Sunduza Challenge

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION FACULTY OF SCIENCE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

THE EFFECTS OF TOKWE-MUKOSI DAM-INDUCED FLOODS ON HOUSEHOLDS: A CASE STUDY OF WARD 24, CHIVI DISTRICT

SUNDUZA CHALLENGE

B1335895

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY (FACULTY OF SCIENCE), IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE HONOURS DEGREE IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

APRIL 2017

DECLARATION

I, Challenge Sunduza, (B1335895), do hereby declare that this research project is a result of my own work, original investigations and efforts. It has been presented elsewhere for the purpose of degree assessment. All additional sources of information have been acknowledged by means of references.

STUDENT

………………………………… 28 APRIL 2017

Signature Date

APPROVAL

The undersigned certifies that he has read the research project and has approved its submission for marking after confirming that it conforms to the departmental requirements.

Mr. E. Pedzisai (Project Supervisor)

………………………………… 28 APRIL 2017

Signature Date

RELEASE FORM

BINDURA UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE EDUCATION

NAME OF AUTHOR SUNDUZA CHALLENGE B1335895

DISSERTATION TITLE:

The effects of the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on the households: A case study of Ward 24, Chivi District.

DEGREE TO WHICH THE DISSERTATION WILL BE PRESENTED:

Bachelor of Science Honours Degree in Development Studies

YEAR GRANTED: APRIL 2017

Permission is hereby granted to Bindura University of Science Education to produce copies of this dissertation only for academic purpose only

SIGNED ______DATE ______APRIL 2017

iii

DEDICATION To my mother Esther Sithole, Sister Irene Sunduza and Brother Sunduza K.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

“And he said, my presence will go with you, and l will give you rest”

(Exodus 33; 14)

My supreme gratitude is accredited to the Almighty God for his steadfastness love, divine favor and mercy for giving me the capacity to be where l am right now. Secondly, my profound thanks go to my Project Supervisor Mr. E. Pedzisai for introducing me to the interesting world of GIS and related field of remote sensing, not forgetting his variant efforts, priceless knowledge, unwavering support and guidance which led to the successful completion of this project. I would also like to appreciate the contribution made by CARE International in providing this study with secondary data essential for this research. I extend my hearty thanks to Higher Life Foundation for their financial support in my academics. Beyond doubt, behind every success exists some invisible and unsung heroes who contribute support, I could not have made it this far without the help of Mr. Musodza, my friends Tsitsi and Ellton for their valuable guidance, constant encouragement, immense motivation which has sustained my efforts at all the stages of this project. I appreciate and value your love. I am highly indebted to my young brother Kisswell, the whole family and relatives for their financial support and prayers, constructive criticism and motivation which enabled my academic dreams to come to its culmination. They have been always there for me during the ups and downs in my life. Thank You.

ABSTRACT

Dam projects are widely viewed as development initiatives. However, they also bring disastrous losses to the local community. TokweMukosi Dam project threatened the socioeconomic wellbeing of the local households even before its completion as dam construction commenced before all the households had been relocated. This study mapped and created an inventory of the affected households by the daminduced flood. In mapping the affected households, the methodology for this study was based on two ways, firstly capturing social information from the sampled households using interviews, field work, questionnaires and secondary data and secondly, importing the spatial information (household coordinates)into a GIS.A random sample size of 245 (24%) households was selected. A current Landsat 8 image was used to identify the present water of the Dam. Overlay calculations on households and water level helped to identify vulnerable households who have been directly affected by the flood as well as predicting those to be affected at full capacity. Results obtained indicate that58% of households were within the flood zone. These households were coupled with infrastructural damage of a 60% majority (243 out of 406) of the huts and a 32% minority of the 90 out of 279 houses directly affected by the flood. The relocation worsened the socioeconomic life of the households due to majority lacking compensation (72%), loss of important productive assets including a 41% loss of cattle and 38% drop in number of goats. The study concludes that developmentinduced floods are prominent in dam construction projects and they cause serious socioeconomic losses to local households. With that in mind the study recommends timeous compensation and relocation to affected households before the project commences.GIS through flood maps should be used to map affected households and help plan for compensation or relocation priorities.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS PAGE Declaration ...... i Approval ...... ii Release form ...... iii Dedication ...... iv Acknowledgements ...... v Abstract ...... vi Table of contents ...... vii List of figures ...... xi List of tables ...... xii List of plates ...... xiii List of acronyms ...... xiv List of appendices ...... xv Chapter 1: Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Background to the study ...... 1 1.3 Statement of the problem ...... 3 1.4 Justification to the study ...... 4 1.5 Aim of the study ...... 4 1.5.1 Objectives of the study ...... 4 1.5.2 Research questions ...... 4 1.6 Delimitation to the study ...... 4 1.7 Study area ...... 5 1.7.1 Description of the study area ...... 5 1.8 Definition of terms...... 6 1.9 Organisation of the study ...... 7 1.10. Chapter summary ...... 7 Chapter 2: Literature review ...... 7 2.1 Introduction ...... 7 2.2 Definition and types of dams ...... 8 2.3 History of dams ...... 8

vii

2.3.1 Worldwide...... 8 2.3.2 Dams in southern africa ...... 10 2.3.3 Local context ...... 11 2.4 Exploring floods ...... 12 2.4.1 Globaly ...... 13 2.4.2 Southern africa ...... 14 2.4.3 Zimbabwe ...... 14 2.5 Factors affecting flood occurrence ...... 15 2.5.1 Distance and hieght from river networks and reservoirs ...... 15 2.5.2 Dam bursting ...... 16 2.6 Reflecting on daminduced relocation ...... 16 2.7 Causes of relocation ...... 17 2.7.1 Disasterinduced displacement ...... 17 2.7.2 Developmentinduced displacements ...... 17 2.8 Challenges of relocation ...... 18 2.8.1 Violation of human rights ...... 18 2.8.2 Compensation ...... 18 2.9 Knowledge gap ...... 19 2.10. Chapter summary ...... 19 Chapter 3: Data, methods and materials ...... 20 3.1 Introduction ...... 20 3.3 Research design ...... 20 3.3.1 Descriptive research ...... 20 3.3.2 Experimental research design ...... 20 3.3.3 Case study ...... 21 3.4 Target population ...... 21 3.4.1 Sampling ...... 21 3.5 Methodology ...... 22 3.6 Research instruments ...... 22 3.6.1 Internet ...... 22 3.6.2 Satellite images ...... 23 3.6.3 Questionaire ...... 23

viii

3.6.4 Interview guide ...... 23 3.6.3 Field checklist ...... 24 3.7 Data collection procedure ...... 24 3.7.1 Social information ...... 24 3.7.2 Spatial information...... 24 3.8 Data validity and reliability ...... 25 3.9 Data processing...... 25 3.9.1 Data analysis ...... 26 3.10. Presentation ...... 26 3.11. Limitations to the study and solutions ...... 26 3.12. Ethical considerations ...... 27 3.11 Chapter summary ...... 27 Chapter 4: Data presentation and analysis ...... 27 4.1 Introduction ...... 27 4.2 Affected households ...... 28 4.2.1 Number of affected households ...... 28 4.2.1 Mapping affected households ...... 29 4.2.3 Affected household sizes ...... 30 4.2.4 Total households affected ...... 31 4.2.5 Mapping households with respect to compensation and relocation ...... 32 4.2.5 Affected households at full capacity of the dam ...... 34 4.3 Inventory for affected households ...... 35 4.3.1 Relationship between area of land from the river and extent of loss ...... 35 4.4 Effects of relocation ...... 36 4.4.1 Effects on household infrastructure ...... 36 4.4.2 Loss of productive asserts ...... 38 4.4.3 Lack of compensation ...... 39 4.5 Chapter summary ...... 40 Chapter 5: Summary, Recommendations and Conclusions ...... 41 5.1 Introduction ...... 41 5.2 Summary ...... 41 5.3 Conclusions ...... 42

5.4 Recommendations ...... 42 References ...... 43 Appendix 1: Questionaire for households ...... 51 Appendix 2: Interview guide for households ...... 54 Appendix 3: Interview guide for the councilour ...... 55 Appendix 4: Interview guide for dam officials ...... 56 Appendix 5: Field checklist ...... 57

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1: Study Area ...... 5 Figure 4.1: Percentageof affected households ...... 28 Figure 4.2: Affected households...... 29 Figure 4.3: Distribution of Household ...... 30 Figure 4.4: Total Households affected ...... 31 Figure 4.5: Relocation (a) and Compensation (b) of affected households ...... 33 Figure 4.6: TokweMukosi Dam water level as at 27032017 and at full capacity (90.3m) ...... 34

LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Distance from the river and EOL……………………………………………………38

xii

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 4.1: Flooded hut in Ward 24 ...... 37 Plate 4.2: Destroyed property as a result of flooding...... 39

xiii

LIST OF ACRONYMS

CPU Civil Protection Unit

EIA Environmental Impact Assessment

EMA Environmental Management Authority

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GE Google Earth

GIS Geographic Information Systems

GPS Global Positioning Systems

ICOLD International Commission on Large Dams

ICWFM International Conference on Water and Flood Management

OLI Operational Land Images

QGIS QuantumGeographic Information Systems

RS Remote Sensing

UTM Universal Transverse Mercator

VIDCO Village Development Committees

WB World Bank

WCD World Commission on Dams

ZINWA Zimbabwe National Water Authority

xiv

LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1: Questionaire for households...... 51 Appendix 2: Interview guide for households ...... 54 Appendix 3: Interview guide for the councilour ...... 55 Appendix 4: Interview guide for dam officials ...... 56 Appendix 5: Field checklist ...... 57

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION

There are so many questions that people affected by floods always ask. Such questions include whether there might be a likelihood of flooding in their area, whether or not their household would be affected. They also ask about whether there are security measures on their socioeconomic gains. Such questions are essential in order to minimize the socioeconomic impacts of large dam projects to the local households through flooding.

This chapter introduces the study. It presents a background of this research on the effects of the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on the households of Ward 24 in Chivi District. The chapter highlights the statement of the problem and the justification to this study. The chapter also include the aim, research objectives and questions that are linked with this study. The delimitations to the study, definition of terms as well as the organisation of the study are also part of this chapter.

1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY Dams are often considered multipurpose water development projects. Large dams have been constructed over the past thousands of years to manage flood waters, supplying water for irrigations, hydropower generation, and domestic uses and more recently for industrial purposes (McCully, 2001; Singh, 2002; Billington et. al 2005, Clarke and King, 2004; Hove, 2016). Due to these substantial benefits of dams more than 45000 functional dams were constructed worldwide with the world largest Tarbela Dam built in Pakistan (DiFrrancesco and Woodruff, 2007). Almost half of them are built in China as postulated by Fuggle and Smith (2000).In Zimbabwe about 36 dams and reservoirs were constructed (Maphosa, 2014).

Twelve years ago, the government of Zimbabwe raised funds and embarked on the construction of the TokweMukosi Dam (Marungwara, 2014). The TokweMukosi Dam is a concrete face rock fill dam on the Tokwe River, just downstream of its confluence with the Mukosi River. It is about 72km South of Masvingo province in Zimbabwe. The TokweMukosi Dam was implemented as a solution to Masvingo’s perennial water challenges. With a proposed capacity of 1.8 cubic meters the TokweMukosi Dam was to become the first largest inland dam in Zimbabwe. The dam was to cover a flood area of more than 9600 hectares of land thereby approximately covering the whole of ward 24 in Chivi District at its full capacity. (Hove, 2016; Marungwara, 2014; Mavhura et. al , 2017 ). In consideration of this, the dam wall size was later proposed to be set on 90.3 meters.

Therefore, developments at TokweMukosi Dam gained national acclaim as the project was touted as a panacea to recurrent food woes in the drought stricken Masvingo Province (Hove, 2017). The dam was expected to turn over 25 000 hectares of land from Chingwizi, Masangula into perennial green belts thus enabling Masvingo Province to became Zimbabwe’s bread basket(Tarisayi, 2014) . This was because Masvingo is one of the drought prone areas in Zimbabwe. Above all, the dam was believed to stimulate all forms of development. It projected the implementation of five irrigation schemes and a power plant expected to generate 12 megawatts at peak and 6 megawatts off peak and tourism (Chenga, 2014). Hove (2016) articulated that, this generated electricity would be able to lighten up the whole of Masvingo Province inclusive of other parts of the country. In this regard the TokweMukosi Dam project was to create employment for a number of unemployed youths in addition to bringing about meaningful development to the area.

