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Research and Practice in Applied Linguistics Research and Practice in Applied Linguistics General Editors: Christopher N. Candlin and David R. Hall, Linguistics Department, Macquarie University, Australia. All books in this series are written by leading researchers and teachers in Applied Linguistics, with broad international experience. They are designed for the MA or PhD student in Applied Linguistics, TESOL or similar subject areas and for the language professional keen to extend their research experience. Titles include: Dick Allwright and Judith Hanks THE DEVELOPING LANGUAGE LEARNER An Introduction to Exploratory Practice Francesca Bargiela-Chiappini, Catherine Nickerson and Brigitte Planken BUSINESS DISCOURSE Alison Ferguson and Elizabeth Armstrong RESEARCHING COMMUNICATION DISORDERS Sandra Beatriz Hale COMMUNITY INTERPRETING Geoff Hall LITERATURE IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION Richard Kiely and Pauline Rea-Dickins PROGRAM EVALUATION IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION Marie-Noëlle Lamy and Regine Hampel ONLINE COMMUNICATION IN LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING Virginia Samuda and Martin Bygate TASKS IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING Norbert Schmitt RESEARCHING VOCABULARY A Vocabulary Research Manual Helen Spencer-Oatey and Peter Franklin INTERCULTURAL INTERACTION A Multidisciplinary Approach to Intercultural Communication Cyril J. Weir LANGUAGE TESTING AND VALIDATION Tony Wright CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION Forthcoming titles: Anne Burns and Helen da Silva Joyce LITERACY Lynn Flowerdew CORPORA AND LANGUAGE EDUCATION Sandra Gollin and David R. Hall LANGUAGE FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES Numa Markee and Susan Gonzo MANAGING INNOVATION IN LANGUAGE TEACHING Marilyn Martin-Jones BILINGUALISM Martha Pennington PRONUNCIATION Annamaria Pinter TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LEARNERS Devon Woods and Emese Bukor INSTRUCTIONAL STRATEGIES AND PROCESSES IN LANGUAGE EDUCATION Research and Practice in Applied Linguistics Series Standing Order ISBN 978–1–4039–1184–1 hardcover Series Standing Order ISBN 978–1–4039–1185–8 paperback (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and one of the ISBNs quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England Also by Norbert Schmitt WHY IS ENGLISH LIKE THAT? (with R. Marsden, 2006) FOCUS ON VOCABULARY (with D. Schmitt, 2005) FORMULAIC SEQUENCES: ACQUISITION, PROCESSING, AND USE (editor, 2004) AN INTRODUCTION TO APPLIED LINGUISTICS 2nd edition (editor, 2010) VOCABULARY IN LANGUAGE TEACHING (2000) VOCABULARY: DESCRIPTION, ACQUISITION, AND PEDAGOGY (co-editor with M. McCarthy, 1997) Researching Vocabulary A Vocabulary Research Manual Norbert Schmitt University of Nottingham, UK © Norbert Schmitt 2010 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, Saffron House, 6-10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS. Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2010 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited, registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS. Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC, 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010. Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies and has companies and representatives throughout the world. Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States, the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries. ISBN 978-1-4039-8536-1 ISBN 978-0-230-29397-7 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230293977 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the country of origin. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Schmitt, Norbert. Researching vocabulary : a vocabulary research manual / Norbert Schmitt. p. cm. —(Research and practice in applied linguistics) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Language and languages—Study and teaching. 2. Vocabulary—Study and teaching. 