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Reverse Electrodialysis Design and Optimization

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Reverse Electrodialysis Design and Optimization reverse electrodialysis Invitation You and your partner are kindly invited to the public defense of my PhD thesis and the party afterwards. The thesis is titled: Reverse Electrodialysis design and optimization by modeling and experimentation design and optimization by modeling and experimentation by design and optimization Ceremony r e v e r s e Friday, 1st October 2010 at 14:45 Academiegebouw Broerstraat 5, Groningen Afterwards the defense, a reception will e l e c t r o - be held. Please inform me or my paranimfs. if you are coming, if possible before September, 17th d i a l y s i s Party Buffet, drinks & music, Friday 1st October 2010 from ±18:00 Schaatsfabriek design and optimization Leeuwarderweg 4, Wergea Please inform me or my paranimfs. by if you are coming, if possible before modeling and experimentation September, 17th Joost Veerman Joost Paranimfs Vera Veerman [email protected] Roos Veerman Joost Veerman Leeuwarderweg 4 9005NE Wergea Joost Veerman [email protected] 058-2552417 06-12155996 Reverse Electrodialysis design and optimization by modeling and experimentation Joost Veerman ISBN: 978-90-367-4463-8 (print) ISBN: 978-90-367-4464-5 (online) © 2010, J. Veerman No parts of this thesis may be reproduced or transmitted in any forms or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission of the author Cover design : Peter van der Sijde, Groningen Cover painting : Yolanda Wijnsma, Burdaard Lay-out: Peter van der Sijde, Groningen Printed by: drukkerij van Denderen, Groningen RIJKSUNIVERSITEIT GRONINGEN Reverse Electrodialysis design and optimization by modeling and experimentation Proefschrift ter verkrijging van het doctoraat in de Wiskunde en Natuurwetenschappen aan de Rijksuniversiteit Groningen op gezag van de Rector Magnifi cus, dr. F. Zwarts, in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 1 oktober 2010 om 14:45 uur door Joost Veerman geboren op 11 december 1945 te Zwolle Promotor: Prof. ir. G.J. Harmsen Copromotor: Dr. S.J. Metz Beoordelingscommissie: Prof. ir. M.W.M. Boesten Prof. ir. G.J. Harmsen Prof. dr. F. Kapteijn Prof. dr. -Ing. M. Wessling de zee en de rivieren niemand die dit had verwacht wat nu gebeurt was eens een droom de zee die glinstert in haar pracht de hardste rots wijkt, week en zacht ontworteld meegesleurd, een boom rivieren met hun stille kracht de wind drijft ginds een haastig jacht een bark vaart stampend onder stoom de zee die glinstert in haar pracht de maan, die in het water lacht de nacht maakt alles monochroom rivieren met hun stille kracht het zout dat ons het leven bracht broedplaats van het oeratoom de zee die glinstert in haar pracht bij windstilte en in de nacht steeds is daar die blauwe stroom rivieren met hun stille kracht de zee die glinstert in haar pracht Joost Veerman april 2009 Contents 1. Introduction 9 2. Comparison of diff erent techniques for salinity gradient power 19 3. Reducing power losses caused by ionic shortcut currents in reverse 31 electrodialysis stacks by a validated model 4. Reverse electrodialysis: Evaluation of suitable electrode systems 55 5. Reverse electrodialysis: Performance of a stack with 50 cells on the mixing 83 of sea and river water 6. Reverse electrodialysis: Comparison of six commercial membrane pairs on 107 the thermodynamic effi ciency and power density 7. The performance of a scaled-up reverse electrodialysis stack 131 8. Modeling the performance of a reverse electrodialysis stack 157 Summary 197 Samenvatting 203 Publications 209 Dankwoord 213 Chapter 1 Introduction 9 Chapter 1 1.1. History In 1972, the Club of Rome published Limits to Growth1 that created a public shock. The report predicted that economic growth is limited by an fi nite amount of ores and fossil fuel. Shortly after the publication, the oil crisis broke out and increased the public concern about the scarcity of natural resources. In 1985 a conference on the “Assessment of the Role of Carbon Dioxide and Other Greenhouse Gases in Climate Variations and Associated Impacts” was organized in Villach, Austria by UNEP/WMO/ICSU. The conclusion was that greenhouse gases “are expected” to cause signifi cant warming in the next century and that some warming is inevitable2. In June 1988, James E. Hansen stated that human actions had already measurably aff ects on the global climate3. The next milestone was the Kyoto Protocol, adopted in 1997 and entered in force in 2005. The target of the protocol was the reduction of the emission of four greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, N2O, SF6) and two groups of ozone attacking gases (hydrofl uorocarbons and perfl uorocarbons). New renewable forms of energy are needed without thermal pollution, without emission of environmental unwanted substances and without net emission of greenhouse