MAP : GIWA REGIONS AND SUBSYSTEMS
GIWA MEGA REGIONS GLOBAL INTERNATIONAL WATERS ASSESSMENT
Arctic Rim Gulf of California* Northeast Asia a Russian Arctic* a Eastern Equatorial Pacific (Southwest Mexico)* Sea of Okhotsk* b Arctic Greenland* b Eastern Equatorial Pacific (Central Equatorial Pacific)* Oyashio Current* c Arctic European/Atlantic c Eastern Equatorial Pacific (Pacific Colombian)* Kuroshio Current d Arctic North American Sea of Japan* Barents Sea* a Yellow Sea (Yellow Sea)* Norwegian Sea South America b Yellow Sea (Bohai Sea)* Faroe Plateau* a Patagonian Shelf (La Plata River Basin)* East China Sea* Iceland Shelf b Patagonian Shelf (South Atlantic Drainage System)* East Greenland Shelf* a Brazil Current (South/Southeast Atlantic Basins)* West Greenland Shelf* b Brazil Current (East Atlantic Basins)* a Bering Sea (West Bering Sea)* c Brazil Current (São Francisco River Basin)* Southeast Asia b Bering Sea (East Bering Sea)* a Northeast Brazil Shelf* Bay of Bengal* b Amazon* South China Sea* Humboldt Current* Mekong River* Europe & Central Asia Sulu-Celebes Sea* Baltic Sea* a Indonesian Seas (Sunda)* North Sea Sub-Saharan Africa b Indonesian Seas (Wallacea)* Celtic-Biscay Shelf a Canary Current (North)* c Indonesian Seas (Sahul)* Iberian Coastal Sea b Canary Current (South)* Black Sea* a Guinea Current (Comoe Basin)* Caspian Sea* b Guinea Current (Volta Basin)* Australia & Pacific Islands Aral Sea* c Guinea Current (Niger Basin)* a North Australian Shelf (Wet Tropics)* d Guinea Current (Congo Basin)* b North Australian Shelf (Dry Tropics)* e Guinea Current * a Coral Sea Basin (South and Papua)* North America Lake Chad* b Coral Sea Basin (Coral Sea)* Southeast Shelf Benguela Current* Great Barrier Reef* Northeast Shelf a Agulhas Current a Great Australian Bight* Scotian Shelf b Indian Ocean Islands* b Great Australian Bight (Muray Darling Basin)* Gulf of St Lawrence a Somali Coastal Current (Juba/Shebelle)* Pacific Islands* Newfoundland Shelf b Somali Coastal Current (Tana/Athi/Sabaki)* Tasman Sea* Challenges to Baffin Bay, Labrador Sea, Canadian Archipelago c Somali Coastal Current (Wami/Ruvu/Pangani)* Gulf of Alaska d Somali Coastal Current (Rufiji/Ruvuma)* California Current e Somali Coastal Current (Lake Jipe/Chala)* Antarctic Hawaiian Archipelago a East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Turkana)* Antarctic b East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Victoria)* c East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Tanganyika)* Central America d East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Malawi)* InternationalRegional Assessments in Watersa Global Perspective a Gulf of Mexico (Mississippi River)* b Gulf of Mexico (Rio Grande/Rio Bravo)* c Gulf of Mexico (Usumacinta/Grijalva)* North Africa & Middle East d Gulf of Mexico (Rio Hondo/Chetumal Bay)* North Africa and Nile River Basin a Caribbean Sea (Small Islands)* Red Sea and Gulf of Aden b Caribbean Sea (Orinoco/Magdalena/Catatumbo)* Euphrates and Tigris River Basin c Caribbean Sea (Central America/Mexico)* Jordan* Caribbean Islands* Arabian Sea
* Assessed by . GIWA REGIONS AND SUBSYSTEMS
a Russian Arctic Baffin Bay, Labrador Sea, Canadian Archipelago Gulf of California b Amazon a East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Turkana) a Coral Sea Basin (South PNG and Papua) b Arctic Greenland Barents Sea a Bering Sea (West Bering Sea) a Canary Current (North) b East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Victoria) b Coral Sea Basin (Coral Sea) c Arctic European/Atlantic Norwegian Sea b Bering Sea (East Bering Sea) b Canary Current (South) c East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Tanganyika) Great Barrier Reef d Arctic North American Faroe Plateau Sea of Okhotsk a Guinea Current (Comoe Basin) d East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Malawi) a Great Australian Bight a Gulf of Mexico (Mississippi River) Iceland Shelf Oyashio Current b Guinea Current (Volta Basin) Red Sea and Gulf of Aden b Great Australian Bight (Muray Darling Basin) b Gulf of Mexico (Rio Grande/Rio Bravo) East Greenland Shelf Kuroshio Current c Guinea Current (Niger Basin) e Gulf Pacific Islands c Gulf of Mexico (Usumacinta/Grijalva) West Greenland Shelf Sea of Japan d Guinea Current (Congo Basin) Jordan Tasman Sea d Gulf of Mexico (Rio Hondo/Chetumal Bay) Baltic Sea a Yellow Sea (Yellow Sea) e Guinea Current LME Arabian Sea Humboldt Current a Caribbean Sea (Small Islands) North Sea b Yellow Sea (Bohai Sea) Lake Chad Bay of Bengal a Eastern Equatorial Pacific (Southwest Mexico) b Caribbean Sea (Orinoco/Magdalena/Catatumbo) Celtic-Biscay Shelf East China Sea Benguela Current South China Sea b Eastern Equatorial Pacific (Central Equatorial Pacific) c Caribbean Sea (Central America/Mexico) Iberian Coastal Sea Hawaiian Archipelago a Agulhas Current Mekong River c Eastern Equatorial Pacific (Pacific Colombian) Caribbean Islands North Africa and Nile River Basin a Patagonian Shelf (La Plata River Basin) b Indian Ocean Islands Sulu-Celebes Sea Antarctic Southeast Shelf Black Sea b Patagonian Shelf (South Atlantic Drainage System) a Somali Coastal Current (Juba/Shebelle) a Indonesian Seas (Sunda) Northeast Shelf Caspian Sea a Brazil Current (South/Southeast Atlantic Basins) b Somali Coastal Current (Tana/Athi/Sabaki) b Indonesian Seas (Wallacea) Scotian Shelf Aral Sea b Brazil Current (East Atlantic Basins) c Somali Coastal Current (Wami/Ruvu/Pangani) c Indonesian Seas (Sahul) Gulf of St Lawrence Gulf of Alaska c Brazil Current (São Francisco River Basin) d Somali Coastal Current (Rufiji/Ruvuma) a North Australian Shelf (Wet Tropics) Newfoundland Shelf California Current a Northeast Brazil Shelf e Somali Coastal Current (Lake Jipe/Chala) b North Australian Shelf (Dry Tropics) GLOBAL INTERNATIONAL WATERS ASSESSMENT
Challenges to
InternationalRegional Assessments in Watersa Global Perspective
Global International Waters Assessment Challenges to International Waters – Regional Assessments in a Global Perspective
Published by the United Nations Environment Programme in collaboration with GEF, the University of Kalmar and the Municipality of Kalmar, Sweden, and the Governments of Sweden, Finland, and Norway.
© United Nations Environment Programme
ISBN --- UNEP/GCSS.IX/INF/
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Contents
PREFACE ...... 5
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... 7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 13
INTRODUCTION ...... 15
FRESHWATER SHORTAGE ...... 18 Environmental and socio-economic impacts ...... 20 Root causes ...... 29 Policy relevant conclusions ...... 33
POLLUTION ...... 36 Environmental and socio-economic impacts ...... 40 Root causes ...... 47 Policy relevant conclusions ...... 51
OVERFISHING AND OTHER THREATS TO AQUATIC LIVING RESOURCES . . . . 54 Environmental and socio-economic impacts ...... 58 Root causes ...... 63 Policy relevant conclusions ...... 67
HABITAT AND COMMUNITY MODIFICATION ...... 70 Environmental and socio-economic impacts ...... 73 Root causes ...... 80 Policy relevant conclusions ...... 82
CONCLUSIONS ...... 86
REFERENCES ...... 92
ACRONYMS ...... 93
ANNEXES ...... 94 Annex I: Global International Waters Assessment – Origin, objectives, workplan, teams and products ...... 95 Annex II: GIWA methodology ...... 103 Annex III: GIWA’s key: Causal chain and policy options analysis in a theoretical perspective ...... 113 Annex IV: Matrix of GIWA Concerns ...... 121
Preface
Clean water and the many products and services of aquatic Sound scientific assessments of the current state of all ecosystems are necessities for human welfare. Water connects freshwater and coastal marine resources and their aquatic human societies and ecological systems by providing food ecosystems; and energy. e hydrological cycle maintains the health and Informed dialogue between governments, stakeholders stimulates the productivity and diversity of all ecosystems. and experts, based on the assessments; Wherever rivers, lakes and aquifers, as well as coastal Technological support and capacity enhancement; and current systems and marine fish stocks, are shared by two or Adequate financing for projects and programmes related more nations, these transboundary resources are interlinked to water resources and aquatic ecosystems. by a complex web of environmental, political, economic and security interdependencies. roughout history, while water In recognition of these needs, has implemented the has generally been shared peacefully, competition for scarce Global International Waters Assessment () project, water resources can invoke conflict between nations sharing funded by the Global Environment Facility () and by international waters. Today, global trade, migration and tour- national donors, in particular Nordic countries. is a ism, as well as global climate change, have created worldwide holistic and globally comparable assessment of the world’s dimensions to many water related issues. transboundary waters, based on the recognition that inextri- Over the past years, the international community cable links exist between the freshwater and coastal marine has increasingly recognised and asserted the urgent need for environment. integrates environmental and socio- concerted actions to reverse the negative societal trends that economic information to determine the impacts of a broad adversely affect the world’s aquatic systems and to achieve range of influences on the world’s aquatic environment. A sustainability in the use of water resources. global perspective of the world’s transboundary waters was Short-term commercial interests are often prioritised achieved by conducting regional assessments in many of the over long-term sustainable development. is is due to the major international drainage basins and marine shelf eco- false assumption that environmental protection and sus- systems. e project focused on developing regions, regions tainability can only be achieved at the expense of economic with economies in transition and small island states eligible development and social well-being. On the contrary, by in- for funding by the . identifies the priority concerns vesting in environmental improvements significant economic of each region, determines their societal root causes and, in returns can be achieved through, for example, increased most regions, considers options to resolve or mitigate these ecosystem and resource productivity, improvements in public causes. health and poverty alleviation. Sustainable development is In addition to regional assessment reports, the only possible by enhancing environmental management. project developed a new assessment methodology and ad- Achieving sustainability in international waters re- opted a bottom-up approach involving multidisciplinary quires the development and implementation of practical regional teams. About experts from around the world policies within an ecosystem-based management framework, conducted the assessments in collaboration with the including the following components: Core team, hosted by the University of Kalmar, Sweden. e Political and societal commitments to tackle water-related approach can serve as a platform for further assess- challenges in a concerted and cooperative manner; ments and for the surveillance of aquatic systems. :
is Final Report provides a global synthesis of the methodology and its theoretical background. It also acknowl- regional assessments. e multitude of aquatic trans- edges the regional teams, focal points and core team who have boundary environmental problems are discussed under the contributed considerable effort towards this global assessment. concerns of freshwater shortage, pollution, overfishing and Policy makers at all levels of government, global and re- habitat modification. e report summarises the current and gional non-governmental organisations, and other stakeholders predicts the future state of transboundary water resources and involved in the use, development and management of trans- associated aquatic ecosystems, the societal root causes and boundary water basins and their aquatic resources will find the driving forces that engender adverse environmental pressures, results of this global synthesis invaluable. and the causal relationships that underpin the deterioration of It is my hope that “Challenges to International Waters aquatic environments and their resources. e report identifies – Regional Assessments in a Global Perspective” will assist in gaps in knowledge and presents conclusions relevant to the sus- the development of a roadmap to environmental sustainability tainable management of transboundary waters. is final re- and will inspire actions necessary to overcome the global chal- port of the project, includes annexes describing the lenges to aquatic resources and ecosystems.
Klaus Toepfer United Nations Under-Secretary General and Executive Director, United Nations Environment Programme
Executive summary
e Global International Waters Assessment () project Pollution is a holistic and globally comparable assessment of trans- Transboundary pollution has a moderate or severe impact in boundary aquatic resources in the majority of the world’s more regions than any other concern, and also has by international river basins and their adjacent seas, particularly far the gravest impact on human health. Pollution is mainly in developing regions. A bottom-up and multidisciplinary concentrated in inland and nearshore systems. e most criti- approach was adopted that involved nearly natural and cal transboundary pollution issue is suspended solids, causing social scientists from around the world. e project the greatest impact in Latin America, Southeast Asia and provides strategic guidance to the Global Environment Facil- Sub-Saharan Africa. Large-scale land-use changes, including ity () by identifying priorities for remedial and mitigatory infrastructure development, deforestation and agriculture, actions in international waters. have increased the sediment load of international waters. e present Final Report presents the major results and Eutrophication has its most severe transboundary im- findings of the regional assessments. pacts in Europe & Central Asia and Northeast Asia. Ag- On a global scale, has confirmed that pressures ricultural run-off was identified as the primary cause, but from human activities have weakened the ability of aquatic the tremendous growth of aquaculture in several East Asian ecosystems to perform essential functions, which is compro- regions has also become a factor. Oxygen-depleted zones, an mising human well-being and sustainable development. e extreme result of eutrophication, are now present not only in complex interactions between mankind and aquatic resources enclosed seas, such as the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea, but were studied within four specific major concerns: freshwa- also in large coastal areas which have internationally impor- ter shortage, pollution, overfishing and habitat modification. tant fisheries. Globally, harmful algal blooms are consider- Global change is considered as a fifth concern which over- ably more widespread and frequent than they were a decade arches the other four. It is clear that the five trans- ago, a situation that is expected to further deteriorate by boundary concerns are serious worldwide problems that are due to the increased application of agricultural fertilizers, es- expected to increase in severity by . pecially in Asia and Africa.
