De Vredesidealen Van De Olympische Beweging (1960-2008)

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De Vredesidealen Van De Olympische Beweging (1960-2008) Universiteit Gent – Faculteit Letteren en Wijsbegeerte Academiejaar 2009-2010 De vredesidealen van de Olympische beweging (1960-2008) Masterproef voorgedragen tot het bekomen van de graad Master in de Geschiedenis Maes Thibaut 2005 4912 Promotor: Prof. Dr. Jan Tolleneer 2 Inhoudstafel Inhoudstafel………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3 I – Inleiding……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5 II – Probleemstelling……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..7 III – Methodologie……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….12 IV – De structuur van het IOC en de Olympische beweging…………………………………………………14 V – Historisch overzicht van de vredesproblematiek in de Olympische Spelen……………………16 V.1 – Het IOC onder Avery Brundage: groeiende onenigheid…………………………………..16 V.1.1 – 1960: Rome………………………………………………………………………………………16 V.1.2 – 1964: Tokio……………………………………………………………………………………….18 V.1.3 – 1968: Mexico-Stad……………………………………………………………………………22 V.1.4 – 1972: München…………………………………………………………………………………27 V.2 – Het Killanin-interludium: de Afrikaanse en westerse boycots………………………….32 V.2.1 – 1976: Montréal…………………………………………………………………………………32 V.2.2 – 1980: Moskou…………………………………………………………………………………..35 V.3 – Juan Antonio Samaranch en de expansie, commercialisering en geleidelijke modernisering van de Spelen…………………………………………………………………………………..38 V.3.1 – 1984: Los Angeles……………………………………………………………………………..39 V.3.2 – 1988: Seoel……………………………………………………………………………………….42 V.3.3 – 1992: Barcelona……………………………………………………………………………….44 V.3.4 – 1996: Atlanta……………………………………………………………………………………48 V.3.5 – 2000: Sydney…………………………………………………………………………………….49 3 V.4 – Het IOC in de 21ste eeuw: Jacques Rogge…………………………………………………………51 V.4.1 – 2004: Athene…………………………………………………………………………………….52 V.4.2 – 2008: Peking…………………………………………………………………………………….53 VI – Respect voor de regels: de strijd tegen doping…………………………………………………………….55 VII – Algemeen besluit…………………………………………………………………………………………………………58 VIII – Bijlagen………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………62 IX – Bibliografie…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..72 X – Dankwoord……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………77 4 I – Inleiding “The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not winning but taking part; the essential thing in life is not conquering but fighting well.” “To ask different peoples to love one another is mere childishness. To ask them to respect one another is not utopian, but to respect one another, they have to know one another.” Pierre de Coubertin, stichter IOC De moderne Olympische Zomerspelen zijn heden het grootste sportevenement ter wereld. De bovennatuurlijke prestaties van de atleten worden door twee derden van de bevolking op aarde gevolgd, een haast irreëel cijfer1. De commerciële belangen van een dergelijk mega-evenement zijn vanzelfsprekend zeer groot. Olympische helden worden in het collectieve geheugen opgenomen en vertegenwoordigen een enorme publicitaire waarde. De Jamaicaanse sprinter Usain Bolt, bijvoorbeeld, wereldrecordhouder op de 100 en 200 meter spurt en drievoudig gouden medaillewinnaar, brengt voor zijn sponsor Puma honderden miljoenen dollar in het laatje2. Ook de politieke belangen zijn groot. China spaarde voor zijn Spelen kosten noch moeite om Beijing 2008 tot een succes te maken en de kritiek op zijn mensenrechtenbeleid en zijn houding in de Tibetaanse kwestie even te doen verstommen. In die optiek zijn de Olympische Spelen weinig veranderd in de afgelopen honderd jaar. Politiek is steeds intiem 1 The Nielsen Company: “The Final Tally – 4.7 Billion Tunes In To Beijing 2008 – More Than Two In Three People Worldwide”, in: http://blog.nielsen.com/nielsenwire/wp-content/uploads/2008/09/press_release3.pdf, 05.09.2008, geraadpleegd op 17.03.2010. 2 J. Kollewe: “Champion Sprinter Usain Bolt Helps Puma Trainers Fly Out of Shops”, in: The Guardian, 23.08.2009 (http://www.guardian.co.uk/business/2009/aug/23/puma-usain-bolt-trainers), geraadpleegd op 17.03.2010. 5 vervlochten geweest met de Spelen (iets waar verder in deze masterproef nog uitvoerig zal worden op teruggekeerd) en dat zal in de nabije toekomst nog niet zo snel veranderen. Ook baron Pierre De Coubertin besefte dit gevaar bij de oprichting van het Internationaal Olympisch Comité (IOC) in 1894 en de organisatie van de eerste moderne Olympische Spelen in Athene twee jaar later. Hij heeft dan ook steeds geprobeerd de Olympische beweging vrij te houden van politiek misbruik, een doelstelling die tot op de dag van vandaag in het Olympische Charter is opgenomen3. Het is dan ook paradoxaal dat een van de hoofddoelen van de Olympische Spelen –vrede tussen volkeren- in essentie een politieke doelstelling is. De Amerikaanse academicus Allen Guttmann schreef daarover