Coping with Hunger and Shortage under German Occupation in World War II Tatjana Tönsmeyer · Peter Haslinger Agnes Laba Editors Coping with Hunger and Shortage under German Occupation in World War II Editors Tatjana Tönsmeyer Agnes Laba University of Wuppertal University of Wuppertal Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany

Peter Haslinger Herder Institute Marburg, Germany

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Part I Introduction

Supply Situations: National Socialist Policies of Exploitation and Economies of Shortage in Occupied Societies During World War II 3 Tatjana Tönsmeyer

Part II Economies of Scarcity and “Ersatz” Sites

Black Market in the 1939–1945: Survival Strategy or (Un)Offcial Economy? 27 Jerzy Kochanowski

Economies of Scarcity in Belarusian Villages During World War II: How New Findings from Oral History Projects Put a Perpetrator-Centred Historiography in Perspective 49 Aliaksandr Smalianchuk and Tatsiana Kasataya

Supplies Under Pressure: Survival in a Fully Rationed Society: Experiences, Cases and Innovation in Rural and Urban Regions in Occupied 61 Guri Hjeltnes

v vi Contents

‘The Black Market Is a Crime Against Community’: The Failure of the Vichy Government to Bring About an Egalitarian System of Distribution and the Growth of the Black Market in During the German Occupation (1940–1944) 83 Fabrice Grenard

The Black Market in Occupied Italy and the Approach of Italian and German Authorities (1943–1945) 99 Jacopo Calussi and Alessandro Salvador

Bones of Contention: The Nazi Recycling Project in Germany and France During World War II 119 Chad B. Denton and Heike Weber

Part III Coping Strategies and Creating Privileges

Between Employer and Self-Organisation: Belgian Workers and Miners Coping with Food Shortages Under German Occupation (1940–1944) 143 Dirk Luyten

‘Dem tschechischen Arbeiter das Fressen geben’: Factory Canteens in the of Bohemia and Moravia 167 Jaromír Balcar

‘In the Hope of a Piece of Sausage or a Mug of Beer’: Writing a History of Survival Sex in Occupied Europe 183 Maren Röger

Part IV Vulnerabilities: At the Bottom of the Supply Pyramid

‘Choosing’ Between Children and the Elderly in the Greek Famine (1941–1944) 203 Violetta Hionidou CONTENTS vii

Food, Money and Barter in the Lvov Ghetto, Eastern Galicia 223 Natalia Aleksiun

The North and German Exploitation Policies in World War II: Everyday Life Experience of Children Under the Occupation 249 Irina Rebrova and Elena Strekalova

‘… Have Not Received Any Deliveries of Potatoes for Quite Some Time …’: Food Supply and Acquisition in the Ghettos of Vilnius and Kaunas 275 Joachim Tauber

Fighting Vulnerability: Child-Feeding Initiatives During the Dutch Hunger Winter 293 Ingrid J. J. de Zwarte

Index 311 Notes on Contributors

Natalia Aleksiun is Associate Professor of Modern Jewish History at Touro College, Graduate School of Jewish Studies, New York, USA. Her research focusses on Polish Jewish history in the twentieth cen- tury, Jewish historiography and the history of anti-Semitism in Eastern Europe. She is currently working on a project dealing with the daily lives of Jews in hiding in Galicia during . Jaromír Balcar is senior researcher in the research program ‘History of the Max Planck Society’ at the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science (Berlin, Germany), since 2014. Before that he held teach- ing and research positions at the Institute for Contemporary History Munich, Germany (1992–1999), the Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany (1999–2003 and 2005–2007), the University of Bremen, Germany (2003–2004 and 2008–2014) and the Collegium Carolinum in Munich, Germany (2004–2005). His research interests are mainly directed towards the contemporary and East Central Europe. Jacopo Calussi is a Ph.D. candidate at the University of Roma 3, Italy, with a project on Italian fascist violence during Mussolini’s fnal govern- ment (the ) and the German occupation of Italy (1943–1945). He obtained his master’s degree in History in 2012. His central research topics are political violence in the frst half of the twenti- eth century and the Nazi occupation of Europe.