. North Africa Australia & Europe & Central South Sub-Saharan Northeast Southeast Mega region Arctic Rim & Middle Pacific Central Asia America America Africa Asia Asia East Islands Number of regions and sub-systems assessed
Freshwater shortage
Pollution
Overfishing and other threats to aquatic living resources Habitat and community modification
Global change :
Microbial pollution is of particular concern in the Salinisation was revealed by the regional assessments freshwater ecosystems of tropical developing countries, but to be more widespread and severe than is generally perceived. is also widespread in Large Marine Ecosystems (s) with Reduced stream flow, inappropriate irrigation practices and densely populated coasts. Microbial pollution is projected to overabstraction of groundwater have increased the salinity increase due to population growth and urbanisation outpac- of freshwater throughout the world. As a result, agricultural ing the provision of sewage treatment facilities. land is becoming too saline to support important crops, and Chemical pollution is also an issue of global impor- salinisation has made many aquifers unsuitable as a source of tance, inflicting moderate to severe impacts in more than half water for drinking and certain economic purposes. of the regions assessed. In arid and semi-arid areas, water shortages are pre- Overall, pollution is slight to moderate in most of the dicted to be the most significant constraint for socio-eco- s, with severe pollution limited to localised hotspots nomic development. Global climate change will only exacer- usually found in close proximity to point sources of pol- bate this problem. e most frequent socio-economic impacts lution, such as sewage and industrial effluent outfalls and resulting from freshwater shortages are the displacement of river mouths, as well as in areas with limited water circula- people, declines in fisheries production and reduced supply of tion, such as semi-enclosed bays. Sea-based pollution is most potable water. prevalent in s with a high concentration of oil and gas e progress being made to meet the Millennium De- industries, and shipping activities. velopment Goal () of halving the proportion of people without access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation by Freshwater shortage is a critical freshwater indicator. With of the world’s e overabstraction of water resources is resulting in the dry- population having access to safe water, the international ing up of rivers, lakes and aquifers, leading to water shortages community, overall, is on track to meet the drinking water in many regions. For Sub-Saharan Africa, it is un- goal, with East Asia making the greatest progress. e doubtedly the top priority. sanitation target is less likely to be achieved, with Sub-Saha- In arid regions, in particular, water diversions lead to ran Africa and South Asia making the least progress. significant reductions in crucial low flow periods. e regula- tion of stream flow by reservoirs changes natural water re- Overfishing and other threats to aquatic living resources gimes. In many regions these changes adversely affect Overexploitation of living resources was assessed as severe in the productivity of downstream wetland ecosystems and sub- more regions than any other issue. On a trans- sequently the provision of their goods and services. e re- boundary scale, large commercial fishing fleets are the major duction in water inflow to enclosed water bodies can dramat- contributors to the problem, exploiting specific transbound- ically alter their ecosystems. For example, in the Aral Sea/, ary straddling and migratory stocks. However, the majority water abstraction has reduced the volume of the sea by . of fisheries in s assessed by , especially in the trop- e overexploitation of water resources and changes in ics, are artisanal. ey mostly operate on a geographically re- river basin hydrodynamics are largely attributed to the agri- stricted scale, overexploiting many easily accessible nearshore cultural sector, principally as a result of water impoundment species. A common environmental impact from overfishing by dams and groundwater abstraction for irrigation, defores- is ‘fishing down the food web’, whereby fishers exhaust large tation and drainage of wetlands to expand agricultural areas predator populations, distorting the food web and forcing and inappropriate agricultural land-use practices. About fishers to target smaller, less valuable species. of all abstracted water is utilised by irrigated agriculture, and e environmental impacts of destructive fishing prac- since many developing countries expect agriculture to be the tices, including blast and poison fishing as well as bottom main sector driving economic growth, water scarcity is likely trawling in sensitive areas, are severe in most parts of the to become an even greater problem in the future. Regions ex- world. e issue of excessive by-catch and discards is most periencing freshwater scarcity often also face severe pollution, critical in Southeast Asia and South America. Discards rep- further intensifying water stress. resent an extraordinary waste of protein resources, with up to of catches taken by shrimp trawlers thrown overboard. :
With more than million people relying on fisher- invasive species are the other major modifiers of freshwa- ies for their livelihood and over billion people depending on ter habitats. Alien species are known to have impacted the fisheries for their protein supply, the world cannot achieve the structure of both marine and freshwater communities in of hunger eradication without improving fisheries man- almost half of the regions, but many more remain un- agement. Inadequate fisheries statistics hamper reliable stock detected. assessments and prevent effective fisheries management, par- In Southeast Asia, coral reefs have been seriously ticularly in developing regions. e socio-economic impacts degraded by destructive fishing practices and coastal land of fisheries mismanagement are dramatic. e overexploi- reclamation. Mangrove forests are threatened by increased tation of artisanal fisheries has the most detrimental social demand for timber, coastal development and aquaculture in impacts, as the communities that depend on these fisheries Central America (the Caribbean), South America, Southeast frequently have no alternative livelihoods, and malnutrition Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa. e rate of mangrove destruc- often follows. tion exceeds even that of tropical rainforests. Aquaculture, which has been expanding rapidly for Modification of habitats is particularly severe in tropi- more than a decade, will supply an ever-increasing share of cal s, especially in Central America, East Africa and the global fish market. e question remains whether aqua- Southeast Asia. Direct conversion of habitats for urban and culture will be undertaken in a sustainable manner. e industrial development, mariculture, dredging, unsustain- assessments from Southeast Asia indicate otherwise; hun- able harvesting, poor land use practices in adjacent drainage dreds of thousands of hectares of mangrove forest have been basins, and pollution are among the major causes of coastal converted to fishponds since . and marine habitat modification. Transboundary effects are Overexploitation of fish is generally expected to inten- not uncommon, particularly if the habitats are nursery and sify as a result of human population growth and an increasing spawning grounds for commercially important migratory demand for seafood, coupled with a continued lack of imple- fishes, marine mammals and birds. mentation and enforcement of regulations. On the other Focusing on the critical tropical habitat of coral reefs, hand, the situation in some regions studied by , par- the regional assessments found degradation in all the ticularly in Northeast Asia and Central America, is expected tropical s. Climate change, particularly increasing sea to improve by due to the development and adoption of surface temperatures causing coral bleaching, has emerged as more sustainable fisheries practices. potentially the greatest single threat to coral reefs. Habitat and community modification was most fre- Habitat and community modification quently identified as the priority concern in Northeast Asia e world’s aquatic habitats have been extensively modified, and South America. Socio-economic impacts included loss particularly on land, with a consequential reduction in bio- of fisheries and tourism revenues, greater unemployment, diversity and an alteration of community structures in many and the costs of mitigation and treatment actions, e.g. water regions throughout the world. Hydropower, drinking water, treatment and control of invasive species. irrigation and flood mitigation are the major benefits of dams and other structures that modify stream flow. is water in- Linkages between the GIWA concerns frastructure, however, is the single largest driver of habitat including global change modification in the world’s rivers and a major factor affecting e regional reports frequently note the negative syner- lake habitats. For example, in the Euphrates and Tigris River gies between the concerns, including global change. Consid- Basin/ more than of the Mesopotamian wetlands have ering the close links between many of the issues, habi- dried out as a result of upstream water impoundment. e tat and community modification could often be considered a damming of rivers can also decrease sediment transport to ‘downstream’ consequence of the impacts of the other estuaries, leading to additional coastal erosion and reduced concerns. Frequently, freshwater habitats are radically altered productivity in marine ecosystems. by changes in stream flow and nutrient transport resulting Land-use change (mainly the conversion of forests from the construction of dams and other structures. In ma- and wetlands to agricultural land) and the introduction of rine areas, overfishing has changed food webs and destructive :
fishing has destroyed coastal habitats of high productivity bination with inadequate water and wastewater infrastruc- and biodiversity. Pollution, mainly from agricultural run-off, ture, often leads to water shortages. From a consumption industrial effluents and domestic wastes, impacts both fresh- perspective, rising income levels are expected to increase fish water and marine systems. consumption at nearly twice the rate of population growth in Linkages are present in most regions and aquatic sys- Asia. tems. In Lake Victoria the introduction of Nile perch (Lates niloticus), in combination with eutrophication and unsustain- Agricultural development and economic growth able fishing, has led to the extinction of several hundred spe- regional teams identified expansion in the agricultural cies of cichlid fish, the largest recorded vertebrate extinction. sector, and in particular irrigation, as the most significant On a broader scale, suspended solids, eutrophication, over- cause of the transboundary concerns of freshwater shortage, exploitation and destructive fishing practices are degrading pollution, overfishing and habitat modification. e environ- seagrasses and coral habitats in tropical marine regions. e mental impacts associated with agriculture include eutrophi- socio-economic impacts from these negative synergies often cation stimulated by fertilizer run-off, suspended solids from spiral into increasing local poverty, declining health stan- increased erosion following forest colonisation, and stream dards and growing conflict. flow modification to provide water for irrigation. Globally, Recent mass coral bleaching events related to the El there has been an increased demand for agricultural products Niño Southern Oscillation are the most dramatic example and a trend towards more water-intensive food, such as meat of climate change affecting a specific type of ecosystem on rather than vegetables, and fruits rather than cereals. Many a global scale. In future climate change scenarios, highly developing countries also see the development of agriculture productive fisheries associated with climate mode-driven as the main engine for economic growth. upwelling are at serious risk. At the regional level, freshwa- With nearly one-third of agricultural water used to ter availability will be affected by climate-induced changes produce export crops, trade is a critical factor. Several to precipitation patterns, increasing in some regions, such as regional reports from Sub-Saharan Africa note that trade Southeast Asia, and decreasing in others, such as the sub- has increased the production of water-demanding crops, tropics. Higher temperatures will result in greater evapora- putting additional stress on water resources and the environ- tion rates, thus threatening freshwater supplies and trig- ment. gering additional droughts in arid and semi-arid regions. It is clear that irrigation will continue to expand, under- Furthermore, climate change is expected to intensify the scoring the need to increase efficiencies in water use and de- effects of pollution, including an increase in the size and velop new approaches to demand management. e concept of duration of oxygen-depleted zones. Rising sea levels are an- virtual water may be an important tool for understanding and ticipated to increase saline intrusion in coastal aquifers and mitigating the impact of trade on water resources. cause saltwater to reach further upstream in rivers. ese Water management policies have traditionally fo- expected changes are driven by major alterations in the cused on water supply and ignored demand management. global hydrological cycle, and may have severe impacts on e freshwater shortages experienced in rapidly developing human well-being. While few regional teams identi- regions, such as Southeast Asia, illustrate the need to prevent fied global change as their top priority at present, the major- water demand from growing in lockstep with economic de- ity predicted that this concern would become more serious velopment. by . Lack of knowledge and public awareness Root causes Detailed knowledge of resource stocks and yields, as well as Population growth demand patterns, is often deficient, particularly in develop- Population growth is an important root cause of all water- ing countries. Aquifers represent the largest information related concerns. e world’s growing population is increas- gap, which is an increasingly significant hindrance for effec- ing water stress. In Africa, for example, even though water tive water management given the growing dependence on consumption per capita is low, population growth, in com- groundwater. :
e dynamics of fish populations, especially in devel- these fishers frequently adopt destructive fishing practices, oping countries, are frequently unknown. In the industrial putting further pressure on beleaguered fisheries, and ul- fisheries sector, inaccurate information, in combination with timately reducing household income, nutrition and health political and societal pressure to maintain fishing effort, has levels. led to overexploitation and the collapse of many fisheries. Public awareness of environmental problems is rather Policy failures rudimentary at all levels of society in most developing regions Policy failures commonly result from the inability of institu- as well as in many developed countries. Education and con- tions to perform three key functions: (i) recognise signals sumer information are required everywhere, from rural to of a problem and agree on its nature; (ii) reach agreements urban communities and from primary schools to universities. that balance the interests of stakeholders both within and in e regional teams also highlighted the need for far other countries; and (iii) implement and enforce these agree- broader multi-disciplinary, institutional and public/private ments. sector communication in the management of international e first function is hindered by knowledge deficiencies waters. e strengthening of professional capacity is impor- regarding aquatic resources and a lack of public awareness of tant, not only for research and teaching but also for policy their impact on aquatic ecosystems. Common indicators are making and management. needed to monitor the state of ecosystems and their interac- tions with human activities. International cooperation is con- Market failures strained in many regions by the fact that politicians and other roughout the world, most production inputs are under- leaders do not even recognise aquatic systems and resources priced compared with their full social and environmental as being transboundary. costs. An egregious example is blast fishing, where the in- Even when reliable information is available, environ- vestment of one dollar for dynamite can generate an imme- mental considerations or broad stakeholder involvement are diate -fold return for the local fishermen, but leaves a often disregarded in the decision-making process. Institu- devastated reef that takes years to recover. While devel- tions responsible for specific sectors, such as fisheries, -ag oped countries have made some progress in reducing input riculture or transportation, generally dismiss concerns that subsidies, both developed and developing countries still com- transcend their limited sectoral goals. monly offer large subsidies on, for example, electricity, fuel, Within most parts of the world, regional initiatives pesticides, fisheries and infrastructure. Political will to reduce aimed at improving environmental management have been inappropriate subsidies often fails in the face of potential job developed. ese include the ratification of a number of in- losses, lobbying by industry, and corruption. ternational environmental conventions and the adoption of Historically, water was regarded as an infinite and free several non-binding frameworks. However, implementa- resource; consequently, water is commonly underpriced in tion and enforcement of agreements frequently fail due to: many regions, particularly in the agricultural sector, (i) weak human and financial resources; (ii) a lack of political encouraging waste and discouraging infrastructure invest- commitment; (iii) weak institutional frameworks; (iv) inad- ment. Ecosystem goods and services are insufficiently valu- equate information; (v) corruption; and, to a lesser extent, (vi) ated or considered when formulating development strategies. inappropriate regulations. Many regional reports note that a key to improving manage- Given the difficulty in reaching and implementing ment is to stop focusing only on the direct economic benefits agreements at the national level it is not surprising that ef- of engineered structures, and to evaluate their long-term en- forts to establish transboundary policies, let alone manage- vironmental, economic and social benefits and costs. ment, remains an elusive goal in most regions. Weak inter- It is the very nature of common pool resources, such national and regional commissions are testament to this fact, as the fisheries, that it is difficult to exclude newcomers, who but there are success stories in both developed and developing have no knowledge of the resource they seek to exploit. A vi- regions, notably in fishery regulations and in water manage- cious spiral can begin, where increasing numbers of fishers ment in several major river systems. chase smaller fish populations. To boost their meagre catches, :