However, despite the vision of the TokweMukosi dam development project, it becomes a hub of disasters particularly the February 2014 flooding. The flood threatened several lives yet the villagers have not yet received any of the promised benefits. Just like in many cases where Dams are constructed, Hove (2016) highlighted that, the TokweMukosi Dam was overwhelmed by financial resources required to expeditiously relocate and compensate the affected households before the dam construction project instigated. The initial plan by the Ministry of Local Government, public works and national housing was to relocate the families in three phases. The first phase successfully relocated 611 households at Nuanetsi ranch at Masangula and Chisase in time and well before the rain season which led to the floods (Mavhura et. al 2017).However, the plans to relocate the second and the third phases were disrupted by the heavy rains and flooding which had not been anticipated (Hove, 2016). The relocation should have considered the relocating the three phases with respect to the level of dam wall construction as a determinant of its throwback. The dam wall determines the extent of flooding. In this case, the dam construction commenced before the local households were relocated.

Heavy rains and mudslides caused water levels to rise dramatically on 27th of January, 2014 and on 4 February continual rains resulted in serious flooding in TokweMukosi community (Gumindoga et.al, 2014). These rains caused a partial failure, on the downstream face of the dam. As of late February the dam had not fully breached but the unplanned rising reservoir behind the dam had caused evacuations upstream(Perry et.al , 2014).The increase in volume contributed to

2 flooding of the dam basin, marooning the houses and fields in the upstream and destroying infrastructure and livestock (Gumindoga et. al 2014). The flooding captured the inhabitants unaware, their property and livestock was devastated. Many people were evacuated leaving their houses and went to squatter in camps (Marungwara, 2014).This negatively impacted on the socio economic life of the households. It is therefore imperative in this study, to map out the affected households during the period under review. Prejudice would be made so that future dam construction projects consider compensating and relocating households timeously before the dam construction commences. Relocating households in phases would also be done with the use of flood maps and models. This is made possible through use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and Remote Sensing (RS) typologies. This software can be used to consider the dam wall construction level as a determinant of its throwback. This would help manage floods and minimize the related socioeconomic loss to households.

1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Dams are perceived to be associated with economic development. They supply water for irrigation, hydropower generation, manage flood waters, tourism and for domestic use. In contrast, they also bring disastrous losses to the local community. The TokweMukosi Dam threaten the life of local households before they received any of the promised benefits yet it was identified as a potential water resource to irrigate 25000 hectares of land (Tarisayi, 2014). The construction of the dam was a crucial step by the government to stimulate development and turn a droughtprone Masvingo province into a bread basket. Its construction started in June 1998. The dam was to be filled up by 2015 when all the people would have been relocated, despite that its completion missed several deadlines. A plan to implement and relocate local households was done with households having to be relocated in three phases to Chingwizi area and Masangula. The failure in the sequential implementation of the dam construction project caused disastrous floods in February 2014.Its construction commenced while some of the inhabitants of the project site have not yet been relocated. The perceived development project eventually threatened tens of thousands of people from several households, coupled with loss of livestock and property before its completion. This is questionable, with the use of modern technologies like GIS and RS. Through use of these technologies, the disaster could have been lessened if not at all averted. It is within this gap that mapping and creating an inventory of the affected households will be done in an effort to avert daminduced floods that are on a rise.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION TO THE STUDY The research is essential to Geographers in providing measures of managing and modelling floods through the development of flood plain models and maps. The study is an important highlight on the impacts of development projects to the local communities. The results of this study are essential in the implementation of development projects like large dam projects that benefit the locals while minimizing chances of disaster occurrence. The research enlighten the Ministry of Local governance and Civil Protection Unit(CPU) to relocate people timeously especially in dam construction projects before they commence. The study emphasize the importance of relocating people in phases that corresponds with the level of the Dam wall as a determinant of its throwback and flood extent. It is a step towards achieving the 20152030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the Sendai Framework for action (20152030) on Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) initiatives. The research shade light to the government to process compensation for the affected households in development projects timeously in order to lure the desire for people to relocate.

1.5 AIM OF THE STUDY The principle aim of this study is to identify the effects of TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on the households of Ward 24 in Chivi District.

1.5.1 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. To map the households affected by the TokweMukosi Daminduced flood.

2. To create an inventory of the affected households by the daminduced flood.

3. To describe the relocation effects on the households.

1.5.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1 Where were the affected households during the TokweMukosi Daminduced flood? 2 How many households were affected by the TokweMukosi daminduced flood? 3 What were the relocation effects at household level?

1.6 DELIMITATION TO THE STUDY The Study is confined to Chivi District in Ward 24. Households in this ward were seriously affected by the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods. This is done through determining the current volume of water in the dam. The study aimed to map and create an inventory of the affected households with respect to household infrastructure and their cattle and goats as productive asserts.

1.7 STUDY AREA The governance system of Zimbabwe entails that areas are divided into strategic geographical divisions or administrative units. This is essential in that development is implemented and managed in relation to the conditions in an area. Figure 1.1 show the map of Ward 24 in Chivi District.

Figure 1.1:Study Area (Source: Own)

1.7.1 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA This study was conducted in Ward 24, Chivi District. The ward is located in south central Zimbabwe. Chivi District extends from 20° 14' S to 20° 24' S and lies between 30° 13' E and 30° 57' E. The area receives low and unreliable rainfall in the range 450600mmand average annual temperature is about 20 degrees Celsius. (Mhlanga, 2015) As a result of these climatic conditions, the ward is generally characterized by poor crop productivity and food insecurity (Mhlanga, 2015). Land use in these areas is characterized by peasant farming and market gardening along the major

5 rivers (Tokwe and Kachamhike) which is contributing to poverty alleviation in times of drought or aridity. Major soils in the ward and the district in generalare derived from coarsegrained granite and include the chromic luvisols, ferric luvisols and eutric regosols (Map and Mavengahama, 2011). In this ward, the TokweMukosi River stretches from the northern side of the ward through its boundary to the Southeastern side of Ward 24. The dam was implemented to transform the region into a perennial green belt. Ward 24 has got a population of 4531 people and 1041 households. The population of Ward 24 constitutes about 2.7% of the total population of 166,049 people in the District (ZIMSTATS, 2012).

1.8 DEFINITION OF TERMS Dam A barrier constructed across a waterway to suppress floods or raise the level of water to ensure its availability for activities such as irrigation, domestic use, industrial use, hydropower generation and navigability

Floods A general and temporary condition of partial or complete inundation of normally dry land areas from overflow of inland or tidal waters from the unusual and rapid accumulation or runoff of surface waters from any source.

The covering of normally dry land by water that has escaped or been released from the normal confines of; any lake, or any river, creep or other natural water course, whether or not altered or modified; or any reservoir, canal, or dam

Households consists of a person or families residingin Ward 24 of Chivi District with families sharing the same dwelling, meals or living accommodation and may consist of a single family or some other grouping of people.

Socio-economic risk thi s implies to the negative impacts of the dam construction project on The people’s infrastructure, property and livestock as well as other livelihood strategies . Compensation: is a systematic approach to providing monetary value and other essentials as an act of rewarding someone for the loss, damage, or injury by giving the injured party an appropriate benefit.

1.9 ORGANISATION OF THE STUDY This study is structured in five chapters. The first chapter introduces the research study. It encompasses the background of the study, statement of the problem, justification to the study, research aims and objectives, research questions and definition of key terms. The chapter also looks at the delimitation of the study; description of the study area is given including its geographical location. Chapter two focuses on the related literature. The study looks on literature at a global, regional and local perspective both for dams and floods. It also look at the causes and effects of floods in development oriented projects as well as challenges and effects of relocation. In the third Chapter, the design of the study, methods and instruments used in data collection, processing and presentation are discussed. The fourth chapter presents the findings of this research study and analyzes the results. Data is presented in various ways through use of maps, graphs and tables. Chapter five delivers a summary, the conclusion and recommendations that are drawn from this study. A reference list and appendices of all the used materials are also included.

1.10. CHAPTER SUMMARY The chapter provided the introduction part of the study with respect to its background, statement of the problem and justification. The aim, objectives and research questions of this study are also outlined. The chapter looks at the delimitation of this study, and illustrates the study area followed by a description of its geographic location. Finally, a layout of the organization of the study concludes the chapter.

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is a review of the literature on the effect of the TokweMukosi Dam flood on the households of ward 24 in Chivi District. It also provides a link of the study and other researches that have been found useful in relation to the research problem and objectives.

2.2 DEFINITION AND TYPES OF DAMS

A dam is a structure built across a stream, river or estuary to retain water. They are barriers that impounds water or underground streams to meet demand of water for human consumption, irrigation or industry, reduce flood waters and for hydroelectric power generation (Dogan, 2002). Therefore dams are constructed to suppress floods, provide water for irrigation, industrial use and human consumption as well as hydropower electricity generation. However a definition of dams differs with their types. Shiddiqui (2016) defines large dams as dams above 15m in height, while including smaller dams up to 10m height as well. Small dams are also essential part of developmental activities and they serve the same purpose just like large dams (Keller et.al . 2007; Sugunan 1997; Senzanje and Chimbari 2002). In Zimbabwe, dams are defined as small if they have a dam wall height that is 8 m or less and an impounded volume of 1 million m3 or less (Kabel 2007). Therefore, given all these definitions, it becomes clear that dams are structures mostly constructed by man. Whether small or large, dams are implemented to stimulate development. They serve the same main purposes that is hydropower generation, domestic and industrial use, reducing floods and for irrigation agriculture. With these definitions in mind, it becomes clear that the TokweMukosi Dam is classified as a large dam.

2.3 HISTORY OF DAMS Dams have been constructed over thousands of years to stimulate development and to manage flood waters. The history of dams can be tracked globally, regionally and locally with respect to the earliest dams, their purpose and impacts both positive and negatives.

2.3.1 WORLDWIDE Dams have been built in the world since time immemorial. The first dam known to exist was built by the ancient Egyptians, measuring 11.3m tall, a crest length of 106m and foundation length of 80.7m (Yang et. al,. 2005). According to Cosgrove and Rijsberman (2014) by 1949 about 5000 large dams had been constructed worldwide, threequarters of them in industrialized countries. By the end of the 20th century, there were 45 000 large dams in over 150 countries. It is estimated that, 50% of the large dams were built mainly for irrigation hence they contribute 12–16% of world food production (Agodzo et.al , 2014) . Almost all major dams are built for hydropower and they currently provides 19% of the world’s total electricity supply which is used in over 150 countries

(Brown, 2014). Approximately 12% of large dams are designated for domestic water supply (Dogan, 2002; Lai, et.al, 2014).

According to Goldschmidt and Boum (2015), the earliest dam building in the world took place mainly in Mesopotamia and the Middle East. During that time dams were used to control the water level, since Mesopotamia's weather affected the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The earliest known dam is the Jawa Dam in Jordan which is about 100 kilometers northeast of the capital Amman (Knabb, 2015). This gravity dam featured an originally 9m high and 1m wide stone wall which was supported by a 50m wide earth rampart. The structure is dated to 3000 BC (Mithen et. al, 2012). Oldest dams where constructed using clay and stones rather than present day dams that are constructed using cement, concrete, stones and steel. Some engineering wonders of the ancient world was the Great Dam of Marib in Yemen (Knabb, 2015). This dam was initiated somewhere between 1750 and 1700 BC (Geissen et.al , 2015).According to Geissen et.al (2015), the dam facilitated the irrigation of 25,000 acres which is equivalent to100 km 2.

