. These results may also display evidence of reworking of the sand dune.  Comparison between results of the post depositionally affected worn and concreted artefacts (Figure 4 and 5) with the artefacts containing water-rolled cortex (Figure 6) revealed a concentration of this cortical material in upper spits (1-5) and at the base of excavation for each row (i.e. spits 8-11 for Row A, spits14-20 Row B and spit10 for Row C). The artefacts with water rolled cortex

28 Wear describes the outer surface-area of artefacts where they displayed rounded edges and may display evidence of post depositional movement by water (i.e. generally very smooth and rounded) in appearance but this is a different attribute to cortex (or chemical weathering of the outer surface or rind of the artefact). This is because water-rolled cortex often displays a lighter coloured rind with small percussion cracks from the force of movement of larger boulders within a watercourse moving the stone from its original depositional bed.

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were more spread out in the Rows compared to the results of the worn and concreted materials. This provides further evidence that the worn and concreted attributes were a result of post depositional factors and not a type of cortex on artefacts.

Table 31. The location of concreted artefacts with depth and by raw material type 1 Tuff 2 Tuff Chert Total Count Count Count Count Unstratified 8 4 12 1 2 2 2 4 4 3 40 6 46 4 41 63 104 5 38 51 89 6 40 46 86 7 20 44 64 8 10 8 1 19 9 21 11 32 10 22 13 35 11 13 4 17 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 1 19 20 9 8 17 Total 264 263 1 528

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Table 32. The location of worn artefacts with depth and by raw material type 1 Tuff 2 Tuff Chert Total Count Count Count Count Unstratified 38 44 82 1 14 5 19 2 2 17 19 3 89 20 109 4 81 101 182 5 50 85 135 6 57 75 132 7 38 86 124 8 22 43 1 66 9 47 63 110 10 113 160 273 11 87 99 186 12 1 32 33 13 7 19 26 14 8 19 27 15 26 37 63 16 2 30 32 17 1 11 12 18 22 50 72 19 1 20 21 20 28 102 130 Total 734 1118 1 1853

Table 33. The Amount and Type of Post Depositional Factors on artefacts in the Assemblage combined Level Count Concretion Worn Artefacts Unstratified 23 12 11 1 7 2 5 2 9 4 5 3 63 46 17 4 122 104 18 5 109 89 20 6 106 86 20 7 80 64 16 8 31 19 12 9 48 32 16 10 51 35 16 11 33 17 16 12 1 1 13 3 3 14 2 2 15 3 3 16 4 4 17 7 7 18 4 1 3 19 20 17 17 Total 1926 528 1398

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Spatial Layout of Post depositionally Concreted Artefacts

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16

0 8 1 1 2 3 1 1 4 3 6 3 1 2 3 5 2 1 1 7 14 2 1 6 3 3 3 2 3 2 1 7 1 1 1 1 12 6 1 8 1 9 3 1 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

KEY TO COLOUR CODING APPLIED IN MAIN BODY OF EXCAVATION REPORT

Context Code Context Colour Code Context Description C001 Historic Fill Units blank in colour code C002 Sandy Brown Dune (A1) Dark Brown in colour code C003 Sandy Brown Dune (A2) Light Brown/Yellow in colour code C004 Strand Line deposits green in colour code C005 Beach deposits blue in colour code C006 Post depositional modification to soil profile orange in colour code C007 Gravel (possible earlier dune) purple in colour code C008 unidentified context in the analysis blank in colour code

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B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16

0 2 0 0 1 2 4 3 1 2 14 19 4 12 1 20 29 2 15 5 5 9 1 22 11 6 1 1 1 7 1 14 4 13 7 1 1 3 14 4 8 1 3 3 1 9 1 1 10 1 2 2 1 1 11 3 1 1 2 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 1 19 20 17

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C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16

0 0 0 1 2 2 3 1 7 4 1 2 5 3 1 3 4 1 1 6 10 1 2 9 4 1 7 1 1 5 6 2 1 1 8 2 1 3 1 1 2 9 1 1 2 7 2 2 1 5 3 2 10 4 2 5 1 4 1 1 7 3 11 5 5 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Figure 4. Spatial Layout of Post Depositionally Concreted Artefacts only

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Spatial Layout of Post depositionally ‘worn’ Artefacts only

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16

0 1 4 1 12 2 4 1 4 2 6 3 2 2 2 3 1 1 4 3 4 6 15 5 5 6 10 1 1 1 5 8 3 11 10 16 2 3 1 6 4 5 7 3 5 3 2 6 1 1 7 2 1 10 1 15 6 6 13 8 1 1 19 9 1 1 9 3 2 1 12 2 15 10 1 15 4 11 13 11 14 20 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

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B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16

0 7 3 2 2 6 4 8 4 4 0 0 1 4 1 2 1 2 1 1 9 1 1 3 1 12 20 6 18 19 1 1 4 4 13 7 27 7 30 9 16 1 5 4 5 5 11 1 23 12 2 1 6 3 4 2 8 3 15 8 14 7 1 1 2 4 3 3 17 5 1 1 1 8 1 3 1 3 6 1 2 9 12 5 1 2 1 10 39 10 28 2 5 1 16 11 1 1 8 6 15 4 6 11 12 3 30 13 2 7 17 14 2 12 13 15 48 7 3 5 16 5 22 2 3 17 9 2 1 18 25 41 4 2 19 21 20 130

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C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16

0 4 2 3 1 3 4 0 0 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 2 3 3 9 1 1 1 4 1 1 6 3 5 1 3 2 3 4 2 1 1 6 2 12 4 2 11 4 2 1 7 2 1 7 12 2 1 3 2 1 8 1 1 2 2 6 1 2 2 9 1 2 1 3 9 6 13 2 7 5 5 10 9 5 28 24 7 28 3 18 6 11 31 48 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Figure 5. Spatial Layout of post depositionally Worn Artefacts only

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Spatial Layout of Artefacts with water-rolled cortex only

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16

0 2 3 3 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 1 2 2 1 5 2 1 1 6 1 1 2 1 3 11 1 1 1 1 20 5 10 5 1 2 1 4 2 2 3 1 2 5 2 2 1 1 6 1 2 1 7 1 1 1 8 1 1 4 1 1 9 2 1 10 2 1 1 11 2 2 2 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

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B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16

0 7 4 2 4 8 2 4 7 1 0 1 1 0 1 6 1 1 6 1 2 3 2 1 1 1 1 2 4 5 1 1 2 3 6 3 3 16 4 1 2 9 12 24 3 4 4 1 4 3 3 3 1 1 4 3 2 1 5 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 6 1 7 1 1 1 8 1 9 1 10 4 7 1 1 3 11 1 3 1 1 1 12 2 10 13 2 6 14 2 3 3 15 12 3 2 2 16 2 6 17 3 18 11 16 5 1 19 1 20 15

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C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16

0 2 4 5 2 1 1 3 0 3 3 0 1 1 1 2 3 1 3 2 1 1 3 1 2 1 8 5 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 8 3 1 4 8 1 1 5 1 6 1 1 1 7 8 1 1 9 1 1 10 7 2 2 1 1 11 3 6 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Figure 6. Spatial Layout of Artefacts with Water-rolled Cortex only

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Conjoin analysis Conjoining (or refitting artefacts) is often undertaken on large samples of artefacts usually found together in dense concentrations29. Conjoining of artefacts can indicate movement (vertical and horizontal) of artefacts which can indicate post depositional disturbance. It can, however, also indicate specific knapping (or stone manufacturing) events within an assemblage.

Twenty-six conjoining sets of artefacts were identified within the analysis and results are outlined in Table 28 below.

 Conjoins 3, 7 and 10 in particular provided direct evidence of movement (vertical and possibly horizontal due to the flaking process) between spits 2 and 5, which implies up to 40 cm of vertical movement through the sand (Table 34).  Conjoins 3 and 4 provided evidence of core preparation in additional to flake manufacture as these conjoins contained evidence of clearing off a platform for continued flaking (i.e. removing a well flaked platform – platform overhang removal) (Table 34).  Conjoins 9, 13, 22 and 24 provided evidence the flaking was occurring during an earlier phase of core reduction (Table 34). This was seen with the flakes removed from uni-directional cores meaning they had not been rotated prior to removal. This result is expected closer to raw material sources with increasing evidence of rotation expected when material was being conserved. However this is also present in Redbank A flake manufacturing.  It was notable that all conjoins were identified within the upper (1-5) spits of the excavation (Table 34). This provides some indication that the flaking event in the upper spits was part of an in situ deposit and the lower events seen in spits 10-11 and 18-20 are likely a result of post depositional influences to the soil profile/site.

29 As seen in Cooper & Qui 2006; Marks and Volkman 1987; Delagnes and Roche 2005; Petragalia 1992; Jodry 1992; Wyckoff 1992 identified a much smaller sample (157 artefacts) to conjoin, however it was identified as a specific cache (or density).

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Table 34. Results of Conjoin Analysis from the PR09 site

Conjoin Locational Details about the Comment About Conjoin Number Data Artefacts Material Conjoin 1 B2, sp3 A = proximal flake Lateral break, most likely occurred B = distal flake during excavation Conjoin 2 B2, sp3 A = Angular fragment Break during excavation? B = Angular fragment Conjoin 3 A1, sp4 A = Complete Flake Evidence of flake manufacture and B = Complete Flake core preparation occurring on site Both with evidence of platform overhang removal Conjoin 4 A1, sp4 A = Complete Flake Evidence of flake manufacture and B = Complete Flake core preparation occurring on site Both with evidence of platform overhang removal Conjoin 5 A1, Sp4 7 pieces of dark grey and No evidence that this material was light grey tuff1 material flaked, however it was fractured by intense heating and appeared likely to conjoin Conjoin 6 A9, sp2 A = Heat Shattered flake Evidence of fragmentation of flakes B = Heat Shattered flake due to intense heating Conjoin 7 B2, sp2 A = Conjoin 7 Complete Evidence of in situ flake manufacture A1, sp4 Split Flake and horizontal movement perhaps due B = Conjoin 3 (2 x to flaking. Water worn cortex also Complete Flakes) visible/decortification flake Conjoin 8 B7, sp4 5 pieces of FGS material Breakage during excavation? that conjoins, but not evidence of grinding or use as a hammerstone/chopper identified Conjoin 9 B3, sp4 A = Complete Flake Evidence of in situ flake manufacture B = Complete Flake Removed from unidirectional core Conjoin 10 B1, sp5 A = Conjoin 10 Evidence of flake manufacture Conjoin 10 is Complete between Conjoins 3, 7, and 10 (i.e. Flake with hinge term. B1, sp5, B2, Sp1 and A1, sp4) Both A1, sp4 B = Conjoin 3 vertical and horizontal movement of B2, sp2 C = Conjoin 7 artefacts Conjoin 11 B1, sp 8 A = proximal flake Both snapped at distal end, likely B = proximal flake breakage post manufacture

Conjoin 12 C12, sp3 A = Broken Flake Broken during use/manufacture or as B = Proximal Flake a result of potlid at break point (on ventral surface only) Conjoin 13 C12, sp 3 A = Complete Flake Evidence of in situ flake manufacture B = Core from a unidirectional (horsehoof) core Conjoin 14 C12, sp 3 A = Heat Shattered Flake Likely broken as a result of intense B = Heat Shattered Flake heating event, potlids present Conjoin 15 C12, sp 3 A = Heat Shattered Flake Likely broken as a result of intense B = Heat Shattered Flake heating event, potlids present