Response options need to be implemented gradually, but these changes will e United Nations Convention on the Law of the Non- vary widely on a regional rather than on a national scale. To navigational Uses of International Watercourses provides implement such policies it is necessary to raise both public a framework for intergovernmental river basin agreements. and political awareness of the importance of addressing water Although there have been positive developments in recent concerns and the associated socio-economic impacts. Such decades, only one third of the world’s transboundary basins initiatives must be based on sound knowledge and multidis- have established treaties, basin commissions or other forms ciplinary efforts, like , where the natural and the social of cooperative management frameworks. Even where inter- sciences are united in a joint endeavour. governmental agreements exist, they seldom address today’s In the marine environment, the fishing industry over- challenges to water management. exploits the majority of living resources and degrades marine Policy options cannot be confined to actions that target habitats, resulting in a loss of biodiversity and changes in natural and physical processes but should consider the human community structure. Given the inability of past responses dimensions of water use as well. Policy measures must there- to halt the degradation of marine ecosystems, the concept of fore be formulated to address the local situation. At the same ecosystem-based management is increasingly adopted for the time, it remains important to develop broad themes for devis- management of s with support from the . Ecosystem- ing policies and basin-wide management for the sustainable based management requires the implementation of a com- use of transboundary rivers. bination of measures, including precautionary catch regula- First and foremost, it is necessary to reduce the impacts tions, the introduction of sustainable rather than destructive of water scarcity and habitat degradation by developing inter- fishing methods, the reduction of fishing effort and the re- national governance frameworks for equitable water alloca- form of subsidies. Marine parks and zones which temporarily tion in accordance with the above-mentioned Convention. close or restrict access to fishers and other marine activities Disputes and conflicts over water use can only be resolved can protect sensitive habitats. through common strategies and commitments between up- Many of the regional teams have recognised that stream and downstream countries. An integrated approach ecosystem-based management, including integrated coastal linking water management to land management and eco- zone management, is an effective policy response for halt- nomic management is also needed. ing or reversing the degradation of large marine and limnic Improved policies and pricing, particularly for achiev- ecosystems. ing increased user efficiency and socio-economic benefits,
Acknowledgements
is publication would have been impossible without the hard work and unwavering ded- ication of a large number of scientists and experts in the network. Over ex- perts around the world have contributed most of the data and analyses in the regional and thematic assessments which were used as a basis for producing this final report of .
is publication has gone through a lengthy drafting period. would like to ac- knowledge the following persons who have contributed to the production of this report (in alphabetical order):
Juan Carlos Belausteguigoitia Sanna Mels Kristin Bertilius David Moffat Pierre Blime Joakim Palmqvist Dag Daler Elina Rautalahti-Miettinen Matthew Fortnam George Roman Rasmus Göransson Pinya Sarasas Pertti Heinonen David Souter Gotthilf Hempel Johannes Wolpert Olof Lindén Ulla Li Zweifel Marianne Lindström
A special acknowledgement is also extended to reviewers for their constructive comments and feedbacks (in alphabetical order):
David Aubrey Mogens Dyhr-Nielsen Sara Gräslund Pertti Heinonen Hans Olav Ibrekk Lea Kauppi Norman Lee
For a comprehensive list of individuals who have been involved in various aspects of the project, see Annex I. , (: . )
Introduction
Only a small proportion of global freshwater can be used by effects are interlinked and can be traced back to a number of humans for drinking, sanitation, agriculture and industry, common root causes. as well as by the inland fisheries and aquaculture. e living e Global Environment Facility () has been estab- resources exploited by marine fisheries and mariculture are lished to inter alia “contribute primarily as a catalyst to the predominantly restricted to the relatively narrow and shal- implementation of a more comprehensive, ecosystem-based low fringes of oceans. e various human activities increas- approach to managing international waters and their drain- ingly compete for limited aquatic resources. e growth of age basins as a means to achieve global environmental ben- human populations and their economies, urbanisation and efits”. the globalisation of trade, in combination with global climate e absence of a worldwide comprehensive and inte- change, will further increase this pressure. grated transboundary waters assessment has hampered the Water and its resources are exploited at differing in- efforts of the to meet its objective and to identify priority tensities and for various purposes in different parts of the regions and issues for international support. us, the world. Consequently, the impact of aquatic concerns, includ- commissioned to implement the Global International ing freshwater shortage, pollution, habitat and community Waters Assessment () project in order to develop a stra- modification, and overfishing, vary in severity and extent. tegic framework that may be used by the and its partners ese concerns were traditionally assessed either on a na- to identify priorities for remedial and mitigatory actions in tional scale, individually on a global scale, or for a specific international waters. See Annex I-III for further information water body. on the project. Many freshwater and coastal ecosystems are interna- e project was executed by in partnership tional; river basins cross or delimit national borders, con- with the Government of Sweden, through the Swedish Inter- veying about of the world’s freshwater flow and draining national Development Cooperation (). e Government more than half the Earth’s land area. Most Large Marine of Finland later became a partner to the project. In , Ecosystems (s) and large groundwater aquifers are shared they established the Core team at Kalmar University, by two or more countries. Downstream consequences of Sweden. human activities can occur in regions some distance from the focused on transboundary water issues in devel- source of the problem. In order to address these water issues, oping regions. However, in order to provide a more global they must be assessed from an international (or transbound- coverage, comparable information was collated from regions ary) perspective. containing developed countries that are not eligible for Over the past decade, the international community has interventions. increasingly acknowledged the need for a global approach to adopted a bottom-up approach involving regional assessing transboundary aquatic resources and has recog- experts. ey evaluated the severity of transboundary eco- nised the importance of water for sustainable development. logical and societal impacts and their causes in international While aquatic environmental concerns are global issues, they waters on a regional scale. e root causes, including global are usually addressed on a regional scale, i.e. for each water trends, policy, legislation, governance, institutional capacity system. Within the region, a holistic approach to assessment and knowledge, were analysed by the experts. Finally, policy and management is required, as all aquatic concerns and their relevant conclusions were drawn from the assessments. :
e project provides strategic information that . Habitat and community modification can assist in meeting the Millennium Development Goals . Global change (s), particularly for the eradication of hunger (Goal ) and increased access to safe drinking water (Goal ). Global change largely causes impacts by affecting the four other concerns and many regional teams were unable to Project design assess it due to a lack of data. Consequently, global change is e transboundary regional approach to assessing global integrated into the discussions on the other concerns in this problems constitutes the backbone of . e inland water report. systems and shelf seas of the world were divided into e methodology is comprised of four major steps transboundary geographical regions, of which are -eli- (for further information and discussion on the meth- gible. Each region comprises one or more international river odology see Annex II, and for its theoretical background, basin and usually an adjacent . A few regions are land- Annex III): locked, such as Lake Chad/. Several regions were divided Scaling defines the geographic boundaries of the into sub-systems, which were assessed individually (see map region, which are generally demarcated by a large drainage on the inside of the front cover). e high seas were not as- basin and its adjacent marine areas. e boundaries of the sessed by . marine parts of the regions often correspond with those e assessments were conducted by scientists and of s. administrative and managerial experts, who were organised Scoping assesses and scores the severity of present and into regional teams led by a focal point from the region. e predicted environmental and socio-economic impacts caused multidisciplinary teams included representatives from each by each of the concerns. country in the region. e Core team was responsible for Causal chain analysis traces the cause and effect path- overall project management, methodology development, the ways from the socio-economic and environmental impacts coordination of the regional teams, and peer review and pub- back to their root causes. lication. e Core team, in cooperation with external experts, Wherever possible, the causal chain analysis was fol- also produced this Final Report. lowed by policy option analysis which outlined potential courses of action that aim to mitigate or resolve environmen- The GIWA assessment methodology tal and socio-economic problems in the region. Globally comparable results were achieved by a common e provides baseline information at the regional and consistent methodology applied by all of the regional level which will facilitate the preparation of Transbound- teams. e methodology provides criteria for assess- ary Diagnostic Analysis (s) and Strategic Action Pro- ing water-related environmental concerns, and for identifying grammes initiated by . At the same time, many re- their immediate and root causes and potential policy options gional assessments have benefited from completed s. (see Annex II and III). Regional experts assessed and com- pared the severity of impacts from a regional perspective. e The GIWA approach methodology was not developed for inter-regional compari- Although is not the only assessment of the world’s sons of environmental quantitative data, such as pollutant aquatic systems and resources, it has taken an original ap- concentrations or loss of mangroves. Instead, the deter- proach that will benefit a wide range of stakeholders. e mines regional priorities and allows a relative comparison of number and diversity of regional experts, and the peer review multiple impacts. process, has ensured transparency in the regional assess- e numerous and complex transboundary water-re- ments. uses a holistic and ecosystem-orientated ap- lated environmental problems were grouped into five major proach to assess the environmental and socio-economic im- concerns: pacts, and root causes behind environmental problems. . Freshwater shortage Traditionally, global assessments adopt a top-down . Pollution approach; led by small teams of international experts with . Overfishing and other threats to aquatic living resources relatively limited inputs from local stakeholders. has :
taken the opposite approach, with local experts leading each The GIWA Final Report regional assessment, thus building strong local ownership is report provides a synoptic review of the most important of the regional reports. By facilitating international information from the regional reports. It is a technical rather cooperation and fostering trust among scientists and policy than a comprehensive scientific publication. Prime references makers from neighbouring countries, has strengthened can be found in the regional reports, which are referenced in national assessment capacity and provided the basis for long- this report by region (name followed by number, e.g. term collaboration in developing regions. Mekong River/). roughout the process of undertaking the regional as- sessments and preparing the regional reports, the training of e book: many young scientists served to strengthen scientific capacity summarises the major transboundary concerns and their in specific regions. not only assessed the available policy impacts; relevant information, but also identified key knowledge gaps assesses the root causes of the impacts; and that need to be addressed. provides policy relevant conclusions. In addition to their own knowledge, the regional ex- perts drew, to varying extents, from complementary assess- e scoring matrices in Annex IV present the scoring ments and initiatives, including: the World Water De- results of the five concerns for each region and sub-system. velopment Report; the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment; e severity of the concerns and issues are expressed the Millennium Development Goals; the Commission on using the terms ‘severe’, ‘moderate’, ‘slight’ and ‘no reported Sustainable Development; Food and Agriculture Organiza- impact’, which are described in Annex II. ‘Environmental tion assessments; and national studies. ere is considerable impacts’ represent the average weighted score for the environ- overlap in membership of the various assessment groups and mental issues associated with the concern. ‘Overall impacts’ in the data sources used. refers to the concern’s final score including environmental, e methodology brought together natural and socio-economic and the anticipated future impacts. e pre- social scientists and resource managers, often for the first dicted trends of the environmental impacts are represented by time, to participate in the workshops, conduct the assessment arrows in the overall impacts column. and compile the regional report. For various reasons, some regional reports have not Each regional assessment followed the same pro- been published and were therefore unavailable during the cess. Training courses for the regional teams ensured that drafting of the Final Report. Many non-eligible regions they all possessed a common understanding of the were not assessed, mainly in Europe and North America. methodology. Some areas of the Middle East and Southern Asia are also e regional assessments are the primary outputs of unrepresented. ose gaps may give a misleading impres- the project. Fifty-five regional assessments have been sion that there are no transboundary water problems in these completed, forty of which include -eligible countries. e regions. present status of the regional reports is presented on the is synthesis of all concerns, their issues and impacts map inside the front cover. e reports are also available on provides a global perspective on their relative importance. the website (www.giwa.net). Readers are encouraged to consult the regional reports for has been the largest global assessment of eco- more information about the examples contained in this re- system-wide water issues from a transboundary perspective, port. e Annexes provide additional information on the linking international river basins to their adjacent s. It project and methodology. was designed to provide policy makers and managers with the information they need to improve transboundary re- sources management. . (: ) Today, freshwater is used unsustainably FRESHWATER in the majority of the regions studied SHORTAGE by . In two- thirds of the regions, water is predicted to become scarcer by due to demand continuing to grow in parallel with increased agricultural production, and population and economic growth. Global climate change will exacerbate this situation. On a global scale, the most widespread and adverse transboundary consequences result from the modification of stream flow by dams, reservoirs and river diversions, as well as by land-use changes in the catchment area. Downstream ecosystems and riparian communities are severely impacted by changes to the flow regime of international rivers. Inappropriate subsidies encourage inefficient water use, such as the growing of water- intensive crops in water scarce regions. e growing recognition that entire river basins, estuaries and coastal areas are single planning units has led to a paradigm shift of water management towards more integrated approaches. Demand management was identified as an effective alternative to building new reservoirs and deeper wells. ere is a need to move away from focusing exclusively on the direct economic benefits of engineered structures to understanding their actual environmental and socio-economic costs. :
Freshwater is a highly valuable resource for a large . number of competing demands, including drink- Approximately of global freshwater flows and of the Earth’s land sur- ing water, irrigation, hydroelectricity, waste disposal, face is located within the international river basins. industrial processes, transport and recreation, as well as ecosystem functions and services. Prior to the th More than of the world’s population live within international river basins.