gasses. Wind power, hydropower, biofuel, solar power, geothermal power and ocean power are contributors to an economy of renewable energy. A relatively young member of this group is salinity gradient power (SGP), the energy that can be generated from reversible mixing of two kinds of water with diff erent salt contents. This technique is proposed by Pattle in 19544,5. In 1954 Pattle wrote4: The osmotic pressure of sea-water is about 20 atmospheres, so that when a river mixes with the sea, free energy equal to that obtainable from a waterfall 680 ft. high is lost. There thus exists an untapped source of power which has (so far as I know) been unmentioned in the literature. The potential of salinity gradient power (SGP) is the product of the exergy density of river water times the fl ow rate of the river water: Potential power Exergy density * Flow rate The average value of the exergy content of river water can be used for an estimation of the global power. This exergy content is about 2.5∙106 J/m3, supposing that a large excess of sea water is used. The t otal discharge of all rivers in the world is estimated to be 1.13∙106 m3/s 6. Therefore, the global potential power is 2.8∙TW, a v alue near to the 2.6 TW as estimated in 1977 by Wick and Schmitt7. In 2008, the average world energy consumption was about 15 TW; 5 TW of his amount was 10 Introduction used to generate 2 TW of electrical energy in most low effi cient coal fi red power plants8. Thus the potential of SGP is more than the current global electricity consumption. The advantages of SGP are: limitless supply (if river and seawater are used), no production of pollutants like NOx , no CO2-exhaust, no thermal pollution, no radioactive waste and no daily fl uctuations in production due to variations in wind speed or sunshine. However, relative to other fuels, the salinity gradient energy content of river water is rather poor (Table 1.1). Consequently, investment costs for a SGP plant may be rather high and transportation costs of feed water to the plant and inside the plant is substantial. Table 1.1. Energy per kg of some energy carriers (‘fuels’). fuel process energy (MJ/1000 kg) sea and river water salt gradient energy 1.7 sewage water methane production ~1 gasoline burning 40 000 coal burning 30 000 sea water deuterium fusion 10 000 000 1.2. Effi ciency of salinity gradient power; ob jectives of the research Salinity gradient power is an enormous source of clean and renewable energy. The energy density of this ‘fuel’ is low compared to fossil fuels but the quantities involved are large and the total power – the product of energy density and quantity – is considerable. There are two main challenges: to fi nd suitable locations for SGP and to develop a suitable technique for the conversion of SGP into usable energy. The objective of our research is the second one. The real generated power is lower than the potential power and is dependent on the availability of the river water (defi ned by the availability fraction fwater), the external effi ciency (ηexternal) and the internal effi ciency (ηinternal). Real power f water * external * int ernal * Potential power The ava ilability of the river water (fwater) is dependent on the local infrastructure; one important limiting factor may be the need for unhindered shipping. However, recent 9 studies have shown that this may not be a limitation . The external effi ciency (ηexternal ) is related to the power as needed for transportation of sea and river water to the SGP plant and to the power demand of the prefi ltration process. 11 Chapter 1 The internal effi ciency (ηinternal) is related to all processes within the SGP generator. Our research was restricted to the SGP generator; availability of the river water, prefi ltration and transport of feed water to the generator were not included in or project; fouling of the generator was also excluded as research object. Our goal was the design of a generator, capable to convert salinity gradient power into electricity. Special points of attention are: the power density (expressed in Watts per square meter membrane area) the total produced power (Watt) the internal effi ciency of the process 1.3. Defi nition of the research questions When we started the project in 2005, the literature revealed two serious candidates: reverse electrodialysis (RED) and pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO). At that moment only six scientifi c articles describing real experiments on RED have been published and for PRO there was about the same amount of literature. All described experiments concerned small laboratory generators with a power output of less than 1 Watt. An exception was the work of V. Kniajev of the Institute of Marine Technology Problems FEB RAS in Vladivostok (Russia) who constructed a RED generator and tested this using fi eld conditions; regretfully, results were never published in scientifi c literature10.
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