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Conjoin Locational Details about the Comment About Conjoin Number Data Artefacts Material Conjoin 16 B9, sp3 A = Heat Shattered Flake Likely broken as a result of intense B9, sp3 B = Potlid heating event, potlids present and B9, sp3 C = Potlid these conjoin also

Conjoin 17 B9, sp 3 A = broken tool Backed Artefact/Bondi Point may have B = broken tool been broken during use and discarded Conjoin 18 B10, sp3 A = Complete Flake Evidence of insitu flake manufacture B = Complete Flake Conjoin 19 B10, sp 3 A = Potlid conjoins with Likely broken as a result of intense Conjoin 16 heating event, potlids present and B9, sp3 B = Heat Shattered Flake + these conjoin also Potlids Conjoin 20 B11, sp 4 A = Complete Split Evidence of in situ flake manufacture B = Proximal Flake Conjoin 21 B12, sp12 A = Complete Flake Heat fractured post deposition. B = Complete Flake Evidence of in situ flake manufacture Conjoin 22 A9, sp 4 A = Complete Flake Flaked from unidirectional core B = Complete Flake Evidence of in situ flake manufacture on site Conjoin 23 A15, sp2 A = proximal flake Lateral break, damage on dorsal B = distal flake surface at point of break Systematic conjoin possible Conjoin 24 A11, sp2 3 conjoins struck from the Evidence of manufacture on site same platform (unidirectional). 2 have hinge terminations, 1 has red rind cortex from burning Conjoin 25 A10, sp4 Elongated/blade flake Break likely during manufacture or A = proximal flake excavation B = distal flake Conjoin 26 A11, sp3 Conjoining laterite

Spatial Variation

Figure 7 shows the distribution of stone artefacts across the PR09 site. This figure demonstrates a concentration of artefacts around Rows 9 to 12 in Columns A, B and C. Horizontally, this roughly equates to at least one discrete knapping event which was identified in association with a hearth in Rows A11 and B12.

Vertical analysis indicated three discrete activity phases at PR09. Analysis of the raw material types, artefact composition and tool types by levels (spits) within the open area supports this statement indicating change in the assemblage over time, although size sorting was also noted (refer to post depositional disturbance above).

Three levels of usage appear evident within the artefact assemblage at PR09 with the highest use evident in upper levels (spits 2-4) followed by middle levels (spits 9-11) and lastly the basal levels (spits 18-20) (Table 35).

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This result suggests the site was used for multiple activities over time but some movement of smaller artefacts has also occurred post depositionally (Tables 35-39 and Figures 7-10). A summary of these results is provided as follows:

 Table 35 demonstrates that the use of raw materials change over time, this is particularly evident with spits 2-4 and the presence of the most silcrete in the assemblage in addition to Tuff 1 – which indicates a change in preference of new raw materials in the Newcastle area. There is also a higher frequency of chert in spits 2-4 which decreases in spits 9-11 and again in spits 18-20. This result appears to indicate a change in raw material use at the site over time.  Some limited silcrete (both fine, medium and coarse grained) was also identified within the site. The majority of this material (1.3% of silcrete, n=73) was identified in upper spits 1, 2 and 3 (Table 35).  Quartz artefacts were also present, although again in limited frequencies (0.1%, n=6) and the majority of these artefacts (0.1%, n=5) were recovered from the upper 4 spits (i.e. 1-4) (Table 35).  Spits 18-20 demonstrate continued high usage of Tuff with more 2Tuff than 1Tuff varieties in the basal units. Certainly a trend for 1 Tuff to decrease with depth and 2 Tuff to increase with depth was observed in Table 35.  The 1 Tuff Artefacts tend to be concentrated in upper spits (spits 5-1) within Rows A9-A12; B11-B13 and C11-C12. Some 1 Tuff materials were also present in lower spits (i.e. spits 17-20) in Rows B9, B6 and B3 (Figure 9). This appears to equate to most of the flake manufacturing processes seen on site.  2 Tuff artefacts most closely resemble the trend of spatial layout of the worn artefacts, i.e. a concentration in lower spits in Row B9, B6 and B3 and below spit 11, B12 (Figures 10 and 5).  Spatial layout of the tuff artefacts (both 1Tuff and 2Tuff) are shown in Figures 9 and 10 respectively. These figures indicate the layout and frequency of 2Tuff artefacts most closely resembles the spatial layout of worn artefacts (Figure 5) with a higher concentration in lower spits (17-20) of Rows B9, B6 and B3. This may indicate that the Tuff varieties were also influenced by the post depositional movement of water across and within the site (i.e. inundation as a result of post depositional storms and/or sea level changes).  Some limited backing was identified within the site (1.6%, n=91). This evidence was present throughout the assemblage but the highest frequency was present in the upper spits 2 – 4 inclusive (1.2%, n=66) (Table 37).

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Table 35. Raw Material composition by level (spit) Level Chert Chalcedony Silcrete grained Fine Medium grained Silcrete Coarse grained Silcrete 1 Tuff 2 Tuff Quartzite Volcanic FGS Crystalline Quartz Milky Quartz Glass Sandstone unstrat 12 1 254 74 1 2 2 1 8 30 222 44 2 5 1 2 1 2 11 11 3 103 25 1 1 1 3 80 12 13 4 1305 27 1 1 1 4 31 1 3 1 453 116 1 5 1 2 1 104 93 2 3 6 73 88 7 1 50 98 3 8 5 42 49 1 2 1 9 3 1 1 58 88 3 10 10 178 212 11 1 106 137 12 2 34 13 1 10 29 14 1 9 26 15 7 28 60 16 2 3 48 17 2 7 15 18 9 1 33 97 19 1 1 33 20 4 28 159

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Table 36. Assemblage composition by level (spits) Level Angular Complete Broken Complete Broken Cores,Core Other Fragments Flakes Flakes Tools Tools frags Un- 32 72 110 10 19 103 strat 1 28 87 102 7 3 4 84 2 23 255 331 17 17 11 102 3 107 526 527 20 32 6 226 4 35 181 232 4 2 3 149 5 17 51 55 4 1 1 77 6 22 40 57 2 2 38 7 13 37 61 41 8 4 29 51 2 1 13 9 13 49 69 1 2 1 19 10 23 140 194 10 33 11 25 67 92 3 6 2 49 12 3 9 22 1 1 13 3 16 17 4 14 4 10 14 1 7 15 12 18 32 1 1 31 16 4 16 22 1 1 9 17 3 9 12 18 17 37 63 2 1 20 19 13 12 10 20 12 40 58 1 1 79 Total 400 1702 2133 72 80 52 1095

Table 37. Tool Types by level (spit) Level Backed Scraper Usewear Other Total Un-strat 3 2 2 1 8 1 5 4 1 10 2 25 3 3 2 33 3 38 13 1 52 4 3 2 1 6 5 2 2 1 5 6 1 1 2 7 8 2 2 9 2 1 3 10 4 6 10 11 1 6 1 1 9 12 1 1 13 14 1 1 15 1 1 2 16 1 1 17 18 2 1 3 19 20 1 1 Total 91 42 10 6 149

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Table 38. Size of Complete Flakes over space and at depth Row A Mean Stdev B Mean Stdev C Mean Stdev Number Max Max Max Max Max Max Dim Dim Dim Dim Dim Dim Un- stratified 3 19.5 7.6 17 26.6 13.2 8 28.7 12.0 1 26 22.3 11.9 22 26.8 11.3 2 23.5 12.2 2 8 29.8 17.4 13 30.6 17.5 11 27.6 12.8 3 13 22.8 14.1 83 19.9 9.6 15 22.7 9.3 4 16 29.0 12.4 15 25.6 8.5 4 40.1 21.3 5 6 25.8 11.9 8 29.1 16.1 6 26.4 10.1 6 15 25.8 11.9 52 27.7 12.5 7 30.3 17.1 7 6 20.3 12.8 17 33.4 18.9 5 28.3 18.7 8 16 20.4 13.4 25 24.3 12.3 12 29.4 16.2 9 128 22.4 11.1 131 17.9 10.9 19 21.1 13.9 10 71 21.5 12.7 49 22.0 14.9 28 20.5 11.6 11 142 19.9 9.3 130 21.9 11.3 59 23.7 13.8 12 74 19.0 9.1 110 21.5 10.6 66 23.4 13.1 13 36 18.5 10.1 46 19.4 9.9 32 26.0 13.9 14 25 24.2 12.4 14 32.5 18.7 14 27.1 9.8 15 38 25.1 11.8 5 20.8 9.1 11 22.0 11.8 16 13 20.4 7.6 13 25.1 12.9 17 20.8 12.0 Total 636 750 316

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Results of the entire excavation

Row Number A B C

Un-stratified 77 130 72 1 75 62 16 2 22 61 39 3 43 317 57 4 46 88 28 5 28 36 17 6 42 249 30 7 23 46 30 8 45 88 53 9 323 492 60 10 140 132 81 11 335 379 197 12 193 348 220 13 90 116 72 14 57 50 43 15 84 17 40 16 48 42 88 Multiple Rows Un-stratified 67

Total 5534

Key 0 1 to 20 21 to 40 41 to 60 61 to 80 81 to 100 101 - 300 301+

Figure 7. Spatial distribution of artefacts by Row and depth results have been corrected according to depths in taken during the excavation

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Results from Row A only

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16

0 4 7 14 1 1 7 3 11 1 5 2 1 5 2 3 52 7 42 2 6 4 2 22 6 1 6 3 16 16 30 113 18 21 17 40 9 3 31 2 2 3 2 7 1 189 60 116 67 37 26 8 3 4 5 4 6 15 5 5 6 11 2 8 76 3 3 5 8 3 11 14 16 2 3 1 2 3 11 1 1 6 4 5 7 3 5 3 2 6 1 1 1 1 1 7 4 1 10 1 16 6 6 13 5 8 1 3 1 3 30 12 1 2 2 9 1 3 1 4 13 13 3 15 2 10 2 13 51 4 1 11 13 11 14 23 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 20

KEY TO COLOUR CODING APPLIED IN MAIN BODY OF EXCAVATION REPORT

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Results from Row B Only

B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16

0 7 9 7 0 6 12 4 5 7 5 6 4 0 7 3 6 3 8 2 6 13 4 1 3 22 12 4 2 2 8 3 4 1 23 2 2 7 3 52 5 1 9 2 3 36 45 42 14 6 3 20 14 73 29 7 19 2 19 62 34 264 130 42 28 1 4 13 13 12 27 8 31 7 16 75 52 10 45 5 1 2 5 9 5 11 11 4 25 9 12 3 3 19 1 6 6 4 4 9 4 15 8 20 1 1 4 7 3 1 3 8 3 5 18 5 2 2 3 1 8 1 3 2 7 7 1 3 9 15 8 3 3 1 1 10 1 40 14 36 4 5 1 7 18 11 2 1 12 16 20 6 9 14 12 4 32 13 4 12 1 23 14 2 18 16 15 68 10 6 11 16 9 38 3 3 17 19 65 4 1 18 45 28 2 19 32 2 20 191