century, human demand for water was relatively small Many of the world’s largest lakes are transboundary, such as the Caspian Sea, compared to availability in most parts of the world. Aral Sea, Lake Chad, Dead Sea, Lake Tanganyika, Lake Victoria and the Great Water demand dramatically increased as a consequence Lakes of North America.
of population and income growth, and the expansion Transboundary groundwater systems of global significance include the Guarani of industry and irrigated agriculture, so that demand aquifer in South America, Chad Formation and Nubian Sandstone aquifer in now exceeds supply in many developed and develop- North Africa, and Gangetic Plain Quaternary aquifer in Asia.
ing countries. Today, freshwater scarcity affects more More than international treaties or agreements related to shared water than a billion people and the integrity of many of the resources have been signed since , excluding agreements on navigation, world’s ecosystems. e achievement of many of the fisheries, or the demarcation of borders. However, of international basins Millennium Development Goals (s) will depend do not have any cooperative management framework.
on the improved management of freshwater resources. (: ) One goal focuses specifically on reducing the propor- tion of people without sustainable access to safe drink- Overextraction of aquifers is becoming severe in many ing water and basic sanitation by . Managing water in areas that depend heavily on irrigated agriculture or are transboundary river basins poses great challenges and requires densely populated. e extraction of fossil water from comprehensive solutions that take into account the needs of deep aquifers is unsustainable as they will not be refilled both upstream and downstream countries (Box ). on human time scales. Knowledge of aquifers is insuffi- e methodology (see Annex II) provides a cient and further studies are needed in order to compre- framework for evaluating three critical freshwater trans- hensively assess transboundary aquifers. boundary issues: (i) modification of stream flow; (ii) pollution Agricultural land is becoming too saline to support of existing supplies; and (iii) changes in the water table. e important crops, the salinity of aquifers is too high for results of the assessment for freshwater shortage are human use, and saline waters encroach further up rivers summarised in the global matrix in Annex III. during dry seasons. Land-use changes, including deforestation and the culti- Global situation and trends vation of wetlands, affect the water budget, thus causing Freshwater shortage was assessed as the priority trans- floods or droughts in many regions. boundary concern in more regions/sub-systems than e majority of regional teams predict that envi- any other concern. Many of these regions are arid ronmental problems related to freshwater shortages will and either renowned drought-prone basins in Africa or increase by . subject to long-term unsustainable water management. More than half of the regions/sub-systems considered the overall environmental and socio-economic impacts of freshwater shortages to be moderate or severe (Figure ). ENVIRONMENTAL AND Impacts of the modification of stream flow caused by SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS dams or river diversions were more widespread and severe than those caused by the pollution of existing supplies or Modification of stream flow changes in the water table. Nineteen regional teams identified the modification of Water withdrawals by irrigated agriculture were identi- stream flow as having severe impacts, particularly in Sub-Sa- fied by the regional teams as causing the most se- haran Africa, North Africa, Northeast Asia, Central America vere environmental and socio-economic impacts. and Europe & Central Asia (Figure ). Table summarises :
. -
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the environmental and associated socio-economic impacts as- Dams change flow patterns by storing water in res- sessed by for a selection of transboundary river basins. ervoirs during the wet season and releasing part of it dur- Changes in the flow regime were principally attributed ing the dry season. e biodiversity of riparian and aquatic to the development of large dams (e.g. the Colorado River, habitats changes in response to the alteration of the flow Figure ). River diversions, inter-basin transfers and other regime. Dams can also obstruct migration routes and re- structures designed to supply water and energy also modify duce fish spawning habitat. For example, dams on the Volga stream flow. River (Caspian Sea/) have reduced the spawning habitat of :
.
Caspian sturgeon, and these fish are now predominantly re- the storage capacity of reservoirs, thus intensifying competi- cruited in hatcheries. tion over water supplies (Agulhas Current/a). In the Niger Fragmentation of rivers results in the trapping of sedi- River (Guinea Current/c), sedimentation in upstream res- ments in reservoirs which can lead to downstream ecological ervoirs causes coastal erosion and reduces nearshore produc- changes and erosion in floodplains, deltas, estuaries and the tivity as fewer sediments and nutrients reach the coast. coastal zone. Land use changes, particularly deforestation, In addition to fragmentation and changed flow re- modify sedimentation and flooding regimes. e accumula- gimes, evaporation and water consumption have signifi- tion of sediments behind dams can affect downstream natu- cant consequences for downstream ecosystems and societies. ral resources and associated livelihoods, and may impede the Globally, irrigated agriculture accounts for around of efficiency of dam infrastructure and reduce the storage capac- freshwater withdrawals, followed by industry () and do- ity of reservoirs. For example, in the Save River in Zimba- mestic uses (). Not all water withdrawals are ‘consumed’, bwe, soil erosion and sedimentation has significantly reduced as return flows re-enter the hydrological system downstream. Irrigated agriculture, however, returns only of its water withdrawals, while industrial and domestic users return - ( ). In Namibia’s Eastern National Water Carrier canal, more than of the water is lost through evaporation (Benguela Current/). Freshwater shortage in the Benguela Current region illustrates the problems faced by arid coastal environments worldwide (Box ). Loss of freshwater inflow to enclosed water bodies has resulted in dramatic changes to many ecosystems, notably the shrinking of the Aral Sea/ and the Dead Sea (Jordan/) (Box ). In the inland areas of the Canary Current/ region, . the Volta River Basin (Guinea Current/b) and the Lake - (: ) Chad/ Basin, reduced rainfall over the last few decades :
. River basin or GIWA region Environmental impacts Social, economic and health impacts hydrological system Decreased sediment transport to the coast Lack of potable water Gulf of Erosion of the Colorado River Delta Loss of crops Colorado River California Loss of wetlands Loss of fisheries Loss of endemic plants Loss of traditional livelihoods b Gulf of Rio Grande/Rio Bravo, Impacts on coastal fisheries Increased salinity of estuarine habitats Mexico river and estuary Conflicts over water resources Yalu River, Huai River, Reduction in water flow Yongsan River, Taedong Pollution degrading nearby habitats and leading to annual mass fish kills Interruptions in water supply a Yellow Sea River, Imjin River, Han Pollution of water supplies Increase in infectious diseases River, Kum River Salinisation of coastal aquifers Displacement of people c Brazil São Francisco, river and Decreased sediment transport to the coast and coastal erosion Loss of traditional livelihoods Current estuary Reduced primary productivity Reduced availability of fish Navigation impediments Loss of farmland and infrastructure Reduced agricultural output b Guinea Decreased sediment transport to the coast and erosion Volta River Displacement of people Current Loss of marine biodiversity Increased water-related diseases Loss of traditional sites Komadugu-Yobe River Reduced productivity of farmland Loss of floodplain ecosystems and wetlands Basin Degradation of grazing lands Reduced availability of fish Chari-Logone River Loss of floodplain ecosystems and wetlands Acute freshwater shortage Basin Food insecurity in downstream areas Lake Chad Increased water-related diseases Shrinking of Lake Chad Upstream/downstream conflicts Lake Chad Loss of plant species Political disputes Decreased fish stocks and diversity Displacement of people Increased vulnerability to flooding Increased water-related diseases Benguela Orange-Vaal River Basin Changed hydrological regime Displacement of people Current Disruption of family and community structures d Somali Displacement of people Rufiji/Ruvuma River Changed flow and flood patterns Coastal Malnutrition during periods of relocation Basin Increased salinity in the Rufiji Delta Current Social conflicts Deteriorating human health Amu Darya River, Shrinking of the Aral Sea International disputes Aral Sea Syr Darya River, Fish extinctions Loss of agricultural productivity Aral Sea Salinisation of soil and water resources Loss of fisheries Displacement of people Shrinking of the Dead Sea Lack of potable water Jordan Jordan River, Dead Sea Salinisation of water resources Increased water-related diseases : .
. : In GIWA region , the land areas adjacent to the Benguela Current are severely modified stream flow and subsequently the aquatic ecosys- arid or semi-arid, with rainfall dropping below mm in coastal Na- tems of the region. Pollution from a variety of sources also threatens mibia and parts of Angola. Evaporation rates exceed mean annual run- the ecological integrity of freshwater systems. Furthermore, there is off in most of the region. Standing water is limited, and few permanent growing concern regarding the presence of aquatic alien species and rivers enter the Benguela Current. Freshwater systems of transbound- the overabstraction of aquifers which have slow replenishment rates. ary significance include the Cunene and the Orange-Vaal systems. The region’s freshwater resources are unsustainably exploited due to The GIWA regional team considered the anthropogenic impacts on a number of anthropogenic factors, including: population growth, water resources and associated social and economic processes to be particularly in dry, coastal urban areas; irrigated agriculture, which is severe. The natural aridity, coupled with highly variable rainfall and inappropriate and wastes large quantities of water; and increased de- the geographic disparity between water availability and the distribu- mand from the expanding industrial and mining sectors. tion of human settlements and activities, has led to the construction Although there are existing measures to address freshwater short- of many dams and inter-basin water transfer schemes. The Orange- age in the region, the situation is likely to further deteriorate due to Vaal Basin is considered to be the most modified river system in increasing demand for water and decreased supply resulting from southern Africa, with annual flow data indicating a reduction in predicted changes in rainfall patterns. flow since . Overabstraction of water for agriculture, industry and urban supply has placed enormous stress on water resources, and (: /) :
. :
In , freshwater inputs to the Dead Sea averaged . km³. Since then, the overexploitation of water resources and the construction of dams and canals in the catchment area have reduced the annual flow to less than . km³. Discharges by the Jordan River comprise of mostly poor quality irrigation return flows, inter-catchment run-off and discharges from saline springs.
The surface area of the Dead Sea has reduced by over one-third, and its water level has dropped by over m and continues to fall by up to m per year. Groundwater extraction for development activities has lowered the water table in surrounding areas, leading to land subsidence.
(: /)
(: , /- )
.