het volgende: “In the eyes of De Coubertin and the men who succeeded him as president of the IOC, the political purpose of the games –the reconciliation of warring nations- was more important than the sports. They were merely the competitive means to a cooperative end: a world at peace4.” Het spanningsveld tussen sport (i.c. de Olympische Spelen) en zijn politieke en sociaal- culturele omgeving is een van de hoofdthema’s van deze masterproef. Het inzicht dat sport zich niet in een vacuüm bevindt, maar een product van en factor in de maatschappij is, dienen we dan ook voortdurend in het achterhoofd te houden. In deze scriptie zullen we oog hebben voor de relatie tussen de Olympische beweging –en meer specifiek het IOC- en haar idealen, een relatie die niet altijd zonder accidenten verliep. In de voorbije halve eeuw zijn er dertien Olympische Zomerspelen georganiseerd, sommigen succesvol, anderen controversieel of zelfs tragisch en vermoedelijk zal dat grillig patroon ook in de toekomst bewaard blijven. 3 “The IOC’s role is: (…) 5. to take action in order to strengthen the unity and to protect the independence of the Olympic Movement (…) 10. to oppose any political or commercial abuse of sport and athletes” in: IOC: Olympic Charter, 11.02.2010 (http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Olympic%20Charter/Charter_en_2010.pdf) , geraadpleegd op 17.03.2010. 4 A. Guttman: The Olympics: A History of the Modern Games, 1992, University of Illinois Press, p. 1. 6 II – Probleemstelling Alvorens we tot de concrete vraagstelling overgaan, dienen we uiteraard eerst nauwkeurig de basisconcepten van deze masterscriptie nauwkeurig te definiëren. Het mag dan wel evident lijken, toch kan het zeker nuttig zijn om van start te gaan met de betekenis van het concept “sport”. Sporthistorici hebben immers nogal wat uiteenlopende en soms contradictorische definities van sport geponeerd, waarbij ze de nadruk legden op de diverse eigenschappen van sport. In deze scriptie zullen we de definitie van Allen Guttmann volgen, die in zijn basiswerk Sports: The First Five Millennia5 gewag maakt van sport als “autotelic physical contests”. Hij verklaart het onderscheid nader tussen “sports” enerzijds en “play”, “games” en “contests” anderzijds. Mensen doen, aldus Guttmann, aan spel (play) omdat ze willen, niet omdat ze moeten. Spelen hebben dus zichzelf tot doel (autotelisch). Play is heel los en ongedwongen –bijvoorbeeld het willekeurig wegtrappen van een bal-. Zodra er iets meer regels bij komen kijken, spreekt hij van games. Een game kan bijvoorbeeld haasje-overspringen zijn. Zodra er in een game een competitief element wordt opgenomen, heeft Guttmann het over wedstrijden (contests). Wedstrijden kunnen zowel intellectueel (bv. schaken) als fysiek zijn (bv. hockey). Fysieke wedstrijden worden gelijk gesteld aan sports6. Het moge duidelijk zijn dat de sporten op het curriculum7 van de moderne, door Pierre De Coubertin opnieuw gelanceerde, Olympische Spelen zeker aan die definitie voldoen. Guttmann’s definitie van sport is, zoals eerder geschreven, niet de enige. Bernard Suits8 biedt een nuttig inzicht door de nadruk op het belang van vaardigheden: “Sports, so understood, may be defined, or at least described, as competitive events involving a variety 5 A. Guttmann: Sports: The First Five Millennia, 2004, University of Massachusetts Press, pp. 448. 6 Ibid., pp. 1-2. 7 IOC, Sports (http://www.olympic.org/en/content/Sports/), geraadpleegd op 20.03.2010. 8 B. Suits: Tricky Triad: Games, Play and Sport, in: Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, Vol. XV, 1988, pp. 1-9. 7 of physical (usually in combination with other) human skills, where the superior participant is judged to have exhibited those skills in a superior way9.” Het dient opgemerkt dat het fysiek en het competitief element uit Guttmann’s definitie ook bij Suits terugkeren. In het Olympisch Charter, de codificatie van de fundamentele principes en regels van de Olympische beweging -waarvan het Internationaal Olympisch Comité aan het hoofd staat-, blijkt duidelijk dat een van de doelstellingen van de beweging het promoten van vrede is: “The IOC’s role is: (…) 4. to cooperate with the competent public or private organisations and authorities in the endeavour to place sport at the service of humanity and thereby to promote peace10” (zie bijlage 1 voor de preambule van het Charter en de fundamentele principes en missie van het IOC). Maar wat bedoelt men precies met “vrede”? Het definiëren van een dergelijk beladen concept is uiteraard niet vanzelfsprekend. Het bekende woordenboek Merriam-Webster11 geeft vier toepasbare betekenissen; 1: “a state of tranquillity or quiet”; 2: “freedom from disquieting or oppresive thoughts”; 3: “harmony in personal relations” en 4: “a state or period of mutual concord between governments; a pact or agreement to end hostilities between those who have been
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