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Results from Row C only

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16

0 3 0 5 0 10 10 4 5 3 4 4 5 1 3 12 2 1 7 6 15 7 2 3 14 9 6 12 2 1 18 10 2 2 1 14 6 113 37 9 3 3 2 8 3 9 1 8 9 8 27 56 2 2 2 6 4 2 1 6 6 1 1 99 2 5 2 6 5 4 3 3 3 4 2 1 4 3 6 2 12 5 2 11 4 2 2 3 2 7 2 3 7 12 2 2 4 2 1 1 8 1 1 2 2 6 1 1 3 1 2 1 9 1 2 5 3 12 6 15 3 9 6 6 10 1 14 9 33 36 8 29 12 7 20 10 11 49 57 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Figure 8. Horizontal and vertical distribution of artefacts in Rows A, B and C all results have been corrected according to depths taken during excavation

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Spatial Layout of 1 Tuff Artefacts

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16

0 1 3 12 1 15 6 3 11 1 5 2 1 1 2 3 22 4 7 1 6 3 2 22 6 1 3 16 16 28 103 14 20 15 38 9 3 31 2 1 7 1 144 57 107 59 37 25 8 2 4 3 2 5 6 1 7 74 3 2 5 1 2 2 10 1 1 6 1 4 1 1 1 7 1 1 1 2 8 1 1 1 14 2 1 1 1 9 1 2 2 1 10 9 43 1 1 3 11 2 8 1 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

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B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16

0 6 12 7 7 12 9 13 20 1 3 16.5 0 1.5 1.5 1.5 0 1 3 22 10 4 1 2 3 3 3 23 1 2 7 1 52 3 1 2 2 34 45 41 13 6 3 19 12 71 26 7 17 1 17 61 33 236 124 39 27 1 4 11 13 7 25 8 1 1 1 66 45 8 44 3 1 2 5 5 4 9 2 11 11 1 3 17 1 6 4 2 7 3 2 6 1 1 1 4 7 1 1 1 3 2 1 1 2 1 3 8 1 1 2 2 1 9 11 4 1 3 1 1 10 1 8 11 18 3 3 10 11 1 1 8 7 1 1 7 12 1 1 13 3 1 6 14 2 7 15 23 5 16 2 1 17 6 1 18 10 20 3 19 1 20 28

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C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16

0 6 6 5 5 3 4 1 5 16.5 3 0 8 8 1 0 1.5 1 2 11 2 1 7 4 14 6 2 3 12 9 5 12 2 1 17 10 2 2 1 13 4 111 35 9 3 2 2 6 3 7 1 7 9 7 26 54 2 2 5 4 1 5 5 1 1 89 2 3 1 5 5 4 3 3 3 1 2 1 3 3 6 1 12 2 2 8 4 1 2 2 7 2 2 7 12 2 1 1 1 1 8 1 1 2 6 1 2 9 1 2 2 3 9 1 1 3 5 4 10 5 5 14 4 8 8 19 4 11 19 50 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Figure 9. Spatial Layout of 1 Tuff Artefacts

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Spatial Layout of 2 Tuff Artefacts

A1 A2 A3 A4 A5 A6 A7 A8 A9 A10 A11 A12 A13 A14 A15 A16

0 3 4 2 4 1 5 3 1 4 34 2 6 4 2 3 2 2 2 2 1 4 2 4 6 13 5 10 1 1 5 8 3 11 10 16 2 3 1 6 4 4 3 3 5 3 2 6 1 1 7 3 1 9 1 16 6 6 12 8 1 15 9 1 1 9 3 2 10 12 2 15 10 2 4 8 4 10 10 11 14 21 2 10 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 1 20

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B1 B2 B3 B4 B5 B6 B7 B8 B9 B10 B11 B12 B13 B14 B15 B16

0 7 2 3 1 3 4 5 3 0 4 0 1 1 1 2 2 1 9 1 3 1 3 2 1 2 1 4 2 5 2 30 15 15 1 5 4 5 7 2 2 13 1 1 6 2 4 2 2 1 13 2 19 7 2 2 5 1 4 17 4 1 1 8 2 2 5 5 1 2 9 4 3 2 10 32 3 12 1 5 1 4 8 11 1 4 9 19 5 2 13 12 3 31 13 1 11 17 14 10 16 15 43 5 5 7 16 9 34 2 3 17 13 1 1 18 32 40 23 2 19 30 2 20 159

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C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 C11 C12 C13 C14 C15 C16

0 3 4 4 0 1.5 1.5 4 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 4 1 1 1 1 5 3 1 6 1 3 3 2 1 1 7 1 1 3 2 8 1 1 1 2 9 3 3 5 13 2 6 1 2 10 1 9 4 33 19 4 21 3 7 1 6 11 30 7 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

Figure 10. Spatial Layout of 2 Tuff Artefacts

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Site Chronology

Aboriginal occupation at PR09 is indicated by a number of artefact attributes. One method of identifying changes in Aboriginal occupation is to compare the results of the excavation with the Eastern Regional Sequence (ERS)30 (Table 33). The ERS predominately identifies changes in trends of raw materials, tool types and the production and technological characteristics of stone artefacts31.

The Redbank A Strategy, is a reduction strategy for flaking stone material commonly observed within Hunter Valley assemblages and was first identified by Dr. Peter Hiscock in the 1980s. It is characterised by large complete flakes which are intentionally heat treated to improve the flaking properties and then transported to one or more locations and used as cores to make elongated flakes for bondi point manufacture32. Dating of Hiscock’s Redbank A Strategy provides some additional indication of the time of occupation for the Study Area. This strategy is thought to date to a minimum of 1,300 ± 100 years before present (BP)33. Evidence of this reduction strategy was identified within the PR09 assemblage.

The following dot points outline in brief why the stone assemblage has been dated to the Holocene period of the ERS with a concluding paragraph following it below:

 The results provided in ‘Spatial Variation’ indicate that tuff was the dominant material throughout most of its occupation, followed by an introduction of additional materials such as silcrete and quartz, although in low frequencies in upper levels (spits 1-4) (Table 35). This trend is indicative of the late Holocene, post 3,000 years BP within the ERS.  Bipolar flaking technology was present in most levels, but had a high frequency (63.8%, n=196) in upper spits (10-11 and 2-4). This is shown most clearly in Tables 39 and 21. This trend is indicative of the late Holocene, post 3,000 years BP within the ERS.  The tool assemblage indicates an increased frequency (47.4%, n=71) of backed artefacts within upper levels (particularly spits 2-4). Only three elouera (type of backed artefact) were recovered from these levels (spits 2, 5 and 8).

30 Late Holocene period ranged from 5000 years before present (BP) to present day (Attenbrow 2002:154) 31 The Eastern Regional Sequence is a classificatory system used along the Eastern Seaboard of Australia to assist in grouping, understanding and interpreting differing phases of Aboriginal occupation (see Attenbrow 2002: 115-159 for an overview). 32 Hiscock 1993: 71-72 and Hiscock 1986 33 Hiscock 1993: 71

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Evidence of backed artefact manufacture also appears to be concentrated in the upper 1-4/5 spits (e.g. all complete flakes equal to or less than 5mm in maximum dimension were from these spits and focused on squares B3, B9 and A10), i.e. near the ‘hearth’ features and most of the elongated flake forms were also concentrated in the upper 1-4 spits (69.1%, n=394), although not the only form to have used this shape (e.g. end scrapers also used this shape), most of these shaped flakes were present in these levels. These trends are indicative of the late Holocene, post 4,500 years BP within the ERS.  Evidence from some cores manufactured from flake bodies within the assemblage indicates that the Redbank A Strategy of reduction was being applied at the site. The minimum date for this strategy has been identified as 1,300±100years before present at a depth of some 45 to 60cm below ground surface. This equates to spits 4 to 6 within the PR09 assemblage.  One glass artefact was recovered from the assemblage from the upper levels (spit 1) indicating that some post contact occupation of the PR09 site occurred. However this artefact may have moved down within the soil profile as it was only 0.3g in weight34. This is indicative of post contact activity within the site (i.e. post 1788AD) which equates to the late Holocene of the ERS.

These results indicate that several phases of occupation (three) were evident at PR09, grouped as spits 18-20; spits 9-11 and spits 2-4. They indicate an age for PR09 which is likely to range from the late Holocene (and within that to the Early to the Late Bondaian) i.e. 5,000 years BP to present. The basal levels may be older but it is not clear from the assemblage characteristics that they relate to the Early Holocene (10,000 – 5,000 years BP). This is particularly relevant where the post depositional data from the site indicates the some dune redeposition within lower units of the site and the basal artefacts were more difficult to interpret than those from upper units due to varying levels of post depositional ‘wear’ that was present.

34 It is noted that this artefact was recovered from spit 1 (the implication being that it can’t have been size sorted), however it should be remembered that prior to the Aboriginal heritage excavation there was an historical archaeological excavation. The historical excavation removed soil containing historical materials in order to reach the top level of the Aboriginal excavation. Therefore the upper unit of the Aboriginal excavation which are referred to as ‘unstratified’ in this report are in fact the basal layers of the Historical excavation. This means that the piece of glass may have been size sorted within the deposit to its recovered location in spit 1.

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Table 39. Frequency and depth of bipolar flaking amongst complete flakes, complete tools, proximal flakes and proximal tools in the assemblage

Level Complete Flakes Complete Tools Proximal Flakes Proximal Tools (Count) (Count) (Count) (Count) Un-stratified 9 1 1 11 1 1 2 40 10 1 3 65 3 15 4 27 1 5 5 5 1 6 11 1 7 10 3 8 4 2 9 8 1 10 12 6 11 10 1 12 3 13 2 14 3 15 3 16 3 17 18 7 1 19 3 3 20 8 6 Total 242 5 59 1

Table 40. Summary of key attributes in the Eastern Regional Sequence for the Sydney Region (Attenbrow 2002: 153-158) ERS Phase Geological Attributes Period Pleistocene:  Tools (stone tools with retouch and some usewear) Pre-Glacial  Flakes produced by free-hand percussion and some Capertian to post – limited bipolar flaking; Glacial  Retouched flakes on average are larger than Bondaian > 5000 years ago phased retouched artefacts 60,000 –  Principal raw material local tuff/chert but other types 10,000 years also observed including silcrete, quartz and basalt. ago Early  Stone tools of previous period continued Holocene  Small flakes are backed forming Bondi Points which Period appear in limited numbers in some areas (although not 10,000 – yet confirmed in Sydney Region, they are present in 5,000 years Upper Mangrove Creek at 8500 years ago and Capertee 3 ago at 7500 BP);

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Early  Backed artefacts often the characteristic tool-type Bondaian  Implements and associated debitage made ( incl. Bondi Bondaian Points, geometric microliths, Elouera and other ca 5000 – retouched flakes) are much smaller in average size and 5000 ca 3000 weight than those from earlier assemblages years ago years ago  Silcrete, chert and tuff and other fine-grained siliceous to 1788 material were the preferred materials for backed AD artefacts  Elouera and ground implements (such as hatchets) appear c.4500-4000 years ago Middle  C.3500-3000 years ago backed artefacts and thumbnail Bondaian scrapers increasingly used and produced across the Region and higher numbers of backed artefacts found in ca 3000 – coastal locations in particular ca 1600  Increasing use of the bipolar percussive technique over years ago free-hand percussion over time (esp. from 3000 to 1788AD) Late Late  Elouera increase in number Holocene Bondaian  Intra-regional variation observed between the Period coast/sandstone country and the Cumberland Plain. 5,000 to  Along coast and in sandstone country fewer Bondi Points 1,600 years ca 1600 and geometric microliths were used; ago years ago  Unmodified flakes, mainly of quartz, often produced by to 1788AD the bipolar technique [implements of bone and shell some probably as piercing and cutting, scraping components in tools and weapons found more often but due to non-preservation in earlier levels.  In Cumberland Plain, tool kit continued as earlier (with backed artefacts until at least 600 years ago) in places where silcrete and chert/tuff were the dominant raw materials. In these places quartz was a minor component and bipolar technique used infrequently.  Change around 650 years ago with few backed artefacts being produced.  Increase in ground edged hatchets from c. 1000 years ago)  Archaeological evidence of processing of plant foods from (c.1150 years ago) again due to non-preservation in earlier levels  Fishing with shell hook & line from c.900 years ago

Comparative Analysis

The results of the Palais Royale 2010 excavation were compared to similar sites in the region (Figure 11). Table 41 provides a summary of key attributes considered in comparative analysis with sites in the Newcastle region. A more detailed summary is available in Appendix C.