It is therefore clear that globally, the construction of dams since long back, focused on socio economic development. Economic benefits of dams were assumed to outweigh costs, thus providing rationale for their construction around the world (McCully, 2001; Singh 2002). Formally, construction of dams was mainly done by western companies however, with time China rose to be the most dam construction country in the world. By so doing, almost half of the 45000 large dams in the world were constructed in China (Billington et. al, 2005). The largest of all the world dams is the Tarbela Dam built in Pakistan (Rashid , 2014; Munir,2016; Billington et. al, 2005). According to the Ward (2016), China had the greatest number of 23 842 dams in the World followed by USA and India which has 9625 and 5102 dams respectively. Luxembourg and Latvia have the least number of dams in the World with 3 dams each.

Bosshard (2015), highlighted some of the best dams that changed the World as follows: the Hoover Dam was the world’s highest and most powerful dam when it was completed in 1936. This dam was constructed near the boulder city of Nevada in USA. It stimulated the agricultural and industrial development of the US southwest. However, the dam is known to have destroyed the Colorado River’s rich downstream fisheries (Buckley, 2014). Above all, climate change has recently affected the dam’s capacity to supply water and generate power. The Kariba Dam on the

Zambezi was built in the 1950s to power Zambia’s and Zimbabwe’s copper belt and implemented at the boundary of the two countries (Cohen, 2014). This was the first large dam funded by the World Bank. Kariba is considered to have ended poverty in Southern Africa since it brought quick economic development. However, Cohen (2014).articulated that, the 57,000 people who were displaced by the dam suffered famine and are still impoverished.

Since the twentieth century, China has recorded a bigger number of dams’ constructed both in the country and outside. In 2003, the China funded the Merowe Dam in Sudan as its first big overseas hydropower project (Tukic and Burgess, 2016) .The dam displaced more than 50,000 people and caused serious human rights violations (Cisse et.al , 2014).Chinese banks and companies are now involved in some 330 dams in about 74 countries leading an unprecedented global dam building boom. China’s Three Gorges Dam completed in 2008 became the world’s largest hydropower Tukic and Burgess, 2016) .It generates as much power as eight large nuclear power plants however the dam displaced more than 1.2 million people, and ravaged the ecosystem of the Yangtze River. The Chinese government has acknowledged the problem of the project, but continues to export its technology overseas (Luk and Whitney, 2016). With this history in mind, it is clear that dam building is on the rise globally despite their negative consequences to the locals.

2.3.2 DAMS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

In Africa, the quest for dams originated with the need to end poverty through irrigation farming and electricity generation (Kanu et.al, 2014). Henceforth, the Kariba dam which is Africa’s biggest dam based on water storage capacity was implemented. The dam is located at the former Kariwa gorge now called Kariba. It has a storage capacity of 185 billion m3 of water and a surface area of 5, 580 square kilometers (Brummett, 2016). Kariba dam was constructed using 1.036 million cubic meters of concrete (Ward, 2016). It is at the border of both Zambia and Zimbabwe hence it comprises of two power stations generating a combined 1 470 MW of energy. This constitutes approximately 60% of the two countries hydropower outputs. The Akosombo Dam in Ghana and the Aswan High Dam in Egypt are among Africa’s biggest dams

In Africa, the highest numbers of Dams have been constructed in South Africa followed by Zimbabwe. These have got 539 dams and 254 dams respectively (Ward, 2016) According to Ward (2016), Africa’s large dams count up more than 1,270. According to (Boone, 2014), dams in Africa

10 have been consistently built at the expense of rural communities, who have been forced to sacrifice their lands and livelihoods yet have reaped few benefits. Large hydro dams in Sudan, Senegal, Kenya, Zambia/Zimbabwe and Ghana have brought considerable social, environmental and economic damage to Africa despite benefits attached to them. Ward (2016) states that dams in Africa have left a trail of development induced poverty in their wake since project benefits have been consistently overstated and inequitably shared. For case in point, the Mpudzi Dam threatened the local household hindering them from the benefits of the dam since they were relocated to Zimunya Communal Lands (Hove, 2016). Considering benefits of dams, the Zimbabwean government went on to implement TokweMukosi Dam as its largest inland Dam to stimulate development (Mavhura et. al 2017). However, the dam caused a socioeconomic decline to the wellbeing of the local households before their realization of the accrued benefits. Therefore it is empirical within this study to map, create an inventory and identify the relocation effects on the households.

2.3.3 LOCAL CONTEXT In Zimbabwe, an extensive network of dams has been constructed throughout the country since the 1920s (Senzanje and Chimbari 2002). These dams range from small reservoirs to large dams supplying water to urban, industrial, mining areas, largescale irrigations and hydropower generation. Construction of dams in Zimbabwe is centered on the fact that, the country is semi arid with unimodal rainfall season that generally runs from midNovember to early April averaging 650 mm per annum(Nyakudya, 2014). Protracted dry spells disrupt the rainy season especially in the southern parts of the country with serious repercussions on availability of runoff in the rivers, as most rivers are not perennial. This also affects agricultural production which is the backbone of livelihood food security (Tietenberg and Lewis, 2016) . They further articulated that, most dams in Zimbabwe were constructed as a response to poverty and droughts which haunted mostly the rural communities in Zimbabwe. Following this idea, more than 254 dams were constructed in Zimbabwe. The largest inland dam in Zimbabwe TokweMukosi Dam was implemented as a panacea to the drought prone area Masvingo province (Hove, 2016). Some of the dams implemented in Zimbabwe include the Bangala, Gwenoro, Manjirenji, Manyuchi, Ngondoma, Osborne and Ruti Dams as well as lake Mutirikwe and Chivero. However,Mapedza (2016) pointed out that in most dam projects precarious household income levels hinders locals close to the dam to harness water for their own benefit.

In line with theabove,during the construction of the largest dam in Zimbabwe which is Kariba, 57,000 people of the Tonga ethnic group living along the Zambezi were displaced destroying their livelihoods and their social life without compensation (Andrews et. al, 2015). The dam was built to provide power for the Zambian copper belt and the rest of Zimbabwe. In order to facilitate this development project, the Tonga people were relocated without them having benefited from the hydropower project (Mapedza et.al , 2016). According to Hove (2016), the Tonga people still do not have electricity that they were promised during the resettlement campaign.Unemployment, landlessness and hunger are experienced by the displaced Tonga people (Marungwara, 2014). In this regard, while the Kariba Dam provides hydroelectric power to the industries of Zimbabwe it cost the Tonga people more. It becomes clear that large dam constructions are always a cost to the locals.

Hove (2016), highlighted that, during the construction of the Mpudzi Dam in Manicaland province, 46 families were displaced to Zimunya Communal Lands without compensation. In addition, the top down planning and management of most dam projects, failed to appreciate the importance of local stakeholder consultation and participation. For case in point community participation in the Osborne Dam project in Zimbabwe lacked full stakeholder participation, and this inhibited the local people from using dams for their welfare (Mapedza, 2016). With that in mind, small and weir dams have been constructed in Zimbabwe to boost the livelihoods of the locals since their cost to the locals are generally low. Construction of weir dams have been much done by NGOs such as World Vision and Care under the ENSURE project (Kakuruwo, 2016) With respect to this, weir dams numbering more than 30 have been constructed in both Manicaland and Masvingo province (Kakuruwo, 2016) Examples of such Dams are Chikukuti, Chakohwa, Dinhe, Dzitiro and Chandimara Weir dams in Chimanimani dryland area (Kakuruwo, 2016). Small dams have been successful in promoting the livelihoods of the locals.

2.4 EXPLORING FLOODS Floods refers to the covering of normally dry land by water that has escaped or been released from the normal confines of; any lake, or any river, creep or other natural water course, whether or not altered or modified; or any reservoir, canal, or dam.(Mavhura et. al , 2017) define flooding as an inundation of a region usually dry that is caused by a rise in the water levels or a river channel such that it runs out of its confinements. There are a number of groupings of flood causes among

12 them meteorological events, hydrological and anthropogenic activities. Therefore causes of floods includes impervious surfaces, dam bursting, increased runoff from ice or snow melt, waterlogged soils and high rainfalls that exceeds the water holding capacity of dams, rivers and other water reservoirs (Nyakudya, 2014).

2.4.1 FLOODS GLOBALY According to Belga (2006) there was an upward trend in worldwide floods as disasters in the last decades of the twentieth century. Statistics taken between 1991 and 2005 reveal that, the rate and frequency of flooding is on the rise. According to Daniel (2014), during that period, approximately 3 300 floods occurred which account to about 64% of all tragedies during the same period. Williams (2014) highlighted that the average annual casualty rate is about 40 000 victims and the mean economic loss yearly is US$50 billion per year. According to the study conducted by Corso et.al , 1997), dams can stop regular annual floods but often fail to hold back exceptionally large floods. Dam bursting causes floods that bring catastrophic losses to society, and that these societal and environmental costs far outweigh any beneﬁts to which they may contribute. This is because dams lead people to believe that floods are controlled, they lead to increased development of floodplains. In the event of a flood occurring, damage caused is often greater than would have been the case without the dam. Floods resulting from dam failure pose a threat to human life and produce social effects and grave economic losses. In 2006, floods and storms were the most frequent natural global disasters (Williams, 2014). Globally, dam failure has triggered floods thereby threatening human life and property. Heavy floods globally occurred in India, Pakistan and China while in 2011, Africa experienced severe floods in Mozambique, Namibia, South Africa and Uganda.

The most destructive flood resulting from dam bursting happened in Machchu Dam in Morbi India causing 5000 fatalities. The flood is believed to have resulted from heavy rain and flooding beyond spillway capacity (Mudrakartha, 2012). Old estimates were 1,80025,000 but recently the bracket was reduced to 5,00010,000 (Agoramoorthy, 2015). More than 93 floods in several regions linked to dams have been experienced worldwide(Hewitt, 2014). He further postulates that of all the countries in the world, India has the greatest number of floods fatalities. The world's worst floods in terms of fatalities occurred in 2004 in Haiti, a Caribbean island country prone to natural hazards (Karličić et.al , 2010). Two weeks of heavy rains swelled rivers in the southeast along the border

13 with the Dominican Republic, generating floods that killed more than 2,500 people (Hewitt, 2014). Monsoon rains in India in 2005 caused 1,200 flood deaths placing this disaster in second place beside the current floods in Pakistan (Jahan et.al , 2014).

2.4.2 FLOODS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA In Southern Africa, floods have threatened people through displacements, damaging infrastructure, agricultural yields and causing death of livestock. According to Muhonda et.al (2014) the rate and frequency of flooding has been increasing due to hydrometeorological events and climate variability. Muhonda et.al (2014) postulates that, some of the worst floods in Africa occurred in Mozambique in the year 2000. The World Bank report estimate the costs of the flood in Mozambique to around $550 million which account to the lowered GDP of the country from 7.5 % to 1.5 % (Hewitt, 2014)

In Angola, Namibia and Zambia, excessive rainfalls caused floods along the Kunene, Zambezi, Chobe and Okavhango Rivers. Henceforth, the northeastern and central regions of Namibia experienced worst floods causing flood induced destructions of more than 60% of the population in that area Muhonda et.al , 2014). Floods caused displacement of communities coupled with destruction of infrastructure, loss of livestock, property and crops in agriculture. In the Limpopo flood plain area and Shire Basin devastating floods have also been experienced (Muhonda et.al , 2014). In 2007, cyclone induced floods occurred in the Zambezi Basin and displaced more than 57 000 households in Mozambique (Muhonda et.al , 2014).