Predicted climate change, including changes Lakes are particularly vulnerable to cli- teau which is only about m above mean to temperatures, weather systems, and sea mate change due to their dependence sea level. As the sea rises, many communi- level, will alter the global hydrological cycle. on climatic variables, such as precipita- ties will be displaced and economic activ- Impacts on freshwater resources that can be tion, evaporation, wind conditions and ity, which is concentrated on the coast, confidently predicted include: ice formation. Enclosed river basins with will be disrupted. The loss of beaches no outflow are most sensitive to climate will have a significant impact on regional In river basins strongly influenced by snow changes, including the Caspian Sea/, tourism. Water shortages resulting from or glacier melting, peak stream flows will Aral Sea/, Lake Chad/, Lake Balkhash saline intrusion in aquifers will require the occur earlier in the year, winter run-off will (Aral Sea/) and Lake Titicaca (Humboldt importation of water or desalination, both increase, summer run-off will decrease, Current/). expensive alternatives. and flooding events will become more
intense. These changes are already occur- Sea level rise will cause greater saline intru- While many water-scarce regions in the ring in several drainage basins in Eastern sion in coastal aquifers. Low-lying islands sub-tropics will have decreased water Europe, Central Asia, Canada and Califor- are particularly vulnerable, with the mean availability, other regions will have greater nia. global sea level predicted to increase by precipitation, including Southeast Asia. In . to . m by compared with many regions, climate change is predicted In arid or semi-arid regions, small changes . In the Pacific Islands/, global warm- to increase the pressure on water re- in precipitation can significantly affect ing is expected to: increase the salinisation sources, particularly for irrigated agricul- run-off. Even if precipitation rates do not of the limited groundwater supplies; cause ture. Africa appears to be the most vulner- change, higher temperatures would in- human migration due to the inundation of able to the impacts of climate change on crease evaporation rates, reduce stream coastal areas; and increase the frequency water supplies due to widespread poverty, flow and cause additional droughts. This of storm surges and cyclonic events result- recurrent droughts and the dependence has serious implications for areas like the ing in property and infrastructure damage. on rain-fed agriculture. Volta Basin, where a large volume of water
is lost through evaporation from reser- The small islands of the Indian Ocean (: voirs; in Burkina Faso, almost of the Islands/b region are preparing for the , total volume of most reservoirs is lost by impacts of climate change. The majority . ) evaporation (Guinea Current/b). of the population inhabits the coastal pla- :
has magnified the effects of water withdrawals for irrigation and water diversion schemes. Discharges by the Chari-Lo- gone River, which is the major inflow for Lake Chad, have decreased by over the last years. In the future, global warming will increase evaporation rates and pose a consider- able threat to the supply of freshwater in many regions (Box ). Loss of freshwater inputs to coastal ecosystems has also severe transboundary impacts in many areas. As a conse- quence of upstream water withdrawals, the Berg River estu- ary in South Africa experiences intrusions of high salinity waters which affect many species of fish, benthic inverte- brates and birds (Benguela Current/). In the Rio Grande/ Rio Bravo Basin (Gulf of Mexico/b), irrigation diverts nearly of the Rio Grande’s average annual flow which has adversely affected many estuarine species, including com- mercially important fish and shellfish. is region, which has low precipitation rates, is therefore extremely vulnerable to drought. e reduction of water downstream can have substan- tial socio-economic impacts, including the displacement of people due to a loss of traditional livelihoods, declines in , fisheries production, a loss of water supply, health impacts . related to schistosomiasis and other water-borne diseases, and the provocation of conflicts over water allocation (Table ). Prolonged water shortages can provoke conflict be- Many of these issues are exemplified in the Ganges-Brahma- tween water users and force the population to adapt, as ob- putra River system (Bay of Bengal/). Bangladesh receives served in the Lake Chad/ region. In the Komadugu-Yobe of its stream flow from its upstream neighbours; India, Basin, disputes were provoked as a result of upstream Nige- Nepal and Bhutan. More than dams, barrages and river rian states allocating insufficient water to the downstream -ri diversions have been constructed upstream, reducing dry sea- parian states of Borno and Yobe, and Niger. Many fishermen son flows in Bangladesh by up to . Additional dams in in the basin have tried to compensate for declining fish pro- Bangladesh also contribute to the problem. e consequences duction caused by the contracting lake by turning to farming are manifold: acute water shortages; loss of inland fisheries; the fertile soils left by the receding lake. salinisation and reduced productivity of agricultural lands; In tropical regions, particularly in Africa, reservoir de- the encroachment of sea water further upriver in the dry velopment often leads to a greater prevalence of water-related season; and loss of goods and services provided by mangrove diseases, including malaria, yellow fever, guinea worm and forests. e livelihood and nutritional levels of nearly mil- schistosomiasis. e latter almost always increases dramati- lion people in Bangladesh have been adversely affected as a cally as reservoirs facilitate the transmission of the disease result of stream flow modification. e water-sharing treaties from snails to humans. e construction of the Akosombo signed in between India and Nepal, and Bangladesh and Dam on the Volta River in Ghana increased the proportion India have reduced, to a degree, the severity of the impacts, of schistosomiasis infected children from to (Guinea particularly on the downstream population in Bangladesh. Current/b). Even in temperate regions, water-borne dis- However, the recently proposed ‘river linking’ project is ex- eases are correlated with the level of access to safe water and pected to transfer a significant proportion of the flows from sanitation. In the Caspian Sea/, to of all illnesses the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River system to other riv- in the region are attributable to the quality and availability of ers in India. drinking water. :
Pollution of freshwater supplies Sea and the collapse of its fisheries (see the chapter on habitat Pollution reduces the availability of water for human use. and community modification). Chemical pollutants, microbial contamination, increased e Vaal River, a tributary of the Orange River in concentrations of organic matter and elevated nitrates in South Africa, is severely polluted by microbes, nutrients, drinking water can result in health problems, higher water chemicals and acid mine drainage from agricultural, urban treatment costs and freshwater shortages. Overall, pollu- and industrial return flows (Benguela Current/). Average tion of freshwater supplies was assessed as severe in and as salinity at the Vaal Barrage has more than tripled since the moderate in a further of the transboundary river basins as- s. As a result, water at several locations has become un- sessed by (Figure ). For a holistic assessment of trans- suitable for human use and Rift Valley fever and sheep blind- boundary pollution refer to the chapter on pollution. ness is prevalent along the Vaal River. In the Aral Sea/ region, a considerable proportion In addition to the economic costs of water-borne ill- of available water resources consist of return waters from ir- nesses, many reports note that water pollution incurs rigated cotton plantations that are heavily contaminated with significant direct economic costs, from accessing ever-deeper agro-chemicals. Approximately of surface water sup- groundwater and improving water treatment facilities, to plies in the Aral Sea Basin are polluted, severely affecting consumers paying more to buy water from private suppliers. the human and ecological functions of many reservoirs. In In the Patagonian Shelf/ region, contaminated addition to persistent organic pollutants, million tonnes of groundwater and a lower water table have increased water salt are carried by the rivers annually, causing concentrations treatment costs and required the exploitation of alternative in the delta to exceed g/l. is situation has caused severe sources of water. e loss of surface and groundwater sources human health problems. As the Aral Sea recedes, it leaves for large cities, such as São Paulo and Buenos Aires, affects behind chemical pesticides and natural salts which are blown millions of people and disrupts crucial industries. Addition- into noxious dust storms, seriously affecting the health of the ally, the exploitation of fluoride and arsenic contaminated local people. Pollution puts further pressure on communi- groundwater can lead to poisoning. For example, million ties already burdened by water shortages and the loss of large of the Bangladesh population live in arsenic-contaminated areas of valuable ecosystems, as well as the retreat of the Aral areas (Bay of Bengal/).
. :
In the Colorado River (Gulf of California/), the eco- proximately million ha of farmland. In Namibia, particu- nomic impacts of freshwater shortages are substantial. Saline larly in the vicinity of the Karstveld aquifer, the water table waters require expensive purification systems (demineralisa- has dropped several metres (Benguela Current/). tion, softening, etc.) that have direct economic impacts on Over the past years the water table in the Volta River industrial, residential and agricultural water users in both Basin (Guinea Current/b) has significantly lowered, - Mexico and California. of which is attributed to excessive pumping from aqui- fers for irrigation, domestic water supply and other urban Changes in the water table requirements. e lower water table leads to a scarcity of Most of the world’s available freshwater is found in the potable water, forcing inhabitants to use surface water which water-saturated zones of the lithosphere. ese groundwater may be polluted or infected. systems supply drinking water to more than billion people Water withdrawals from coastal aquifers can lead to and provide irrigation water which is used to generate nearly seawater intrusion, causing irreversible salinisation. is is a of global food production ( ). Despite their growing concern in many small island developing states () global significance, there is a dearth of knowledge regarding of the South Pacific and Caribbean. In the Pacific Islands/ aquifers, especially in developing countries. region, subterranean lenses of freshwater are the primary When water withdrawals from an aquifer system ex- sources of drinking water for many small islands, particularly ceed the long-term rate of replenishment, water tables lower atolls. Burgeoning human populations are placing extreme and water resources are said to be ‘mined’. is is a com- pressure on this limited resource, often resulting in drinking mon problem in many regions on all continents that have low water shortages. ese problems are often exacerbated by di- rainfall and rely on groundwater for irrigated agriculture and lapidated pipes and storage facilities. Suva, the capital of Fiji, is domestic uses (Figure ). In the Jordan/ region, the major- experiencing increasing disruptions to its municipal water sup- ity of aquifers are overexploited and often saline; water tables plies, partly due to the failure of old piping systems, but also have fallen as rapidly as . m/year in the Azraq basin. Inef- because of the rapidly increasing population. ficient irrigation practices can lead to waterlogging and the e Caribbean Islands/ also depend on groundwater salinisation of soils and aquifers. is has already affected ap- as a source of potable water. However, groundwater resources
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are being eroded by saltwater intrusion resulting from sea regions with intense groundwater abstraction for irrigation or level rise and overuse of groundwater reservoirs. In some ag- the cultivation of marshes and swamps. ricultural regions of Cuba, saltwater intrusions into aquifers e interactions between freshwater shortage and the extend up to km inland. other concerns are highlighted in the case of Lake Saline intrusion in coastal aquifers is also a serious Chad (Box ). problem in the East China Sea/ region and other coastal
. : There are strong inter-linkages between Over the last years, numerous dams and former flooded pastures have lost their pe- freshwater exploitation and the other GIWA irrigation projects were developed in the rennial grass cover, leaving only degraded concerns, as illustrated in the Lake Chad/ Chari-Logone and Komadugu-Yobe river ba- grasslands. This has encouraged herders to Basin. The water resources of the Basin are sins, particularly in Nigeria and, to a lesser ex- shift from grazing animals to browsing ani- shared primarily by Cameroon, Chad, Niger tent, Cameroon. Over the same time period, mals which reduce woody vegetation cover. and Nigeria. the Sahel has experienced a dramatic and The dramatic shrinking of Lake Chad has sustained decline in rainfall. changed the fish community structure from Lake Chad shrunk by and open water species to wetland species, severe reductions in stream and reduced fisheries productivity. In the flow from the droughts, as Waza-Logone floodplains, fish yields have well as the development proj- declined by . The reduction in fisheries ects, have severely modified production and the decline in the fertil- many aquatic habitats, par- ity of agricultural land have contributed to ticularly the lake, wetland and regional poverty and food insecurity. Many floodplain ecosystems. households have been forced to migrate to Previously, high-quality other regions or to urban slums. Freshwa- floodplain pastures sustained ter shortages in the Lake Chad Basin have livestock rearing during the resulted in severe ecosystem degradation dry season; the third largest and compromised human well-being and source of household income economic development. in the basin. Most of the (: /) :
ROOT CAUSES Demographic and economic trends e most important trends affecting the level of freshwater regional teams conducted causal chain and policy usage are (i) population growth and urbanisation; (ii) agricul- option analyses related to freshwater shortage. e modifica- tural demand; (iii) hydropower demand; and (iv) industrial tion of stream flow caused the most severe environmental and demand and trade. socio-economic impacts of the three freshwater issues, and was predominantly chosen as the target for the causal chain Population growth and urbanisation analysis (Table and ). Agriculture, especially irrigation, Population growth is one of the main drivers of freshwater was the sector most responsible for all three freshwater issues. demand. Most projections estimate that the world popula- is section examines four intertwining categories of tion will stabilise at between and . billion people by around root causes of freshwater shortage: (i) demographic and eco- and that most of this growth will take place in the devel- nomic development trends; (ii) market failures; (iii) policy oping world ( ). Population growth not only triggers failures; and (iv) knowledge gaps and lack of public engage- direct domestic water consumption but also the consumption ment. of agricultural, industrial and other products, and energy use. e population of the world has tripled in the last century, but global water use has increased six-fold ( ).
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Targeted issues * Pollution of existing Modification of stream flow Changes in the water table supplies
Immediate Main sectors Main sectors Immediate causes Main sectors involved Immediate causes causes involved involved
GIWA region Increased diversion Reduced rainfall Deforestation Changed return flows Changed peak flows Increased sediment load Changes in land use Agriculture (irrigated) Hydropower production Industry Domestic supply Infrastructure (flood protection) Forestry Point and non-point effluents Poor wastewater treatment, agricultural run-off Agriculture Industry and/or domestic Changed return flow or rainfall patterns Excessive extraction Reduced recharge Stream flow modification Agriculture (irrigated) Domestic supply
b Rio Grande/Rio Bravo (Gulf of Mexico)
Aral Sea
Colorado River (Gulf of California)
Yellow Sea
a Souss Aquifer (Canary Current North)
b Senegal River basin (Canary Current South)
b Volta Basin (Guinea Current)
Lake Chad
Orange-Vaal River Basin (Benguela Current)
b Tana/Ahti/Sabaki (Somali Coastal Current)
d Rufiji/Ruvuma(Somali Coastal Current)
Jordan
a South PNG and Papua (Coral Sea Basin)
Pacific Islands b Central Equatorial Pacific (Eastern Equatorial Pacific) : . * , . :
Higher incomes stimulate greater consumption of . : goods and services, the production of which requires water. -
Income levels are rising in many countries, particularly in The Souss-Massa River Basin in Morocco covers an area of km². China and India, in parallel with economic growth. Decou- Although the basin lies within only one country, much of its water pling income growth from water consumption is one of the is used to produce high value export crops, and such consumption greatest challenges to water management. patterns illustrate the concept of virtual water discussed in Box . Urbanisation is another demographic trend resulting in Intensive irrigation development to supply the vegetable and citrus greater water use. e proportion of the world’s population fruit export industry, in combination with urban, tourism and industrial growth, led to chronic water scarcity in this arid to semi-arid region. residing in cities was only in the early s and still only in the s. Since then, the urban population has grown The Souss and Massa rivers are the primary sources of surface water rapidly, and more than of people are expected to live in in the Basin. Available surface water normally ranges from to cities by ( ). Urbanisation has had two critical million m³ annually, but can be as low as million m³ in dry years. Groundwater is obtained from two major aquifers: impacts on transboundary freshwater use. Firstly, many cities
divert enormous volumes of surface water or overexploit aqui- The Souss aquifer, which covers km² and has an estimated fers. Secondly, untreated or inadequately treated sewage from capacity of billion m³.
these cities is a major source of pollution. The Chtoukas aquifer, which covers km² and has an estimated Along the Rio Grande/Rio Bravo border between capacity of billion m³.