The aim of this comparison is to better understand the archaeological significance of the study site within a wider landscape. Comparisons focused on the main trends observed within these assemblages. A brief summary is presented below for the relevant sites and more detailed tables are included in Appendix C of this report.

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Figure 11. Plan showing Study Area (in green) in relation to nearby sites considered in this comparative analysis (shown red)

The analysis of the assemblage composition and raw materials has revealed the following trends:

 Comparison of Raw Materials across assemblages indicates that with the exception of Rathmines 2009, Tuff was clearly the dominant raw material with smaller quantities of other raw materials at other sites within the Newcastle area. The PR09 assemblage is typical of these types of assemblages with respect to raw materials (Figure 12, Appendix C Table 2).  Comparison of the assemblage composition reveals that PR09 is similar to other sites in the Newcastle region with high flake fragmentation, low tool frequencies and few cores present (Figure 13, Appendix C Table 3).

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 A comparison of the tool assemblages indicates that the tools recovered from PR09 were the most varied of the sites in the immediate Newcastle CBD area (i.e. it contained several types of backed artefacts, hammerstones, an anvil, pebble tools, a chopper, evidence of denticulate retouch and a variety of scraper types). However site MM09 contained the next highest variation in tool types with the presence of a reshaped axe head with likely links to grinding grooves a short distance from the main artefact concentration on site (Appendix C).  Overall comparison of the assemblage from PR09 indicates that the assemblage is not uncommon or rare when compared with neighbouring site assemblages from the Newcastle Region. This appears to correspond for raw material types, assemblage composition and the activities which took place on site (Appendix C).  The PR09 date range of several phases of occupation over the past 5,000 years to the early 1800s is not unusual within the Newcastle Area (Table 41). However there is some limited potential for PR09 to contain deposits which may date to the early Holocene (i.e. 10,000-5,000 years BP), although the level of post depositional disturbance suggests that this is unlikely. Evidence of this type is rare in other sites in Newcastle.  PR09 is also one of the few sites in the Newcastle region with a stratified deposit (most likely retained in the upper spits at the site i.e. 1-4/5) and dateable evidence found in association. This indicates that the PR09 assemblage has higher archaeological value than neighbouring assemblages for this reason.

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Table 41. Summary of key attributes for comparative analysis with PR09

Palais Rathmines MM09 Boardwalk NWC 2002, NCLS, 1998 Newcastle Royale S87 2009a, site 2004, AHMS Higginbotham Bight,

2009c, 2009b AHMS MDCA 1997 AHMS AHMS Umwelt Distance 0 22.22 12.4 0.73 0.08 1.99 11.03 to PR09 Size of 48 12 44 10 93 n/a n/a Excavation (m2) Number of 553435 41 1673 113 2382 401 7736 Artefacts Artefact 115.3 3.4 26.1 11 25.6 n/a n/a Density/m2 Several Short term short Short term Insufficient historic Short repeated camp site term camp site interpretation Re- term events camp – but several depositional camp site over site knapping event time – floors Site Type potential indicates for short potential for or longer short or term repeated long camping term camping events Late Pre 1,600 Circa No time 3120 years to Late Circa Holocene BP 5,000- indicated 800 years BP Pleisocene – 4,500 (5,000- 1,300 Sometime early years BP c1800s) BP during last Holocene (i.e. May be 5,000 10,000 – Estimated older years? 5,000 years Age of site (i.e. BP) Early Holocene (10,000 – 5,000 years BP)

35 This figure includes stone artefacts recovered from contexts later determined to be associated with historic fill 36 Umwelt 1997: 43 and 18. No artefacts were recovered from the excavation, however 77 stone artefacts were collected from surface contexts

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Comparison of Raw Materials

100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 Frequency (%) Frequency 20.0 10.0 0.0

s te rtz u e a o IMTC rtzite dony e ilcr a Qu n Glass Other S lce Ig Qu Cha

PR09 MM09 Rathmines 09 MDCA 2004 NWC 2002 NCLS 1998 Umwelt 1998

Figure 12. Comparison of Raw Materials between assemblages

Comparison of Assemblage Composition

100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 30.0 Frequency (%) Frequency 20.0 10.0 0.0 l t o re er To Tool th Flake e Co O n ragmen r F plete Flakeroke Broken m B ore Fragmentla Complet gu Co C n A

PR09 MM09 Rathmines 09 MDCA 2004 NWC 2002 NCLS 1998 Umwelt 1998

Figure 13. Comparison of Assemblage Composition Elements

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CONCLUSION

Overall the PR09 assemblage is not unusual in its assemblage composition, i.e. it displays evidence for the manufacture of both flakes and tools (backed artefacts). The raw material types found at PR09 are not unusual for the Newcastle region, although evidence indicates a slight increase in the use of other raw materials (such as silcrete and quartz) in addition to tuff in upper units on site.

The PR09 Stone artefact assemblage is similar to other sites in the Newcastle CBD and region with the following exceptions:

 The PR09 site is stratified, although this appears to be focused on the upper spits (i.e. units 1-4/5).  It displays evidence of a several occupation events (3) over time.  It provides evidence of what has been interpreted as a hearth (discussed in the main text of the excavation report).  It provides evidence of occupation which dates from the Early Bondaian (i.e. 5,000 years BP to the early 1800s) with some limited potential for early Holocene deposits to be present also (i.e. 10,000-5,000 years BP). However due to post depositional factors at the site, this was not clearly observable in the stone artefact assemblage.

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REFERENCES

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Andrefsky, W. Jr. 1998. Lithics: Macroscopic approaches to analysis. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge

AMBS. 1998. Analysis of Aboriginal Stone Artefacts Recovered from the Newcastle Convict Lumberyard & Stockyard Site. Unpublished report to Edward Higginbotham & Associates Pty Ltd

Attenbrow, V.J. 2002. Sydney's Aboriginal Past. Investigating the Archaeological and Historical Records , (1st ed, hardback). UNSW Press, Sydney.

Attenbrow, V. 2003. The Archaeology of Upper Mangrove Creek, Sydney Basin: What’s Changing Population Size or Land-Use Patterns? Terra Australis 21, Pandanus Books and ANU, Canberra.

Attenbrow, V., T. Doelman and T. Corkill. 2008. Organising the manufacture of Bondi Points at Balmoral Beach, Middle harbour, Sydney, NSW, Australia. Archaeology in Oceania vol 43 (3):104-119

Barry, F. 2005. It’s not set in Stone: A landscape approach to Archaeology in the Cumberland Plain: Investigations from the Western Sydney Orbital (WSO/Westlink M7). Unpublished BA Hons Thesis, Prehistoric and Historical Archaeology. University of Sydney: Sydney.

Cooper, J. R. & F. Qiu. 2006. Expediting and Standardizing Stone Artefact Refitting Using a Computer Suitability Model. Journal of Archaeological Science 33: 987-998

Cotterell, B. & J. Kamminga. 1987. The Formation of Flakes. American Antiquity 52 (4): 675-708

Corkill, T. 1997. Red, Yellow and Black: Colour and heat in archaeological stone. Australian Archaeology 45: 675-708

Corkill, T. 1999 Here and There: links between stone sources and Aboriginal archaeological sites in Sydney, Australia, MPhil Thesis, Department of Archaeology, University of Sydney

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Delagnes, A. & H. Roche. 2005. Late Pliocene Hominid Knapping Skills: The Case of Lokalalei 2c, West Turkana, Kenya. Journal of Human Evolution 48:435-472.

Doelman, T. J. Webb and M. Domanski. 2001. Source to discard: patterns of lithic raw material procurement and use in Sturt National Park, northwestern New South Wales. Archaeology in Oceania, vol 36: 15-33

Dyall, L. K. 1972. Aboriginal Occupation of the Dudley-Jewells Swamp Area, Hunter Natural History

Edward Higginbotham and Associates Pty Ltd. 1998. Report on the Aboriginal Relics located during the Archaeological Test Excavation of the Convict Lumber Yard and Stockade, Newcastle, NSW. Unpublished report prepared for Newcastle City Council

Hiscock, P. 1984. Raw Materials Rationing as an explanation of assemblage differences: A case study of Lawn Hill, Northwestern Queensland. In (ed.) G. K. Ward, Archaeology at ANZAAS, Canberra: a collection of papers presented to Section 25A of the 54th Congress of the Australian and New Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science in May 1984. Canberra Archaeological Society, Canberra. Pp 178-190

Hiscock, P. 1986. Technological change in the Hunter River Valley and the interpretation of late Holocene change in Australia. Archaeology in Oceania, 21: 29-39

Hiscock P, 1997. Glossary of Terms used in Lithic Analysis. Last Viewed 18 August 2010. http://arts.anu.edu.au/arcworld/resources/stonegloss/gloss.htm

Hiscock, P. 1993. Bondaian Technology in the Hunter Valley, New South Wales. Archaeology in Oceania 28: 65-76

Hiscock, P., S. Mitchell. 1993. Stone Artefact Quarries and Reduction Sites in Australia: Towards a site profile. Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.

Hiscock, P. A. Mercieca. 2008. Experimental insights into alternative strategies for lithic heat treatment. Journal of Archaeological Science 35: 2634-2639

Hofman, J. L. 1981. The refitting of Chipped-Stone Artefacts as an Analytical and Interpretive Tool. Current Anthropology 22 (6): 691-693

Holdaway, S. and N. Stern 2004. A Record in Stone: The study of Australia’s Flaked Stone Artefacts. Aboriginal studies Press and Museum of Victoria, Victoria

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Jodry, M. A. 1992; Fitting Together Folsom: Refitted Lithics and Site Formation Processes at Stewart's Cattle Guard Site. In (ed.) J. Hofman & J. Enloe. Piecing Together the Past: Applications of Refitting Studies in Archaeology, BAR, Oxford. Pp. 179-209.

Lapidus, D. F. 2003 (revised ed). Collins Dictionary of Geology. Harpercollins, Glasgow

Kooyman, B. 2000. Understanding Stone Tools and Archaeological Sites. University of Calgary Press, Calgary, Alberta, Canada

Odell, G. H. 2003. Lithic Analysis. Springer: New York

Petragalia, M. D. 1992. Stone Artefact Refitting and Formation Processes at the Abri Dufaure, An Upper Paleolithic Site in Southwest France. In (ed.) J. Hofman & J. Enloe. Piecing Together the Past: Applications of Refitting Studies in Archaeology, BAR, Oxford. Pp. 163-178

Marks, A. E. & P. Volkman. 1987. Technological variability and change seen through core reconstruction In (Ed.) G. D. G. Sieveking & M. H. Newcomer. The human Uses of Flint and chert: Proceedings of the fourth international flint symposium held at Brighton Polytechnic 10-15 April 1983. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge. Pp 11- 20

McPherron, S & S. Holdaway. 1996. Entrer Trois. In H. Dibble & S. McPherron A Multimedia Companion to the Middle Paleolithic Site of Combe-Capelle Bas (France). CR-ROM, University of Pennsylvania Museum, Philadelphia.