3. Second language acquisition. I. Title. P53.9.S365 2010 418.007Ј2—dc22 2009046796 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 Improve the World Start with Knowledge Contents Quick Checklist xi General Editors’ Preface xiii Preface xiv Acknowledgements xvi Part 1 Overview of Vocabulary Issues 1 Vocabulary Use and Acquisition 3 1.1 Ten key issues 3 1.1.1 Vocabulary is an important component of language use 3 1.1.2 A large vocabulary is required for language use 6 1.1.3 Formulaic language is as important as individual words 8 1.1.4 Corpus analysis is an important research tool 12 1.1.5 Vocabulary knowledge is a rich and complex construct 15 1.1.6 Vocabulary learning is incremental in nature 19 1.1.7 Vocabulary attrition and long-term retention 23 1.1.8 Vocabulary form is important 24 1.1.9 Recognizing the importance of the L1 in vocabulary studies 25 1.1.10 Engagement is a critical factor in vocabulary acquisition 26 1.2 Vocabulary and reading 29 1.3 A sample of prominent knowledge gaps in the field of vocabulary studies 35 Part 2 Foundations of Vocabulary Research 2 Issues of Vocabulary Acquisition and Use 47 2.1 Form-meaning relationships 49 2.1.1 Single orthographic words and multi-word items 49 vii viii Contents 2.1.2 Formal similarity 50 2.1.3 Synonymy and homonymy 52 2.1.4 Learning new form and meaning versus ‘relabelling’ 52 2.2 Meaning 52 2.2.1 Imageability and concreteness 53 2.2.2 Literal and idiomatic meaning 53 2.2.3 Multiple meaning senses 54 2.2.4 Content versus function words 54 2.3 Intrinsic difficulty 55 2.4 Network connections (associations) 58 2.5 Frequencyy 63 2.5.1 The importance of frequency in lexical studies 63 2.5.2 Frequency and other word knowledge aspects 64 2.5.3 L1/L2 frequency 66 2.5.4 Subjective and objective estimates of frequency 67 2.5.5 Frequency levels 68 2.5.6 Obtaining frequency information 70 2.6 L1 influence on vocabulary learning 71 2.7 Describing different types of vocabulary 75 2.8 Receptive and productive mastery 79 2.9 Vocabulary learning strategies/self-regulating behavior 89 2.10 Computer simulations of vocabulary 97 2.11 Psycholinguistic/neurolinguistic research 105 3 Formulaic Language 117 3.1 Identification 120 3.2 Strength of association – hypothesis tests 124 3.3 Strength of association – mutual information 130 3.4 A directional measure of collocation 131 3.5 Formulaic language with open slots 132 3.6 Processing formulaic language 134 3.7 Acquisition of formulaic language 136 3.8 The psycholinguistic reality of corpus-extracted formulaic sequences 141 3.9 Nonnative use of formulaic language 142 Part 3 Researching Vocabulary 4 Issues in Research Methodology 149 Contents ix 4.1 Qualitative research 149 4.2 Participants 150 4.3 The need for multiple measures of vocabulary 152 4.4 The need for longitudinal studies and delayed posttests 155 4.5 Selection of target lexical items 158 4.6 Sample size of lexical items 164 4.7 Interpreting and reporting results 166 5 Measuring Vocabulary 173 5.1 Global measurement issues 173 5.1.1 Issues in writing vocabulary items 174 5.1.2 Determining pre-existing vocabulary knowledge 179 5.1.3 Validity and reliability of lexical measurement 181 5.1.4 Placing cut-points in study 187 5.2 Measuring vocabulary size 187 5.2.1 Units of counting vocabulary 188 5.2.2 Sampling from dictionaries or other references 193 5.2.3 Recognition/receptive vocabulary size measures 196 5.2.4 Recall/productive vocabulary size measures 203 5.3 Measuring the quality (depth) of vocabulary knowledge 216 5.3.1 Developmental approach 217 5.3.2 Dimensions (components) approach 224 5.4 Measuring automaticity/speed of processing 242 5.5 Measuring organization 247 5.6 Measuring attrition and degrees of residual lexical retention 256 6 Example Research Projects 260 Part 4 Resources 7 Vocabulary resources 279 7.1 Instruments 279 7.1.1 Vocabulary levels test 279 7.1.2 Vocabulary size test 293 x Contents 7.1.3 Meara’s_lognostics measurement instruments 306 7.2 Corpora 307 7.2.1 Corpora representing general English (mainly written) 309 7.2.2 Corpora representing spoken English 320 7.2.3 Corpora representing national varieties of English 323 7.2 .4 Corpora representing academic/business English 324 7.2.5 Corpora representing young native English 325 7.2 .6 Corpora representing learner English 325 7.2.7 Corpora representing languages other than English 326 7.2.7.1 Parallel corpora 326 7.2.7.2 Monolingual corpora 327 7.2.8 Corpus compilations 331 7.2.9 Web-based sources of corpora 333 7.2.10 Bibliographies concerning corpora 335 7.3 Concordancers/tools 335 7.4 Vocabulary lists 345 7.5 Websites 347 7.6 Bibliographies 351 7.7 Important personalities
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