Mexico and the United States, population growth and the The causal chain analysis undertaken by the regional team identified expansion of industrial and agricultural activities has led to that the following root causes resulted in the lowering of the water unsustainable water use (Rio Grande/Rio Bravo (Gulf of table in the Souss-Massa Basin:
Mexico/b)). A major study in predicted that the total Inefficient irrigation systems and inappropriate well-digging population of the Las Cruces/El Paso/Juarez region could techniques: flood irrigation still supports nearly of irrigated land. leap from million to million by . Such growth would Population growth and increasing personal consumption levels: put great stress on the region’s water resources. Even today, the population of the basin is expected to almost double by the major cities rely on deep wells to abstract water from compared with ; and domestic water use per capita is expected aquifers. e discharge of inadequately treated wastewater in to increase from to over litres per day by . Mexico and non-point pollution sources on both sides of the Socio-cultural constraints: water was traditionally considered a border further degrades the region’s limited water resources. public and free resource, which has led to water being heavily subsidised and used wastefully. Agricultural demand and trade Poor governance and enforcement of water regulations: top-down A growing population consumes more food which, in turn, decision-making and weak institutional capacity have hampered requires larger volumes of water. Irrigation-based agriculture local participation in the decision-making process and constrained has contributed of the increases in food production since regulatory enforcement. the s. In most areas, the diversion of rivers and increased However, there is hope for the future, as Morocco has radically changed water storage capacity has facilitated irrigation development. its water policies. The water law is based on the principles of In a few areas, including parts of South Asia, groundwater Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM), and emphasises extraction makes irrigation possible. In the drought-prone basin-wide water management. The government is also encouraging Canary Current region/, irrigated agriculture consumes the use of micro-irrigation and other efficient irrigation methods. close to of water withdrawals (Box ). Advanced irrigation systems are now commonly used in greenhouses Irrigation water is often used extremely inefficiently. for export crops. Other improved practices, such as integrated pest For example, in the arid Senegal River Basin, less than management, are also becoming more common. The water law of the water is used productively, particularly in rice and mar- needs to be fully implemented, so that traditional and modern water harvesting systems are considered in future plans for drainage basin ket gardening crop fields. Many farmers do not recognise the and water resources development. economic cost of wasting water or lack the capital to install appropriate irrigation systems. (: /) :
water-intensive goods. On the other hand, the increased price . of export crops following trade liberalisation can lead to the Producing goods and services requires water: virtual water is a term expansion of water-demanding agricultural activities. In Mo- recently developed to describe the water used to produce agricultural rocco, for example, water abstraction to irrigate export crops or industrial products. It is an important concept for calculating the total water consumption of a country, or its water footprint, which is has increased foreign exchange but at the cost of lowering equal to total domestic use, plus virtual water imports, minus virtual the water table of the Souss Aquifer (Canary Current/). A water exports. similar problem is reported in the Rufiji-Ruvuma sub-system in East Africa. Trade in virtual water has increased steadily over the last years: about of water used worldwide for export is virtual water. The e concept of virtual water is proving useful in under- global virtual water trade is estimated to be more than km³ an- standing the volume of water implicitly traded via goods or nually, of which is from crops, from livestock and from services (Box ). industrial products.
Virtual water trade not only generates water savings for importing Hydropower demand countries, but also global real water savings from differentials in water Hydropower accounts for almost of worldwide electricity productivity, which may amount to billion m³ for food trade alone. production, and there is potential for further growth, espe-
: ( . , ) cially in developing countries. Although hydropower has been at the centre of success- ful regional and national development projects, many of these e Aral Sea/ region needs to modernise its irriga- projects have resulted in unnecessarily high environmental, tion systems and practices, which were inherited from the social and economic costs. Downstream countries and their Soviet era. e regional team identified critical obsta- ecosystems are the most impacted by the associated water cles to improving water management, including: flow changes. Of all the regions that conducted a causal Absence of inter-state agreements, which are necessary chain analysis related to the modification of stream flow, Aral given the transboundary nature of the major drainage ba- Sea/, Gulf of California/, North Canary Current/a, sins; Guinea Current/ and Somali Coastal Current/ identi- Continuation of centralised planning and regulation of fied hydropower and irrigation as main sectors responsible water resources; for increased diversion of freshwater resources. In the Somali Poor condition of irrigation systems; Coastal Current/ region, less than of the potential Smallholder farms cannot introduce modern large-scale hydropower is harnessed, yet the downstream impacts of hy- water saving technologies. dropower developments on freshwater availability are already apparent. Environmental problems from irrigation are not limited to e potential for hydropower development has only just developing countries. In the Australian Bight & Muray Dar- begun to be utilised in many developing regions. In the Me- ling Basin (Great Australian Bight/), more than a century kong River/ Basin, only hydropower facilities have been of agricultural development has required the construction of constructed, representing of potential development. An more than dams and weirs. Up to of water flow additional GWh per year could be exploited, mainly has been diverted, primarily for agriculture, resulting in the in the Yunnan Province of China, Lao PDR and Cambo- extensive alteration of riverine ecology. Irrigation has also dia, to meet surging electricity demand in Southeast Asia and changed the water table and caused the widespread salinisa- China. Many of the probable environmental and social costs tion of groundwater, which has degraded cropland, damaged from future hydropower projects could be avoided if improved infrastructure and caused widespread loss of wetlands and practices and designs were adopted, taking into account the biodiversity. recommendations by the World Commission on Dams. Trade poses both risks and opportunities for trans- boundary water resources. It can promote more efficient use of water by encouraging water abundant regions to produce :
Market failures out of the world’s water subsidies, amounting to bil- Market mechanisms do not automatically lead to the sustain- lion USD annually (Pearce ). Irrigation farmers are the able use of water resources. Two market failures are particu- main recipients and in many regions in the southern larly notable for transboundary issues. Firstly, preventing hemisphere they are not charged for this water. Subsidised users from accessing water resources through institutional irrigation water is a problem in the majority of the and physical means is difficult, resulting in overuse and causal chain analyses of freshwater shortage, including the under-investment. Secondly, water consumption by upstream Aral Sea/, Gulf of California/, Canary Current/, Lake users reduces the quantity and sometimes the quality of water Chad/ and Benguela Current/. for downstream users. Water subsidies allow farmers to grow water-intensive In the Lake Chad/ region, there is little evidence that crops, like alfalfa, citrus or rice, in water scarce regions, and the large irrigation and water development projects in Nigeria gives them no incentive to invest in water saving devices and provide any net economic benefits. In fact, it is likely that the new technologies. Furthermore, irrigation subsidies also tend projects have generated negative returns because of the large to favour wealthier rather than poorer farmers and consumers. capital costs and the extensive loss of environmental goods Water is greatly underpriced in the Yellow Sea/ re- and services previously provided by downstream wetlands. gion. In China, industrial water use is to times less ef- It is estimated that the decline in the wetlands represent an ficient than in industrialised countries, and only - of economic cost to the downstream communities of approxi- irrigation water is effectively utilised, resulting in an annual mately million USD (discussed in Box ). loss of . million tonnes of grain. e regional team e prices consumers from industrialised countries pay noted that market-based pricing of water would help increase for crops imported from the southern hemisphere do not in- efficiency and encourage the use of new technologies. clude the actual costs of excessive water use. Irrigation water charges in the Souss-Massa Basin (Canary Current/) are averaging only one-tenth of urban Policy failures water charges and generating revenues less than of the Policy interventions frequently create or aggravate environ- actual cost of the water. is policy encourages farmers to mental problems, such as establishing inappropriate subsidies waste water and generates insufficient funds to upgrade irri- that encourage the overexploitation of water. e subsidies gation systems. e government’s recent pricing reforms aim and trade distortions of the United States and EU severely im- to gradually increase water irrigation prices, but at a rate too pact agriculture and the water economy of developing coun- slow to achieve any short-term results. tries. e failure of governments to take action can also affect Efforts to privatise water supply and wastewater treat- international waters. For example, in the Yellow Sea/ region ment in developing countries has proved challenging as local investment in pollution prevention and wastewater treatment, users often strongly resist price increases (which reduce sub- and stronger enforcement of regulations may have averted sidies). some of the social and economic costs caused by pollution. Additional agricultural subsidies, especially for energy, Policies implemented by governments in the Aral Sea/ fertilizers and pesticides, also have considerable impacts on Basin failed to reduce water withdrawals for cotton farms, water use. ese subsidies are especially high in developed causing the Aral Sea to shrink to a fraction of its former size. countries, averaging billion USD annually in the late e policy failures include: (i) inadequate use of scientific s, compared with billion USD in non- countries information in the decision-making process; (ii) the lack of a (Pearce ). Energy subsidies for extracting water from clearly formulated legal framework; (iii) water prices that do aquifers have resulted in lower water tables in several regions, not reflect the full costs of water use; and (iv) the absence of a such as the Bay of Bengal/, Gulf of Mexico/ and Gulf of regional water strategy. California/.
Inappropriate economic incentives Knowledge gaps and lack of public engagement Prices, subsidies and taxes often inadvertently discourage ef- Knowledge gaps regarding freshwater resources have been ficient water use. Governments in developing countries give identified by many regional teams. A strong knowl- :
edge base is essential for understanding the nature of water tion, greater pollution and global climate change may cause resources and human needs and for identifying priorities for extreme water scarcity. In many parts of the world, a shortage policy makers to address. Unfortunately, a lack of techni- of clean water is predicted to be the most serious threat to fu- cal and financial resources, and fragmented organisations are ture socio-economic development. considerable obstacles to building a knowledge base, espe- e apparent difficulties in managing freshwater re- cially in developing countries. sources have led to the development of a framework: In- Information on transboundary aquifers is particularly tegrated Water Resources Management (). Accord- deficient. In reflection of this substantial knowledge gap, ing to the Global Water Partnership ( ), is regional teams often assessed changes in the water table “a process that promotes the coordinated development and only by using indirect indicators, such as the construction of management of water, land and related resources in order to deeper wells and the degradation of subsurface water quality. maximise the resultant economic and social welfare in an Many hydrogeologists and international organisations have equitable manner without compromising the sustainability acknowledged that the lack of information on transboundary of vital ecosystems”. Sustainable development is impossible aquifers is a major impediment to water resources manage- without better environmental management, particularly of ment. It has led to the establishment of the International freshwater resources. ere are widespread demands for the Shared Aquifer Resource Management () project in decoupling of environmental pressure from economic growth. , with the support of , , and . is is crucial considering the likelihood of rapid economic Information needs to be communicated to stakeholders, growth in developing countries with large populations. More including local communities. e Pacific Island/ regional efficient infrastructure should be developed to facilitate the experts recognised the need to increase public awareness of sustainable use of water resources. Solutions must improve water use issues and of the impact of poor land management. environmental quality whilst maintaining human welfare and Similarly, Senegalese communities downstream of sugar pro- economic development. cessors are poorly informed of the dangers posed by the con- e paradigm shift of water management towards inte- tamination of their water supply (Canary Current/). grated approaches is closely linked with the recognition that ose excluded from participating in the decision-mak- entire river basins and their estuaries and adjacent coastal ing process are often the most affected by unsustainable water areas are single planning units. ere is also a greater appre- management, e.g. the Senegalese communities discussed ciation for demand-side management, rather than increasing above. Stakeholder participation is not only a matter of eq- supply by building new infrastructure. It complements the uity; it also has implications for policy efficiency, implemen- move away from focusing exclusively on the direct economic tation effectiveness and the longevity of an initiative. e benefits of engineered structures to understanding their full major irrigation projects in the Lake Chad/ Basin, in both environmental, economic and social effects. Inappropri- Cameroon and Nigeria, are classic examples of failed stake- ate subsidies which benefit a minority of water users are also holder engagement. In both countries, consultation was lim- slowly giving way to water prices that reflect the actual costs. ited to government officials with project proponents ignoring floodplain communities, which ultimately were the most af- Demand management fected by the projects (the impacts are described in Box ). Demand management aims to change the way people and in- stitutions use water in order to improve efficiency and reduce the need for expensive infrastructure development. e regional teams identified demand management as an alterna- POLICY RELEVANT CONCLUSIONS tive or complement to the conventional approach of increas- ing supply by expanding infrastructure. e regional teams predicted that freshwater shortage e experts who prepared the Guinea Current/ will increase in severity in over two-thirds of the fresh- regional report stressed the importance of demand manage- water systems by . In the arid and semi-arid re- ment. Specific actions recommended for the urban water gions, the accumulative impact of increased water consump- sector included: (i) minimising distribution losses; (ii) en- :
couraging industries to introduce water saving technologies tional campaigns for “turning the desert green” by irrigation and practices; and (iii) optimising reservoir management. have largely proved unsustainable. eir counterparts in the Central Equatorial Pacific (Eastern regional experts also suggested subsidies that en- Equatorial Pacific/b) recommended implementing water courage the adoption of environmentally friendly practices. reuse practices and providing users with guidance for opti- e Gulf of Mexico/ regional team recommended introduc- mising their water use. In the Benguela Current/, the three ing eco-payments, in which wetland owners are paid for the national governments have historically impounded water as a wastewater treatment services provided by their wetlands. means to control the highly variable supply, but only recently Subsidies to implement water conservation measures were have they begun to manage water demand. recommended for farmers in locations as diverse as north- e provision of appropriate economic incentives, ern Nigeria and Southwest United States (Lake Chad/ and mainly through the reformulation of subsidies, is a funda- Gulf of California/). mental component of any effective demand management programme. Although subsidy reforms are plausible, they International cooperation are difficult to implement politically. Whilst many regional Upstream and downstream countries may have different, but reports discuss the need to reduce water subsidies, concrete legitimate, interests regarding water use and management examples remain rare. Hungary successfully rolled back do- which can potentially lead to conflict. e international com- mestic water subsidies in the s, which reduced household munity has devised principles for the use of water in order to water consumption by around (Black Sea/). Demand avoid such conflicts. ese principles are proclaimed in the management in agriculture means the replacement of water- Convention on the Law of the Non-Navigational Uses of intensive crops, like citrus fruits and bananas, by less water International Watercourses () and the Convention demanding crops or grassland, despite reduced revenues. Na- on the Protection and Use of Transboundary Watercourses and International Lakes (). However, the practicality of
.