MDCA. 2004. Aboriginal Archaeological Test Excavation Report: The Boardwalk site Honeysuckle Drive, Newcastle, NSW. Unpublished report prepared for Stronach Pty Ltd

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Sullivan, M. E. & S. Simmons. 1979. Silcrete: A Classification for flaked stone artefact assemblages. The Artefact 4: 51-60

Summerfield, M. A. 1983. Silcrete, In (eds.) A. S. Goudie & K. Pye Chemical Sediments and Geomorphology: precipitates and residue in the near-surface Environment. Academic Press, London.

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Umwelt. 1997. Archaeological Assessment Results of Test Pit Excavations at the ‘Fullerton’ Site, Newcastle Bight, NSW. Unpublished report prepared for BHP Titanium Minerals Pty Ltd

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Whittaker, J. C. 1994. Flintknapping: making and understanding stone tools. University of Texas Press: Austin

Wopfner, H. 1978. Silcretes of Northern South Australia and Adjacent Regions, In Silcrete in Australia. T. Langford-Smith (ed.), 93-140. Armidale, Department of Geography, University of New England.

Wyckoff, D. G. 1992. Refitting and Protohistoric Knapping behavior: The Lowrance Example. In (ed.) J. Hofman & J. Enloe. Piecing Together the Past: Applications of Refitting Studies in Archaeology, BAR, Oxford. Pp. 83-127

Wright, R. 2003. Report on Stones from Archaeological Excavations at Merimbula Public School, NSW. Unpublished report prepared for AHMS.

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APPENDIX A: DEFINITION OF TERMS

Raw Material Types Described in this Report

Chalcedony: “a cryptocrystalline variety of silica, having a compact fibrous structure and waxy lustre. It may be translucent or semi-transparent, and occurs in a variety of colours” (Lapidus 1990:99).

Chert: “a dense, extremely hard, microcrystalline or cryptocrystalline, siliceous sedimentary rock, consisting mainly of interlocking quartz crystals, sub-microscopic and sometimes containing opal (amorphous silica). It is typically white, black or grey, and has an even to flat fracture. Chert occurs mainly as nodular or concretionary aggregations in limestone and dolomite, and less frequently as layered deposits (banded chert). It may be an organic deposit (radiolarian chert), an inorganic precipitate (the primary deposit of colloidal silica), or a siliceous replacement of pre- existing rocks” (Lapidus 1990:102).

Fine grained Siliceous: a general term which has been interpreted to include sedimentary rocks with a texture such that the average diameter of particles is less than 1/16th mm (silt sized or smaller) (Lapidus 1990: 180). Attenbrow defines this category as “rock which may be very fine-grained quartzite, chert or quartz, but could not be correctly classified without petroscopic analysis. It does, however, form a distinct group on hand specimen examination.” (Attenbrow 1987, vol 11, Appendix 4:2 as cited in Corkill 1999: Glossary and Abbreviations, p5)

Igneous (or volcanic): ‘All extrusive rocks and associated high-level intrusive ones. The group is entirely magmatic and dominantly basic. Igneous lithic material generally dark in colour and may be glassy (like obsidian) or very fine-grained or glassy igneous rock produced by volcanic action at or near the Earth’s surface, either extruded as lava (e.g. basalt) or expelled explosively’ (Lapidus 1990:535).

Quartz: ‘crystalline silica, SiO2. It crystallizes in the trigonal system, commonly forming hexagonal prisms. For cryptocrystalline varieties of silica see Chalcedony. Colourless and transparent quartz, is found in good crystals, is known as rock crystal. Varieties that are colours due to the presence of impurities may be used as gemstones, amethyst, purple to blue-violet, rose quartz, pink; citrine, orange- brown; smoky quartz, pale yellow to deep brown’ (Lapidus 1990:429). One type of quartz is referred to in this report (crypto-crystalline):

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Quartz (Cryptocrystalline): is a finely, as opposed to coarsely, crystalline variety of quartz. It is composed of inter-grown aggregates of microscopic of sub-microscopic quartz crystals. Examples include agate, onyx, carnelian and others, which are commonly translucent to opaque. (University of Texas 2008)

Quartz (Milky): is cloudy white in colour and the most common variety of quartz. It is often found in veins and the milky appearance is due to fluid inclusions (trapped vapour or fluid) (University of Texas 2008)

Quartzite: ‘a metamorphic rock consisting primarily of quartz grains, formed by the recrystallization of sandstone by thermal or regional metamorphism; a metaquartzite and a sandstone composed of quartz grains cemented by silica; an orthoquartzite’ (Lapidus 1990:430).

Silcrete: A hard surface deposit composed of sand and gravel cemented by silica. It is formed by chemical weathering and water evaporation in semi-arid climates. Extensive deposits of silcrete are found in South Africa and Australia. Silcrete is a siliceous duricrust (Lapidus 1990:472). Grades of silcrete quality were defined based on a visual inspection only, predominately based on average clast sizes and the presence of sub-angular-sub-rounded, well sorted (or not) quartz clasts (see Barry 2005: 80-81 and Doelman et al 2001).

Fine Grained Silcrete: comprises a fine sand sized quartz clasts (i.e. less than 0.5 mm) which were well sorted.

Medium Grained Silcrete: comprised an ill-sorted, subangular-subrounded quartz clasts, mostly 0.5 to 1 mm in size).

Coarse Grained Silcrete: comprised an ill-sorted, sub-angular-subrounded quartz clasts, mostly larger than medium sized (i.e. greater than 1 mm in size). Conglomerated silcrete was also included in this category (i.e. where larger (5 mm +) sized ill sorted clasts of material other than quartz were noted in the material.

Tuff: ‘pyroclastic rock composed mainly of volcanic ash (fragments <2mm in diameter). Tuffs may be classified as crystal tuff if they contain a large proportion of crystal fragments, vitric tuff composed mainly of glass and pumice fragments and lithic tuff, containing mainly rock fragments. A consolidated mixture of lapilli and ash is a lapilli tuff (Lapidus 1990:519-520).

Several varieties of tuff were identified in the PR09 assemblage. These are outlined in the table below. Further consideration of these types following the analysis resulted in the following conclusions:

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Tuff 1 and Tuff 4 are likely the same type of material (Tuff), but tuff 4 indicates a higher level of water-rolling/wear likely as a result of environmental factors – these were combined into the field “1 Tuff” Tuff 2 and Tuff 3 are likely the same type of material (Chert), but Tuff 3 indicates a higher level of water-rolling/wear likely as a result of environmental factors and/or lack of glossy patina – these were combined into the field “2 Tuff”

Combined Types of Tuff Texture Dominant Colours Other Attributes Category 1 Tuff Tuff 1 Dull/dry Light, mid and Gen. higher spits dark grey, also Most oft. Sharp some pink and edged yellow 1 Tuff Tuff 2 Soapy, lustrous, Brown, smooth yellow/brown Shades of grey 2 Tuff Tuff 3 Sometimes soapy, Brown, Generally usually grainer in yellow/brown sharper edged appearance/texture than Tuff 4 2 Tuff Tuff 4 Dull/dry Lighter colours – Rounded, well often water rolled, not yellow/brown, sharp edged white/yellow

Volcanic: ‘All extrusive rocks and associated high-level intrusive ones. The group is entirely magmatic and dominantly basic. Igneous lithic material generally dark in colour and may be glassy (like obsidian) or very fine-grained or glassy igneous rock produced by volcanic action at or near the Earth’s surface, either extruded as lava (e.g. basalt) or expelled explosively’ (Lapidus 1990:535).

Other Terms and Applications Referred to in Text

Angular Fragment (or block): A term used to apply to flaking debris, i.e. fragments of stone material used to manufacture stone artefacts but which cannot be classified as a proximal, medial or distal flake. An angular fragment therefore lacks a bulb of percussion, platform and bulbar scar indicative of positive conchoidal or wedging fracture, but most often has evidence of one or more negative flake scars or one or more incomplete negative flake scars. This material is therefore part of the flaking process but not unambiguously a core, a complete or broken flake, a tool or another form of artefact type such as a grinding or ground implement etc. (Holdaway and Stern 2004:113-115).

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Artefact density expressed in square metres (m2): Density as expressed in metres2 is determined by the number of artefacts divided by the area excavated. E.g. – if 150 artefacts were found over a 23 square metre area (which is 23 squares of 1m x 1m dimensions), then the number of artefacts/ square metre is 6.5 artefacts/m2.

Artefact density expressed in square metres (m3): Is determined by dividing the number of artefacts within a certain area by the volume of earth excavated. Eg – if the area excavated is a total of 23 squares of dimensions 1m (length) x 1m (width) then the area excavated is 1x1 = 1 x 23 = 23m2 and the average depth of these squares is determined as 0.50m then 23 x 0.50m equals 11.5m3. Therefore if the total number of artefacts found in those 23 squares is 150 the artefact density in volume for that 11.5m3 area is 13.0 artefacts for each m3.

Backed Artefact: A retouched tool (maybe a complete, distal, medial or proximal flake) that displays evidence of backing along one lateral margin. This backing may be initiated from the ventral surfaces or alternately may be an example of bidirectional backing initiated from both surfaces (Holdaway and Stern 2004:259). (See also Retouch – backing below for further definition). Holdaway and Stern (2004:260) state there are four main types of commonly recognised backed artefacts, which include ‘Bondi Points; geometric microliths, Juan Knives and Elouera’.

Backing: Abrupt retouch (steeper than 80 degrees) (unidirectional or bidirectional flaking), usually on one lateral margin (to blunt the edge of a flake, often for hafting). Holdaway and Stern 2004: 259, 159).

Blade Flake: A flake which is twice as long as it is wide and which has parallel dorsal scars.

Bipolar Flaking: A method of removing flakes from a core, by striking a core against an anvil (Holdaway and Stern 2004:11). This is often evidenced by crushing at the platform and/or at the termination of the flake; Bipolar flaking is also evidenced as crushing at the base (end opposite the platform) of a core.

Bondi Point: Backed artefact, sometimes known as ‘asymmetrical points’ which have been backed along one lateral margin and come to a point at the distal end. Their length is less than 80 mm and they are asymmetrical along the longitudinal axis. Bondi points are made from blades or bladelets (meaning that dorsal flake scars are often blade shaped) (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 261-262).

Chattering (usewear): small flakes (1mm across) removed in crushing vs. flaking (Holdaway and Stern 2004:167)

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Cobbles: Can include cobbles of tuff or other raw materials, almost always with cortical material over most of the piece of stone, usually water rolled in variety

Colour When recording identify the different colour in the material, not necessarily the dominant colour E.g. a mostly light grey artefacts with a little streak of pink would be classified pink, because it can assist in later conjoin analysis.