ix x Notes on Contributors

Chad B. Denton is an Associate Professor of History at Yonsei University in Seoul, South Korea. His research focusses on the transnational history of World War II in occupied Europe, Japan and the South Pacifc. He is currently revising the book manuscript of his doctoral dissertation ‘Metal to Munitions: Requisitions and Resentment in Wartime France’, com- pleted at the University of California, Berkeley in 2009. Ingrid J. J. de Zwarte recently completed her Ph.D. in History (2018) at the University of Amsterdam and the NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, with a thesis entitled ‘The Hunger Winter: Fighting Famine in the Occupied , 1944– 45’. Previously she was a visiting scholar at the European Institute and Department of Epidemiology at Columbia University, USA. Since autumn 2018 she has been a Niels Stensen post-doctoral fellow at the History Faculty at the University of Oxford, working on the politics of famine and relief in wartime. Fabrice Grenard is the Historical Director of the Fondation de la Résistance in Paris. His work focusses on the history of French society during the German occupation and on the history of the Resistance. His books (in French) include Black Market in France (2008) and A Legend of the Maquis: Georges Guingouin (2014). He is also the author (in English) of ‘Traitors, traffckers and the confscation of illicit profts in France 1944–1950’ (Historical Journal, 51, 2008) and ‘The French after 1945: Diffculties and Disappointments of an Immediate Post-War Period’, The Legacies of Two World Wars (2011). Peter Haslinger has been Director of the Herder Institute for Historical Research on East Central Europe, a member institution of the Leibniz Association, since 2007. He holds the Chair in East Central European History at Justus-Liebig-University Giessen and the Giessen Centre for Eastern European Studies. He is also co-editor of the international research and editorial project ‘Societies under German Occupation—Experiences and Everyday Life in World War II’. Violetta Hionidou is Senior Lecturer in Modern European History at Newcastle University, UK. Her research interest is the history of modern , which she explores in an interdisciplinary perspective including historical demography, the history of the family, the history of medicine and the history of famines. She is the author of Famine and Death in Occupied Greece, 1941–1944, and co-winner of the 2007 Edmund Keely Notes on CONTRIBUTORS xi book award, and has published widely in globally renowned academic journals such as the Journal of Contemporary History, Population Studies, Medical History, Journal of Modern Greek Studies and Continuity and Change. Guri Hjeltnes has been the Director of the Center for Studies of Holocaust and Religious Minorities in Oslo, Norway, since 2012. She has been a professor since 2004 and was Provost at the BI Norwegian Business School from 2008 to 2010. As a historian she has written sev- eral studies on World War II, and her dissertation dealt with the seamen of the Norwegian merchant marine. Her books include Hverdagsliv i krig (1986) and Avisoppgjøret etter 1945 (1990) and, together with Berit Nøkleby, she wrote Barn under krigen (2000). She is a regular columnist book reviewer in the Norwegian media. Tatsiana Kasataya is a Ph.D. candidate at the Institute of Slavic Studies of the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw, Poland. Using an oral his- tory approach, she is investigating religious policy towards Evangelical Christian Baptists, as well as their community activities, and the structure and dynamics of their development in . In her research she also collaborates with the Belarusian Oral History Archive. Jerzy Kochanowski is a Full Professor at the University of Warsaw, Poland. In 2007 he was a Visiting Professor at the Johannes Gutenberg University in Mainz, Germany and since 2013 he is the editor-in-chief of the journal Przegląd Historyczny. His main area of interest is the social history of Poland and Eastern Europe in the twentieth century. Agnes Laba is currently working as a post-doctoral researcher at the Department of Modern History at the University of Wuppertal, Germany with a project on gender relations and the history of family in France and Poland after World War II. She received her Ph.D. in con- temporary history from the University of Giessen for her research on dis- course about the Eastern border of the Weimar Republic. Dirk Luyten is a researcher at the Belgian State Archives/CegeSoma, . His research interests are the history of social policy, labour and industrial relations, the social and economic history of World War II and the history of justice; in particular, the post-war purges of eco- nomic collaborators. His recent publications include ‘Corporatist insti- tutions and Economic Collaboration in Occupied Belgium’ in Hans xii Notes on Contributors

Otto Froland, Mats Ingulstad and Jonas Scherner, eds, Industrial Collaboration in Nazi-Occupied Europe: Norway in Context (Palgrave 2016). Irina Rebrova is a Ph.D. candidate at the Center for Research on Anti- Semitism at the Technical University Berlin, Germany. The working title of her thesis is ‘Memory about the Holocaust in Soviet and Post-Soviet Russian Discourses on World War II (the Case of North Caucasus)’. She holds a Russian Ph.D. degree (candidate of science in history) and an MA in sociology (gender studies), and she is a research associate at the Hadassah Brandeis Institute at Brandeis University, USA. She has pub- lished a number of articles on oral history, gender history and social memory of World War II. Maren Röger has been Associate Professor for Central European and German History at the University of Augsburg, Germany since 2015, and Head of the Bukovina Institute since 2017. Previously, from 2010 to 2015 she was a research fellow at the German Historical Institute Warsaw, Poland, and visiting professor at the University of , Germany. Her research focusses on World War II, the Holocaust and its legacy in post-war Europe and on the history of forced migrations. Her most recent book is Kriegsbeziehungen. Intimität, Gewalt und Prostitution im besetzten Polen 1939 bis 1945 (2015). Alessandro Salvador is currently a research collaborator at the University of Siena, Italy. He studied Contemporary History in Trieste and Trento, achieving his Ph.D. in 2010. His main research interests are right-wing movements in inter-war Germany and, recently, the exploita- tion and management of resources during the German occupation of Italy (1943–1945). His most recent publication is New Political Ideas in the Aftermath of the Great War (Palgrave 2017), co-edited with Anders Granas Kjostvedt (Oslo). Aliaksandr Smalianchuk is an Associate-Professor at the Institute of Slavic Studies at the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw, Poland. His research interests are national relations in Belarus and in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. He also conducts research into col- lective and cultural memory and oral history. Elena Strekalova is senior lecturer at the North-Caucasus Federal University (Faculty of Russian History) in . In 2003 she presented Notes on CONTRIBUTORS xiii her master’s thesis on the history of the intelligentsia in the Northern Caucasus in 1920–1930. Since 2005 she has been engaged in an oral his- tory and historical memory project on the Great Domestic War. In 2008 she published ‘The Memory of the Great Domestic War in the space of modern Russia’. Joachim Tauber is Director of the Northeast Institute and Professor for Modern History at the University of Hamburg, Germany. Among his works about German–Lithuanian relations and the German occupa- tion regime in Eastern Europe in World War I and World War II is the monograph Arbeit als Hoffnung. Der jüdische Arbeitseinsatz in Litauen 1941–1944 (2015). Tatjana Tönsmeyer holds the Chair of Modern History at the University of Wuppertal. From 2012 to 2016 she was Head of the Research Area ‘Europe’ at the Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities (KWI). She is co-editor of the international research and editorial project ‘Societies under German Occupation—Experiences and Everyday Life in World War II’. Her main area of research are the history of National Socialism, World War II and occupied societies in Europe. Heike Weber is Professor for Technological Culture Studies (Technikkulturwissenschaft) at the Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT, Germany). Her main research interests lie at the intersection of consumption history, environmental history and history of technology. She has worked and published on everyday twentieth-century tech- nologies and on the history of waste, recycling and repair. From 2014 to 2017, Heike Weber was Professor for the History of Technology and Environmental History at the Bergische Universität Wuppertal, Germany. Beforehand, she held positions at several technical universities and was guest researcher at the Smithsonian (Washington, DC, USA) and the EHESS (Paris, France). Abbreviations