2.4.3 FLOODS IN ZIMBABWE In Zimbabwe floods occur mainly in Muzarabani District and within the Zambezi Basin. Flooding is more severe in the Chadereka and Dambakurima areas of the District (Makurira, 2016). Worst floods in Zimbabwe were experienced between 2001 and 2010 with the years 2000 and 2003, floods being induced by cyclones (Mavhura et. al , 2017). According to the Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters, (2012), in the year 2000, floods killed 70 people, affecting 266, 000people while causing economic damage of US$72, 900,000. In Muzarabani District, seasonal floods occur between December and February while some floods are triggered by cyclones and dam releases from Kariba Dam. Mbire District also experienced worst floods. Research is still underway to infer the causes of these floods, coping mechanisms and impacts caused by these floods (Muhonda et. al , 2014). Recently in January and early February 2017, Gokwe and some

14 parts of the country experienced severe floods due to excessive rainfalls thereby causing a large number of 700 people in need of relief. (Herald, 26th April 2017)

In the case of the TokweMukosi Dam in Masvingo, heavy rains and mudslides in late January and early February 2014 as well as the partial collapse of the TokweMukosi dam wall resulted in flooding around TokweMukosi community with displacement of people, coupled with destruction of infrastructure livestock and property (Tarisayi, 2014). The increase in volume contributed to flooding of the dam basin, marooning the houses and fields in the upstream and destroying infrastructure (Gumindoga et. al , 2014). The flooding captured the inhabitants unaware, their property and livestock was devastated. According to Hove (2016) floods disasters in Tokwe Mukosi community were worsened by delays by the government and the Ministry of Local Governance Public Works and National Housing in compensating and relocating people respectively. The government therefore declared the event a national disaster. A number 2 514 households needed emergence relocation. On the other hand 3268 households within the Tokwe Mukosi Dam buffer zone needed immediate response yet the land for relocating them was absent. These families were evacuated leaving their household infrastructure thus lessening development yet they went to squatter in camps. It is therefore imperative that an attempt be made within the context of this study, to map out the affected households as a result of the TokweMukosi induced disaster.

2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING FLOOD OCCURRENCE There are a number of forces that accentuate the occurrence of the flood. These include distance and height from rivers and other water reservoirs and dam bursting.

2.5.1 DISTANCE AND HIEGHT FROM RIVER NETWORKS AND RESERVOIRS Phiri (2011) highlighted that, floods in the middle Zambezi Basin, Mbire District and some parts of Mozambique, negatively affected communities living close to the reservoirs. High torrential rainfalls often affect nearby households from rivers, dams and other water sources such is the case of TokweMukosi flooding in February 2014.Adejeji and Salami (2008) articulated that, low lying areas are mostly at risk from flooding than uplands. This explains why flooding is prominent in Muzarabani as compared to the eastern highlands parts of Zimbabwe . Dams overflow and bursts with sudden release of water downstream also cause floods. Flood disasters normally affect areas that are close to rivers, and in low lying areas from dams and other reservoirs. Henceforth, it

15 becomes essential in dam projects to identify the dam wall as a determinant of its throwback since this indicates the potentiality and likelihood of a flood disaster. The dam wall size and level determine the volume of water and the flood extent that the dam can reach. Therefore, it is imperative within this study to determine the flood extent that the Tokwe Mukosi Dam can reach at its full capacity of 90.3m and map the affected households.

2.5.2 DAM BURSTING Kousky and Zeckhauser (2006) highlights that, dams can stop regular annual floods but often fail to hold back exceptionally large floods. Because dams lead people to believe that floods are controlled, they lead to increased development of floodplains. Globally, dam bursting has become a major cause of high destructive floods. The most destructive flood resulting from dam bursting happened in Machchu Dam in Morbi India causing 5000 fatalities. The flood is believed to have resulted from heavy rain and flooding beyond spillway capacity (Rangapuram et. al , 2012). Just like the Machuchu Dam, the partial collapse of the TokweMukosi dam wall as well as high rainfalls resulted in flooding around TokweMukosi community. This disaster resulted in displacement of people, coupled with destruction of infrastructure, livestock and property (Tarisayi, 2014).

2.6 REFLECTING ON DAMINDUCED RELOCATION

The idea of daminduced relocation comes into consideration when the project needs are more valued such that they override the right of the locals to continue staying in that area. According to Cernea and SchmidtSoutau (2006) dam projects are one of development projects that cause compulsory relocation of people. In the process, the locals loose land, houses and generally their livelihoods activities. Mavhura et.al (2017)articulated that, development projects like dams are aimed at reducing poverty for the local people however, some of them are poorly conceived such that they end up impoverishing people worse than before. For case in point during the construction of the Three Gorges dam in China 50 000 people were displaced. In Zimbabwe, the construction of the Mpudzi dam also caused displacements of46 families to Zimunya Communal Lands without compensation. On the same note, the construction of the largest dam in Zimbabwe which is Kariba, displaced 57,000 people of the Tonga ethnic group. Their wellbeing was worsened when they were not compensated(Andrews et. al , 2015). According to Hove (2016), the Tonga people still lack

16 electricity that they were promised during the resettlement campaign. Unemployment, landlessness and hunger are experienced by the displaced Tonga people (Manyanhaire et-al 2002).

Policies by the World Bank articulate that, the displaced households should be provided with feasible resettlement alternatives. At the same time they should be guaranteed enough compensation at full replacement cost. This involve losses of asserts attributable to the project and during the relocation (World Bank, 2010). Above all, Marungwara (2014) adds that the relocating households have got a right to ask any form of compensation without them being punished or abused.

2.7 CAUSES OF RELOCATION There are a number of causes that enable people to relocate from one place to another. Among these, there are two main causes which are disasterinduced displacement and development induced displacement.

2.7.1 DISASTERINDUCED DISPLACEMENT Disasters are defined as serious disruptions of the functioning of a society which cause widespread human material, or environmental losses that exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources (UNDRO, 1992). With this definition, it is clear that not all hazards are disasters. Disasters only happen when losses exceed the community’s potential to cope thereby requiring aid. In several parts of the world displacements have been happening as a way of helping the insecure households after they are struck by floods. This is particularly the case with the TokweMukosi Dam flood in February 2014 which was declared the national disaster by the President (Hove, 2016). Several households were relocated to Chingwizi, Masangula, Chisase and Mwenezi areas after unanticipated rainfalls were received causingflooding and the partial collapse on the TokweMukosi Dam wall (Hove, 2016). Recently, floods in Gokwe also caused relocation of over 700 people (Herald, 26 th April 2017)

2.7.2 DEVELOPMENTINDUCED DISPLACEMENTS There are several causes of developmentinduced disasters. These include water supply that is dams, reservoirs and irrigation, urban infrastructure; transportation (roads, highways, canals) energy such as power plants, agricultural expansion and population redistribution schemes. According to Mavhura et. al (2017), development induced displacement have been done out of the will of the displaced people. Displacements causes impoverishment through affecting livelihoods

17 and sometimes the situation is worsened when people are not compensated. During the construction of the Tucuri Dam in Brazil, more than 35000 people and close to 2000 families were controversially resettled in various circumstances (Kakuruwo, 2016). During the construction of the Kariba dam more than 56 families of the Tonga ethnic group were relocated. While during the construction of the Mpudzi Dam 46 households were relocated to Zimunya Communal Lands without compensation (Hove, 2016). This coupled with the TokweMukosi Dam scenario suggest that development led displacements are on the rise and they have done more harm than good to the socioeconomic life of the local households.

2.8 CHALLENGES OF RELOCATION There are a number of challenges associated with developmentinduced displacements or relocation to the relocating households. Challenges associated with relocating families often bring socioeconomic disruptions to the wellbeing of people.These includes violation of human rights and lack of compensation.

2.8.1 VIOLATION OF HUMAN RIGHTS According to Marungwara (2014), internally displaced persons have the right to request and receive protection and humanitarian assistance from several authorities among them national authorities. They should also not face persecution or punishment for making such requests. Hove (2016) articulated that, during the construction of Kariba Dam, eight Gwembe Tonga people were shot dead and 32 injured by the colonial police in colonial Zambia in 1958 after they resisted to be relocated. In Guatemala, 400 people were killed during the construction of the Chixoy Dam. Furthermore, during the construction of the Urra Dam in Colombia some interllectuals and advocates who demanded compensation are reported to have been killed or exiled (Hove, 2016). Additionally countries like Sri Lanka, Colombia, Mexico, India, China, Panama, Brazil and others are reported to have displaced thousands of people through illegal means, misinformation, threats and intimidation, police violence and sometimes use of the army to force people to live their homes. As of the TokweMukosi disaster 6 people died as a result of the flood.

2.8.2 COMPENSATION Inadequate, delay and lack of compensation for the affected households is one of the major challenges of relocation in areas of Dam projects. In most cases governments inadequately plan or even fail to compensate relocated households. Displaced villages during the construction of the

Kariba Dam are reported that they still lack electricity that they were promised during the resettlement campaign that took place during the colonial era. (Manyanhaire et-al 2002)articulated that, in most cases compensation is given to household infrastructure like houses only yet compensation for other productive asserts like cattle, goats and other affected livelihoods are not compensated for. The TokweMukosi Dam flood adds to such examples that lack compensation. Delay by the government to compensate the affected household as well as failure by the Ministry of Local governance, Public Works and National housing to relocate people in time exposed the 2, 514 families to the disaster and they demanded emergency evacuation(Howard, 2016). The flood also affected agricultural fields and livelihoods in 12 villages among them Zifunzi, Chekai and Tagwirei yet they were not compensated (Hove, 2016).

2.9 KNOWLEDGE GAP There is a gap in literature in the sense that despite the world use of GIS and RS, the dam wall is not being used as a determinant of its throwback and flood extent effectively. Studies that have been done on the TokweMukosi disaster focused mainly on the cause and nature of the problem during the disaster. Effects of the flood such as loss of livestock and infrastructure were mentioned in passing based on the proposed actions of the dam and the February 2014 flooding. No studies have mapped and created an inventory of the losses incurred at household level. The study used the current water levels to prove whether the actions taken against the flood were effective in relocating households. This study illustrate how the proposed development project affect households using real and current situations at the project site as well as projections on the volume of the dam at full capacity. The importance of cattle and goats as a sign of wealth was not fully explained as well as the distribution of affected numbers and type of infrastructure in the ward. Infrastructure material used for construction indicate a household’s vulnerability to disasters.

2.10. CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter reviewed literature related to this study. The chapter linked the study with case studies that have been found important in answering the main objectives of this research. A gap in literature was also identified.

CHAPTER 3: DATA, METHODS AND MATERIALS 3.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter describes the research design. The chapter explores the techniques and methods that were used for data collection and analysis. Data collection procedures, processing and analysis methods used are also described in detail.

3.3 RESEARCH DESIGN A research design is a path way to be done in conducting the study for the purposes of exercising control and limiting external factors from undermining the reliability and credibility of research findings (Holmberg, 2006). In this research, a descriptive, experimental and case study research design was used to identify and analyze the effects of the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on the households of ward 24 in Chivi District.

3.3.1 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH Descriptive research design is defined as a scientific method involving observing and describing the behavior of a subject without influencing it in either way (Berg et.al , 2004). The design was used to describe the nature of the sampled households with respect to their types of infrastructure. Through this design, it became easier for the study to closely associate this design with observations field work, surveys and case studies. By so doing, this design provided an opportunity of carrying out several methods of data collection. These examined factors then led to a detailed description of the situation in Chivi District Ward 24. The descriptive approach helped to identify the accurate research problem, understand the current situation and draw uppossible judgments and recommendations citing from perceptions and views by the respondents.

3.3.2 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN An experimental design was used. This research design increased the study’s familiarity with the problem. The experimental research provided chances for the study to examine all aspects of the study especially through mapping with the use of Quantum GIS and ArcGIS software. Through this design, the study discovered the factors that aid to continuous daminduced flooding in Zimbabwe which affected the socioeconomic life of local households. The design was used to identify new insights, knowledge and understandings in mapping the flood extent for establishing relocation priorities.

3.3.3 CASE STUDY The design of this research was also in form of a case study. A case study is defined as an experimental enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real life context when the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident (Yin, 1984). The research took place within the 245 households in Ward 24 of Chivi District where the respondents conducted their daily activities. Henceforth the case study approach enabled the study to compare different views and perceptions which relates to the research problem. The approach did not only provide more information and an indepth insight of the situation of the Tokwe Mukosi situation. It also saved time and resources as it only focused on a particular study area rather than the country as a whole.