Complete Flake: Holdaway and Stern state that flakes can be identified through the presence or absence of common characteristics. These can include a platform; a bulb of percussion; a point of force impact (PFI); a bulbar or eralliure scar; ripple marks and fissure on the ventral surface. Flakes can also display evidence of negative flake scaring, cortex or both on the dorsal surface. (Holdaway and Stern 2004:111)

Figure A: Common features present on flakes

Complete Split (Longitudinal split): A complete or longitudinal spilt is defined by Holdaway and Stern (2004:113) as a broken flake where the break runs ‘parallel to the flaking axis’ effectively splitting the flake in half along the longitudinal axis of the flake as opposed to breaks which occur along the right angle of the axis of percussion (or flaking axis) as with proximal, medial and distal flakes (Holdaway and Stern 2004:111).

Conchoidal (or hertzian) fracture: Where a force strikes the surface of a core forming a circular or ‘ring’ crack that bends back towards the surface of the core, forming a partial bulb of percussion. The fracture frequently moves towards the exterior surface of the core, detaching a flake (Holdaway and Stern 2004:34)

Concretion: Defined as the sandy material which has adhered to the artefact, likely associated with mineral deposits transferred via water, this was shown in the assemblage database as: “N/A” in % of cortex and “concretion” in Cortex type.

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Core: Andrefsky (1998:80-81) states a core can be understood as ‘an objective piece that has had flakes removed from its surface’; Holdaway and Stern (2004:37; 5-8) provide further clarification ‘artefacts that retain the negative flake scars of previous flake removals’.

Core Types: A multidirectional core has two or more platforms with no clear pattern in their orientation or the orientation of the scars which were struck from those platforms. A bifacial core has a single platform but flakes were struck from this platform were struck from two core faces. A Bidirectional core has two platforms at opposite ends, so that flakes have been struck from opposite directions. A unidirectional core has scars originating from a single platform with all flakes struck from the core in the same direction from that platform (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 180).

Cortical platform: The platform of a flake, core or tool that has evidence of cortex (see cortex)

Cortex: The outer layer of patination of rock is known as cortex. It is found on weathered stone (Holdaway & Stern 2004: 26-27). Wright (2003) identifies cortex types (mostly rough and water worn or pebble) can indicate information about the source that stone material was obtained from. Refer to primary and secondary cortex below.

Dimensions recorded: maximum dimensions (along the largest axes of the artefact) were recorded for each artefact with manual callipers as per Holdaway and Stern (2004) (Figure 5.10.1:189; Figure 3.23.1:137). Width and thickness were measured for complete flakes, tools and cores as the widest and thickest portions of those artefacts. Other measurements were recorded for complete flakes, tools and cores. Axial Length was recorded for all complete flakes and tools. Platform width was recorded for all proximal and complete flakes and tools as a measurement across the platform surface between the two lateral margins of the flake (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 124). Platform Thickness was also recorded for proximal, complete split as well as complete flakes and tools in the assemblage. Platform thickness was recorded as the thickness through the point of percussion in line with the percussion axis (axial line of the flake/tool) Holdaway and Stern 2004: 124-125). The maximum length of the core from the working platform was recorded as the ‘core face’, details of the longest core scar were also recorded including length and maximum width of this scar.

Distal Flake: A broken flake which is identified through ‘the presence of a termination and by the absence of a platform or impact point’ (Holdaway and Stern 2004:111)

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Dorsal Surface: ‘The dorsal surface is the outer side surface of a flake and is the side that is visible prior to the removal of the flake from the core. This surface often has cortex and dorsal scars and is useful in identifying core reduction both before and after removal of the flake’ (Barry 2005:70) (see flake characteristics above).

Edge Damage (usewear): macroscopic damage as a result of tool use (Holdaway and Stern 2004:167), however it is noted that other stone artefact analysts have used this term to indicate accidental damage.

Elouera (backed artefact): A backed artefact which has a crescent form (orange segment shape), symmetrically around its transverse axis, but asymmetrical around its longitudinal axis. The maximum dimension is greater than 30 mm. (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 264)

Flake characteristics: Depending on the completeness of the flake (see Flake completeness), a flake may have a number of common characteristics which may include: a platform, bulb of percussion, errailure (or bulbar) scar, point of force impact (PFI or umbo), dorsal ridge and ventral surface, fissures (or indentations); ripple marks (which radiate away from the point of force impact/umbo) and a termination. These characteristics can be seen in the following figures (Holdaway and Stern 2004:6-7; 108). Not all of these features are typically found on every flake, however they are attributes likely to be present from conchoidal fracture (Figure A).

Flake Completeness: A complete flake must have evidence of a termination and a platform (Figures A and B). A broken flake can be a proximal flake (have evidence of a platform but not a termination); a distal flake (have evidence of a termination but not a platform) or be a medial flake (have an identifiable ventral surface but lack a platform and termination. These parts of a flake are shown in better detail in the following figure (see Andrefsky 1998:87).

Figure B: Flake completeness

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Figure C: Common features present on flakes

Flake Termination: There are a number of different flake terminations (or ends of a flake) which are possible through flaking stone material. The main types of flake terminations include step, hinge, feather and plunging. These are shown in Figure C. Flake terminations can provide information about how the flake was removed (Whittaker 1994:106-109; Cotterell and Kamminga 1987:699).This information should not be used alone to determine trends in stone artefact analysis of an assemblage of artefacts, but should be considered with data obtained from flake platforms and cores within an assemblage. Termination Types: A step termination is an abrupt snap to the flake removal when flakes snap or shatter during removal to form an almost 90 degree angle. A hinge termination is when the flake rounds or rolls away from the core. A feather termination is when the flake smoothly shears away from the core. A plunging or overshot termination is when the flake rolls towards the core and removes a large portion of the core at the distal end of the flake (Andrefsky 1998: 85-86).

Flaked Platform: A platform of a flake which displays evidence of flaking, either prior to or after removal from the core.

Geometric Microlith: A backed artefact at one end of the other (sometimes both) on one lateral margin. The form is asymmetrical around its transverse axis. The maximum dimension is less than 80 mm. They often do not have a proximal end to the flake and they have a triangular or segment shape. (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 262-263).

Ground Stone (including grinding and ground implements): ‘Ground stone tools are distinguished from chipped stone in having been modified through abrasive, as opposed to percussive, forces’ (Odell 2003:74)

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Heat Treatment: ‘The process of heating siliceous rocks to improve their flakability…a key requirement of successful heat treatment is that undesirable heat-induced cracks or fractures are not created’ (Hiscock and Mercieca 2008).

Heat Fracture/Damage: Undesirable heat-induced cracks or fractures (crazing) and/or potlids (spalls of raw material which pop off the artefact) as a result of rapid heating and cooling of the artefact (Whittaker 1994: 74).

Heat Shatter: This term refers to artefacts which have been undergone heat fracture (i.e. rapid heating/cooling) which has broken and/or obscured identifiable features of the artefact.

Large Platform: Describes the size of a flake’s platform relative to the body of the flake. In this case the platform of the flake is larger in dimensions (i.e. larger in width and thickness than the maximum width and thickness dimensions of the flake). This is one characteristic which may indicate that the flake was at an earlier stage in the core’s reduction

Manuport: A piece of stone or an artefact (which may or may not display evidence of use) which is not usually found in the local area and is likely to have been brought there by human agency. E.g. seashells found inland or a piece of igneous material like basalt found in a sandy context by the beach with no sources of this material area locally available.

Manutuff: A category that encompasses tuff that has been recovered with no evidence of flaking but is more likely to have been moved by human action to the site (or possibly by the force of previous storms), this material may be angular or blocky.

Medial Flake: A broken flake or the mid-section of a flake which is defined by ‘the absence of the proximal and distal margins, but has an identifiable ventral surface’ (Holdaway and Stern 2004:111)

Negative Flake scar: The negative indentation or scar left behind on a flake, core or tool when a flake is removed. The presence and abundance of negative flake scars can reveal information about the process of flaking. For example negative flake scars on a) cores can provide information on how intensely the core has been used, b) on the dorsal surface of a flake can indicate how intensely the core was flaked before this flakes was removed and/or that the core platform was cleaned off to start flaking again (platform rejuvenation) c) along the edge of a flake can indicate retouch/backing (Holdaway and Stern 2004:184).

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Overhang Removal: The dorsal surface of a flake with scars initiated from the core platform that have run onto the flake. These small scars are interpreted as platform preparation for a core (Holdaway and Stern 2004:143-144).

Platform: A striking platform or a platform is the surface from which a flake is struck from a Core (Holdaway and Stern 2004:5); flakes retain part of the platform on their proximal end.

Platform Types: A unifacial platform has a single flake scar, a bifacial platform has up to two negative flake scars on the platform; a facetted platform has 3 or more small, systematic flake removals (often used to increase the exterior platform angle).

Platform Rejuvenation Flake: A flake which has been removed from a core in order to Reshape or re-orient one of the cores striking platforms so that further flakes can be removed from the core. The dorsal ridge of the flake will contain numerous negative flake scars and one side is part of a platform.

Primary Cortex: this refers to cortical material which is described as ‘rough’ in appearance and displays evidence of an exterior which most likely originates from the depositional bed of the stone material. This form of cortex is likely to display evidence of the stone bed from which it was removed which is indicated by the ‘rough’ or weathered exterior surface of the piece of stone.

Proximal Flake: A broken flake which lacks a termination but has a platform and/or impact point and one or more of the following: bulb of percussion, bulbar scar, fissure. ‘In other words, proximal flakes retain some evidence of the point from which the flake was struck but have been broken somewhere between the platform and the distal end’ (Holdaway and Stern 2004:111)

Potlid: is a ‘plano-convex [fragment] of stone ejected from a larger block of stone (or artefact) as a result of rapid expansion of the rock during uncontrolled heating. These potlids, or the scars they leave behind, near have ringcracks or any other feature indicative of the application of a blow. The potlid scar is often deepest in the centre, indicating an internal initiation of the facture’ (Hiscock 1997)

Retouch: Modification of a flake or core prior to use. Retouch is the ‘removal of a series of small, contiguous flakes’ from the edges of the artefact. (Holdaway and Stern 2004:33). There are several different types of retouch which are identified as backing; stepped; scalar; invasive; notched and serrated retouch (see definitions below).

Retouch (Backing): abrupt uni or bi-directional retouch, normally found on one lateral margin of a flake or blade at 90 degrees (Holdaway and Stern 2004:159)

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Reduction (of stone): By definition stone material is made smaller when it is struck to produce stone flakes and tools. This process is known as stone reduction. ‘Modern stone artefact analyses use the reductive nature of stone artefact manufacture as the basis for reconstructing the processes by which artefacts were made. By analysing the size and form of artefacts, archaeologists can obtain information about how stone was acquired from its source, the form in which the stone was transported to campsites, how it was worked, and the way stone artefacts were use until discarded’ (Holdaway and Stern 2004:3).

Ridge Straightening Flake: is a flake that has ‘a clearly identifiable dorsal ridge and is characterised by alternating flake removals down its dorsal surface’ (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 150). This type of flake is typically removed to prepare the core to remove further flakes, particularly for blade removal.

Scraper: ‘A minimal definition of a scraper is that it is a flake with one or more margins of continuous retouch’ which look like scales. They are removed from the flake at a low angle. It also indicates the stage of reduction the flake has reached (see Holdaway and Stern 2004:227). Australian scrapers are defined solely in terms of their edge morphology – see Straight, End, Step, Convex, Concave, Thumbnail etc.

Small platform: In this case the platform of the flake is small in dimensions (i.e. smaller in width and thickness than the maximum width and thickness dimensions of the flake). This is one characteristic which may be indicative that the flake was at a later stage in the reduction of a core

Standard Deviation (stdev): ‘the standard deviation is the most frequently calculated measure of variability. The standard deviation represents the average distance of a set of scores from the mean.

