CEU eTD Collection 31 Thesis Master APA Style English US Fetzer Professor Supervisor Jan Hupkens st of May, 2012 The NewRadical Right in the Western Political Landscape In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts The case of the Netherlands and theUnitedKingdom oftheNetherlands The case Department of International Relations and European Studies European and Relations of International Department Supervisor: Professor Thomas Fetzer Central European University Word Count: 15.165 Budapest, Hungary, Budapest, Submitted to Jan Hupkens 2012 By CEU eTD Collection 7. Bibliography...... 43 Bibliography...... 7. 41 Conclusion...... 6. Difference and ...... 32 Overlap of Points 4. Landscape ...... Political 13 the Mapping 3. Islamophobia and Right NewRadical the rise of the ...... Explanations for Theoretical 2. 5 ...... Introduction 1 1...... iii Abstract Contents 4.2 Points of Difference ...... Difference of 36 Points 4.2 Overlap of ...... 32 Points 4.1 ...... Landscape 24 Political British The 3.2 Landscape ...... Political 13 Dutch The 3.1 Theory ...... Charisma 11 1.3.1 Theory ...... 10 Diversification 1.2.2 Theory ...... Coalition 9 1.2.1 Space ...... Political of 7 Theory 1.1.2 Politics Side ...... 5 Demand 1.1.1 i CEU eTD Collection BNF BNP EDL UKIP D66 NVU SP LN LPF GL VVD CDA PVDA CP CD PVV Acronym British National Front National British British National Party National British English Defence League Defence English UK Independence Party Democraten66 Nederlandse Volks Unie Socialistische Party Socialistische Leefbaar Nederland Lijst Pim Fortuyn GroenLinks Volkspartij van Vrijheid en Democratie Liberals Christen-Democratisch Appel Christen-Democratisch Partij van de Arbeid Centrumpartij Centrum-Democraten Partij voor de Vrijheid Original Name Acronyms ii British Nat. Front Nat. British British Nat. Party English Def. League UK Ind. Party Democrats Dutch People’s Union Socialist Party Socialist Liveable Netherlands Party Pim Fortuyn Green-Party Christian Democrats Christian Dutch Labour Party Centre-Party Centre-Democrats Freedom Party English Name English CEU eTD Collection shape the success of the NRR. for apotential investigation of how institutional factors, socio-economicallowing trajectories and personal similarities, traits historical and socio-economic many sharing countries two between comparison addition of this research to the academiadealing with the Radical Right liesin the particular The success. and formation party in NRR leadership ofcharismatic importance the exemplifying space for theglobalization and NRR support, coalition theory by RobertEricson, tracing the levels of political of effects the NRR between relation the explaining Volpert, and in Jackman by forward put politics differentside ofdemand-supply framework the others amongst including de-constructed, and tested be will theories electoralFocusing systems andon thecharisma parties countries. both in theory themselves leadership, explanation an can be provided for the relative discrepancy between developed NRR electoral support distance towardsin the traditional radical right, alongsideby the skillful incorporationdirect of charismatic Max Weber,party system, the adaptability relationof the partiesmulti- to the wider and two a political spectrum and their positioncontradicting and system, political different of result a as that argue will research This to their political17% of the votes in 2002 and managingthe PVV to obtain 15.5% in the elections of 2010. performance,sharp increase in NRR success, where since the early 2000’sa partiesnumber such as the LPF have gained over of 2 1 margin of 0.5% United Kingdom. Whereas intheUnited Kingdom NRR electoral success has rarely exceeded the the and Netherlands ofThe comparison two-country a through scene political European Western the This research will outline the recent rise of Abstract the New Radical Right, here abbreviated as the NRR, on Dutch Parliament Online 2012 Online Parliament Dutch Hansen, 2000. 7 1 resulting in no national parliamentary representation, The Netherlands has seen a seen has Netherlands The representation, parliamentary national no in resulting iii 2 CEU eTD Collection 6 5 4 3 1. Introduction political participation by power-hungry establishment, manifested in the corrupted ‘elite’. positioned. In the center of the NRR componentdiscourse wherestands at thethe averagecore of citizen,the NRRthat is, for the mostpolitical part, immigrants.silenced discourseand alienated the fromconceptcultural or ethnic homogeneity ofin society, with a preference for ‘our ownpeople’‘das over ‘foreigners’; emphasize and Volk’, equality social and theindividual reject ‘people’ They foundations. its attacking is directly without but democracies, Western the in system socio-political and cultural current the oppose radically and Werner Bauer willsolid definition. However,in this research, two complementary definitions outlined by George Betz be followed.shown, the heterogeneity of these Accordingmovements marks the difficulty to encompass the NRR in a single, to Betzterm the ofNRR reference. can be classifiedIn thisBased research on as:frameworkthe ‘ ampleparties the termamount ‘newthat radical of integration. differences right’ immigrant’s and abbreviated and as NRRparty-manifestations willincorporating the previously mentioned widerbe dis-satisfaction with general patternsused of immigration as the main rhetoric the NRRbased has onDanish the People’s Partypresumption have all gained relative politicalsuch successthat asParties the over debate. theDutch political thepast European decadeFreedom contemporary the spreadwith influenced theirgreatly Party, has staunch electorate, the the with touch ofFlemish lost has Islam that a relic Block politics’, ‘old as in Belgium, landscape and political traditional the of itsthe portrayal the Austrian and manifestationsidentity Freedom cultural national on the Partyemphasis renewed andimmigration, theagainst resentment staunch the shouldof Europe, be limited,‘extreme right’ with on topof their political agenda theopposition to what they call the ‘Islamization’ Recent electoral success of political factions referred to as the ‘new radical right’, ‘far right’ or Bauer, 2010, 5 Betz, 1993, 7 Goodwin, 2012, 3 Wilders, NRC Handelsblad, 2007 two of them will be part of the Cabinet. There is too much again Islam that small in the are chances Netherlandsthe that besuch should right trend now. demographic The voluntarily. Netherlands the leave to Muslims encourage to want I Moreover, countries. Muslim from migrants for borders the close I don’t want any more Muslims in the Netherlands, I would rather like to see less of them, so I want to 4 5 Bauerelaborates on the latterby adding the ‘identity-politics’ 1 6 3 CEU eTD Collection emphasis onethnicity and race. notion The term and often anti-Islamist applied to the of policies and historical the to in contrast of identity, marker main the as ofreligion incorporation latter’s the is NRR the and Right Radical ‘traditional’ mentioned previously the between distinction sharp additional An within the sphere of liberal democracies andthe significant use ofmedia popular to their advantage. and sentiments of xenophobia or open racism open or of xenophobia sentiments and shifting political tactics from the focus on a free-market operating, system,of emphasis ways on individual achievement their by parties right-wing radical traditional from distinguished be can NRR The traditional radical right movements. apparent,becomes right radical ofthe of operating as forms current in and the traditional between distinction majoritysharp of cases theredistinction between the ‘traditional’ Radical areRight and the NRR, where it is important to nonote that a clear institutionalAdditionally, the term ‘extreme right’ has been linked in the broader debate of what marks the continuities of the NRR with theterminology. ‘ label. ‘extreme’ discourse,mostly by: ‘mainstream parties in order to deliberately de-legitimize groups with the ‘extreme’ and the connected term ‘extremism’ have been overused in adjective the the academic and mediathat out pointed has Ares Miroslav scientist political Additionally, elections. European within the limits ofthe modern-day democratic framework, often participating in national and operate fact in framework research this in analyzed parties of NRR majority the as classification 11 10 9 8 7 or may notmay which be ofaction, a path anti-democratic. reflect radical and radicalism term The connotations. ‘ negative with a term goals, anti-constitutional and anti-parliamentary and democracy ofliberal rejection complete the with contrast to other designationsThe choice suchfor asthe the term‘extreme ‘new right’, radical other. on the ‘people’, ofthe where:determination right’ self- the on ‘ the encroaching as perceived are that term has Fund, Monetary extremismbeen International the and Union European based is associatedon the fact‘immigrants’, ‘Muslims’ but also thatforces ofglobalization and supra-national institutions such as the it is less valuethe ‘establishment’ on the one hand, and the opposition between the ‘people’ and the ‘other’, i.e. the laden in two elements: TheThis concept of ‘the accordingpeople’ to oppositionBauer hasbecome sub-divided in the juxtaposition between between the ‘people’ and the traditional political scene, here noted as Kopecek, 2007 Kopecek, 2007 Bauer, 2010, 5 Betz, 1993, 3 Goodwin, 2012, 5 9 – Indicating the important power of classification through the use of specific 8 The latter being a subtle, yet important difference in the category of 10 7 11 , towards one stressing the importance of operating 2 CEU eTD Collection working in the specific field of NRR politics. activists and academics by contributions individual and trade international of model Heckscher-Ohlin theory, charisma Weber’s Max as such frameworks theoretical cross-disciplinary alongside work in the ofform books, journal publications and opinion pieces in the international media, to the latter, the main materialAdding covered in this thesis formation. will party be the and engagementwith support of previousbases scholarly background, historical its emphasizing groups, political this researchmakers, policy by reflections personal and results electoral frameworkempirical Politics, Right of Radical facets contemporary will and historical of linkage the aimThrough arguments. to ideational and provide socio-economic factors, explanations institutional including frameworks, theoretical of multitude ona draw will research this forpolitics, general patterns causingGoodwin a rise of NRRandEngaging with notable in scholars the offield NRRpolitics such as CasMudde, George Betz, Jackman & Volpert political groupings andadd to andthe existing scholarly debate on the NRR topic. contemporary of study in the gap emphasizing literature the covering country-context, individual of the a qualitativetraditional and NRR, while at the same time concentrating on the both ofboth the similarities and the framework specificities historical the account into take will research this trends, cross-national and wider approach potential neglecting hereby cases, singular emphasized mostly has that NRR, the on work scholarly to performed previously the to Adding the attention. thorough deserves yet subject under-explored, been has framework comparative corresponding the and differences ofcross-country of aspect the NRR, NRRthe of foundations core and functioning onthe research previous extended of availability the of Regardless discourse. political main country’s respective the in prevailing Islamophobia, of concept thriving the on based support NRR of level different relatively a witnessed has one UK, established democratic system and significant economic prosperity such as the Netherlands and the deemed ‘similar’ countries with historical trajectories of post-colonial and labor migration, awell- Europe cannot be labeled as adistinctively identical phenomenon applying everywhere. In generally Nevertheless, thenew ofreality increasing electoral success for thenew radical right throughout Muslims. many include also would which Islamism, radical against fighting seemingly are who those ground by including those who have limited orno knowledge of Islam and fearit as a whole with the within normativeeffectively operating seemingly been has rhetoric political of anti-Islam sphere,incorporation latter The while at the same time having clear limitations as: ‘it also covers tremendous 13 12 being: ‘unfounded hostility towards Muslims, and therefore orfear dislikeof all mostor Muslims.’ by the NRR itself as a foundation of its political cause, can be framed as a sentiment of Islamophobia, Esposito, 2011, 7 Islamophobia Defining Berkeley ofCalifornia University 3 12 13 . CEU eTD Collection framework and ending with a final presentation of the arguments and findings in the conclusion. the in findings and arguments of the presentation final a with ending and framework theoretical elaborated previously the to back tracing presented be will difference and overlap United Kingdom,mapping its institutional, historical the and and political specificities Netherlands afterof The which points of country-cases the exploring by continue will research the NRR, ofthe rise the for explanations cross-disciplinary and potential providing framework atheoretical with Starting United Kingdom? discrepancya for account factors Which question: research following the on centered be will in research The the levels of political success of the New Radical Right in The Netherlands and the 4 CEU eTD Collection 14 emerged,expressing the feeling of not being has able ‘keepto up’with of people the globalizationclass a processes in society, post-industrial a to industrial an from switch of the a result as where Demand side politics can in this respect be framed as a moment of ‘political opportunity’ for the NRR, received supportfrom, groups that lose from contemporary features of modernization.’ similar to past movements that, of the radical stressed have right, radical scholars right-wingMany populist parties orientations. have policy appealed and to, values and ‘post-materialist’ of rise the and occurred concomitantly with significant increaseshas in international NRR ofthe integration, post-industrialization growth notable and emergence ‘The alternatives. radical of search in and disillusioned voters many left has that democracies European Western many of arena political contemporary Operating frameworks. theoretical explanatory on put be to needs importance of Islamophobia, phenomenon under theConceptualizing the apparent rise of supportfor the New Radical Right and the modern-day connected umbrella of thePolitics Side 1.1.1 Demand so called ‘Demand Theory’,the theory of political space. indicatingand government performance will function as akey-part of both the theory of demand side and politics industrial society. Moreover,levels of unemployment, related to the citizen’s notion ofa social security power voidof globalization that have impacted the electorate in the transition from an industrial to a post- in theThe socio-economic factors outlined in the following theoretical chapter will be centered on the levels Socio-Economic Factors dissatisfaction a as result ofglobalization processes. unemployment levels as related to a perceived to social threat security and widerpopular economic and ideational arguments, with institutional factors indicating systemic factors such as separationframeworksexplanatory and of theoretical a number studies, case mentioned previously of the across support threewill be In theputlines course forward of tracing of the risetheoreticalthat of theIslamophobia NRR willin Western and Right the NewRadical of rise the for functionExplanations Europe 2. Theoretical and the related argumentsas discrepancy the backbonein NRR will of this be research.made, framed A clear-cut as institutional, socio- Betz, 2002,217 5 14 CEU eTD Collection and liberalization domestically, they have systemically criticized international openness.’ international criticized systemically have they domestically, liberalization and political establishment. political system greatly shapes the viability of the NRR to present itself as a viable alternative to the traditional being directly connected to the fact that the ‘political space’ attributed to NRR parties in the electoral direct and correlationa positive that performed they research substantial of basis the betweenconclude Volpert and Jackman unemployment levels and support for the NRR can beresult from the globalization, same resulting in seen, a perceived loss of‘national sovereignty’. another EUas the as with such level the asupranational to processes latternational of transfer a seeing citizens, of its lives the in ‘stability’ and ‘security’ more provide to failure their for representation political established ofthe distrustful them making voters, dis-enfranchised called of so behavior electoral on the impact an had have post-industrialism to transition latter the from resulting changes The responsible for a21.5%decline in the demand for lower-skilled workers in developed economies.’ flows between: ‘developed and developing economies, have led to the estimate that trade is skilled laborers already the most susceptible to NRR rhetoric. According to Wood to According rhetoric. NRR to susceptible most the already laborers skilled result of the abolishment of migration restrictions might result in decreasing wagesof mostly un- Additionally, rising amounts of foreign direct investment (FDI) and workers,the increases.’ influx of foreign workers as a internationalization, the as relative demand for comparatively abundant factors,here highly skilled commanded by comparatively scarce factors the in developed economies, declinewith developed economies, thatis, models of factor-price convergence suggest thatthe relative prices Ohlin model: ‘predicts that semi- and unskilled workers bear significant costs of the globalization of theoretical framework ofHeckscher-Ohlin framework theoretical the what in concentrated mostly side, fortunate less a witnessed also has one 1990’s, of the beginning professionals, technical personnel and managers are the ‘winners’ of globalization’ that: ‘transnationally mobile manufacturing and financial enterprises aswell as highly skilled 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 general and the laborcompetitive market in Whereasparticular. scholars such as Betz Betz, 2002,223 Jackman, 1996, 516 Wood, 1998,1474 Wood, 1998,1470 Betz, 2002,251 Leamer, 1995, 11 Betz, 2002,240 Betz, 2002,235 18 21 The NRR has handily incorporated this issue: ‘while supporting free markets free supporting ‘while issue: this incorporated handily has NRR The 17 calls the ‘generation of losses’. The latter Heckscher- latter The losses’. of ‘generation the calls 6 19 globalized trade- globalized 15 have outlined 22 16 –sincethe 20 CEU eTD Collection 26 25 24 23 result from the globalization,same resulting in a perceived loss of‘national sovereignty’. another EUas the as such level asupranational to processes national of transfer a seeing citizens, of its lives the in ‘stability’ and ‘security’ more provide to failure their for representation political established ofthe distrustful them making voters, dis-enfranchised called of so behavior electoral The changes resulting from the latter transition to a post-industrial immigrationsociety, issue, yet it has not always have been successful at counteringhad the anappeal of impactthe far right. ‘ on the cohesiveness,much of the mainstream right has responded by strengthening its position on the national undermines that multiculturalism of a agents conscious as competitors mainstream the ‘Portraying advantage: it takes NRR the which of out created been has void political a possible, as parties in Western Europe and mainstreamimmigration having historically had little options to politicalfind political representation of radical political parties avoiding levelsthe issues of dis-content of support as much ‘threat’ to the national identity and culture as a result of immigrationfor as the key framework explaining the NRR.The With theoryNRR voters of who political have Space ofPolitical 1.1.2 Theory been concerned space about differences. as ethnic and racial on based issuesputframework forward related NRR, pioneering a politicalto style can that be labeled as anti-systemic and thriving on an exclusionary by Matt Golderfoundation for the initialestablishment of the traditional radical right and the later resurgence of the strong a be to proved immigrants of arrival the dis-cohesion of societal forms latter of the result As a ‘ harmony. and order ties, relationships, traditional its with quo’ unemployment,growing frustration and deprivation, and a longing for renewal of the previous ‘status long-term by characterized position marginalized a in themselves found often They changes. flexible reaction within post-industrial laborsocieties where the global economy demands amore ofsocial mobile kind and ‘certain a: as right radical the of expansion the named force, Ignazi Piero Scientist Political however, NRR.’ the support disproportionately status, social and a institutions values, large traditional to challenges and employment and income to portionrisks ostensible face that ‘groups forces: globalization of result direct a as that proven has Betz of by research workers, un-skilled societyand lower and class middle traditional has With the had of support the NRR as previously mentioned, being not solely majorlybut based on the a difficult time adapting to the Goldman, 2003, 441 Goldman, 2003, 435 Kopecek, 2007 Betz, 2002,242 7 24 25 emphasizes the level of perceived of level the emphasizes 26 23 CEU eTD Collection homogenousnational culture: racism without race.‘ parts from the concept of ‘race’ that needs to be protected, but names a: ‘ historically rooted, identity.’ create a form of political ‘space’, projecting itself asthe sole defender ofthe ‘national culture and counter high levels of immigration,establishment, including the right-wing resultingpolitical movements aspartly responsible for the failure to in popular resentment, the NRR has perfected the ability ofculture.‘ notion rooted and coherent static, ‘homogeneous, a: changes as seen in the rise of the NRR as a form of re-emerging ‘cultural fundamentalism.’ Based on 30 29 28 27 Green and Candena de la as such of scholars number a Additionally, establishment. political system, greatly shapes the viability of the NRR to present itself as aviable alternative to the traditional being directly connected to the fact that the political space attributed to NRR parties in the electoral direct correlation betweenJackman andVolpertconclude on the basis ofsubstantial research they unemploymentperformed apositivethat and levels and support for the NRR can be seen, with the latter Ghorashi, 2003, 9 Ghorashi, 2003, 5 Green, 2003, 10 Jackman, 1996, 516 27 8 30 political traditional the presenting By 29 The latter theoretical framework theoretical latter The 28 havedrawnon thepolitical CEU eTD Collection 32 31 systems multi-party that clear becomes it theory’, voter ‘disillusioned and minorities’ of ‘coalition Erikson’s Robert on Drawing NRR Success asaResult of the Political System Theory 1.2.1 Coalition to extend ofits basis supportthrough its personal traits. which it operates, whereasSuccess ‘NRR as a ResultPolitical of the Political System’Maneuvering’ will exploreand diversificationthe theory. The risetheoretical argumentation theory of will willthe be coalition sub-divided the NRRinto ofboth two asparts: core ‘NRRemphasizethe basedis function onwill the forming systemof coalition in levels the high with abilityparty-rule of the NRR itself NRR performance. Stating the differences between the bi and multi-party system,contrasting single- The institutional factors will be centered on the relation between electoralthe and political system and Factors Institutional maintain their legitimacy and credibility.’ are not initially filtered, into the mainstream, or thecenter ofthe political spectrum in order to the political system and thus the government, the two-party system forces the extreme elements that elements, whereas the multi-party system brings the extreme, and often destabilizing, elements into In contrast, the two party system with its centrifugal ability has the tendency to: ‘filter out the extreme the fringes of the political landscape.’ clear mandate to govern, the door a is open gain to all manner of cannot compromise with party the extremeone elementson ‘When parties. political ‘traditional’ the and electorate the between distance interest’ in the political system,‘dis- in turn or creating political ‘space’ for of‘distrust’ the NRR’s emphasis form on the apparent an to lead might faction, governing suitable a forming in difficulties Additionally, the relatively high ofchance the ofbreakdown acoalition government asaresult of the parties. political anti-systemic extreme, for road the paving elite, political traditional the against turns electorate ‘naïve’ once the unfulfilled, go to seem promises as or procedures, political by the ‘establishment’, representing in the supportfor the NRR. As the government’s agenda gets stalled the initial promises they made during electionthe process, resulting in offorms popularresentment of ‘distant’ from the ordinary citizen and that parties in their eventual compromising stance often neglect all segments of society, creating the image amongst its electorate that the political landscape is Alesina, 1988, 799 Alesina, 1988, 801 , based on high levelspolitical of compromise fail to get approval from 31 32 The latter legitimacy is less urgent and less deemed as a 9 1 CEU eTD Collection 34 33 Scholars such as Gallagher, and Mair NRR Political Maneuvering Theory 1.2.2 Diversification explored in the following paragraph. especially in relation to the perceived ‘traditional’ political representations, an issue that will be two-party system, but merely on the latter political ‘space’ that the NRR succeeds in creating for itself, Liberal Democrats in the United Kingdom indicatoras an of potential changes in the long-standing nor static and historical politicalhave structure. This asthe political system and the partylandscape neitherare definite the potentialtheamongst disenfranchisement toelectorateof sentiments to evolveappeal latter the that is however noted be to has What and profound. less is change incorporation mainstream for drive the as are agenda, overpolitical of their amount nottime, solelyas seenfactor of ‘political survival’ inin the multi-party system where radical theelements can basedmaintain a larger relative on risethe of politicalthe ‘space’ that has been there as a result of the more ‘inclusive’. appeal, widening its political agenda to incorporate additional policy issues andpositioning electoral itself as of form broad a emphasizes that NRR the and right radical traditional static oriented, issue European Union. Thus, the later diversification theory marks the outlined betweencontrast the single- the in mostly resembled as level, supra-national the towards ofpower shifting the against and ‘ordinary’ citizen, advocating for more public money to be attributed to public health-care, education issues such as the opposition towards the increase of the minimum retirement age, emphasis on the divergence with for example traditional ‘leftist’ partieshas emerged, with the NRR often incorporating mere anti-immigration policies that nevertheless remain at the core of the party ‘identity’, aform of As aresult of declining party-identification and the presentation of abroad political agenda beyond white-collarworkers anxious for reduced government intervention in the economy.’ as well as workers blue-collar ofanti-immigration support the target to liberalism economic with society. Kittschelt describes a‘winning formula’,which involves the: ‘combination of xenophobiaof sections different from support gain to them allowing rights workers’ and interests economic The currenteconomic climate has heightened rhetoric beyond national culturalprotection to include beyond the mere anti-immigrant and anti-Islam rhetoric as the basis of their success. Murray, 2012 Gallagher, 2008 33 name adaptationinthe oftheNRR encapsulatingpolicies 10 34 CEU eTD Collection politics, they are increasingly promoting younger,charismatic, well-educated and politically savvy along with strategic and consensus building skills.’ routinization of the party’s operation: ‘the leader shouldenjoy organizationalon the and delegation mainly skills development, party on focused be should leader the phase second During it. to attention draw and communicate to party, ofthe message the develop to him enable would which authority, and charisma skills, communication creativity, and originality as such qualities enjoys who operator charisma Svasand are and Harmel latter, on the Emphasizing connected sphere. public and electorate the with connection and credibility the throughenhancing parties, NRR of presentation two phases.creating a solid base of support amongst its followers,‘Inthe external hierarchy, dimension is aimed at the public intra-party clear-cut a the constructing at aims party’sleadership of charismatic dimension internal the where first dimension, external and internal an between divided be can phase argumentation theoretical latter The the leader is the creator andorganizational identity and the leader’s personal political fortune.’ loyalties from the leader to the organization, and agrowing divergenceof between the party’s a transfer of charisma, re-utilization a involving organization centralized highly in a leader the to loyalty by together held coalition dominant cohesive ‘a create: to enhancing byit structure party NRR on charisma of influence the define can one of charisma, concept Weber’s tracing Additionally, deeds andthe sense of duty of the to followers accept his/her claimand follow his/her leadership.’ calling and self-confidence becomes valid because of the leader’s capacity to perform exceptional importance of ‘personality’ in the enhancement of political support. ‘Personal charisma –as a sense of 39 38 37 36 35 The Theory of Theory 1.3.1 Charisma Charisma as initiallymedia. put forwardthe inside and the external dimension of from charismatic interaction with the electorate and the public party-framework solid a creating as function can leadership and charisma where theory, charisma by Max Weberin leadership individual political and charisma ofpersonal importance the on centered be will factors ideational The NRR cases. TheIdeational Factors argument will be framed on two levels: the internal dimension of Pedahzur, 2002, 8 Pedahzur, 2002, 7 Pedahzur, 2002, 4 Schweitzer, 1974, 31 Schweitzer, 1974, 18 11 39 The new radical right is pioneering a new of style 38 mention that NRR party formation and formation party NRR that mention 37 35 , draws on the capacity and 36 CEU eTD Collection form of cooperationsome amongst support each of them other, many and most of them integration, embrace the European idea the of of a European critical alliance.’ consistently are parties right far most while ‘ where: cooperation, cross-national substantial fostering personality-traits, leadership strong as Facebook and Twitter. The latter catering the NRR’s ability to appeal to a global audience based on the online world, maintaining sophisticated internet sites andmaking strong use of social media such marked a strong realization of political advantage abilityand by the maneuverNRR professionally in 42 41 40 viewpoints in the media’ media public and outlets skillfully managed by the NRR. This latter ability to: ‘express opinions and the through mediated strongly is but presence immigrant direct from stem always not does NRR the for support the Muslims, particular in and immigrants of form the in other’ ‘the to opposition direct in larger phenomenon of up surging nationalism. the Whereas, concept of‘national identity’ has been put previously mentioned new emphasis on ‘national identity’ and ‘sovereignty’, here connected to a This framework electorate, functioning ofas asource of legitimacy both internally and to the outside world. legitimacyleaders in an andeffort the to shakeconnected of their old reputationspolitical and rehabilitate ideology themselves has been in the firmlyeyes of the based on a Backes,2011, 12 Koopmans, 2009, 2 Goodwin, 2012, 5 41 can be linked to the increased reach of globalization processes that have that processes globalization of reach increased the to linked be can 12 40 42 CEU eTD Collection Liberals, Socialistische Partij Democratisch Appel the labeled be can parties political influential and established most traditionally The elections. national after cabinet ofa formation inthe role active an taking queen the and apparent holding the throne since the 30 Beatrix, Queen by headed is monarchy constitutional a of principle the on based state, Dutch The Chamber only carries out the function of approving or rejecting proposals by the Second Chamber. that is note to theImportant four-years. of term a Dutch for elected directly are that members of 150 Second out consisting Chamber has the power of political initiative and amendment while the First elected by the elected Staten Generaal 43 the as known also cooperation, ofpolitical form consensus-based its for famous and characterized been has system political Dutch political parties, having a constitutional monarchy with high levels of political decentralization. The more or of 3 out consisting usually coalitions governmental with system multi-party clear a with The Dutch political system operates under the framework of a parliamentary representative democracy 3.1 Landscape TheDutchPolitical Netherlands The migration. towards frameworks policy government official and immigration of patterns on information country-specific to attributed be will room Finally, agenda. political countries, tracing the development of NRR political parties,mapping their main achievements and respective the in operates NRR the which in framework historical the on clarity provide to aim will chapter this Additionally results. electoral and practices electoral different the emphasizing Kingdom, This chapter will provide an overview of the party-systemLandscape Political the in3. Mapping place in The Netherlands and the United The Economist Online, 2009 Online, Economist The GroenLinks Provinciale Staten , the Dutch parliament, consisting out of a First Chamber where 75 members are , the Socialist Party, the Party, Socialist the , , Christian-Democrats, the Christian-Democrats, , , the Dutch Greens and the poldermodel. th , or regional parliamentary assemblies of April, 1980,with no traditional separation of powers being At the heart of the political system lies the so called Volkspartij voor Vrijheid en Democratie Democraten 66 Partij vande Arbeid 13 . , the Dutch Labour Party, the 43 and the Second Chamber, Second the and , the Dutch Christen CEU eTD Collection Geert Wilder’s Freedom Party, as seen in the table below. traditional political parties such as the Christian Democratsthe Dutch political system seeing andrecent strong thepower fluctuations, emergencemarking a relative decline of of new factions such as liberal color blue. murder The of Pim Fortuyn in 2002 marked the end of the ‘purple coalition’ with Liberals, deemed the ‘purple coalition’, resembling the mixture of the socialist color red and the ‘welfare state’. The early 1990’s marked the merging of power ofthe Social-Democratic party and the foothold,with the Dutch system being famous for its extensive social security system, also deemed the With the end of the latter pillarizationpillarization where different segments of society hadin their own establishedthe political representations. 1960’s new political partiesIn the post-Second such Worldas D66 War eragained the Dutch political political system could be labeled as following the path of 14 CEU eTD Collection 44 CPN SP nks enLi Gro A Pvd D66 CD CP VVD LPF e Uni sten Chri PVV SGP CDA CHU ARP KVP red in order to highlight their electoral success. In this table the Dutch (New) Radical Right consisting out of the CD,Table 1. HistoricalCP, Overview LPF of Electoral andSupport in ThePVV Netherlands in isParliamentary marked Seats in DutchParliament Online, 2012 3 1 2 3 6 4 9 1 0 1 9 2 2 8 3 1 2 3 8 4 9 1 8 7 2 8 2 9 0 3 9 2 9 2 1 0 3 2 5 9 1 6 7 0 5 3 1 3 3 1 5 1 9 4 6 5 9 1 8 4 9 1 3 2 1 4 1 9 4 9 5 9 1 3 4 3 4 6 1 3 3 1 3 1 0 5 3 6 9 1 7 3 7 7 1 3 5 1 2 4 7 6 9 1 5 3 3 1 5 3 1 7 9 1 6 9 3 1 1 6 1 3 4 1 7 2 2 7 9 1 7 3 4 6 2 2 15 3 9 4 7 7 9 1 2 3 5 8 8 2 3 8 4 1 8 9 1 3 3 4 4 7 1 6 2 3 5 4 2 8 9 1 7 4 6 6 3 3 4 5 6 8 9 1 2 5 9 1 7 2 3 4 5 9 8 9 1 9 4 2 1 1 2 2 2 4 3 4 9 9 1 2 6 7 3 4 2 3 1 3 3 9 2 8 9 9 1 5 5 5 4 4 1 8 3 4 2 3 4 2 0 0 2 9 1 1 3 2 7 4 2 6 2 3 2 4 4 3 0 0 2 9 0 1 2 4 6 8 2 8 6 9 2 1 4 6 0 0 2 5 2 8 3 3 3 2 2 44 5 1 7 0 3 0 1 1 3 5 4 2 2 1 2 0 1 0 2 CEU eTD Collection distanced framework, exclusionary an as elite political traditional the from portray to CD the allowing cooperation, its people and the political reality of neglecting the people that votedthe increasingly ‘moderate’ Centre Democrats, for the CD,charismatic a Hans Janmaat as their political leader, the with oneCD seatceased in the Dutch parliament.As aresultto of internalexist divisions and the withdrawalin of 1986the and was replaced by beginning of the 1980’s, butvoting thresholds neverexceeded 0.8% of the population, corresponding Party, Center-Democratic bythe Dutch been has achieved success political Small relationship with the Afrikaner apartheid closer regime in South-Africa.establish to desire bythe illustrated sentiments, political racist and xenophobe keeping yet NVU, former the by propagated as ideologies neo-Nazi and national-socialist from distancing Ruud Lubberspursued the political strategy of a the early 1990’s, represented in the dominance of the Christian Democratic underparty Prime Minister in climate political mainstream The racism. and anti-Semitism overt of aresult as apparatus judicial success, gaining eleven seats in the municipal elections in 1990 repeatedly collide with the Dutch established Centre Party, previously mentioned anti-discrimination legislation led to the separation of afraction into the newly Confrontationswith the judicial powerover the politicalparty’s manifesto based on neo-Nazism and ofFlanders. province Belgian the and Netherlands the merge to and warcriminals that worked for the National Socialist Movement, foundation of the Dutch People’s Union, People’s Dutch ofthe foundation A continuation anti-discrimination law,of has led to the splintering of theinitial Dutch far-right. the lattermaneuvering in the post-Second World judicialWar landscape requiring the parties to abide by Dutch the and hand, one onthe support party internal the of ofradicalization situation necessity the between balance a of lack the where dilemma’ ‘adaptation called so the as Rodrigues and Donselaar Van can be seen in the 1970’s that have been marked by the 46 45 divided.’ and ‘fragmented been: historically has weak. Lacking a strong ideological right-wing political tradition as and powerbase, the framed Dutch far right be can Netherlands in the parties political radical-right for support and legacy historical The Political Movements The Dutch (New) RadicalRight VPRO, Extreemrechts in Nederland, 2006 inNederland, Extreemrechts VPRO, Voerman, 1992, 37 Centrumpartij , in 1979. A remarkable transition by the CD had been the Nederlandse Volks Unie, 45 16 The reason for this division has been identified by identified been has division this for reason The cordon sannitaire Centrum Democraten, aiming to rehabilitate former Dutch Nationaal Socialistische Beweging 46 excluding the CD from political who after initial political initial who after Centrumpartij in the CEU eTD Collection move that has proved to be un-successful, not resulting in any popular representation. popular any in resulting not un-successful, be to proved has that move presenting itself as a strictly political movement, participating in the national and local elections, a In 2002, the movements such as theDutch EDL, a party on which the Racial Volunteer Force has modeled itself.RacialA strongVolunteermovement claiming to attempt to keep ‘ Forceparty attempted identification to make the transition to existsthe political between field, the Racial Volunteer Force and UK based street exception of the sole the with movements, of street amount low significantly a seen has landscape NRR Dutch The Movements Street the right ofexpression and the ability to insult becoming increasingly blurred. challenged the limits of deliberately and encroached often has framework research this in later explained designation political a realism’, of‘new strand Dutch The discourse. political contemporary the in incorporated and convictions and prohibition of the respective political party, whereas being regarded as ‘acceptable’ 1990’s such as ‘OurNetherlands has changed profoundly, political by statements the Dutch extreme rightin the People1980’s and First, CDFull the with isparty Netherlands, in the Full right extreme organized the to blow and ultimate the meant hatred ethnic Deathof fading to incitement and Multiculturalism’of discrimination basis on the in 1996 Janmaat leader party ofCD conviction legal The from backthe then politicalled to legal Freedom Party. scene.notable political tool still valid and used in the politicalcontemporary landscape, i.e. byWilders’ Important to note is that the political climate in the Nationale Volksunie’s vrijheid vanmeningsuiting main splinter grouping, the ‘Dutch Racial Volunteer a Force’, Nederland blank’ 17 or freedom of speech, with the delineation between delineation with the ofor speech, freedom , to , to keep The Netherlands ‘white’. CEU eTD Collection 49 48 47 advocating for the incorporation and respect Greens, of immigrants’ the and culture and traditions, Socialists while the the political party, Labor of the composed Netherlands The in ‘Left’, traditional The debate on ‘multiculturalism’ has always had its implications on the political ‘integration.’ dimension with the of potential component main the as ‘religion’ and ‘ethnicity’ on emphasis an indicating of ‘race’ framework the on focus a from shifted has basedmigrants on discourse Dutch the 1970’s mid the in onStarting biological elements towards a organizations. notioncommunity of ‘cultures’practices, often stimulated by government subsidies creating new places for religious worship and and religious and cultural ‘identities’,of their levels high to retain migrants allowed framework political later This with identity.‘ the cultural of retention with latter‘integration geestelijk welzijn immigration from Islamic countries decided to take the labor political responsibility to oflarge-scale provide so period calledthe after and during office took that governments ‘Left’-leaning people.‘ secularized or Christians been had immigrants most because mostly organizations, and institutions ofIslamic formation the to led hardly had Indonesia from immigration encounterswith Islam in Indonesiacan be explained as a result of the fact that: ‘The colonial after even domain, religious and cultural anew as perceived be to came program ‘guest-workers’ societal and politicalThe latter framework of labor immigration marked the entry of the Islamic religion in the Dutch landscape. The reasonNetherlands grew from 5,700 to 68,900.’ why the religiousmostly from Morocco and Turkey. ‘Between 1960 and1969 the number offoreign workers in the later and Yugoslavia, and Portugal entrance Spain, mainly from workers with filled labor, unskilled mainly for of Islam in theprograms starting in the late 1950’s asaresult of the economicpost-war growth, creating a direneed form of the first substantial numbers of Muslims settling on Dutch soil the came as partofYet, the ‘guest-workers’ religion. Islamic the to exposed historically been has Netherlands The world, the in country archipelago that would later become the Republic of Indonesia and the largestmajority-Muslim dominance of the Dutch Kingdom over whatwere back then labeled the ‘Dutch East Indies’, the colonial the with that argue to possible is it country, of the ‘Islamization’ noted the to opposition strong onthe based mostly being Netherlands inThe NRR current the to regard specific With Dutch Immigration Policy in Historical Perspective University of Amsterdam DARE, 2006 University of Amsterdam DARE, 2006 University of Amsterdam DARE, 2006 or spiritual needs, with the Dutch Minorities Policy drawing on the notion of notion on the drawing Policy Minorities Dutch the with needs, spiritual or 47 49 18 48 CEU eTD Collection 53 52 51 50 intolerance.‘ and racism fascism, on viewpoints correct’ represented by ‘new realists’ in the progressive elite, strangling the public domain with its ‘politically directness and realism, while at the same time incorporating the openness, oppositionwith to the Dutchness Dutch ‘left’, equating hereby traits, national Dutch and on reality focus the between Ingrid’. Additionally ‘new realism’ in the Dutch context has been characterized by the; ‘connection or ‘normal people’, being the autochthonous population referred to by GeertWilders as ‘Henk and ‘discourse’. Moreover,new realists putthemselves forward as; ‘ spokesperson of the daring to face the facts, mentioning since its emergence on the Dutch political scene by: ‘ politicians presenting themselves assomeone itself manifested has realism’ ‘new designated often framework, political This assimilation. cultural identity and culture’ most come firstmentioned ‘purple coalition’,in openly distancing themselvesall from the latter concept, statingcases, that previously ‘Dutch the of resulting‘architects’ as seen often politicians even with in strong reversed, sharply most been political and societal pressure The forNetherlands has arguably one of the nations where the previous multiculturalist approaches have realism.’ the more ‘assertive’ attitude of the Dutch government hasbeen framed by such scholars as a ‘new freedom of expression and the aspect of non-discrimination on the basis of race, religion or state, sexuality, and church between division ofthe principle secularity the including values core latter the With shouldsummarized in the expression of formerminority’s respective cultural and religious identity, towards the focus on socio-economicDutch integration, a of know State preservation the from Secretary shifting slowly emphasis the With of integration. and Economicimmigration of Affairs; ‘ Dutch MuslimsthatIn earlythe 1990’s anew paradigm emerged in relation to the government-based initiatives in the field onebeen a: ‘fuzzy border between what was in fact universalcannot and what was merely ‘ours’. ‘ principles of theenlightenment, with the latter being complicated by the the fact that on there has based always values of ‘universal’ application the for advocated or silent remained either ‘Right’ bargain with the core values of Western Liberalism. Prins, 2002, 5 Prins, 2002, 4 Prins, 2002, 2 Buruma, 2006, 30 52 waarheden or ‘truths’ that have been often hidden in the political the in hidden often been have that ‘truths’ or 19 53 gewone mensen 50 51 CEU eTD Collection tolerant, while under their nose women are living as slaves.‘ phenomenon of multiculturalism,Ali has stated: confront‘I the elite’sEuropean self-image as fiercest criticsthe of of what shedeems one the patriarchal culture of became Islam she aimed atsubmitting women. where Drawing on 1992 the in Netherlands The in refuge finding marriage, arranged an escaped have to claims Ali Hirshi Ayaan parents, of Somali daughter example, additional An will make it up. In doing so, he adopts atone that does not exist among Dutch writers.‘ critic of the soft multi-culti left: the foreign lapdog of the right. And when he can’t find the soft left, he from the inside. Then something wentwrong, he took the upon role himself of the ultra-right-wing ‘Afshin Elian rightly made a name Volkskrant’: for himself‘De as an expertnewspaper critic popular of Dutch the the Iranianin regime, stated which he Science and knew Culture of Education, Minister previous point ofIslam-critics from the Islamic community itself, Ronald Plasterk, former Dutch 1990’s and became an influential figurein the Dutch political and medialandscape. In relation to the An example country. in the politicians and citizens ‘ordinary’ both for of viewpoints the Islam-critical canalized of Islam latterknowledge personal and in-depth of isa ‘lack’ that argument Afshin often-heard the countering debate, political Elian who came toA Thepowerful Netherlands element as an ofIranian Dutch refugeeanti-IslamismIslam political parties in ofanti- the framework of incorporation direct the and governancein coalition of the Dutch state.theof conservative establishment the to leading ‘multiculturalism’, has been the useactivist Volkert van der Graaf meant the ultimate ofblow to the Dutch political tradition based on former 6 the Muslims on of Fortuyn murder The themselvesoutspokennessno longer served the higher goal ofestablish the but truth, served a goal initself. ‘ in where the hyperrealism of form a into realism new of context the change to managed Fortuyn potential simplysolutions, daring to speak up, to give expression of ones gut feelings. In this way and problems ones about freely totalk people encouraging momentum, the changed performance realist new His ‘ discourse. political Dutch the in anti-Islamism of incorporation the in shift further ‘clash of ideology’ between the LF and Fortuyn’s increasingly exclusionist political markedideas, a livable Netherlands, later to be split into his own party, 56 55 54 sociologist by academic training, as the leader of the newly established and party magazine Elsevier center-right the for columnist political former Fortuyn, ofPim emergence The Ayaan Hirshi Ali, 2006 Buruma, 2006, 24 Prins, 2002, 7 th of May, 2002, 4 days before the general elections, by animal-rights by elections, general the before 4days 2002, May, of 20 Lijst Pim Fortuyn 56 , as a result of aso called Leefbaar Nederland 55 54 or CEU eTD Collection 58 57 where comparable to the historical legacy of the feeling, ‘outsider’ an to appeal consistent ona based largely been has of Wilders success political The seats out of 150during the parliamentary elections inJune 2010. 2009, winning two municipal elections in The Hague and Almere in March 2010 and obtaining 24 consecutive electoral rounds. Gaining 4 seats in electionsthe forthe European Parliament in June three during support electoral of increase gradual a seen has Wilders Netherlands, inThe party political largest third current the being Party’ ‘Freedom his With beyond. and Netherlands The in aiming to restrict immigration from ‘Muslim countries’, he functions as the imagine of anti-Islamism calling to stop the ‘Islamization’ of The Netherlands, comparing the withQuran ‘Mein Kampf’ and with the Turkish Republic, another shift in the Dutch political landscape marked.can be Openly Democratie, en Vrijheid With the entrance questions. societal fundamental similar facing countries other from out stands of NRR Dutch the in this Geert Wilders,minorities asa ‘legitimization’ force is definitely nota new phenomenon,yet the widespread use of formerpolitical he arena, or shecanmove up in the political ranks. This political tendency of projecting of the member confident member culturally and self-asserted a as herself or him portray not does descent of the Dutchknuffel-allochtoon Liberalhas led to the portrayed imagine of the Dutch politicalParty system where functioning as the so called V becoming incorporated in mainstream Dutch politics unless they function as Islam-critics themselves Generally seeing low levels of ‘Muslim’ political figures climbing up on the societal ladder and party.’ Wilders has created a particular platformDutch the by formostly himselfimpersonated ‘left’, the of failure asof a a because politicaland citizen, ordinary ‘hardworking’ leaderthe and for party a as the Party Freedom political the By portraying insecure. ideasincreasingly feel that ofpeople of his support the student for wearing Mahssana headscarf in class,in hernotable Human Rights Lawyer whohas amongstKlaas others supported the high school pupil Imane case stated againstthat:Dutchmen ‘Wilders ordinary the and reality, with of touch out theis has that elite’ gained ‘leftist called so the Don between whodistance popularityBosco has bylost Collegegettingpolitical trust landscape in as static Volendam inand unablethe to respond country’sand listenthat to its electorate, has herebyexpelled emphasizingpolitics. the the particularIn a personal interview with Jelle Klaas a Jelle Klaas, 2011 Esposito, 2011, 37 58 Partij vande Arbeid The latter is being framed by Vossen as: ‘ a preference for a style that can be labeled as , or ‘huggable foreigner’ practically means that as long as Dutchman of Islamic a party he left due his to firm objection to the opening of membership talks or Labor Party, that has taken over many aspects from neo-liberal parties, Centrumpartij 21 57 the Freedom Party projects the Dutch olkspartij voor CEU eTD Collection have garnered six more seats that it had actually won during the previous election.‘ previous the during won actually had it that seats more six garnered have 2008 showing that: ‘If Wilders had run for office the day after ‘Fitna’ hit the Internet, his party would polling agency, published in the Dutch renowned newspaper Wilders to instantly reach a vast potential electorate Theis power of the Dutch reflectedpopularmedia inhighlighting the particular aspect of anti-Islamism, in allowing a public poll by Maurice de Hond’s journalism, in the news media.‘ object of a fierce highly negative debate in Dutch society and given democraticthe function of however somehow the attentionof ‘Fitna’, didn’t fade ‘launch’ the away, from then postponed on, Wilders, repeatedly ‘Fitna’ and politician Islam the and became case the the wasn’t this Ultimately, states. evolved into a remarkable media event, movie the would onappear television in January, Wilders November2007 and March 27, 2008, the day Wildersmade ‘Fitna’ available on the internet,the case newspapers wasseized by a movie no one had seen;in the period between the announcement in popularmedia outlets in shaping public opinion: ‘ For four months, the attention of the Dutch 62 61 60 59 Wilders’ publication of anti-Islamic movies such as ‘Fitna’ i.e. Using mediapopular an outlet as for the projection of political ideologies, ‘Freedom strongman Party’ in dealing with racism, xenophobia, expertise anti-Semitism, recognized and and intolerance.‘ authority moral their of basis the on appointed are who individuals impartial rights monitoring body established by the Council of Europe,human whose members independent are and independent an is commission This contexts. other and arena political the both in Islamophobia of increase substantial a in resulted have which developments, these by affected particularly been have communities Turkish and Moroccan the notably and Muslim, the that states it 2008, February in Intolerance on The Netherlands was adopted by the Council of in Europe June 2007 andmade public surrounding. Illustrating the latter aspect: ‘ A reportby the European Commission against Racism and diminished imaginethe of the Dutch as being a tolerant people, living peacefully in multi-culturala the number of religiously charged incidents in in the Netherlands increase in the post 9/11 sharp worldthe have swiftly politics, Dutch in topic discussed widely a been have hatred’ of ‘encouragement Whereas the delineation of what constitute the boundaries between ‘freedom of speech’ and people.‘ ‘ordinary’ the with relationship and style ‘popular’, as in opposition the moresto andvocabulary of the elite, aiming to provide authentican Esposito, 2011, 51 Esposito, 2011, 47 Esposito, 2011, 39 Vossen, 2009, 5 61 59 22 NRC Handelsblad struggle, 60 draws on the power of 62 on the 6 th of April, of CEU eTD Collection 63 eventually become democrats.’ you should notexclude people. I really believe that if people participate in a democracy they will thatis respecting three taboos: you should not call for violence, youshould respect human dignity and democracy, so it stays an issue.democratic framework, because you are violating the there’srules, no way to solve the issue within a We can question eachon the topic of Wilders’other’s prosecution and political ‘modus vivendi’: ‘If you are debating outside the lifestyles but weUniversity of Amsterdam shouldand the author of important at publications Policies on the NRR in The Netherlands,of Electoral do stated Professor it Tillie, Jean in research, a this way for designated interview an During environment. political Churchill as being Wilders himself, he has often portrayed himself as the victim of the traditional ‘appeaser’, representing leftist Dutch politics and the often silenced but eventually decisive Winston the eyes ofthe Western political elite. Drawing analogies between Neville Chamberlain as the against what he labels the ‘Islamic threat’, he warns for the mere playingrights down of this women’s latter and threat gay in defending openly fact in values’, of ‘Judeo-Christian loss the in located Israeli the with ties close propagating States, United the example for in neo-conservatives many state,to In contrast an important standpoint of Wilders, he does not perceive the threat of society to be Tilli, 2011 63 23 CEU eTD Collection challenging the bi-party system in the future. potentially Democrats, Liberal ofthe significance political increasing an with Party, Conservative the and Party Labor the labeled be can parties political influential and established most traditionally The party. UKIP the for votes the of 15% ofaround gain a seen have later in this chapter the NRR has proved to be insignificanton the national front, European elections electoral latter The election. the in gained of votes amount tothe frameworkproportionate is party particular a by won seats of number the marks where representation ofproportional a framework strong electoral the see elections European difference in whereas in levelscontrast to national elections that are elections, characterized by European the and ‘winner takes all national principle’, the between of differs system NRRelectoral British the that support. is note to Important Whereas as will be shown Northern Ireland assemblies. British politicalof expertise, amending and reviewing political proposals from the House of Commons. Additionally, systeman absolute majority and the House of Lords, consisting out of 786membersacting as apolitical body on based system voting to the incontrast elected gets seesvotes most the with candidate the where system representation in the form of the Scottish parliament and Welsh and 65 64 basis onafirst-past-the-post elected directly are that members between two chamberswith vested legislative power,the House of Commons, consisting out of 646 a strong example of bi-party political competition. TheBritish parliamentary system has been divided shown has reality but system amulti-party as noted officially be can system British The Government. of Head current the being Cameron David with Minister Prime of the appointee the as well as Queen Elizabeth the Second, reigning since the 6 current the with monarchy, constitutional of a basis the on framed is system political British The Landscape Political British 3.2 The The United Kingdom Whitehead, 2008 2008 Online, Economist The th 24 of February ofFebruary 1952, being the official Head of State, 64 65 also known as the ‘winner takes all’ CEU eTD Collection 66 UKIP BNP ats Democr Liberal Liberal atives Conserv Labour order to highlight their electoral success. In this table the British (New) Radical Right consisting out of the BNPSeats and UKIP is marked in red in Tabel 2Historical Overview of Electoral Support in the United Kingdom in Parliamentary UK Political Info Online, 2012 66 09 6 9 12 13 9 6 11 6 23 6 10 22 6 9 3 21 3 39 45 19 7 29 5 31 50 19 1 32 5 29 51 19 4 34 7 27 55 19 5 36 8 25 59 19 4 30 7 31 64 19 3 25 3 36 66 19 25 0 33 7 28 70 19 6 27 9 31 74 19 9 33 8 26 79 19 7 39 9 20 83 19 5 37 9 22 87 19 0 0 6 33 1 27 92 19 20 4652 57 62 0 5 16 8 41 97 19 0 0 0 6 16 2 41 01 20 0 0 8 19 6 35 05 20 0 0 6 30 8 25 10 20 CEU eTD Collection core principles of anti-Zionism and racial superiority. racial and anti-Zionism of principles core claiming that the attempted self-portrayal of the BNP asmoderate and Front inclusive meant National selling the outwith its BNP the with confrontations political to leading revisionism’, ‘historical European Union. Moreover,the BNF incorporated the propagation of capital punishment and strong stance against ‘American Imperialism’ and calls for a retreat of the UK from NATO and the 69 68 67 collapse. vote in the 1979 elections, with the latter being a clear result of the BNP, the BNF’s main competitor’s party, reaching its highest levels of electoral support in the late 1970’s, gaining 0.6 % of the national Additionally, the British National Front, founded in 1967 has been a traditionally white-supremacy Islam doesnot pose a threat to the West. the united Kingdom with three-quarters of the BNP voters strongly of disagreeing with the notion that ‘Islamization’ portrayed the over anxiety severe express and stances anti-immigration in manifested country the in ‘diversity’ of concept the towards distrust of levels high with events, international and domestic about informed poorly classes, social lower from ofpeople majority ona rests support According extensiveto research by Goodwin and Evans in 2011, the electorateBNP and basis of below 5 percent of the vote, usually hovering in the 1-2 per cent range.‘ general 1979 the during rivalries internal to due elections.collapsed but attention electoral and political some attracted Since then: ‘ on Thethe restriction of immigration Unitedto the Kingdom from the former British colonies atfirst BNP’s support far-rightin any well-organized and electoral operating elementnationally first the in1960, Party National British established in newly the contestthe country has marked almost scatteredits neo-fascistalwayspolitical various of merging the movementswith Yet, movements. suchpolitical been nor asgroups the presence. far-right White organized no Defensevirtually League and Thethe National BNP’s Labor Party, intoparty Historicallydoctrine the British far-rightbeing can be framedbased as weak, with the post-Second World War years seeing Political Movements The (New) RadicalRight in the United Kingdom Husbands, 1979,2 Goodwin, 2011, 4 Hansen, 2000, 6 69 With the main ideological party foundations resting on the resentment to immigration,a 68 26 67 CEU eTD Collection Supreme Court. entering the country, ameasure thatwas later appealed and eventually overruled by the British Islam movie ‘Fitna’ in the House of Lords, leading to the national government banning Wilders from cooperation,trans-national foster to aims its for known Moreover, landscape. political the British the in operating UKIP has invited Dutch Freedom Party strongman Geert Wilders to show his anti- 71 70 October 2000 parallel UK law with the European Convention on Human Rights,entering into force on the second of ‘immigrants’ wanting to ‘remain’ and calling for the repelling of the ‘Human Rights Act’, designed to national government and organizations funded with public money, the removal of ‘benefits’ for Openly calling for areturn of bordercontrol, endingthe promotion of ‘multiculturalism’ by the elements.’ populist and Eurosceptic xenophobic, ‘nationalist, of: mixture a offering its founding, the United Kingdom Independence Party has incorporated a wide ofrange NRRpolicies, Finally, with its core ideology being based upon the opposition to further European integration, since own political framework, an important aspect that will be addressed later in this research framework. Conservatives have successfully managed to fill the the ‘grey’ zone and to Labor the both respective where left and right system, of their two-party political Britain’s in navigate to NF ofthe failure latter that were previously exclusively aimedincreasingly right-wing political undertone, addressing problemsat suchasimmigration byand integration an Tories the the giving far-right Thatcher, Margaret to over handed as being the Conservatives basisof the leadership of their political existence. The to gain any representation at the national or local level, atrend that commenced with the party The electoral support for the party has waned, with the 2010 elections marking the failure of the BNF Goodwin, 2011, 8 Goodwin, 2011, 7 71 - The UKIP has been one of the most recently visible and well-organized NRR parties NRR well-organized and visible recently most the of one been has UKIP - The 27 70 CEU eTD Collection irrelevant.’ limited political significance and has therefore by many scholars been labeled as ‘politically Yet, compared to for example The Netherlands, theNRR hasover theyears played a role of very latter does notmean nor indicate that the phenomenon of an upcoming NRR does notexist. remained small, with voting thresholds never exceeding more than two percent of the voters of the percent two than more exceeding never thresholds voting with small, remained While in the United Kingdom the electoral support for either the traditional far-rightor the NRR has as these groups such as March for England, were early prototypes for the EDL.’ Jihadist’ organizations that have evolved from within the football casual subculture over recent years, not lie in the established or traditional radical right, butin several pre-existing ultra-patriotic, ‘anti- NRR historically. Regardless of thementioned previously,exemplifyingBDL the high level of affiliationfractionalization that has marked the British with a BNP offshoot,frequent the originsof basis the been has and ofparties NRR the other and EDL the EDL: between ‘do cooperation potential obstructed attacks on the party leadership, comparable to the criticism of the BNF on the BNP, 77 76 75 74 73 72 attempt to include memberssignificant from ‘all races, the movement being based differencein London and including mostly young and dis-illusioned males, a faiths and political Britishbetween Freedompersuasions. the named offshoot BNP a with Party, affiliated being party EDLthe of the a result as members organization, ‘ community EDLare facilitated and andother eligible to standEvenNRR candidate though parties in elections.the EDL With canin be theframed country as ‘ ancountry. our of anti-Islam Islamization creeping is the to opposed being meaning the‘social non-Muslims, of lives the into party’sencroachment movement’ Islam’s radical against ‘protest to: campaigning statednamely based basis, issue single on a matters on policy a advocating formstreet-movement, of (cross) A recent NRR streetforce, supposedly bringing community resilience against ‘Muslim extremism.’ movementcommunal, has been regionalmovements,the openly aiming to gain political representation through democratic meansEnglish atthe or DefenseIn the British NRR landscape,national an important distinction needs to be made between political League, level founded and street Movements Street in June movements, 2009 as a here defined as a: ‘grass roots social Hansen, 2000, 11 Carter, 2005, 21 Copsey, 2010,6 Online League Defence English Goodwin, 2011, 4 Copsey, 2010,2 77 73 28 72 75 74 - A matter that has 76 , the CEU eTD Collection settlementof immigrants more permanent. Commonwealth Immigration Act of 1968, family reunification became herebypossible, making the than in for example their native Pakistan. native their example for in than of a better life,with post-colonial void resulting in wages that were up to 30 times higherin the UK 1970’s when substantial numbers ofIndians and Pakistani’s traveled United to the Kingdom in search predominantly of people immigrating to United the Kingdom in the period between the 1950’s and consists population Muslims Britain’s Ugandans. and Somalis Nigerians, Malaysians, including accounting for around two-thirds’ of Britain’s Muslim population Muslim Britain’s of two-thirds’ around for accounting India, and Pakistan notably Asia, South from immigrants (former) are Muslims of British majority The compromising 4.6 %of the British population. Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life estimating numberthe of Muslim adherents being 2.9 million, Islam currently constitutes the second-largest religious community in the United Kingdom, with the British Immigration Policy in Historical Perspective effect on the levelsof NRR support. unemployment and social mobility, indicating that the national economic output would have little of levels on focuses that argument material and economic portrayed often the to contrast in 2011, the basis of support for the NRR in the UK lies in the perception of a ‘cultural threat’ in sharp 83 82 81 80 79 78 mean that: ‘ the grievances they exploit have gone away.’ not does operates NRR British the which under framework political weak the isthat note to Important Islam without supporting racism or violence.‘ oppose to claiming façade, moderate a maintaining of strategy EDL the disrupts this Front, National the ‘Infidels’whereas Midlands, the and South the from hark activists EDL against country, back ofthe north in the tostrongest the street fascism of the Defense1980’s, working closely andwith internalthe situation League financial poor a to remnantsdue mainly this splits,elections, national in of electorate thea of their phenomenon support the grasp and that has alsothe been Inapparent the modernBNF in the political day wherepolitical structure landscape of the Englishinternal both the BNP, BNF, the EDLfractionalization: and UKIP have not managed to ‘Pits the EDL ‘Infidels’ faction, Abbas, 2005, 23 BBC, 2009 BBC, 2009 Field, 2010 Collins, 2011 Collins, 2011 82 83 With the ‘Commonwealth Immigrants Actof 1962and the 78 80 29 79 According to UK based think-tank Demos think-tank UK based to According 81 with other notable groups notable other with CEU eTD Collection globalization and devolution.’ ‘Blair’s government interference Britainin migrant communities, towards a renewed emphasis on ‘assimilation’. has been ismarked by a move away from traditional ‘multiculturalism’ with notably low levels of definingThe political designation and attitude of TonyBlair’s New Labor during the beginning of the 2000’s a new ethnicityminimal contributory role within the socio-economic and socio-political milieu of society. ‘ a had traditionally have immigrants Muslims capitalism, later and mercantilism laissez-faire British – Englishnessthe ‘other’ stem from an understanding and experience of imperialism and colonialism.As aresult of of identification and social cultural of ‘notions that: clear becomes it as dimension political the Tracing opposed to Britishnessmulticultural society in which the term ‘British’ can simultaneously refer to all cultures. ‘ in moved away from: ‘its inherentlyan postwar assimilationist principleshas it andnow seeks todevelop that a indicating eragovernment British the With of opportunity. equality of and interpretation religious and of speech of freedom tradition a strong integration, multicultural of incorporation the on based one placed placed upon diversity at the expense of unity. ‘ liberal the in many led also it publication, offensive an at disgust of intelligentsia expression legitimate toa response the London subway on the 7 to see it issuing a socalled ‘Fatwa’, allowingas the killing of Rushdie in 1989, 9/11 and the terrorist attacksa in problem Khomeini Ruhollah Ayatollah with resentment Muslim major caused Verses’ Satanic ‘the titled novel of multiculturalism;appeal has marked been by the ‘Rushdie ofaffair’ thelate 1980’s, when the publication of Rushdie’s In Unitedthe Kingdom the criticism of the concept ofmulticulturalism and the NRR’s anti-Islamic that is, too greatmulticulturalism’. of ‘end the deem scholars anmany emphasiswhat marked have discourse anti-Islamic and anti-immigration exclusionary onan thriving parties was Yet, with the changing political system.’ political atmosphere humane and sophisticated most the as in functioning the postmulticulturalism 9/11 world and the recent rise of NRR political was back then termed; ‘the basis of a (supra-national) societal project with universal aspirations, with 89 88 87 86 85 84 other cultures. ‘ of pluralism for ‘respect the: as defined here of‘multiculturalism’, notion political the immigration, democrats dominating the Western political landscape and increasing exposure to significant wavesof With the 1990’s seeing a substantial degree of economic prosperity, the alliance of liberals and social- Cherribi, 2011, 52 Cherribi, 2011, 52 Cherribi, 2011, 51 Cherribi, 2011, 49 Shadid, 2002, 17 Sniderman, 2007, 8 84 - Has been prevalent in many Western European countries, leading the way of what of way the leading countries, European Western many in prevalent been - Has 89 th of July 2005. The Rushdie affair for some indicated: ‘ anirrational 86 30 Yet, the official British policy has historically been historically has policy British official the Yet, 85 87 88 CEU eTD Collection Muslimsin the national political scene. political participation on both a national and local level has in fact led to a general acceptance of Switzerland, finding no British political and societal support, one might argue that the significant movements aimingMP’s being doubled the at electionslast in2010 toof Muslim the number With particular. in ban Muslims and general, in minorities of minarets participation political or the ‘niqab’ as seen in notably France, The Netherlands and and Sikh community backgrounds in Britain. ‘ Britain. in backgrounds community Sikh and religious to limited is communities ‘Protection where: system legislative a maintains Kingdom United the as limited who are also ethnicallydiscrimination’ has been incorporated by British legislation, protection of ‘religious discrimination’defined is throughSomething case law, namely people from Jewish immigration with Islamic cultures being perceived as substantially different from specificother cultures.‘ which is the disdain xenophobia, to oranalogously dislikecreated is of Islamophobia ‘ all that: things stated thank think ‘foreign’. important an as 1997 The in fear already of about Islam Trust, Runnymede is the mixed by a study withIslam, of racist perceptions hostility shaped greatly have to immigration the In the case of the United Kingdom, recentexperiences of neo-colonialism, decolonization Britishand citizens. British other by experienced those than contextMuslims showed strongerlevels of identification with the British ‘nation’ and national institutions for British is responses by the British society and political discourse, a recent study by the Gallup Polling Agency the factthe ‘British nation’ as the main reasons for religious extremism in the country and subsequentnegative that whereas the notion of ‘racial 95 94 93 92 91 90 of February, 2011 While British Prime Minister David Cameron in a speech at the Munich Security Conference on the 5 imperialism.‘ orcultural mono-culturalism toward and multiculturalism or pluralism emphasized the notioncontinuously has of debate ‘Britishness’: political the time same the At mobility. ‘a of social red levels herringweak and exclusion that is an of attempt feelings to portrayed led shifthave migrants the focusinner-city Britain’s from in cultural communities ofMuslim alienation The Adetunji, 2010 Cherribi, 2011, 72 Cherribi, 2011, 57 Esposito, 2008, 2 Cameron, 2011 Cherribi, 2011, 56 91 named the ‘question of identity’ and weak identification with ‘British values’ and values’ ‘British with identification weak and ofidentity’ ‘question the named 94 31 Yet, the United Kingdom has seensharp a riseon 95 , and with the non-appearance of political of non-appearance the with and , 90 93 92 th CEU eTD Collection latter: ‘When asked about theirmost important area ofconcern in 2006, whilst their EU counterparts Dutch and British society, leads to the emergence and solidification of NRR parties. Illustrating the the restriction of immigration, a tougher stance on organized crime and the denoted ‘Islamization’ of the by NRR, propagated mostly on ‘integration’, the and top‘immigration’ as such list issues political placing of electorate politicalthe priorities, the electorate. With the so‘new radical right’ parties becomingcalled so firmly covered by the popularmedia and potential ‘demand’ the reach to of communication forms modern on more and for more relying politicalglobalization, incentives such asthe ‘traditional’ sourcesof political mobilization have shifted, following the pursuit of increasing 97 96 nearing approximately 2.5 % in 2009 and 1.21 % in the United Kingdom of party identification and membership.party With levels ofparty membershipin The Netherlands tendency to become less aligned with mainstream political parties, the resulting in increasingly followed low levels have countries in both voters politics, ‘traditional’ with dissatisfaction of the a result As immigration and a decrease in employmentof opportunities. numbers rising to connected when especially arena, political inthe operating parties traditional the by represented and un-protected felt voters lower-class mostly of range wide a and eroded become stability and identity’ of ‘national forms traditional as groupings NRR for demand or space’ the transition from an industrial to a post-industrial society led to the previously mentioned ‘political electoral supporthave been a fairly recent phenomenon, starting at the beginning of the 1990’s when Important to note is that the recent rise of NRR political parties, their coverage in the public media and majority.’ against minority of also perhaps minority, against majority inclusion with the policy put in place to achieve conciliation has created division – certainly of than rather exclusion encourage – to opposite the been has outcome the that unfortunate, more the minorities for opportunities to expand enjoy to multiculturalism a better promoted have life Netherlands The and Britain and‘Both to win a respected place of their own in their new society, ofOverlap 4.1 Points it is all differences. notable most the explore will part difference are similar supportpatterns for the NRR in both countries. ofThis StartingNRR chapter with politicalpoints of willoverlap it aimwill be tomade showbehaviorclear how andDifference Overlap of 4. Points thethere similarities on a cross-country and differences in thebasis, ways of operatingafter whichand basis theof points of Van Biezen, 2011, 26 Cherribi, 2011, 75 32 96 97 , a trend has emerged where , a emerged has trend CEU eTD Collection Geert Wilders,plays an ambiguousdouble role. yet this concept of the ‘nation-state’, heavily defended by the Dutch NRR manifested in most notably identity.’ a mirroring imageof the ‘true self’: ‘helping one to articulate innerthe of truth one’s authentic, unique functioning as the ‘significant other’, Foucault’s particularnotion of the ‘outsider’ that isarticulated as of portrayal on the effect direct a had the;has Wilders Geert and Griffin Nick as such politicians anti-Islamic ‘ negativeMoreover,according to Buruma,the significant coverage and manipulation of the mediapopular by characteristicsenlarges the sphere of fear.and ‘ – Resultingmigrants of in a clear political characteristics gain fornegative the ‘ NRR ofthe; portrayal the on effect direct a had has Wilders ofsignificant coverage and manipulation of the popular media byanti-Islamic politicians such as Geert migrantsWilders, where as previously andsimilarity mentioned, enlarges according can be ‘traditional’to seena politicsnumber that they claim has distancedin of the voters the fromscholars the political arena.Dutch A latter notablesuch serve and project theNRRaspotential aspolitical political‘alternative’ onthe thesupply withside, breaking the Ian Buruma, the spherelandscape, framed under the banner ofanti-immigration, anti-Islamism a renewedand emphasis on the ‘identity’ in particular ofargument forthe the NRR, perceived and sometimes overtly projected ‘demand’ for political ideas regardfear.‘ to PVV frontman Geert 103 102 101 99 98 and coverage of the British National Party.’ 1998 and 2003, for instance, reveals astrong correlation between peaks in coverage of immigration Empirical research produced from an examination of press coverage of the immigration issue between legitimizing force, expressing the traditionally neglected ‘direct concerns’ of the electorate. ‘ With specific regard to the role of the public media,where media coverage can function as research. in this later addressed be will that apoint NRR, the of emergence of frame time and trust immigration levels. were present in the country and that the traditional politicalimmigrants many parties had too failed them in to decreasing according that indicated Dutch the of 27% Poll, Trend Transatlantic the by survey recent a in where Netherlands The in identical closely framed be can latter The placed immigration on top, followed by terrorism and crime. ranked immigration fourth (behind unemployment, crime the economicand situation) UK respondents BBC Online, 2011 Goodwin,2007, 242 Forestal, 2009, 7 Esposito, 2011, 43 Esposito, 2011, 43 103 - has been projected as the main opposition to the traditional ‘national identity’ and state, and identity’ ‘national traditional tothe opposition main the as projected been has - 99 Yet adifference here hasbeen the relative levels ofgovernmental supportand 100 - with the latter ‘legitimization’ forming a key political 33 98 101 102 Increasingly CEU eTD Collection 105 104 anti-Islam movie ‘Fitna’, facilitated by amongst others the UKIP. Wilderstraveling to the United Kingdom on a number of occasions to express support with and show his place taken have meetings of pan-European number a legitimacy, political their damage might distance themselves from European counterparts, especially streetmovements such as the BDL that firmly to tried have Netherlands inThe Party Freedom the as such groupings political NRR Although wider European influences.’ that they bring forward from the fringesusing of thethe mainstream, arena arein notwhich bornas in separate isolationtoemerging right develop radical ofthe rise the than butrather ‘ are integration: subjectnationaltheirof European project to supra-national the trade. to objection partiespolitical NRR’s the to As In contrast such, borders. national the across thatmessage the its presenting and waysimply NRR parties stand operateopposedpolitical groups in The Netherlands and the UK can be labeled the trans-national appeal, forging ties and ofNRR tosimilarity thea significant the support, ideas electoral and EU, rhetoric NRR behind force we driving the as see that the partiesWhereas, are opposition in fact to Islam and the ‘ traditional Muslims. Asian and Asians law-abiding good, between politicaldistinguish establishment canpractices. in both countries For example: be seencommunity assimilation path, or as‘bad Muslims‘ clinging to ‘ retain their culture inand religious the summer ofclassify its Muslim community as either2001 ‘good to Muslims‘ followingmoved a government-based has scheme of discourse the political the citizens, racist of Muslims incorporation the at targeted British being paradigm National integrationist ofthe preoccupation main the with latter, the to In response Party identity’. of ‘national form began explicitly tothe previous framework of‘multiculturalism’, towards aframework marked by a more prominent from away shift a seen has Kingdom United the and Netherlands The inboth discourse political The fight for its liberties, yet are portrayed as the ‘essence’ of a European ‘identity’ and ‘civilization’ identity level: ‘ The ‘West’ and its with opendebatethe shifting from problems related to immigration societiesand inter-cultural cohesion to the are no longer the resultcultural loyalty, hereby extending the national-identity widerto a European ‘culture’, on other,the of different a century-long, migrants of the internalization continuous the implying historical ‘other’, that against culture Europe parties such as the BNP, the Freedomretreat from the European Union Partyand are-evaluation of supra-national commitments on the one hand, and British and UKIPDutch a advocating clearlyopenly rhetoric, NRR of advocate concept key the as nation-state the Framing the appeal to defend Western- Shearman, 2011 Abbas, 2005, 37 105 34 104 CEU eTD Collection 106 share of votes for the BNP tripled from 0.7% in 2005 to 1.9% in 2010. 2005, one can see with electionthat the ofcampaign the NRR often referring to the bombings, the Kingdom there have been no direct elections surrounding the London bombings on the seventh of July gaining hereby24 seats, becoming the second-largest party in the parliament. Whereas in the United victory, political a rocketed party the elections, general the before days eight of Fortuyn, murder van Gogh and Pim ofTheo Fortuyn, assassination the have bombings, London the greatly as such events influenced terrorism-related cases in both and shapedFinally, the rise of the NRR. In the case of the Murray, 2012 35 106 CEU eTD Collection of the two dominant parties. able to compete with the already established dominant political parties in turn strengthens the position two-party system.’ towards polarization,psychological a phenomenon, strengthens themechanical factorsconducive to a in the political system in order to concentrate their votes on the two strongest parties, this tendency In the latter explanation, also labeled the ‘wasted concept’:vote ‘Voterstend to abandon a third party ‘voters gradually desert weak the parties on the grounds that they have no chances of winning’ experience when operating within a two-party system as seen in the United Kingdom by stating that: A theoretical framework putforward by Maurice Duverger bloc.’ right expanded an into the far right’s themes, bi-party environment, has succeeded in the ‘mainstreaming’ of far right parties. By adopting some of inits spectrum it political wide a from legitimized issues political incorporate to ability centrifugal its with system them and increasedtheory. According to Tim Bale, Political Scientist at the University of Sussex, the British two-party both theirsupportin The Netherlands andUnitedthe Kingdom draws on the mentionedpreviously salience coalition and the seats it brought 114 113 112 111 110 109 108 the by marked landscape political Dutch the with contrast sharp in stands system two-party a in factions one fourth in the United Kingdom. to compared population, ofthe third one to dropped drastically number this 2002 by job, good a doing and 1990’s. levels ofgovernmental trust, often contrasting with international electoral trends such as in the 1980’s the political didsystem not need much improvement early 1970’s and the mid 1990’s there has been a progressive decline in the number ofpeople thinking significant afairly seen historically has UK the whereas framework, theoretical Demand-side the to gapReturning between the political ofDifference 4.2 Points elite and the so called ‘man on the street’, where between the decisive in gaining a majority in parliament. in majority a gaining in decisive Halikiopoulou, 2011 Duverger, 1972,25 Benoit, 2006, 72 Duverger, 1972,24 Bale, 2010, 2 Bovens, 2009, 12 Bovens, 2009, 3 poldermodel 108 Yet,where in 1998, two-thirdsof the Dutch population claimed their governmentwas of political agreement and coalition-forming, where relatively smaller parties can be 113 The prospect and expectation by the electorate that the respective party won’t be 110 114 This latter ‘absorption’ of marginal and newly established political established newly and marginal of ‘absorption’ latter This 109 Additionally, a key explanation for the discrepancy in NRR in discrepancy the for explanation key a Additionally, 36 107 , The Netherlands has seen relatively high 111 parties difficultyexplainsthe NRR 112 . CEU eTD Collection 117 116 115 can amongst others be namedcontemporary electoral support. A Geertrecentexample of such a new generation of NRR political leaders Wilders of the Dutchinteraction with the public media, has Freedomproved to be one of the decisive elements inskillful measuring of importance the Party, marking age contemporary inthe awardedfront-man ofits ability rhetorical with the prize for present itselfThe latter as argumenta viable is connected alternative with theparticular, who soare said to resemblecalled the failures of the old, toxic, radical right.’ charismaand crediblepolicies, theoryand of ideals diversification however, ‘this where contrary: the On electorate. theispotential their politicalargued broaden to ability road the paving to right, have radical of traditional of the not the notions been stereotypical NRRwith breaking adopted Judaism, movement,to and homosexuality by the British NRR inwith generalclearexample of the latter is the Dutch Freedom Party’s support for women’semancipation, anda specificthe BNP in successfully distanced themselves from the ‘old’ radical right,widening their ideological agenda.A have of Islam, focus fear people’s the to appealing directly standpoints, on projected clearly but radical the ‘ legislation. favorable a government coalition, and, bybargaining with the government parties and by othermeans, toobtain on the usual peaceful, democratic strategies of attempting to win seats in parliament, to become part of parties, anti-system clearly that includingstates Taylor Michael Stability’ Government and contemporary Systems ‘Party work his In NRR in the form of the Dutchissues. all not though ‘Freedom onsome party of Wilders’ support the on rely could Party’:that government minority ‘ Have concentrated where monthsafter of political wrangling, the Conservatives andChristian Democrats formed a country inthe landscape political polarized the illustrating hand, at majority clear no with deadlock 10 years, where: ‘Prime Minister Rutte came to power afterthe recent retreatgeneral of the Freedom Party from electionsthe coalition marking the fifth ‘coalitionin crisis’2010 in the past that resulted in a ideologically sound coalition, The Netherlands has seen a strong surge in government collapse, with deal-brokerright political bloc, clearly enhancing the Dutch NRR’sprestige, legitimacy and ability functionto as a onGeert Wilders enter to thegovernmentconstruction proved to be the only possibility to form a center- terms A goodrelatively example of this is the recent political construction whereadvantageous allowing the NRR Freedom Party of to itself. As a result of the difficulty to form an famous marked not only by plurality and proportional representation but also on the previously mentioned neo-fascists and neo-Nazi organizations. Especially in the case of the Dutch political landscape, perform according to the rulesof the ‘political gain’, distancing themselves from connotationswith Murray, 2012 Taylor, 1971, 31 Janssen, 2012 poldermodel where decision-making is based on cooperation and negotiation, parties with 116 appealThe ofNRRpartieshereby becomes explained their by to ability 37 117 115 CEU eTD Collection of values.’ orset faith particular a in belief with or emotions exceptional with primarily fused become can quality with and he that fact ofthe himdenomination continuous Wilders’ theThrough Roemer. Emile front-man Party West is at ‘war’Dutch Public Television,hereby staying firmly ofahead Prime Minister Rutte Mark and the Socialist with Islam in the eyes of his electoral base: ‘ Charismatic personal 123 122 121 120 119 118 citizens of the Ku Klux Klanincrease of popular support, yet poor political performancesonin the public media,including his defense the British charismaticpolitical leaders. The initial emergence of Nick Griffin as the leader of the BNPdebating marked a relative In sharpshow ‘Oncontrast Time’, viewedto the by latter,8 millionsignificantmedia coverage but alsowith some form of popularstatus with the masses. the British Britishof an anti-establishment fighter,determined to forfight hiscause, providing himnotNRRimage only with self-styled his has reinforced have 2009 in acquittal notlatter his and discrimination, and seen hatred ethnic a thriving Additionally,electoral the public trial of Wilders basedon the claim that his political standpointswere inducing push by its use of of the electorate for the politician’s ‘emotional commitment’ to his political of‘admiration’ initiatives.form a create might framework exclusionary an on founded be might they though even ‘best politician of the year’ in 2010, gaining 17.5 % in support.’ the perception that: ‘ as a public figure he is now regarded as aliability during the parties recent slump message, establish close contact withNick the electorate Griffin,and perform wellcharges. This contrast in withsharp in the United where Kingdom, after theinitialthe risein popularity, popular media, previously leading to instilling a great deal of support and actual compassion after hisacquittal from the hate-speech designatedindicates where the Dutch NRR has bond.’ made greatemotional headway an by him withwith Geert united Wilders’ feel who charismatic followers personalityhis in passions relevant politically as the newcauses an effectively internalized response because he can generate ecstasy, euphoria,resentment and ‘face’highly globalized context. Thelatter: ‘emotional appeal of the leader,driven of by his own innercalling, the British NRR, failed to transmit his Murray, 2012 Goodwin, 2011 Goodwin, 2011 Schweitzer1974, 46 Schweitzer, 1974, 41 DutchNews Online, 2010 121 marked the downfall of the BNP and indicate the importance of political ‘delivery’ ina 119 123 Following Max Weber,the expression of deepfeelingsof political passion and hatred, 38 118 of the votes of preference by the viewers of the of viewers the by of preference votes of the 120 122 - CEU eTD Collection opportunity.’ an than problem a of more was immigration thought Netherlands, The and Spain Italy, Germany, France, including surveyed, countries other all in than more Britons, three of out two also, country, five Britons, twice the European average, thoughtimmigration was the most important issue facing the The Netherlands. An additional survey by the German-Marshal Fund in 2009 claimed that: ‘one in were located relatively close to eachto immigration and immigrants’ presence,one concludecould other, thelevelsthat of popularresentment having a mean of 0.50 in the United Kingdom and 0.49 in However, according to a recent study by the EuropeanCommission identity’. ‘national the to threat major a as portrayed been have Islam and immigrants of presence the where of‘mass-hysteria’ form a to created have Gogh van with The Netherlands where the political upheaval surrounding murderthe ofPim Fortuyn and Theo contrast in sharp latter The discourse. political ofthe mainstream in the it incorporate and issue the been perceived as less permanent,hereby creating leeway for othermajor political parties to pick up of lower levels of electoral support for the NRR as the perceived threat to the national ‘identity’ has them’ paradigm, with harsh anti-Islamic political discourse only leading to increased experiences of societal pressure, the Dutch political landscape of faces thedanger of becoming forms stranded in an ‘us strong versus Incorporating society. Dutch in assimilate fully and background cultural particular migrants and the general levels of societal coherence, if migrants distance themselves from their relatively high levelsof NRR supporthas portrayed a possible by ofsolution socio-economic marked problemsof framework political Dutch recent the diversification, of cultural theory the in Finally, region.’ their into of immigrants small numbers of immigrants are just as likely to vote for the extreme right because they fear an influx morehave voters that direct grounds the on parties right radical for vote-shares contacthigh exhibit of foreigners lots with with immigrations,important role in the potential support for NRR political discourse: ‘itmay be the case that regionshowever, problem withit public polls, as regional differenceswithin a particularnational contextmight play an may notable the alsoincluding countries, in both support of NRR belevels different the apparent the explaining case that voters approximationin of immigrant attitudes marks the regionspotential failure of the theoretical frameworks in with 127 126 125 124 ‘ alternatives. radical for calling hence and systemic a political traditionsupport it becomesof: important‘deep to notesuspicionFocusing on the levelsprojected of ‘threat’ to herethe ‘national identity’ functioning as atrigger for NRR is that in the ofcontext extremes of the United Kingdomand therean innatehas been tendency not to interpret crisis as Golder, 2003, 444 Traynor, 2009 Sides, 2007,480 2001 Griffin, 126 the latter publicsurveys,accuracy of Besidesthe potentially poor indicating 127 39 124 - An important foundation for the explanation the for foundation important - An 125 tracing the level of opposition CEU eTD Collection 130 129 128 hopeful outlook for the co-existence of future generations of Dutchmen. issue of Islam in the country, compared to 40% having a positive perspective,notdeeming a very showed that slightly more than 50% of the Dutch youngsters held negative viewpoints towards the interviewswith approximately 600 Dutch pupils aged 12-18, across differenteducational levels, the University of Leiden’s departmentof Political Science in 2007, where based on personal who have a positive view25% of the Dutch view Muslim presence in The Netherlands assomething negative, compared andto 20% 55% who claimedcarried out by the established Dutch polling agency for NIPO TV Channel RTL showed in that 2007, to be neutral. Strikingly,politico-societal phenomenon of deeply mistrustrooted of Islam, apolling sample of 1100 respondents in a surveythe dominant andminority group can be prevented,havecarried yet beenovershadowed by the current out by The opposition’s aim to create a more ‘inclusive’the lines of ethnicity, race or religion. ‘ political relationssound where based culturalon the claimnarrative based on differences ‘functionalist theory’that: stressing the threat of disrupted ‘majority’-‘minority’‘ it is not between functional the and Party Labour for a society to becomealienation and exclusion. The political opposition under the oflead the severely divided along of political ground for the British NRR. British the for ground of political gain clear the in resulted has system electoral the in achange where elections, national and European govern. The latter points are illustrated by the contrast between the previously mentioned British formation wherespace’ forNRR parties buthave also strengthened their bargaining position in respect to marginalgovernment politicalthe Dutch multi-party system and resulting coalition-governmenthave notonly allowed ‘political ‘mainstream’, the into elements political extreme more support incorporate to Labour, and Conservatives the can already Whereasbe thedecisive British national electoralinforward is the importancegaining framework that needs to be attributed to the electoralhas system seen the NRR operates in. a themajority abilityWhat the previous overview of NRRdiscrepanciesby in The Netherlands andthe United theKingdom put two largeneeded parties, namely to draconian immigration laws intact.’ Home Office minister Ann Widdecombe former and the the Labour Party under that have jointlyespecially retained Britain’s Party, Conservative of the right-wing the parties: protest through than rather channels, non-racist officially through ‘mediated been: has sentiments ofthese channelization the United Kingdom in the same mannerin in as The Netherlands, apparent the mediationbeen orhas socalled in particular Islam and general in immigration against resentment popular the that Griffin, 2001 Griffin, Wubbels, 2007 Van derVeen, 2006 Socialistische Partij 130 128 are currently in the phase of trying to provide a different a provide to oftrying phase the in currently are 40 Partij vande Arbeid, 129 Whereasto note one has the Dutch CEU eTD Collection formula,where adherence to political violence and street-based marches, blunt racist discourse, anti- a‘winning’ to subscribe leaders far-right did history in British no point ‘At that: claimed has Carolina the English Defence League. Defence English the from neo-fascism, often hisrecalling strong pro-Israel stance and public condemnation of forexample himself distanced openly has who Wilders Geert frontman PVV charismatic by embodied Netherlands 133 132 131 and liberal democratic practice generally.’ conceptions of race based upon biological lines and an outright of rejection parliamentary democracy appeals and have remained committed innovative to radical neo-fascism, successful more the overt adopting from xenophobia, ‘classical’ refrained has right far British the Historically Nazism. by influenced heavily too policies and organization leadership, their with tradition’, ‘fascist the to and the legacy of neo-Nazism;significantly less successful in detaching themselves from ‘ the historical Movementsstigmaof linkages to fascism such as thenot flourishedNational to the extentFront it has in remainedcontinental Hollandcan be labeled as akey too elementin explainingis why ‘newforthe radical right’ in the United thecloselyKingdom has reason that Britishaligned parties have been of political levels the in a discrepancy for account factors Which work: this of question success research core the Tracing of the New Radical Right in Thepolitical success for theNetherlands NRR. andestablishment, there have anumberbeen of keydifferences that have in resulted thedifferentlevels of United Kingdom?with traditional political parties and a clearemphasis on feelings of political mistrust against the - What departure from the previous framework of multiculturalism, general patterns ofdecreasing alignment Although there have been similar circumstancesprevious assumption. in which the racismNRR ashas part emergedof the political in tradition.bothbuildson a consensus that civic, democratic political life in countries:the UKHowever, latter deemsThe the exclusion of hatred nation. and tolerant exposed, political and democratic historically a a expansion, being Kingdom United the of view yet marginal, has countered the British radical right parties to attain prominence in national politics can be linked to the internalized Europe emerged similarat a time (i.e. the 1990’s onwards). ‘ ‘Albeit the general consensus is that,6. Conclusion with slight variation, contemporary far-right parties in Western DutchNews Online, 2010 Goodwin, 2007, 244 Goodwin, 2007, 243 133 HerbertKitschelt, political scientistat Duke University ofNorth 132 This in sharp contrast to the ‘new radical right’ in The 41 131 of some theFor failure scholars, CEU eTD Collection 134 phenomena. such for explanations and analysis accurate provide to able be to order in family party NRR changing swiftly the in developments monitor continuously to research future for remain will need The lead to a form of general acceptance in the political discourse. British NRR has failed to findoperate in the political and media landscape,a become representativean established figure in the political debate, the figurethe form of Geertthat Wilder’s Freedom Party has skillfullycould used the trait of personal widencharisma asaway to the NRR translationbase into a political response has taken their a clearly distinctiveof apparent, path. Whereas, been the supportDutch have NRR in countries both in feelings and‘under-belly’ similar the Although compromise. ‘political space’ for the NRR, often depending on the formation of coalition governments and political incorporation of political extremes, in sharp contrast to the Dutch multi-party system that has left a Additionally, the political structure of the British two-party system has led to the filtering and Britain has starvedin right itself far ofthe any sense of historically, political that, legitimacy.ensure ‘ to combined have fascism for nostalgia general and Semitism Goodwin, 2007, 248 42 134 CEU eTD Collection http://www.foreignpolicy.com/articles/2011/07/25/rise_of_the_radical_right?page=full http://books.google.nl/books/about/The_Extreme_Right_in_Europe.html?id=RBnmachN8vkC&redir_ Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Retrieved from Backes, U.(2011). Bartlett, J. (2011, July 25). 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