3.4 TARGET POPULATION Target population in research study refers to all members of real hypothetical set of people to which research results are generalized (Khan et. al , 2011). Ward 24 in Chivi district is the target area. Chivi district has a total population of 166049 people and 35912 households. In Ward 24 there are 4531people with 1041 households (ZIMSTATS 2012). The Ward has got a 4.4 average household size. From the 1041 households in the entire ward 24 of Chivi district; 245 households were used as the sample size. These selected household constitutes twenty four percent (24%) of the 1041 households found in the Ward. This was done in accordance to Burgess (2002), who envisioned that for research findings to be comprehensive to the population with limited errors, a sample should comprise a minimum of 20% of the population under study. The sample was large enough to make some generalities since the respondents were selected from different spaced villages nearer around Ward 24. The study received help from the Village Development Committee (VIDCO) in gathering data around these selected households.

3.4.1 SAMPLING

Levy and Lemeshow (2013) defines sampling as the process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a population or suitable sample to determine parameters or characteristics of the whole population. In this study, Ward 24 was purposively sampled from the 32 wards in the District. The ward was selected after a presurvey was done and the study observed that this ward is closest to the TokweMukosi Dam and its catchment area. The ward was chosen because it has particular features which enable detailed explanation of the research objectives.

Most of the villages in this ward were heavily affected by the February 2014 flood in Tokwe Mukosi community. Therefore, using simple random sampling method, an approximate 24% representative sample of the 1041 households in the ward which is 245 households was selected. Eight key informants interviews were administered Dam officials (1), the Councilor (1), households (6). 3.5 METHODOLOGY

The methodology for data collection in this study was based on two ways, firstly capturing social information from the sampled households using interviews, field work, questionnaires and secondary data and secondly, importing the spatial information (household coordinates) into a GIS. The spatial information was recorded on the spreadsheet. Questionnaires, interview guides and field checklist had location coordinates which act as unique identifiers to connect the data in the GIS database. A spatial join was carried out in GIS software to link the information from the spreadsheet as attributes. Every step of the data collection process was done in partnership with relevant stakeholders and experts in mapping and linking information concerning the households.

3.6 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS Research instruments are various techniques that the study used in acquiring data for the study. The selection of these instruments was mainly as result of suitability to the respondents under study and in relation to the research objectives. On collecting social information for the sampled households, questionnaires, field checks and interviews were used as instruments suitable for gathering information in this study. On the other hand the internet was a prime tool used on gathering spatial information and importing it into a GIS.

3.6.1 INTERNET

The study used Google Earth (GE) to capture the location coordinates of the households to come up with a sample of 245 households in Ward 24 (2229 February 2017). The process was done with the help of VIDCO in identifying the household names so that the data on questionnaires can be merged with satellite data. By so doing the internet became a prime tool in the data collection process. This constitutes close to 24% of the total 1041 households in Ward 24 of Chivi District. Satellite evidence showed that some households were responsive to relocation while some did not relocate. Spatial information was recorded on a spreadsheet thereby preparing it for processing.

Households that relocated were given a value of 1 while those that did not relocate were given a value of zero (0). This was done to make the data readable in the GIS software. 3.6.2 SATELLITE IMAGES

A land cover map was downloaded from a cloud free Landsat 8 Operational Land Images (OLI) acquired from the Glovis website ( www.earthexplorer.usgs.gov ) for 27 March 2017 on 2 April 2017.The image was downloaded for this date in order to show the current volume of the water. This water act as a determinant of the households which if not being relocated were going to be destroyed by the flood. 3.6.3 QUESTIONAIRE In this study, questionnaires were used to obtain data. According to Krueger and Casey (2014),a questionnaire is a form that people fill out and is used to obtain demographic information and views and interests of those questioned. In this study245 questionnaires (Appendix 1) were administered to 245sampled household in the ward and used as devices to collect data from respondents with the use of a set of questionsn (Fink, 2012). Structured questionnaires both open and closed were used and this helped to capture direct answers and also enable the respondents to express their confidential views and data thereby eliminating bias in the data collection process. The combination of questions in the questionnaire enabled the study to obtain enough data on the effects of the TokweMukosi Dam on the households of ward 24 in Chivi District.

3.6.4 INTERVIEW GUIDE An indepth interview guide was used for capturing data. Purposive sampling was done to select the interviewees. Interviews were done with people who were considered knowledgeable about the February 2014 TokweMukosi Daminduced flood. This was done in order to ensure a high response rate. Eight interviews were conducted with selected individuals and organizations which include Dam officials (1)(Appendix 4), the Councilor (1) (Appendix 3)and local households (6)(Appendix 2). Interviewing these selected respondents enabled the study to gather a lot of information on the effects of the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on the households. The interviews were facilitated through the use of interview guides. Interview guides gave the study an opportunity to restructure questions and probe further during the interview. However, the major setback of the interview guides was confidentiality since some confidential information was not released by the interviewees.

3.6.3 FIELD CHECKLIST

Field checklist (Appendix 5) was also used during field work in order to compliment information from questionnaires and interviews. The researcher walked around the ward to observe the general effect of the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on the households of Ward 24 in Chivi district. The study observed the TokweMukosi Dam, and some selected households that were demarcated and set for field work and observations. The systematic random sampling approach was done in doing field works. By so doing, the study observed every 10 th household. Field checks were made starting from the dam site reaching the spatial extent from the dam where the households used to settle. Field checks helped the study to get rid of the intensity and the effect of the flood on households in relation to distance away from the Tokwe River. Data was recorded including location coordinates of households and recorded on the field checklist. Photographs were also taken during the field observations. 3.7 DATA COLLECTION PROCEDURE During this research, certain procedures were followed in acquiring data both concerning social information of the households and spatial data.

3.7.1 SOCIAL INFORMATION

Initially the researcher introduced himself and seeks permission to carry out the research to the Councillor of ward 24 in Chivi District. The Councillor then gave recommendations to village heads to let the researcher carry out his data collection well. The researcher explained well the topic of the research and explained that it was done for the purpose of his academic study only. Thereafter, the research carried out some interviews to the Councillor (1), Dam official (1), local households (6).In doing this the researcher was accompanied by the Councillor and some Individuals who had interest in this research study. Questionnaires were administered to every 245 households covered as a sample during the study. In doing so the researcher takes some coordinates where possible and also did photo visioning. After carrying out an interview, questionnaire or any field work respondents were appreciatively thanked as a motivational tool to enable them to participate in future researches. 3.7.2 SPATIAL INFORMATION

A land cover map was downloaded from a cloud free Landsat 8 Operational Land Images (OLI) acquired from the Glovis website ( www.earthexplorer.usgs.gov ) for 27 March 2017 on 2 April

2017. The first step in acquiring the Landsat 8 image was user registration. Data concerning the, the location coordinates was captured through the use of Google Earth (GE) and Global Positioning System (GPS) The coordinates were then converted to Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinate system. Identification of these households was done with the help of village heads and councillors. These households were then merged with a vector shape of the current volume of water in TokweMukosi Dam as at27 March 2017. This shape file was digitised from Landsat 8 OLI image downloaded for 27 March 2017. This was done to identify the households that were directly affected by the flood. Through QGIS several maps were drawn to map the affected household in terms of relocation, compensation and those that were directly affected by the flood. 3.8 DATA VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY

A number of ways were engaged in order to ensure that the data collected was reliable and valid. Pretesting of questionnaires and interview a guide was done before the commencement of the actual data collection process. This was done in order to correct errors. During the same process some questions were rephrased to meet the objectives of the study and for them to be understood easily. Data from secondary data sources, interviews and primary data was contrasted to solve some of the shortcomings. Accurate assessments were also done in georeferencing maps and taking location coordinates. 3.9 DATA PROCESSING

Data gathered during the research was preprocessed to prepare for data analysis.Using QGIS 2.6.1, a Landsat image 8 OLI was georeferenced to UTM coordinate system. The main reason was to enable that the data becomes compatible with the data on households locations. This was done because the household location coordinates were also captured using UTM coordinate system. A shape file polygon which shows the current volume of the TokweMukosi Dam as at 27 March 2017 was digitized. This helped to identify the households that would since have been directly affected by the flood if not relocated. Henceforth, clipping of the household data corresponded well to the shape file of Ward 24 in Chivi District. A vector shape was used in order to delimit households that were outside the study area.

The combined data (social and spatial) was read over and over again in order to check for accuracy and most importantly to match the households location coordinates and their data. This was done

25 by first entering the variables and their codes. Information from primary data was recorded on a spreadsheet and converted to CSV comma delimited so that it became readable in the GIS software. All this was done in order to arrange data, put it in proper order before doing the analysis. Below are the data analysis methods used in this study. 3.9.1 DATA ANALYSIS Data collected and recorded on a spreadsheet was also converted to CSV comma delimited since this can be read in the Quantum GIS (QGIS) database. The data was analyzed using QGIS version 2.6.1 to produce several maps that answer the research questions of this study. Among the maps were maps showing the distribution of the sampled households in the ward by the number of households affected by the flood and their household sizes, affected through .relocation, compensation, affected directly by the flood and an estimation of the affected households at several stages of the dam wall. Overlay calculations were performed using the predicted volume of water at 90.3m and the 245 household sample size to perform overlay calculations of the affected households at the full capacity. A Hot spot cold spot analysis was performed to come up with the map showing distribution of affected households by population sizes using ArcGIS 10.1.

3.10. PRESENTATION Different graphics were used in presenting the major findings of this study. Data obtained through field work, interviews and secondary data from CARE International was presented using descriptive format, tables and photographs. Results were also presented in the form of maps that were drawn using QGIS 2.6.1 and ArcGIS 10.1. This was done in line with objective number one of this study that is to map the affected households. Some ethical considerations were encountered during the research and these are indicated below.

3.11. LIMITATIONS TO THE STUDY AND SOLUTIONS This study was carried out in a dynamic environment and therefore a number of limitations were encountered.

Time was the major constrain during the research process. Therefore the study also used secondary data to add to the information obtained from the field. This research was academic, it has no funding. Therefore, financial challenges hindered the success of the project. Inthis regard, the student utilized cell phone and emails, to communicate with relevant authority including the councilor and village heads in advance such that people in the targeted areas were foretold before

26 the actual data collection process commenced. The study also used data and information from the media and the internet in collecting relevant data for the research. Another limitation was the non use of GIS technologies be due to limited capacity and awareness in the departments and offices where they should be used. There was no sequential updating and publication of Landsat images on the websites that they should be like USSG images in time and with good quality. If it wasn’t that, an April Landsat image could have been used to perform a change detection in the volume of water. This could have helped show households affected at several capacities of the dam considering April is also a raining season and volume of water would have increased in the dam.

3.12. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS In conducting this research, the study seek permission from several authorities in order to gather data following protocols required in the Ward. Local authorities were informed that the research was being done for academic purpose only and they gave access to the study to carry out the research. Among these include the Councilor, Dam officials and village heads. Furthermore the study asked permission to CARE International ENSURE project manager. This was done in obtaining information on the households of ward 24 in Chivi District especially information from the Lean Season Assistance Programme (LSA) registrations forms. Some sensitive information were avoided during this study especially if they do not corresponds to the objectives of this research study. The data collected was analyzed with attentiveness so that it serve its academic purpose only. This helped to avoid conflicts and misunderstandings between authorities and the families in the Ward.

3.11 CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter explained in detail how the study was carried out. This includes the methods and procedures that were undertaken during the course of the study. The study also provided information about the study area which is Ward 24 of Chivi District in Masvingo Province. The data collection instruments and methods were also outlined in this chapter. Lastly an overview of the data processing and analysis was done in this chapter.

CHAPTER 4: DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS 4.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter provides a detail of the results and findings of this study as guided by the methodology used in this study. Maps showing the affected households since February 2014 flood are also produced and presented in this chapter.

4.2 AFFECTED HOUSEHOLDS The research find that some households were settled within the flood extend of the TokweMukosi Dam and would since have been directly affected by the flood, some were affected as a result of relocation and compensation while some were not affected.

4.2.1 NUMBER OF AFFECTED HOUSEHOLDS In mapping the affected households as the first objective of this study, Fig 4.1.shows the households that were directly affected by the flood, through relocation and the households that were not affected.