Straight Scraper: Retouch along the lateral margins of the flake – either one or both margins.

End Scraper: Scraper with retouch focused on one end – most often this is the distal end of the flake not the platform end).

Step Scraper: Edge angles are high (steep and stepped) with short robust edges. Terminations on retouch scars end in step terminations.

Convex and concave scrapers: Defined by the shape of the notches caused by retouch at the end of the flake in either a concave or a convex form (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 230)

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Raw Material Quality: Raw material quality is argued to influence the flaking properties of stone and is measured by characteristics which include quartz clast (grain) size. Specific discussion of raw material quality as it relates to silcrete was discussed in Barry (2005), who stated:

‘While Summerfield (1983) provided a methodology for analysis of silcrete, Wopfner (1978:79) and Sullivan and Simmons (1979) both determined separate classificatory systems for silcretes. Modification of these methods can be seen in Tibooburra, northwestern NSW (Doelman, 2001: 61). Summerfield (1983) as well as Sullivan and Simmons (1979) focus on elements such as silica grain size, whether the grains are sorted (the same size or varying sizes) and the texture and lustre of the silcrete being investigated. Wopfner focused on the matrix of the silcrete as the key factor in differentiation’ (Barry 2005:42-43).

Retouch Direction: Indicates the surface that the retouch was struck from. This may be ventral (from the ventral surface of the artefact); dorsal (from the dorsal surface of the artefact) or bidirectional (from both surfaces of the artefact).

Secondary Cortex: Also referred to as water rolled cortex. This is chemical weathering of the exterior surface of a piece of stone and may often be seen as a lighter coloured rind to the interior stone colour. Water rolled cortex will often display evidence of small rounded percussion marks as a result of the force of water movement (and of other boulders smashing into the stone) during the process of movement via water from the original stone deposition bed.

Termination: The distal end of a flake. There a number of different termination types including Feather; Step; Hinge and Plunging (Andrefsky 1998:86)

Trimming Flake: ‘removes small flakes from the exterior surface of a core in the same direction’ as the next flake intended for removal from the core. This type of flake can change the angle of a core platform (i.e. they can increase the exterior platform angle). It is usually a good way of removing small overhang left by a previous flake detachment from the same platform (Whittaker 1994:101-102).

Tool: A tool is an artefact which shows evidence of modification (i.e. by retouch) or without modification (i.e. show signs of usewear) (Holdaway and Stern 2004:33; 39).

Thumbnail Scraper: Small flake with a convex scraper edge (with scalar retouch) and unifacial retouch. It is shaped with a thumbnail located opposite the flake’s platform (at the distal end of the flake). Maximum dimension is usually less than 30 mm. (Holdaway and Stern 2004: 234-235)

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Usewear: ‘Evidence of distinctive patterns of wear [which is] sometimes found on the edges of artefacts that were believed to have been used for specific purposes’ (Holdaway and Stern 2004:41). Several types of usewear can be observed. Holdaway and Stern (2004:41; 167) identify ‘chattering’ and ‘edge damage’ as one form of usewear (see definitions below).

Unifacial Flaking: Removal of a flake or flakes from one platform/surface

Ventral Surface: The ventral surface of a flake is the surface of a flake which will show the majority of the attributes which identify a flake (see flake characteristics above). It is the surface which was not visible when the flake was attached to the core and is now only visible when removed from the core (see flake characteristics) Wear/Worn Artefacts: This describes the outer surface-area of artefacts where they displayed rounded edges and may display evidence of post depositional movement by water (i.e. generally very smooth and rounded) in appearance but this is a different attribute to cortex (or chemical weathering of the outer surface or rind of the artefact where water rolled cortex often displays a lighter coloured rind with small percussion cracks from the force of movement of larger boulders within a watercourse).

Terms Applied in Database: Term Definition Data class Artefact Type – complete flake; complete split flake; proximal flake; distal flake; broken flake; complete tool; proximal tool, broken tool, distal tool, core, core fragment; hammerstone; shatter (heat); block (angular fragment); broken hammerstone; spall; cobble, grinding/ground implement; core tool, split cobble; core tool fragment; pebble tool; manuport (tuff) Material Raw Material type (medium, coarse or fine grained) silcrete, milky quartz, quartzite, tuff, fine grained silicieous material, crystalline quartz, chert, silicified wood, sandstone, volcanic, chalcedony Colour Raw Material Colour Distend type of Termination (of the Flake) – option include feather, Abrupt (Step), Plunge, hinge, Cortical, Crushing (Bipolar) Cortex Percentage of Cortex (if on a flake – amount on the dorsal surface) Cortex Type Type of Cortex Form form of the flake – Indeterminate, Expanding, Block (angular Fragment), Blade, N/A, Platform Rejuvenation Flake, Bipolar, Errailure, Ridge straightening flake, elongated flake Platform Type type of flake platform (of the flake) – unidirectional, crushing, >Bi (up to 2 flake scars), Facetted (3 or more small, systematic flake removals), Cortical (with cortex), n/a Flake scars the number of flake scars on the dorsal surface of the flake Scar1 The direction of the dorsal flake scars – 1 (initiated from the platform only), 90 (initiated at right angles to the platform), 180 (initiated at the distal end of the flake), radial (initiated from 90 and 270 degrees from the platform) Tool Type Select the type of tool – usewear, concave scraper, convex scraper,

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straight scraper, elouera (backed artefact), notched scraper, endscraper, saw, stepped scraper, drill, backed (generic), bondi point, thumbnail scraper, denticulate, burin, geometric microlith, nosed scraper Retouch Edge The number of retouched quadrants (on complete tools only) Retouch Type 1, 2, Select the retouch type for quadrants 1, 2, 3 and 4 3, 4 Core Type unidirectional, bidirectional, bifacial, microblade, multiplatform, prismatic, tranchet, test, bipolar Core Body Core body form – block, flake, nodule, non diagnostic Core Sec Core cross section – square, rectangular, lenticular, conical, non- diagnostic Scar Form Primary scar form? – Elongated, Expanding, Blade, mixed C Plat No. Number of Platforms on the core Step Termination Number of Step terminations on the core Hinge Termination Number of Hinge terminations on the core Max Dim The maximum dimension of the artefact Length Complete Axial length of the complete flake/complete tool Flake Width Maximum width of the artefact Thick Maximum thickness of the artefact Core Length Maximum length from the working platform Platform width Platform width – proximal and complete flakes and tools Platform Thickness Platform thickness – proximal and complete flakes and tools (and complete splits) Core scar Length of the longest core scar Core scar Width Width of the longest core scar at max point Number of Core Number of core scars Scars Weight Weight of the artefact in grams to 2dp

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APPENDIX B: FLOW CHART OF STONE ARTEFACT IDENTIFICATION EMPLOYED

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APPENDIX C: COMPARATIVE CHARTS

C.1 Rathmines Test Excavation, AHMS 2009a This was an open camp site which was investigated through test excavation, recovering 41 stone artefacts from 16m2. The site was located in a middle and lower slope within 100 m, of a 1st order creekline. This site is located 22.22 km south-west of the Study Area.

Although this was a limited assemblage, it was dominated by medium-coarse grained silcrete (65.9%, n=27). Only one tool and one core were recovered from the assemblage with a total of 9 complete flakes. The majority of the assemblage was highly fragmented. A minimum number of flakes (MNF) of 11 were determined, with high fragmentation attributed to breakage during manufacture, post-depositional breakage, or the mis-identification of complete flakes with step terminations as proximal flakes. Post depositional movement of artefacts downwards within the soil profile was identified. A large proportion of the assemblage had been affected by heat damage (indicated by shattering, potlids and heat crazed artefacts).

The likely age of the artefacts was difficult, however a tentative age of occupation prior to 1,600 years before present was identified based on the raw material type. The site was likely used only for a short term occupation.

C.2 Maryland to Minmi (MM09), AHMS 2009b In 2009 AHMS and Cultural Heritage Connections excavated a proposed sewerage upgrade between a pumping station in the suburbs of Maryland and Minmi in the lower Hunter Valley. This site was located some 12.4km south-west of the PR09 Study Area. It recovered 1673 stone artefacts and heat shattered fragments from a series of 24 test squares and a 20m2 open area.

Tuff was the more frequently used raw material on site (48.3%, n=808), this was followed by fine grained silcrete (19.3%, n=323) and chert (20.8%, n=18.6). Only 9.5% (n=160) of artefacts had cortex. Most of the cortex recorded was rough (characterised by rough or rind) which indicated some of the fine and medium grained silcrete, tuff and volcanic stone were obtained from predominately outcropping deposits. It was concluded that much of the stone used at this location was obtained from tuff sources located at distance to MM09 and most likely near Newcastle (some 13km away).

The assemblage was dominated by broken flakes (n=627, 37.5%). This was followed by angular fragments (30.2%, n=505) and complete flakes (25.5%, n=427). The remainder

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of the assemblage included broken and complete tools, cores, a ground implement (axe head fragment), a core tool, a core fragment, evidence of shatter and several split cobbles.

Some on-site reduction for the manufacture of flakes and tools was found to occur. One area of discrete activity was identified at the site, this was within the open area excavation however the analysis didn’t indicate any change in the assemblage over time suggesting that the site was used for the same activity. Some post depositional size sorting was also noted.

The assemblage was likely to date to the Holocene period (i.e. in the last 5,000 years) and potentially prior to 1,300 years before present (BP). This was based on the lack of evidence for Redbank A strategy reduction was observed within the assemblage, low frequency of tool types such as bondi points and elouera (backed artefact types), no noticeable change in raw material types over time and the low frequency of bipolar flaking technologies and quartz raw material in the assemblage. Increases in these factors would be expected in more recent assemblages.

C.3 Newcastle West Cemetery (NWC), AHMS 2002 In 2002 AHMS undertook test excavation of the former Newcastle West Cemetery, which is located some 0.08 km west of the Study Area also within the Newcastle Central Business District (CBD).

A draft stone artefact report was prepared for this site by Jakub Czastka in 2002, however to date this report has not been finalised. Stone artefacts were recovered from eighteen contexts within the site37.

The results of this report indicate that there was a high fragmentation rate (indicated by high flake breakage at 56.0%, n=272) on site with most of the assemblage comprising complete and broken flakes (88.2%, n=428). The sample contained a limited number of cores (2.7%, n=13) compared to sites in the surrounding area (NCLS and Fullerton).

Most of the artefacts on site were tuff (89.7%, n=2136) and silcrete (9.6%, n=228). Cortex was not provided in the analysis and the age of the assemblage was attributed to the Bondaian phase of the Eastern Regional Sequence (i.e. the last 5,000 years before present). Evidence of Redbank A strategy was apparently identified within the assemblage suggesting a date range can be tentatively attributed to between 3120 years before present to the last 800 years38.

37 6,7,42,60,67,80,102,123,128,129,156,186,217,221,227,228,240 and 250 38 Czastka 2002 (Draft): 41

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C.4 Boardwalk Site, Newcastle, MDCA 2004 The site was excavated in 2004 and was located within the CBD of Newcastle at the Civic Railway workshops. The site was impacted by previous dredging, reclamation activities for wharves and seawall construction. This site was situated 0.73 km east of PR09 site.