ASSR Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic BA/MA Bundesarchiv/Militärarchiv, Freiburg im Breisgau BAB Bundesarchiv Berlin BSSR Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic CCI Comité Central Industriel CHS Chemický spolek ČKD Českomoravská Kolben-Daněk DAF German Labour Front, Deutsche Arbeitsfront EOHA National Organisation of Christian Solidarity EuL Department of Food and Agriculture, Ernährung und Landwirtschaft GG General Governement, Generalgouvernement GKO State Defence Committee IKB Interdenominational Bureau for Emergency Nutrition, Inter Kerkelijk Bureau voor Noodvoedselvoorziening IKO Interdenominational Counsel of the Churches, Inter Kerkelijk Overleg INSEE National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies JRC Joint Relief Commission NA Národní archív, Prague NGO Non-Governmental Organization NS OHNS Mutual Aid Emergency Situation Schoolchildren, Onderlinge Hulp Noodtoestand Schooljeugd OKW High Command of the Armed Forces, Oberkommando der Wehrmacht POW Prisoner-of-War

xv xvi Abbreviations

PŽS Pražská železářská společnost a.s. (Prague Iron Industry Corporation) RfA Reich Commissariat for Scrap Salvage, Reichskommissar für Altmaterialverwertung RSFSR Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic RSI Repubblica Sociale Italiana, Italian Social Republic List of Figures

Bones of Contention: The Nazi Recycling Project in Germany and France During World War II Fig. 1 ‘Bone tree’. Clipping from a 1939 Nazi propaganda brochure (Source H. Kühn, Jeder muß helfen! Eine lehrreiche Unterhaltung von Dr. H. Kühn, Referent beim Reichskommissar für Altmaterialverwertung (Berlin: n.p., around 1939), 15) 124 Fig. 2 Knochenlehrkarte, designed as a material fow diagram of the steps and substances of bone recycling (Source Sammlung Forschungsstelle Historische Bildmedien, Universität Würzburg, FHBW/21231 (Schulwandbild ‘Die Verwertung des Knochens’. Serie: Haferkorn and Priemer, Technologische Tafeln zur deutschen Nationalwirtschaft, 1 (Leipzig: “Kultur” Verlag für Lehrmittel, around 1937))) 126 ‘Choosing’ Between Children and the Elderly in the Greek Famine (1941–1944) Fig. 1 Ratio of famine deaths to deaths between 1936 and 1939 by age group in Syros and the towns and Vrontados (Sources Civil Registration Certifcates for the years 1936–1944. Unpublished data available in the Local Municipal Offces) 209 Fig. 2 Ratios of deaths in 1941 and 1942 to deaths in 1939 by age group in Athens and Piraeus (Source Author’s calculations based on data available in Magkriōtēs, Thysiai, 76) 210

xvii List of Tables

Black Market in the General Government 1939–1945: Survival Strategy or (Un)Offcial Economy? Table 1 Average daily calorifc value of rations (kcal) in Krakow 1940–1944 29 Table 2 Annual rations of selected foodstuffs (kg) for Poles and under the GG in 1942 30 Table 3 Offcial and (average) prices of selected foodstuffs and manufactured goods on the free market under the GG in 1941–1944 (in zloty) 31 Table 4 Summary of the charges, arrests and penalties for profteering issued in Krakow, Warsaw, Radom, Lublin and Galicia between 1 April 1941 and 31 1942 39

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