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 Frequency (%) Frequency 30 20 10 0 Directly Affected Affected by Relocation Not affected Households affected

Figure 4.1:Percentageof affected households(n=245) ( Source: own ) Fig 4.1 indicated that the greatest number of households were affected by the TokweMukosi flood through relocation. The least number of households were not affected by the flood either through relocation or directly by the flood. On the other hand relatively high number of households were marooned by the river during the TokweMukosi Dam flood. The households that were directly affected by the flood suffered a severe socioeconomic loss since their houses were marooned by the river as well as their productive assets like cattle and goats. Hove (2016) articulated that flood disasters in development are caused mainly by the delay of responsible authorities to compensate

28 and relocate people timeously before commencement of projects. In line with this argument it can be strongly agreed that the TokweMukosi case add to one of those cases when delay in compensation and relocation caused substantial losses to households. The fact that a greater number households were affected either directly by the flood or through relocation and compensation as compared to those who were not affected point to the fact that indeed the general level of wellbeing of the households was worsened.

4.2.1 MAPPING AFFECTED HOUSEHOLDS In order to fulfill the first objective which is to map the affected households, the study used QGIS 2.6.1 to plot the households that were directly affected by the flood as on figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Affected households. (Source: Own ) Fig: 4.2 indicated that, households on the downstream and closer to the Tokwe River were seriously affected by the flood as compared to the households on the upstream and located on a distance from the main river Tokwe. The households that were directly affected by the flood are overlaid by a layer of the current volume of water in the TokweMukosi Dam as at 27 March 2017.This is a clear indication that indeed the TokweMukosi Daminduced flood had since have

29 a devastating impact on the households of Ward 24 in Chivi District. As of February 2014, households within the flood extent were marooned by the river. In addition they also lost their cattle and goats yet these are considered productive asserts in rural areas. In a similar research, Makurira (2016) find that serious flood disasters are often felt by people living close to major rivers and reservoirs. This explains why the 2007 cyclone induced floods in the Zambezi Basin displaced more than 56 000 households in Mozambique. On the other hand, Shuning (2016) articulated that the higher levels of flooding near Heyuan station in China is a result of the nearby reservoir Xinfenngjiang. Therefore, in line with the findings of this research, the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods add to one of those cases where distance of households away from the river exposed the locals to a condition of vulnerability to such a disastrous flood. Henceforth households living in flood zone areas should maintain a distance to minimize their vulnerability to disasters.

4.2.3 AFFECTED HOUSEHOLD SIZES The households affected since February 2014 had varying population sizes. The study used a hot spot cold spot analysis using ArcGIS10.1 as on figure 4.3 to show variations in population sizes of the affected households.

Figure 4.3: Distribution of Household (Source: Own ) Fig 4.3clearly shows that households living near the TokweMukosi flood prone areas had larger household sizes as compared to other households residing farther from the river. The average population size for the

30 households in ward 24 is 48. Findings from the interviews also showed that the greatest number of people with respect to household size lived near the river since the river acted as the center of their livelihood activities. Therefore the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods and relocation had since caused a devastating impact to the greater populace living close to the dam. This was also observed by Mashebe (2016) in his study of “the impacts of flooding on the Livelihood of people living in the Luhonono area in the Zambezi region, Namibia”. The study observed that, a majority of 70% of the households lived near the water source in order to obtain water for irrigation yet due to the flood, 95% of the crops were affected while in general 82% of the livelihoods were seriously affected. This explains why the majority of 84 % (1030 out of 1230) of the population on the sampled households in ward 24 lived close to the Tokwe River. Future plans need to consider compensation that suits the nature of their affected livelihoods.

4.2.4 TOTAL HOUSEHOLDS AFFECTED In mapping the totality of the affected households by the TokweMukosi Daminduced flood, overlay calculations were performed through use of ArcGIS 10.1 as shown on Figure 4.4

Figure 4.4:Total Households affected (Source: Own) Figure 4.4 clearly indicated the number of households that would be affected by the Tokwe Mukosi Dam at its full capacity. From the overlay calculation performed in ArcGIS software (10.1), a total percentage of the households affected from the sampled households was 58.3%

31 coupled with destruction of 243 hut and 90 houses. This is an indication that if the households were not relocated timeously. These households would since have been affected by the Dam induced floods yearly. More so, it is an important highlight that if the dam construction was completed according to the proposed time frame without missing several deadlines the flooding disaster on the households would have been severe. According to Mashebe (2016) flood disasters normally affect areas that are close to rivers, dams and other reservoirs. He further highlight that distance away from the river and height from the dam are critical determinants for the impact of flood disaster. In line with this argument, case studies from China shows that the Yangtse basin is highly prevalent to flooding. Findings of this study also show that distance and height from the river are essential factors to consider before settling in an area. Fig 4.4 clearly indicated that all households nearer to the river and within the dam catchment area were highly at risk from flooding disasters.

4.2.5 MAPPING HOUSEHOLDS WITH RESPECT TO COMPENSATION AND RELOCATION The study considered compensation and relocation as important factors. This was done to show the relationship between the compensated households among the relocated ones as a result of TokweMukosi Dam developmentinduced displacement. This is shown on Fig 4.4( a) and (b)

Figure 4.5: Relocation (a) and Compensation (b) of affected households( Source: Own )

Fig. 4.5 (a) and (b) clearly indicates that an overwhelming number of people who relocated were not compensated. Given the volume of water as at 27 March 2017 evidence from Fig: 4.5a shows that the relocated households would since have been directly affected by the flood and yet they were not compensated. Compensation is critical in development and disasterinduced displacements. Therefore, the fact that some households were not compensated is evidence to highlight that the TokweMukosi Dam induced flood impacted negatively on the households in ward 24 in Chivi District. Simonelli (2016) explained that compensation in developmentinduced displacement fail to prevent the fragmentation of communities, which the planners have overlooked while planning for resettlement. This has been shown with the findings of this study on Fig 4.5. The fact that some households relocated and yet were not compensated point to the fact that their destination areas were different as they relocated. Henceforth, the flood induced disastercaused fragmentation of households in TokweMukosi community.

4.2.5 AFFECTED HOUSEHOLDS AT FULL CAPACITY OF THE DAM The results also show the households that would be affected at the current state of the dam as at 27 March 2017 and full capacity of the dam. This is shown of Fig 4.6.

Figure 4.6:TokweMukosi Dam water level as at 27032017 and at full capacity (90.3m)

(Source: Own )

Fig 4.6 clearly indicated that all the households who relocated were within the flood zone of the TokweMukosi Dam when it reaches its full capacity. It indicated the importance of relocating people before the Dam wall is completed. Tonah (2016) explained that, just like the Tonga people who were relocated without benefiting from the Kariba Dam, damdevelopment projects cause a trail of socioeconomic disruptions to local households. He further argue that, the situation is worsened when people are not compensated. In line with this argument Fig 4.6 indicates that precarious households failed to benefit directly from the Tokwe dam as a result of relocation. However, if the relocated households have not yet been relocated, they would since have been marooned by the river.

Fig: 4.6clearly indicated that some households did not relocate despite knowing that the dam is such a necessary evil. These households are at risk to the flooding especially after the dam is completed. These findings relates also to the case of the Kariba Dam whereby eight Tonga people resisted to be relocated in paving way for the construction of the Dam (Hove, 2016). He further argue that in most cases whereby people fail to relocate they are associated with abuse and violations of rights to force them to move. As of the Kariba Dam scenario, the eight Tonga people were shot dead and 32 injured by the colonial police in colonial Zambia (Hove, 2016).

4.3 INVENTORY FOR AFFECTED HOUSEHOLDS The TokweMukosi Dam development had a devastating impact to the local people residing in ward 24 of Chivi District. The study realized that several households were affected as well as their huts and houses.

4.3.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN AREA OF LAND FROM THE RIVER AND EXTENT OF LOSS In creating an inventory of the affected households which is the second objective of this study, the study used a table to show the relationship between distance away from the TokweMukosi River and the Extend of Loss (EOL) of household infrastructure (Table 4.1)

Table 4:1: Distance from the river and EOL

Distance (Km) Extend of Loss (EOL) Households Huts Houses 02 143 90 243 24 64 64 100 46 38 125 63

Table 4.1clearly indicated that there is an inverse relationship between the distance away from the river and EOL. The EOL (number of households, houses and huts affected) is severe close to the Tokwe River. With distance away from the river the EOL decreases. In addition data obtained from field work showed that the dominant infrastructure affected were huts which is a clear indication that the general level of their life was poor. Mavhura et. al (2017) articulated that, majority of household infrastructure in TokweMukosi were huts that were built without attending to standard building codes with poles, dagga and thatched roof. As a result, the materials get washed away easily during floods. TokweMukosi Dam as a development initiative worsened those households that were already in the cycle of poverty. In the same line of argument, Musonda (2008) concurred that, developmentinduced displacement is not only a widespread and growing phenomena, but also evidence that while benefits of dams are numerous, the cost is being borne disproportionately by the poorest and marginalized populations. In this case, the TokweMukosi Daminduced flood worsened the household’s economic status in Ward 24 of Chivi District.

4.4 EFFECTS OF RELOCATION The TokweMukosi Dam induced development and related floods worsened the life of the households with respect to lack of lack of compensation, their infrastructure and productive asserts.

4.4.1 EFFECTS ON HOUSEHOLD INFRASTRUCTURE Dam induced displacements have adverse socioeconomic and environmental impacts on the displaced households. Household infrastructure is abandoned while productive assets in rural areas like goats and cattle are lost. During the field work it was discovered that some houses were abandoned. None of the risk factors of displacement were considered for people since they were simply put in trucks and helicopters as part of national response to the developmentinduced

36 disaster. One of the interviewed resident explained that the disaster and evacuation had limited time to plan for their future and they knew nothing of their area of relocation:

Our houses food and clothes were marooned by the river and finally we fled to Zifunzi Primary where we were taken with helicopters. The disaster and relocation priority gave us no time to pack our stuff and yet we were settled to a place without houses. Imagine that we had to collect grass and sticks to build new infrastructures .(Respondent 1,13 th January 2017)

The respondent clearly indicated that there was a severe socioeconomic decline on the households of ward 24 in Chivi District. The fact that some households left their wellbuilt infrastructure and gathered grass and sticks to construct new infrastructure is evidence that the development induced disaster impacted negatively on household infrastructure. Brogden (2016) concurred that in most disasterinduced relocations victims have no time to collect their belongings. This is evidenced from the respondent1 that the vulnerability of households in Ward 24 were worsened by the flood. In addition, that dams in Africa have left a trail of development induced poverty in their awake (Wu and Edmonds, 2016) is highly applicable with the study findings. Plate 4.1 show some of the infrastructure marooned by the river.

Plate 4.1: Flooded hut in Ward 24 (Nehanda Radio, 3 May 2014)

Plate 4.1 illustrate that huts were heavy affected by the TokweMukosi Dam induced flood. The huts were heavy affected because they were poorly built without relating to standard house building regulations. There is clear indication that the households lost almost most of their properties food stuffs since there was no enough time to look for safety. It is imperative that relocation be done timeously to eliminate such disasters.

4.4.2 LOSS OF PRODUCTIVE ASSERTS The TokweMukosi Daminduced flood had adverse impact on the productive asserts at household level. Ngurumwa (2016) highlighted that cattle and goats are part of products asserts in rural areas although their contribution to household security is sometimes under weighted. Studies that have been done since TokweMukosi Daminduced flood pointed on the effects of loss of cattle only. No contribution of these to households was articulated. One lady during the field work illustrated how most households lost their cattle.

The disaster-induced displacement left several households insecure. I magine that they were packed into trucks like bags of maize and left their animals since they did not have any means of taking them during the disaster. Even our goats and cattle were left without care. (Respondent 2, 13 th January 2017)

Another man also described how they resettled to Chingwizi:

My brother and I had to walk a long distance so that we can safely relocate with our cattle. I am sure you understand how we pride ourselves with cattle. The second relocation phase gave none of much attention to providing transport for the animals. The cattle indicate to us how much of the wealth we have (Respondent 3, 14 th January 2017).