A total of 113 stone artefacts were recovered from two contexts (c004 and c005) which formed part of a shell midden. A further 449 pieces described as “flint” were recovered from a deposit overlying this midden (c003). However analysis of the material from c003 determined that the flint was likely to have been imported into the site and did not represent in-situ deposit of Aboriginal occupation39. Consequently only the 113 stone artefacts confirmed as in-situ deposit were analysed in any detail.

Most of the artefacts were complete flakes (64.6%, n=73), angular fragments (15%, n=17), and broken flakes (12.4%, n=14). The remaining artefact types included one broken tool, three platform rejuvenation flakes, a core fragment and a bipolar core.

87.6% (n=99) of the artefacts were tuff, with the remaining artefacts comprising flint, quartz, rhyolite and glass. No radio carbon dates were undertaken for the midden, although shellfish were recovered. The three main species of shell (over 80% of the assemblage) included Hercules Whelk, Sydney Cockle and Rock Oyster40.

On the basis of the evidence available, Dallas concluded that the site was a single use or short duration campsite, although the height of the dune prior to disturbance by historic (post-depositional) activities means that the potential artefact deposit might have existed above the extant remains41.

C.5 Newcastle Convict Lumber Site (NCLS), Higginbotham 1998 In 1998 Edward Higginbotham and Associates undertook test excavation at site of the former Newcastle Convict Lumber Yard and Stockade site. This site was cited between Bond and Scott Streets in the Newcastle CBD, approximately 1.99km east of the Study Area.

39 MDCA 2004:120-122 and 143 40 MDCA 2004: 147 41 MDCA 2004: 169

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This work followed on from several previous historical archaeological investigations of this site in 1987, 1989 and 1993 which had identified the presence of stone artefacts within historic contexts42.

Test trenches were excavated to between 0.5 and 0.7 metres in depth that equated to the depth of the proposed development. Aboriginal stone artefacts were recovered from trenches 1 to 6 inclusive43. The excavation resulted in a ‘grab-bag’ of potential stone artefacts which were sent to the Australian Museum Business Services (AMBS) for analysis.

Most of the sampled material analysed by AMBS was tuff (99.3%, n=398), with only limited volcanic materials also recovered (0.7%, n=3). The sample mostly comprised flakes with a low frequency of flake breakage (16.2%, n=65). However a higher number of cores (5.0%, n=20) was recovered from this site when compared with surrounding sites in the Newcastle CBD area (see MDCA 2004, Umwelt 1997 and AHMS 2002).

AMBS concluded that the sampled Aboriginal stone artefacts indicated the material was of ‘late Pleistocene or early Holocene stone extraction and primary reduction site, probably [from] the vicinity of Nobby’s Head’. This stone was then reused and redeposited in the historic period within the NCLS study area44. This implies that material recovered from NLCS was not an example of insitu Aboriginal occupation in Newcastle, although likely originated from this area.

C.6 Fullerton, Newcastle Bight, Umwelt, 1997 In 1997, Umwelt undertook test excavation in the Newcastle Bight at Fullerton for a proposed mining site. This investigation included excavation of 109m2 encompassing five locations however no stone artefacts were recovered from the active transgressive dune. This site was located some 11.03km north-east of the Study Area.

A limited number of stone artefacts were recovered from surface collection and these mostly consisted of broken and complete flakes (90.9%, n=70) with several cores and tools also identified. All artefacts recovered were manufactured from tuff. Small concentrations of shell (identified as pipi) were also recovered during excavation. On the basis of backed artefacts recovered from the assemblage, the occupation evident within the dune was dated to the last 4,500 years45.

42 Higginbotham 1998: 14 - 17 43 Higginbotham 1998: 7 44 Higginbotham 1998: 24 45 Umwelt 1997: 45

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Table 1. Comparison of Cortex percentages on artefacts

Palais MM09 Rathmines Boardwalk NWC NCLS, 1998 Newcastle Royale 2009, S87 2009 site 2004, 2002, Higginbotham Bight, 2009c, AHMS AHMS MDCA AHMS 1998 AHMS Umwelt Cortex 1348 160 11 Not avail. n/a n/a 3 % 24.4 9.5 26.8 4.0 Cortex Rough, Rough Rough Rough n/a n/a Not Types Water- Water- Water- identified rolled rolled rolled Concreted

Table 2. Comparison of Raw Material Types

Palais MM09 Rathmines Boardwalk NWC NCLS, 1998 Newcastle Royale 2009, S87 2009 site 2004, 2002, Higginbotham46 Bight, 2009c, AHMS AHMS MDCA AHMS 1998 AHMS Umwelt IMTC47 5410 1119 7 99 2136 398 77 97.8 67.0 17.1 87.6 89.7 99.3 100.0 Silcrete48 85 384 27 228 1.5 23.0 65.9 9.6 Quartzite 2 83 2 0.0 5.0 4.9 Chalcedony 1 8 0.0 0.5 Quartz49 6 47 1 1 17 0.1 2.8 2.4 0.9 0.7 Igneous50 8 29 1 1 3 0.1 1.7 2.4 0.9 0.7 Glass 1 1 0.0 0.9 Other51 21 3 3 11 1 0.4 0.2 7.3 9.7 0.0

46 Noted that Higginbotham 1998 and AHMS 1998 do not specify the total number of raw materials and the attached catalogue of finds does not include a column to record material types. However AMBS 1998: 6 states all of the material was tuff with 3 volcanic materials also recovered, therefore the total number of artefacts described in Table 1 of this report was used minus the 3 volcanic flakes to estimate the total number of tuff artefacts in the sample. 47 IMTC is a combined count of Indurated Mudstone, Chert and Tuff 48 Includes fine, medium and coarse grained varieties 49 Quartz includes milky and crystalline varieties (where identified in this manner). 50 Includes Volcanic, Rhyolite and Basalt 51 Other includes baked sandstone and sandstone, silicified wood and flint, FGS

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Table 3. Artefact Composition

Palais MM09 Rathmines Boardwalk NWC NCLS, 1998 Newcastle Royale 2009, S87 2009 site 2004, 2002, Higginbotham53 Bight, 2009c, AHMS AHMS MDCA AHMS52 1998 AHMS Umwelt Complete 1702 427 9 76 156 208 22 Flake54 % 30.8 25.5 22.0 67.3 32.1 52.0 28.6 Broken 2133 629 10 14 272 65 48 Flake 38.5 37.6 24.4 12.4 56.0 16.2 62.3 % Total 3835 1056 19 90 428 273 70 Flakes 69.3 63.1 46.3 79.6 88.2 68.0 90.9 % Complete 72 27 18 5 4 55 Tool 1.3 1.6 3.7 1.2 5.1 % Broken 80 56 1 1 22 Tool 1.4 3.3 2.4 0.9 4.5 % Total 146 83 1 1 40 5 4 Tools 2.6 5.0 2.4 0.9 8.2 1.2 5.1 % Core 39 11 1 13 20 3 % 0.7 0.7 0.9 2.7 5.0 4.0 Core 13 1 1 4 Fragment 0.2 0.1 0.9 0.8 % Angular 400 503 7 17 26 Fragments 7.2 30.1 17.1 15.0 6.5 % Other56 1095 19 14 76 % 19.8 1.1 34.1 19.0

52 Note that only a sample of these artefacts (485) were provided in the Draft report – this data will not add up to the total number of artefacts identified in the assemblage 53 AMBS 1998: Table 1, p3 54 Includes complete flakes, whole bipolar artefacts and whole platform rejuvenation flakes where distinguished from the general assemblage 55 Includes core tools 56 Includes shatter, split cobbles, ground implements etc

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APPENDIX D: IMAGES OF STONE ARTEFACTS PR09

Conjoins

Conjoin 1_B2, Spit 3 (Dorsal and ventral surfaces)

Conjoin 4_A1, Spit 4 (Dorsal surface)

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Conjoin 9_B3, spit 4 (Dorsal and Ventral surfaces)

Conjoin 11_B1, spit 8 (Dorsal and Ventral surfaces)

Conjoin 12_C12, Spit 3 (Dorsal and Ventral surfaces)

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Conjoin 13_C12, spit 3 (Dorsal and Ventral surfaces)

Conjoin 16_B9, Spit 3 and B10, Spit 3

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Conjoin 18_B10, Spit 3 (Dorsal Surface)

Conjoin 20_B11, Spit 4 (Ventral Surface)

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Conjoin 22_A9, Spit 4 (Dorsal and Ventral Surfaces)

Conjoin 3_A1, Spit 4 and Conjoin 7_B2, Spit 1 and Conjoin 10_B1, Spit 5

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Backed Artefacts

Scale is 1mm per increment shown_Small Complete Flakes which may be backing flakes recovered from B9, spit 4

Backed Artefacts from a Variety of Spits A. A9, spit 4 Bondi Point; B. B12, spit 3 Backed Artefact; C. C12, spit 3 Bondi Point; D. C13, spit 3 Bondi Point; E. B10, Spit 3 Bondi Point; F. C13, spit 3 Bondi Point; G. B6, spit 20 Bondi Point; H. B6, Spit 19 Bondi Point

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Backed Artefacts recovered from variety of spits A. ABC (unstratified), sp0 Bondi Point; B. ABC (unstratified), Sp0 Bondi Point; C. A13, Spit 3 Bondi Point; D. A8, spit 3 Bondi Point; E. A10, spit 2 Bondi Point F. A13, spit 3 Bondi Point; G. A13, spit 3 Bondi Point; H. A15, spit 2 Elouera

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Scrapers

Large Scrapers (Dorsal Surface and Ventral Surface), C3, Spit 1 and B13, Spit 3

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Scrapers from Upper Levels of Excavation (Ventral and Dorsal Surfaces)

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Scrapers from Mid-levels of Excavation A.A9, Spit 10; B. C14, spit 11; C.C11, Spit 11; D. B16, Spit 11; E. B9, spit 11; F. C11, spit 11

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Scrapers from Lower Levels of Excavation (Ventral Surfaces) B6, spit 18 and B6, spit 20 both are End Scrapers

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Other Tools

Historic Fill_Sp0 Anvil and Adjacent C14_Sp0 Hammerstone

B5, Spit 2 Ground implement and B8 spit 2 ground/grinding implement

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B1, spit 6 Pebble Tool (Chopper)

Core Tools

C3, spit 1 and B1, Spit 3 Both core tools manufactured on flake bodies

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Cores

Large Cores Manufactured on Flake Bodies (Dorsal Surface) B3, spit 2 and Surface Collapse, Spit 0

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Samples of Stone Raw Material Varieties and Post Depositional Affects Discussed in Text

1TUFF (includes Tuff 1 and Tuff 4)

A. B.

C. D.

A. 1TUFF (Tuff1) A9, spit 4 ; B. 1TUFF (Tuff4) B3, Spit 17 C. 1TUFF (Tuff1) C11, spit 3; D. 1TUFF (Tuff4) B4, Spit 5

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2TUFF (includes Tuff 2 and Tuff 3)

A. B.

C. D.

A. 2TUFF (Tuff2) B9, Spit 20; B. 2TUFF (Tuff3) Out of Context C. 2TUFF (Tuff2) B2, Spit 1; D. 2TUFF (Tuff3) B7, Spit 8

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Post Depositional Concretion discussed in Text

Artefact with post depositional concretion C5, Spit 10

Post Depositional ‘Wear’ discussed in Text

Post Depositional Wear (rounding of artefacts) – A. B3, Spit 7 and B. B4, Spit 5

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