Contributing Potential policy instruments Underlying root causes sector Short-term Long-term Modification of stream flow
Inter-state cooperation Inadequate integration of environmental Adoption of modern water saving technologies considerations Development of normative concepts and Grant subsidies for implementing water Lack of clear water strategy legislation conservation measures Agriculture Unclear legal framework Implementation of appropriate water-economising Institutionalise water market Inadequate planning of water usage technologies Encourage public participation in the planning Inadequate incentives Campaigns to raise public awareness and implementation of development activities Insufficient land use management Improved land use and management practices
Common pool resources International legal agreements Monitoring and treatment facilities for Energy Inadequate implementation of improved Enhancement of enforcement mechanisms rehabilitation of water quality production technology Convert electricity subsidies Improved efficiency of dams and stream flow Ineffective promotion of compliance Promote energy-saving technology
Regional international cooperation agreements Rapid population growth Domestic water Initiate shared management of water resources Integrated management Migration supply Set up viable networks for information collection Strengthen family planning programmes Lack of land use planning Development of land use plans Pollution of existing supplies
Inadequate laws and enforcement for mining Enhancement of laws and enforcement Industry activities and industrial waste management Encourage the use of green production technology mechanisms Insufficient investment in wastewater treatment
Public awareness campaign programmes Lack of public awareness Adoption of regulations and enforcement Agriculture Legal framework to control use of pesticides and Lack of regulation for exploitation of aquifers mechanisms fertilisers
Changes in the water table
Integrated catchment and coastal management Agriculture Insufficient management of groundwater use Salinity targets Increased cooperation between government and non-governmental organisations : . :
these conventions has been limited by their vague and some- Equatorial Pacific/b) and the Pacific Islands/, recognised times contradictory language and the lack of proper enforce- the need for education to change the behaviour of producers, ment mechanisms. Consequently, the impact they have made particularly farmers, and domestic water consumers. Finally, on international water management has not met expectations. agreements must consider the specific and evolving cultural, e Atlas of International Freshwater Agreements ( political, economic and hydrological conditions of riparian ) notes that “the presence or absence of institutions [such states. as treaties] has proven to be one of the most important factors International conflicts over water are becoming more influencing co-riparian water relations, exceeding such tradi- common. Disputes over access to rivers and inland seas are tionally cited variables as climate, water availability, popu- occurring in Africa, Central and South Asia, and the Middle lation density, political orientation, and levels of economic East. For example, conflict has been provoked by development development.” projects reducing the flow of the Jordan/ River by . Despite the complexity of transboundary river basin management and the potential conflicts of interest, countries Freshwater policy and global climate change that share international waters are generally keen to cooper- Farsighted international and national freshwater policies need ate and often maintain productive relationships. is is dem- to account for global climate change in addition to the direct onstrated in many regions, including the Black Sea/, human root causes of freshwater related problems. Global Gulf of California/, Amazon/b, Canary Current/ and climate change will have varying impacts in different parts of Benguela Current/. the world, effecting vegetation and agriculture by tempera- At the international level, there is a need for a har- ture increases and shifts in the distribution and severity of monised strategy for the implementation of conventions and droughts, precipitation and natural disasters, e.g. flooding. declarations related to water. e regional assessments Global warming will also cause sea levels to rise. Changes in confirm the need for greater cooperation between riparian freshwater availability will be one of the most serious conse- countries. A cooperative management framework is absent in quences of global climate change (see Box ), which is pre- of international basins, and in many regions water dicted to gain momentum unless drastic measures are taken allocation agreements do not exist or have not been imple- to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. e Kyoto Protocol is a mented. In the Lake Chad/ Basin the regional experts step in the right direction. recommended the creation of a water allocation agreement, Water management must adapt to the effects of climate which would provide a legal framework for the equitable change by adopting a holistic approach to managing ecosys- sharing of the Basin’s water resources. Over of interna- tems on a regional basis. Several teams advocated an tional agreements involve only two countries, even though integrated approach to regional freshwater management. other countries may also share the river basin ( ). Successful agreements not only allocate water but ad- Capacity building for sustainable freshwater dress a wide range of other issues, such as hydropower, tour- management ism and regional development. A fair distribution of benefits A new generation of scientists and managers is needed to is more likely to result in a win-win agreement, whereas fo- address freshwater shortages and the other water problems. cusing solely on water volume can stall negotiations because To develop and implement integrated concepts, natural and the water received by one country equals the water loss of its social scientists, and policy makers, need to cooperate lo- neighbour. e Pacific Islands/ experts explicitly note that cally and regionally. Existing expertise has to be enhanced all stakeholder groups, in addition to the environment, must and coordinated. However, in most parts of the world there benefit from new water resources strategies in order for them are insufficient human resources. According to the as- to succeed. sessments, scientific and technical capacity regarding water e mechanisms to promote participation, compliance, research and management needs strengthening. Training pro- enforcement and conflict resolution are especially important. grammes should instil an understanding and appreciation of In addition to crucial monitoring and enforcement efforts, the complex interactions between freshwater shortage, climate regions, such as the Central Equatorial Pacific (Eastern change, pollution, overfishing, and habitat modification. : , . (: .// )
:
Ocean currents and rivers transport various pollutants over large distances with transboundary consequences. Complex synergies between the various contaminants can increase the overall environmental impact. Globally, the severity of the various pollutants varies considerably. Suspended matter, resulting mainly from deforestation and agricultural activity, has degraded aquatic ecosystems the most extensively, particularly in POLLUTION the tropics and subtropics. While eutrophication is widespread in temperate regions, hotspots of microbial pollution are extensive in Central America, North Africa & Middle East and Europe & Central Asia. Solid wastes are dumped into rivers, lakes, coastal waters and the high seas throughout the world, but are particularly prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa. Chemical pollution, originating predominantly from agricultural run-off and industrial and domestic effluents, is severe in several regions. At a mega-regional level, oil spills and radio-nuclides were not considered to cause severe transboundary impacts. e root causes of pollution are again agricultural development, population growth, urbanization and industrialization, as well as market and policy failures. In most regions it is not the lack of regulations but their weak enforcement that hinders progress. Appropriate economic incentives and greater public awareness are therefore required. :
e focuses on eight critical transboundary pollution . issues (see Annex II): All pollutants can be transported through the aquatic environment (i) suspended solids; (ii) eutrophication; (iii) microbial and atmosphere, and many accumulate in downstream water pollution; (iv) solid wastes; (v) chemical pollution; (vi) bodies and their biota. The probability that pollution will cause oil spills; (vii) radionuclides; and (viii) thermal pollution. is transboundary impacts depends on the location of its source in re- last issue is not discussed further in this report as it was gen- lation to national boundaries, as well as the time it takes for a given erally not considered to be a transboundary issue. pollutant to degrade. In general, microbial pollution is primarily a Pollution is often transboundary as hydrological in- local problem, whereas suspended solids, hydrocarbons and nu- terlinkages between river basins, marine ecosystems and the trients pose a risk over larger spatial areas. The risk of transbound- atmosphere result in effects far from the source of emissions ary impacts tends to be highest for persistent organic pollutants (POPs), particularly substances that readily migrate between water (Box ). is global synopsis provides a broad overview of and air (such as DDT and mercury). Although other persistent pol- transboundary pollution based on the regional reports. lutants, such as PCBs and heavy metals (e.g. cadmium), are less Many of the reports assess pollution impacts on smaller geo- mobile, they also have transboundary aspects. As pollution tran- graphic scales and should be consulted for more detailed in- scends national boundaries, international cooperation is required formation. to reduce human and environmental health risks.
Global situation and trends Transboundary pollution is the top priority concern in a coral reefs, seagrasses and riverine habitats in one fifth of quarter of all regional reports, and a further third the regions/sub-systems, including the Caribbean of the regional teams ranked it as the second most serious Sea/, Brazil Current/ and East African Rift Valley concern. Lakes/, and all regions in Southeast Asia. Pollution has a severe overall impact in more regions than Microbial pollution, primarily from untreated or inad- any other concern (Figure ). equately treated human and livestock sewage, is a severe Suspended solids, which have increased mainly as a result health issue in many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, South- of deforestation and agricultural practices, severely affect east and Northeast Asia, and Central and South America.
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Eutrophication is prevalent in many of the lakes, rivers ENVIRONMENTAL AND and semi-enclosed seas of Europe & Central Asia and SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS Sub-Saharan Africa. Evidence from Northeast Asia and the Gulf of Mexico indicates that eutrophication is an emerging problem in open coastal marine environments. Suspended solids e dumping of solid wastes is a priority issue in many More than half of the regional teams identified sus- rivers and coastal areas of Sub-Saharan Africa, in Small pended solids as having severe or moderate impacts, concen- Island Developing States (), parts of the Indonesian trated particularly in tropical regions (Figure ). Increased Seas/ and along stretches of the Rio Grande (Gulf of erosion and sediment mobilisation, caused by agricultural Mexico/b). practices, deforestation and construction, is resulting in Chemical pollution is a transboundary issue at several higher concentrations of suspended solids. Conversely, river hotspots in Central America, West Africa, South Asia, diversion and damming often results in reduced sediment and Southeast Asia, as well as the Jordan River/, Aral transport. Excessive suspended solids increase turbidity and Sea/ and the Arctic Rim. siltation, while reduced sediment yields may lead to coastal e impact of oil spills was assessed as severe in the Ca- erosion and lower primary productivity as nutrients are often ribbean Sea/, Niger Basin/c and Benguela Current/. bound to suspended solids. e same water body may expe- By , the environmental impacts of pollution are pre- rience environmental impacts from both increased and de- dicted to increase in severity in over three-quarters of creased suspended solids, but in different locations. regions/sub-systems, making this the most negative Sediments can smother coral reefs, seagrass beds and future outlook for any of the concerns (Figure ). riverine gravel beds that are important spawning habitats for fish. A high concentration of suspended solids also tends to decrease the productivity of an ecosystem by reducing the penetration of sunlight through the water column, particu- larly affecting benthic ecosystems. Increased sediment trans- :
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port related to intensive deforestation can change down- agriculture and mining has increased riverbed and coastal stream floodplains and river deltas, thus impacting flora and zone siltation, which is impeding navigation along the heav- fauna. ily transited São Francisco River. Erosion from land-use e Brazil Current/ region illustrates both the com- changes in Paraná state (Brazil) has increased river turbid- plexity and the potential severity of the impacts of increased ity considerably, resulting in higher water treatment costs for suspended sediments. e deforestation of large areas for over cities. e diversion and damming of waterways has
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trapped sediments in reservoirs, which has negatively affected the sediment erosion-accretion dynamics of most rivers in the eastern part of the region. Extensive erosion of the coastline resulting from reduced sediment accretion is destroying the fringes of mangrove forests and dunes. In the Caribbean, deforestation, inappropriate manage- ment of agricultural land, mining and urbanisation have in- creased erosion rates and resulted in greater sediment loads in streams, rivers and coastal waters (Figure ). Deforestation to clear land for agriculture is considered the most signifi- cant cause of erosion, particularly in Jamaica and Haiti. e prevalence of suspended sediments has decreased biodiver- sity, severely degrading shallow coastal waters. For example, increased sedimentation and turbidity have adversely affected coral reefs by reducing light penetration necessary for photo- synthesis, as well as scouring and smothering corals. Greater . , . turbidity in coastal waters and elevated algal cover on reefs ( ). is attributed to nutrient enrichment and sedimentation from (: ) coastal development, particularly in Puerto Rico and the Ba- hamas. and nutrient loads have transformed significant stretches of Large quantities of sediment enter Lake Tanganyika Lake Tanganyika’s shoreline from rocky substrates to mixed (East African Rift Valley Lakes/) as a result of increased or sandy substrates. erosion caused by land-use changes in its catchment. Sat- In the Indonesian Seas/ region, the limited size ellite images revealed that, as early as , - of the of river catchments and high rates of deforestation leads original forest cover in the Lake’s central basin and almost to extensive sediment run-off (Figure ). In the Java Sea, in the northern basin had been cleared. Increased ero- enormous quantities of sediment are discharged into coastal sion resulting from the same pattern of converting forests to waters, carrying particle-bound nutrients which stimulate farms has also affected Lake Malawi. e loss of soil not only widespread eutrophication. Figure shows reefs at risk due threatens agricultural production for rural communities but to sedimentation in the region. Sedimentation has been det- negatively impacts water quality. e increasing sediment rimental to tourism, the artisanal fisheries and aquaculture.