From the above respondents it is clear that, the TokweMukosi induced disaster had a devastating impact on the socioeconomic life of the households in ward 24 of Chivi District. On a similar case, Wu and Edmonds (2016), explained that during the relocation of the Tonga people, they were not offered transport for cattle when they relocated to pave way for Kariba Dam constructionthe findings of this study aid to a case when the development initiative brought socioeconomic decline to productive assets local households.

4.4.3 LACK OF COMPENSATION Compensation is another effect arising from relocation if not talked well. The Motion Report (2005) outlined that the general views with regards to compensation package among the relocated households is sometimes not adequate nor sufficient. Losses incurred during the relocation phase are substantial which totally reduce the level of wellbeing of the people. At some instances money compensated is used by people for enterprises and businesses rather than its intended objective. During the interviews, one respondent illustrated his concern about compensation.

I was never compensated for my property, goats, cattle that l lost during transportation. All my livelihood activities were affected by the flood such that it was difficult to cope up with a new life in Chingwizi. Although I was given land, faming was hard as compared to my previous location. Therefore I decided to come back from Chingwizi since the devil that I know is better than the devil in the relocation area (Respondent 5, 14 January 2017)

The respondent went on to provide evidence of his property lost to the flood as on plate 4.2

Plate 4.2: Destroyed property as a result of flooding (Photo by Nehanda Radio, 3 May 2014 )

From the explanation given by the respondent 5, it is clear that some of the relocated households were not satisfied by the compensation that they received. Compensation was given in form of

39 money land and houses yet some villagers were not covered. Mavhura et. al (2017) concurred that developmentinduced disasters have been done out of the will of the displaced people and the situation is worsened when people are not compensated. In line with the findings of this study, it was lack of compensation that caused pull migration on the man from the relocation area Chingwizi back to Tokwe community. It is also clear that the relocated households were not compensated for dead cattle, goats or destroyed property during relocation. Plate 4.2 clearly show that during the transportation some properties were difficult to recover. That household left their well built houses to live in camps show that their wellbeing was completely devastated. In these findings, a conclusion can be drawn to say that the perceived development project worsened the wellbeing of the local households even before completion. Compensation should ensure livestock and property lost during relocation.

4.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY The chapter provided an overview of the research findings which provide an answer to the objectives of this study. The findings include the fact that development induced disasters such as in Dam construction projects are unstoppable. The findings highlight the importance of compensating and relocating people from dam projects earlier before the dam construction commences.

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter seeks to sum up the major findings of this study in trying to draw conclusions for the study. The chapter provides answers to the research questions written in chapter 1 of this study. The chapter also presents some conclusions and recommendations based on the results of this study of the effects of the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods using Ward 24 in Chivi District as the case study.

5.2 SUMMARY The research dealt on the effects of the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on the households of ward 24 in Chivi District. The government of Zimbabwe started the construction of the Tokwe Mukosi Dam in 1999 as a development project. The dam was to boost development in Zimbabwe particularly Masvingo Province. This was to be done through hydropower power generation, irrigation, tourism and infrastructural development as a prerequisite. The February 2014 become a major catastrophic event to hit the area when heavy unanticipated rainfalls were received in the area leading to flooding. The unanticipated rainfalls caused flooding in TokweMukosi community and a partial collapse of the dam wall which also marooned some households downstream. Among the households affected, Ward 24 of Chivi District also experienced severe socioeconomic losses to the households within the ward. Henceforth the ward was taken as the study area. The background to the study, statement of the problem, research aims, objectives and questions of this research were clearly defined, justified and wellarticulated.

The study aimed at unearthing the effects of the daminduced floods on the households of Ward 24. The analysis was done paying attention to their dilapidated infrastructure, cattle and goats as productive asserts in rural areas. The research did not end there but presents results through the use of maps drawn using QGIS 2.6.1 and ArcGIS 10.1 to show the spatial distribution of the affected households. The study further gave a realistic predictive volume of water at the dam’s full capacity. The probability of households affected were shown through mapping. This analysis was identified as essential in establishing relocation priorities in phases. Henceforth, act as a measure to reduce strain on the government in compensating households at once before the commencement of the project.

5.3 CONCLUSIONS

The effective use of GIS and RS to map the affected households at different levels of the dam wall is expected to increase in future. These techniques and software’s have gained significant consideration in flood mapping and modelling. Through this study, the use of GIS and RS is expected to increase especially in the recognition of the need for DRR as stipulated by the Sendai Framework (20152030). The effects of the TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on the households of ward 24 in Chivi District was contextual. Therefore the study highlights the reason why development projects should ensure effective and timeous compensation to households prior to their implementation. The effective planning and implementation of EIA is also expected to be done in future where large development projects that pose negative costs to the societies would be done.

More so, with the increased rate and frequency of floods as a result of unanticipated rainfalls even in drought areas, the study conclude with a motive to enable people to stay away from flood prone areas. Cattle and goats are important productive asserts in rural areas. Organizations involved in evacuating and relocation of people are expected to ensure that they relocate people with their cattle and goats. Construction of levees, dykes and simple contours are expected to be put in place in future since evidence showed that all these measures were not in place on the case of Tokwe Mukosi. The study also conclude that it is essential to give home insurance policies for people living in flood prone areas. This is because in the case of the TokweMukosi Daminduced flood, the households had no house insurance policies despite living in flood zones. Compensation of affected families in development areas are expected to be done timeously in future to lure the desire of the local household to relocate.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

In light of the effects brought by the perceived development project TokweMukosi Dam before its completion, the findings of this study therefore give a number of recommendations. These recommendations are made with the whole faith and belief that if well planned and put into action they would safeguard the socioeconomic life of the households in areas where large dam projects are carried out.

The study recommend timeous compensation to the affected households in dam construction projects. Compensation act as a motivational tool to lure the desires of the affected people to relocate. Some thorough analysis have to be engaged to select the households affected and in need of compensation. Budgeting is essential for the government to respond early to disasters that might be triggered when establishing manmade projects. If sufficient budgets are put in place, problems encountered in relocating affected families will be solved quickly. With the global rise of daminduced floods, there is need for government planners and ministries to use GIS and RS to develop flood probability maps. This help in planning relocation priorities in phases before the commencement of the project. The study recommends the Ministry of Local Governance to relocate people before the commencement of dam projects as a measure to reduce flood disasters. Henceforth, the study initiates a step towards DRR as articulated in the Sendai framework for action (2015 2030) through highlighting measures in Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM). The study also recommend EMA to ensure that EIAs are well planned and implemented as documented for all projects that might expose the local households at risk of disasters. The study also gives an awareness to several households to build houses paying attention to the standard building codes. In the case of Ward 24, 100% of the households had no insurance for their household infrastructure.

REFERENCES Agodzo, S. K., Obuobie, E., and Braimah, C. A. (2014). The effects of irrigation dams on water supply in Ghana. IOSR Journal of Engineering, 4(5), 4853.

Agoramoorthy, G. (2015). The future of India's obsolete dams: Time to review their safety and structural integrity. Futures, 67, 2225.

Andrews, B., Musonda, P., Simuyemba, M., Wilson, C. M., Nzala, S., Vermund, S. H., & Michelo, C. (2015). How we implemented an analytical support clinic to strengthen student research capacity in Zambia. Medical teacher, 37(7), 635640.

Belga, L. (2006) Dams in River Flood hazard Reduction in Reservoirs in river basin Development. L Santbergen, C.J Weston (Eds). Vol 1. 119128. A.A. Balkema. Rotterdam

Billington. D.P et. al (2005). The history of large federal dams: planning, design, and construction in the era of big dams . Denver, Department of the Interior, Bureau of Reclamation, United States.

Boone, C. (2014). Property and political order in Africa: Land rights and the structure of politics. Cambridge University Press.

Bowker, L. N., and Chambers, D. M. (2015). The risk, public liability, and economics of tailings storage facility failures. Research Paper. Stonington, ME. Brogden, M. (2016). Refugee odysseys: An ethnography of refugee resettlement in the US after 9 11. The University of Arizona.

Brown, L. R. (2014). Vital Signs 19981999: The Environmental Trends That Are Shaping Our Future. Routledge. Brummett, R. E. (Ed.). (2016). Aquaculture technology in developing countries. Routledge. Buckley, M. (2014). Meltdown in Tibet: China's Reckless Destruction of Ecosystems from the Highlands of Tibet to the Deltas of Asia. Macmillan. Burgess, J. R. (2002). Temporal trends for thyroid carcinoma in Australia: an increasing incidence of papillary thyroid carcinoma (1982–1997). Thyroid, 12(2), 141149.

Cisse, D., Grimm, S., and Nolke, A. (2014). Statedirected multinational enterprises and transnational governance: Chinese investments in Africa, corporate responsibility and sustainability norms.

Clarke, R. and King, J. (2004). The Water Atlas. New York, NY: The New Press.

Cohen, A. (2014). Dams and the Dilemmas of Development. African Historical Review, 46(1), 7081. Cosgrove, W. J., and Rijsberman, F. R. (2014). World water vision: making water everybody's business. Routledge. Daniel, D. E. (2014). A Perspective on the Levee Failures in New Orleans from Hurricane Katrina. In From Soil Behavior Fundamentals to Innovations in Geotechnical Engineering: Honoring Roy E. Olson (pp. 271282). DiFrancesco. K. and Woodruff. K., (2007). Global perspectives on large dams: report on a conference held November 3 –5, 2006. Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies Publication Series: New Haven.

Dogan, A. (2002) The Role of Dams in Development, International Journal of Water Resources Development, 18:1, 924, DOI: 10.1080/07900620220121620

Fink, A. (2012). How to Conduct Surveys: A StepbyStep Guide: A StepbyStep Guide. Sage Publications.

Fuggle. R. and Smith. W.T. (2000). Large dams in water and energy resource development in the People’s Republic of China (PRC). World Commission on Dams: Cape Town.

Geissen, V., Mol, H., Klumpp, E., Umlauf, G., Nadal, M., van der Ploeg, M, and Ritsema, C. J. (2015). Emerging pollutants in the environment: a challenge for water resource management. International soil and water conservation research, 3(1), 5765. Goldschmidt Jr, A., and Boum, A. (2015). A concise history of the Middle East. Westview Press. Gumindoga, W., Chikodzi, D., Rwasoka, D., Mutowo, G., Togarepi, S., & Dube, T. (2014). The spatiotemporal variation of the 2014 TokweMukosi floods: a GIS and remote sensing based approach.

Herald 1 February 2017 “Seven drawn in Gokwe” Zimpapers

Hewitt, K. (2014). Regions of risk: A geographical introduction to disasters. Routledge.

Hove, M., 2017. When Flood Victims Became State Victims : Tokwe When Flood Victims Became State Victims : TokweMukosi. Democracy and Security, 12(3), pp.135–161.

Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17419166.2016.1182804.Agodzo, S. K., Obuobie, E., and Braimah, C. A. (2014). The effects of irrigation dams on water supply in Ghana. IOSR Journal of Engineering, 4(5), 4853.

Hove, M., 2017. When Flood Victims Became State Victims : Tokwe When Flood Victims Became State Victims : TokweMukosi,. Democracy and Security, 12(3), pp.135–161. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17419166.2016.1182804.Agodzo, S. K., Obuobie, E., and Braimah, C. A. (2014). The effects of irrigation dams on water supply in Ghana. IOSR Journal of Engineering, 4(5), 4853.

Howard, J. (2016). Socioeconomic Effects of the National Flood Insurance Program. Springer. Jahan, A., Mahdi, A., Muhammad, G., and Chakma, S. (2014). Vulnerability and Coping Strategies of Floods in Bangladesh Agriculture. ASA University Review, 8(2). Kabel, A., McBeeBlack, K., and Dimka, J. (2016). Apparelrelated participation barriers: ability, adaptation and engagement. Disability and rehabilitation, 38(22), 21842192.

Kakuruwo, V. (2016). A critical evaluation of nongovernmental organisations’ effectiveness in poverty Alleviation in Zimbabwe. The case of world vision operations in ward 4 of Rushinga District (Doctoral dissertation).

Kanu, B. S., Salami, A. O., and Numasawa, K. (2014). Inclusive growth: an imperative for African agriculture. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development, 14(3), A33 A33. Karličić, D., Cajić, M., Murmu, T., & Adhikari, S. (2015). Nonlocal longitudinal vibration of viscoelastic coupled doublenanorod systems. European Journal of MechanicsA/Solids, 49, 183196.

Keller, T. S.,and Colloca, C. J. (2007). Dynamic dorsoventral stiffness assessment of the ovine lumbar spine. Journal of biomechanics, 40(1), 191197.

Khan, A. T., Lal, M., Ali, S., and Khan, M. M. (2011). Onepot threecomponent reaction for the synthesis of pyran annulated heterocyclic compounds using DMAP as a catalyst. Tetrahedron Letters, 52(41), 53275332.

Knabb, K. A. (2015). Longterm socioeconomic strategies in ancient Jordan: rural perspectives from the Iron Age through the Roman Period. University of California, San Diego. Kousky, C., and Zeckhauser, R. (2006). JARring actions that fuel the floods. On risk and disaster: Lessons from Hurricane Katrina, 5973. Krueger, R. A., and Casey, M. A. (2014). Focus groups: A practical guide for applied research. Sage publications.

Lai, X., Jiang, J., Yang, G., and Lu, X. X. (2014). Should the Three Gorges Dam be blamed for the extremely low water levels in the middle–lower Yangtze River? Hydrological Processes, 28(1), 150160. Levy, P. S., and Lemeshow, S. (2013). Sampling of populations: methods and applications. John Wiley and Sons.

Luk, S. H., and Whitney, J. (2016). Megaproject: Case Study of China's Three Gorges Project: Case Study of China's Three Gorges Project. Routledge. Makurira, E. H. (2016). Tendai Nharo (Doctoral dissertation, University of Zimbabwe). Map, F., & Mavengahama, S. (2011). Assessment of selected soil nutrients and irrigation water quality in the dryland area of Chivi District, Zimbabwe. Scientific research and Essays, 6(14), 29182927.

Mapedza, E., Van Koppen, B., Sithole, P., and Bourblanc, M. (2016). Joint venture schemes in Limpopo Province and their outcomes on smallholder farmers livelihoods. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 92, 9298. Maphosa, C. (2014). The impact of ethical conduct in procument. A case study of ZINWA Mzingwane 20092014 (Doctoral dissertation, BUSE).

Marungwara, W. (2014). The plight of internally displaced communities: case of Tokwe Mukosi.

Mashebe, P., Jordaan, A., and Kanyimba, A. Z. A. (2016). The Impact of Flooding On the Livelihood of People Living In the Luhonono Area in the Zambezi Region, Namibia. British Journal of Environmental Sciences, 4(2), 19. Mavhura, E., Collins, A., and Bongo, P. P. (2017). Flood vulnerability and relocation readiness in Zimbabwe. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 26(1).

McCully. P., (2001). Silenced Rivers: The Politics and Ecology of Large Dams London, Zed Books, and UK.

Mhlanga, F. (2015). An analysis on the effectiveness of climate change adaptation strategies on the rural livelihood (agriculture) in Rusape, Makoni district, ward 22 (Doctoral dissertation, BUSE).

Mithen, J., Aitken, Z., Ziersch, A., and Kavanagh, A. M. (2015). Inequalities in social capital and health between people with and without disabilities. Social Science and Medicine, 126, 26 35.

Muhonda, P., Mabiza, C., Makurira, H., Kujinga, K., Nhapi, I., Goldin, J., & Mashauri, D. A. (2014). Analysis of institutional mechanisms that support community response to impacts of floods in the middlezambezi river basin, Zimbabwe. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 76, 6471.

Munir, M. J., Qazi, A. U., Kazmi, S. M., Khitab, A., Ashiq, S. Z., and Ahmed, I. (2016). A LITERATURE REVIEW ON ALKALI SILICA REACTIVITY OF CONCRETE IN PAKISTAN. Pakistan Journal of Science, 68(1). Ngurumwa, J. P. (2016). Contribution of smallholder maize production towards household food security in Babati district (Doctoral dissertation, Mzumbe University).

Nyakudya, I. W. (2014). Water management for rainfed maize in semiarid Zimbabwe. Wageningen University. Perry, J., Williams, M., Sefton, T., & Haddad, M. (2014). Emergency use only: Understanding and reducing the use of food banks in the UK. Child Poverty Action Group, the Church of England, Oxfam and the Trussell Trust.

Rangapuram, S. S., Mudrakarta, P. K., & Hein, M. (2014). Tight continuous relaxation of the balanced kcut problem. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (pp. 3131 3139).

Rashid, M., Shakir, A., and Khan, N. (2014). Evaluation of Sediment Management Options and Minimum Operation Levels for Tarbela Reservoir, Pakistan. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering (Springer Science and Business Media BV), 39(4). Satiroglu, I., and Choi, N. (Eds.). (2015). Developmentinduced displacement and resettlement: New perspectives on persisting problems. Routledge.

Senzanje, A., and Chimbari, M. (2002). Inventory of small dams in Africaa case study for Zimbabwe. Draft Report for Water, Health and Environment, International Water Management Institute, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Shuning, D. (2016). Study on the Optimal Allocation of Water Resources Systems and the Comprehensive Utilization of Water Resources in AridSemiarid Multiple Mining Areas. Springer. Siddiqui, R. A. (2016). Modeling artificial groundwater recharge and lowhead hydroelectric production: a case study of southern Pakistan (Doctoral dissertation, Colorado State University. Libraries).

Simonelli, A. C. (2016). Governing Climate Induced Migration and Displacement: IGO Expansion and Global Policy Implications. Springer. Singh, A. (2002). Digital change detection techniques using remotelysensed data. International Journal of Remote Sensing, 10, 989–1003. Tarisayi, K. S. (2014). Assessment of the Impact of Floods on People Living with Disabilities in Masvingo Province, Zimbabwe. Browser Download This Paper .

Tietenberg, T. H. and Lewis, L. (2016). Environmental and natural resource economics. Routledge. Tukic, N., and Burgess, M. (2016). China’s role in Africa’s water sector: mapping the terrain. Waterlines, 35(1), 1836. UNDP (2004). Water Governance for Poverty Reduction: Key Issues and the UNDP Response to Millennium Development Goals, One United Nations plaza: New York.

Ward, C. (2016). Improved Agricultural Water Management for Africa’s Drylands. World Bank Publications.

Williams, P., Nolan, M., and Panda, A. (2014). UNISDR Disaster Resilience Scorecard for Cities: FrequentlyAsked Questions. Wu, F and Edmonds, R. L. (2016). China's ThreeFold Environmental Degradation.

Yang, S. L., Zhang, J., Zhu, J., Smith, J. P., Dai, S. B., Gao, A and Li, P. (2005). Impact of dams on Yangtze River sediment supply to the sea and delta intertidal wetland response. Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface, 110(F3).

Yin, R. (1984). Case study research. Beverly Hills.

ZIMSTAT, X. (2013). Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency.

APPENDIX 1: QUESTIONAIRE FOR HOUSEHOLDS I am Challenge Sunduza, a student at Bindura University of Science Education. I am carrying out a research on “The effects of TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on households: A case study of Ward 24, Chivi District”. This questionnaire has been designed for academic purposes only. I would be glad if you help in the success of this research by kindly answering the following questions. May you be assured that the information you provide will be used for the purpose of this study and will be kept confidential?

Instructions

May you please give your honest opinion that is not influenced by other parties?

Tick/ write where applicable in the space provided.

SECTION A: BASIC HOUSEHOLD INFORMATION

1. Household name

(i) How many are you in your household?

0-4 4-8 8-12

(i) How many are males and Females? Males Females

2. How far is the dam from your homestead in Km?

0-22-4 4-6

3. How many huts and house did you have at your home? Huts Houses

4. How many rooms did your house have? Indicate the number of rooms below.

1 2 3 4

5. What is the type of material used to construct your house? Stones Bricks Poles Dagga

SECTION B: DISASTER IMPLICATION ON THE HOUSEHOLDS

6. What roofing material was there on your houses? Asbestos Thatched

7. How many cattle and goats did you have before and after the flood?

Cattle Before After

Goats Before After

8. Did the TokweMukosi flood affect your house? Yes No

(i) If yes can you indicate how it was affected? ……………………………………………………………..

9. Where you relocated? Yes No

10 . If yes were you relocated before or after the flood occurred? Before After

11 . Where were you relocated to?

12. Did you receive compensation? Yes No

(i) If yes what was the compensation? ...... ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

13. Did you liked relocating to the new area Yes No

14. If no what was the reason………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...

SECTION C: GENERAL SAFETY OF HOUSEHOLDS

15 . Was there any insurance for your houses and property before the flood?

Yes No

If yes were you insured for the lost property, asserts or damaged houses

Yes No

16. Was there any structures to reduce flooding from the dam? Yes No

17. What is your perception about the dam in relation to development in your area? ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………

18(i). Whom do you think benefits more from the dam? Local Nonlocals

(ii) If Nonlocals what do you think is the reason?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

19. Give any suggestions on how people can benefit more from the dam?

……………………………………………………………………………………………….....

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION\

APPENDIX 2: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR HOUSEHOLDS I am Challenge Sunduza, a student at Bindura University of Science Education. I am carrying out a research on “The effects of TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on households: A case study of Ward 24, Chivi District”. This interview guide has been designed for academic purposes only. I would be glad if you help in the success of this research by kindly answering the following questions. May you be assured that the information you provide will be used for the purpose of this study and will be kept confidential?

1. May you explain the TokweMukosi Dam flood disaster that happened in your area? 2. How did the TokweMukosi Daminduced flood affect you? 3. At what distance was the River away from your homestead? 4. How many people are in your household? 5. Were you affected by the TokweMukosi Dam induced flood? 6. What was the loss you incurred as a result of the flood? 7. Were you relocated? 8. Did you liked relocating to another area? 9. What is the critical reason why you did not want to relocate? 10. Did you receive compensation? 11. What do you think was the effect of relocation to your household? 12. Were you relocated with your cattle and goats?

APPENDIX 3: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR THE COUNCILOUR I am Challenge Sunduza, a student at Bindura University of Science Education. I am carrying out a research on “The effects of TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on households: A case study of Ward 24, Chivi District”. This questionnaire has been designed for academic purposes only. I would be glad if you help in the success of this research by kindly answering the following questions. May you be assured that the information you provide will be used for the purpose of this study and will be kept confidential?

1. May you describe the TokweMukosi Dam that happened in your area? 2. How did the TokweMukosi flood affect Ward 24? 3. How many households were relocated due to the TokweMukosi Daminduced flood? 4. How many people received compensation in your Ward? 5. What was the general loss incurred by households with respect to cattle and goats? 6. Were the relocated households moved with their cattle and goats? 7. Are there people who lost life during the Disaster? 8. What was the effect of relocation to the households in your Ward? 9. What is your general opinion about the dam in relation to development of local households? 10. What are your recommendations to the general public or the households?

APPENDIX 4: INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR DAM OFFICIALS

I am Challenge Sunduza, a student at Bindura University of Science Education. I am carrying out a research on “The effects of TokweMukosi Daminduced floods on households: A case study of Ward 24, Chivi District”. This interview guide has been designed for academic purposes only. I would be glad if you help in the success of this research by kindly answering the following questions. May you be assured that the information you provide will be used for the purpose of this study and will be kept confidential?

1. Will you give a brief explanation of the TokweMukosi Dam? 2. What was the deadlines for its completion 3. What caused construction stoppages 4. Would you describe the TokweMukosi Daminduced flood Disaster? 5. At what level was the dam when the flood occurred? 6. What is the agreed level of the Dam wall upon completion 7. What do you think contributed much to the flood? 8. Were there any measures of reducing flooding from the dam? 9. What were the measures 10. What are your recommendation to the households or public towards large dam projects?

APPENDIX 5: FIELD CHECKLIST

HH Household northings Eastings Number Number Construction Roofing No. Name of Huts of Material Material Houses 1

2 3

4 5