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Eutrophication . Elevated concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus in aquatic systems has resulted from the increased application Hypoxia occurs when the decomposition of organic matter causes the concentration of dissolved oxygen to fall below ml/l. As a of fertilizers, the discharge of industrial and domestic waste, result, aquatic organisms are deprived of oxygen and many die. animal production, the combustion of fossil fuels and nutri- Several GIWA regional assessments reported dead zones consist- ent mobilisation due to land clearing. ese additional nutri- ing of hundreds or even thousands of square kilometres of hypoxic ents stimulate algal growth and alter the balance between the water. They have become increasingly common in the world’s production and decomposition of organic matter, leading to lakes, estuaries and coastal zones, with serious impacts on local eutrophication in many parts of the world (Figure ). fisheries, biodiversity and ecosystem functions. Extensive dead e proliferation of fast-growing algae increases fish zones have been observed for many years in the Baltic Sea/, Black stocks in the short-term but decreases species diversity. Oxy- Sea/ and Gulf of Mexico/. gen concentrations are depleted when large volumes of or- The GIWA assessment has compiled information on dead zones in ganic matter decompose, causing the widespread degradation the Southern Hemisphere, including several lagoons in the Brazil of aquatic habitats. Eutrophication can generate large hy- Current/ region, coastal locations in the Humboldt Current/ poxic zones, a phenomenon which is increasing in frequency region, and in the Yangtze River estuary located in the East China Sea/ region. and severity on a global scale (Box ). A number of regional teams have noted that hypoxic zones and harmful algal blooms (s) are the most visible ecosystem reactions trophic level of the food web, comparable to the concept of to eutrophication (e.g. Black Sea/, Gulf of Mexico/, Baltic ‘fishing down the food web’ (see the chapter on overfishing Sea/, Brazil Current/ and Pacific Islands/). More subtle and other threats to living resources). changes include shifts in the food web, resulting in changes e transboundary inland and semi-enclosed seas of to phytoplankton, zooplankton and benthic communities, as Europe are significantly affected by land-based pollutants, well as fish populations. e initial increase in primary and especially nutrients from excessive fertilizer application in secondary production often leads to a decline in the mean their catchments, which tend to accumulate in the waters and :
sediments due to limited water exchange. In the Baltic and fishes. Wetlands in the Congo River Basin are also suffering Black Seas, the increased frequency of algal blooms followed from eutrophication, which is attributed to the flat morphol- by extended hypoxic events has affected the ecosystems of the ogy of the coastal plains and the discharge of insufficiently region (Box ). treated wastewater from the many cities in the Basin (Guinea e assessments highlighted the widespread Current/d). transboundary effects of eutrophication in freshwater sys- Although the extent of eutrophication in coastal ma- tems. is is evident in lakes, such as Lake Victoria, where rine areas is largely restricted to estuaries and inner shelf eutrophication combined with overfishing and the intro- areas, its expansion into open marine areas, such as the Gulf duction of alien species has altered the Lake’s ecosystem of Mexico/, is recognised as a future threat. Higher water and consequently decreased the variety of endemic cichlid
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The Black Sea is one of the world’s largest th century. Today, nearly tonnes via ship ballasts, have proliferated at the inland seas, with twenty-three countries of nitrogen and more than tonnes detriment of native species (see Box in the partially or completely contained within its of phosphorus enter the Black Sea annu- chapter on overfishing). catchment area. Three of the four largest riv- ally. Communities in the basin discharge The degradation of the Black Sea has re- ers in Europe flow into the Black Sea, namely, million m³ of wastewater every year, sulted in substantial economic costs. For the Danube, Dnipro and Don, and more than much of it untreated. example, tourism revenues have declined by million people live in its catchment area. The high nutrient loads have resulted in an estimated million USD annually, and In the past years, human activity has extensive eutrophication in the northwest coastal communities lose million USD transformed the Black Sea from a diverse of the Black Sea, the Azov Sea and the lower every year from reduced fishing yields. ecosystem supporting varied marine life to a sections of the Danube and Dnipro rivers. In The countries surrounding the Black Sea in- eutrophic plankton-based system. Eutrophi- , a hypoxic area of km² covered creasingly recognise the need to cooperate cation was identified by the GIWA regional shallow parts of the Black Sea in addition in addressing pollution. National water poli- team as the most critical environmental to the permanently hypoxic deep waters of cies are being adapted to conform to the EU issue, primarily caused by excessive nutrient the Black Sea basin. Harmful phytoplankton Water Framework Directive. This will create loading from agricultural run-off () and blooms and toxic red tides have become a greater harmonisation and integration re- sewage discharges (). The application of regular occurrence in the last years. While garding environmental protection and water fertilizers in the Black Sea drainage basin in- native species diversity has been reduced by management, and ultimately, improve the creased rapidly during the second half of the eutrophication, invasive species, introduced environmental conditions of the Black Sea.
Despite this progress, eutrophication and harmful algal blooms are expected to in- crease in prevalence and severity by . Although additional sewage treatment fa- cilities are planned, the region will still lack the capacity to treat increasing quantities of wastewater. Improvements in agricultural practices owing to the adoption of EU envi- ronmental policies will reduce nutrient load- ing in the Danube River Basin. On the other hand, greater fertilizer application in Russia, Belarus and the Ukraine will increase nutri- ent loads discharged by the Don and Dnipro rivers. This differing outlook for the region’s various river basins highlights the need to adopt integrated transnational approaches to rehabilitate the entire Black Sea. (: /) :
temperatures resulting from climate change may exacerbate . : eutrophication.
e Humboldt Current/ region, shared by Chile, Between and , the Ecuador and Peru, produces more than of the world’s number of harmful algal total fisheries output. e numerous fish processing plants, blooms (HABs) in the East which discharge their wastes directly into the ocean, are a China Sea have increased major source of nutrient enrichment in coastal waters. is from to events per causes eutrophication and hypoxia in semi-enclosed bays, year and they cover an area of up to km². The particularly in Peru, which are also susceptible to toxic algal blooms have caused the blooms. e growing aquaculture sector is another important mortality of fish and ben- source of nutrients for eutrophication. e amount of waste thic animals, resulting in considerable environmental and socio- produced by Chilean salmon farms is comparable to that economic costs. The blooms mostly occur in the inner shelf of the generated by a city of over million inhabitants. For more Yangtze (Changjiang) River. This has been attributed to a in- information on the fisheries and aquaculture industry, see the crease in fertilizer application in the catchment area, particularly in chapter on overfishing and other threats to living resources. the upstream and coastal provinces of Anhui and Jiangsu.
Eutrophication favours the development of s, in- (: /) cluding red tides. Red tide events, originally referring to red- dish-coloured algal blooms, is now a term used to character- ise the explosive growth of toxin-producing microbes that can cause disease or mortality in fish, wildlife and consumers of contaminated shellfish. In eutrophic freshwater systems, blooms of cyanobacteria and other potentially harmful algae are common. For example, hepatotoxins released by algal blooms in eutrophic reservoirs of Brazil have poisoned hun- dreds of people. In the Yellow and East China Seas, increases in the frequency, extent and duration of s since the s e Sea of Japan/, which is bordered by China, Japan, are correlated with increased use of fertilizers (Box ). Even North and South Korea and Russia, is also experiencing if s are confined to relatively restricted areas, they are harmful effects from eutrophication, including a decline in often transboundary in nature as the nutrient source is from the aesthetic value of lakes and reservoirs, reduced drinking another country and/or the contaminated shellfish are ex- water quality and s. Although all the countries in the re- ported. Furthermore, organisms are transported over gion recognise that inadequate treatment of human waste and long distances by shipping traffic. agricultural run-off are the major causes of eutrophication, Eutrophication has been a contributing factor in reduc- the developing countries cannot afford secondary and teritary ing fisheries production. In the Yellow Sea/, for example, treatment that is necessary to reduce the nutrient and organic it has caused drastic declines in catches of penaeid shrimps loads of rivers, lakes and the sea. (Penaeus spp.) and scallops (Pecten spp.). In many parts of Sub-Saharan Africa, including the Comoe River, Niger Microbial pollution Delta and East African Rift Valley Lakes, eutrophication of In many regions, inadequately treated human sewage is rivers and lakes has contributed to the “explosion” of aquatic the major source of microbial pathogenic pollution. Improved weeds, particularly Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). sanitation is one of the fundamental Millennium Develop- ese weeds have clogged waterways, disrupted navigation ment Goals (s), which is discussed further in the chapter routes, reduced hydroelectric power generation and increased on freshwater shortage. Animal wastes are also an impor- water treatment costs. e , and the World Bank tant contributor, especially near large industrial farms such are funding projects to control invasive aquatic weeds in Lake as those located around the Upper Uruguay River in Brazil Victoria and the Comoe Basin. (Patagonian Shelf/). e contamination of public water :
supplies or bathing waters by infectious pathogens creates se- rious health problems, particularly in low-income areas with inadequate drinking water treatment, sanitation facilities or drainage basin protection. Pathogens can accumulate in fil- ter-feeding molluscs and other seafood, posing health risks to human consumers. Microbial pollution is normally localised, but its root causes and consequences can be transboundary. According to the regional teams, many international freshwater sys- tems suffer from severe microbial pollution. Marine micro- bial pollution was assessed as severe in the Gulf of Mexico/, Caribbean Small Islands/a, Comoe Basin (Guinea Current/ a), Indonesian Seas/a and the Eastern Equatorial Pacific/ c. e high bacterial counts recorded in many bays of the Small Islands/a were attributed to failed septic systems, inadequate or lacking wastewater treatment and discharges . , from vessels, including cruise liners. In Indonesia, all major (: . ) rivers in Jawa and Sumatra, as well as coastal areas in the Jawa Sea, have elevated coliform concentrations, and conse- problem as rivers and ocean currents transport land-based quently the incidence of bacterial gastro-enteric disorders has and ship-borne wastes across vast distances. Improperly dis- recently increased due to the consumption of contaminated posed solid wastes provide breeding environments for vermin, fisheries products. which may, in turn, become disease vectors. regional e aquaculture industry in many developing regions, teams determined that solid wastes are a common problem such as the Bay of Bengal/, Humboldt Current/ and in the majority of regions, but are particularly severe in South China Sea/, has been adversely affected by trans- many regions of Africa, the Pacific Islands/ and on Sunda boundary microbial pollution as the contamination of sea- in the Indonesian Seas/ region. food has resulted in reduced exports. Solid waste is the most severe pollution issue for the Microbial pollution is extensive in the Humboldt Indian Ocean Islands/b. At least . million tonnes of solid Current/ region, with high coliform concentrations re- waste is generated annually in the region, of which only corded along the entire Southeast Pacific coastline. Over is collected routinely. In addition to impacting coastal and of wastewater from Peru, Ecuador and Chile is discharged marine ecosystems, solid wastes also affect local tourism, without treatment. Diarrhoea, caused by poor sanitation damage fishing nets and jeopardise the safety and livelihood conditions, is mainly responsible for the high rates of child of fishers and recreational boaters. Solid wastes, especially mortality and morbidity in Ecuador and Peru. Municipal containers, provide a habitat for mosquitoes, and have sub- wastewater treatment is also inadequate in the Patagonian sequently increased the prevalence of malaria in Madagascar Shelf/ region. e coastal states of Brazil, Argentina and and Comoros. Uruguay only have the capacity to treat - of their efflu- In the Caribbean Islands/ region, a large proportion ent. Intensive poultry and swine breeding facilities in Brazil of marine debris originates from shipping traffic. In addition also contribute large quantities of microbial pollutants to the to locally produced solid waste, an estimated tonnes Uruguay River Basin. of solid waste is generated annually by the million tour- ists who visit the Caribbean, many on cruise liners. e ports Solid wastes in the region lack waste collection facilities and many ships Solid wastes, such as fishnets, and plastics and rubbish from dump their waste at sea. e large quantity of marine debris households and industry, are a major aesthetic nuisance and deposited on beaches impacts tourism, the cornerstone of the can harm fish and other wildlife. ey are a transboundary region’s economy. :
Chemical pollution Islands/ region is often higher downstream from agricul- In the methodology (see Annex II), chemical pollution tural areas known to use pesticides. In Jamaica, for example, refers primarily to persistent organic pollutants (s) (e.g. an increase in fish mortality in coastal areas occurs seasonally s, dioxins, furans, and toxaphene) and heavy met- when pesticides are applied to coffee plantations. als (e.g. mercury and cadmium). ese toxic chemicals are ubiquitous as they travel long distances dissolved in water, Oil Spills adhered to sediments, transported by air or transferred in the Oil tankers, vessel accidents, coastal oil refineries and pipe- food chain, but usually only in small concentrations. How- lines are all potential sources of spills which can cause sig- ever, there are chemical pollution hotspots which pose sig- nificant, although mostly short-term, impacts on the envi- nificant health risks to humans and wildlife. Although chem- ronment. Lakes and semi-enclosed seas, such as the Black ical pollution was considered severe in only nine regions, in a Sea/, Caspian Sea/, and Baltic Sea/, are particularly further the impacts were assessed as moderate. vulnerable to the impacts of oil spills due to limited or no In the Arctic, the presence of persistent pollutants water exchange. transported by the atmosphere and currents is a major con- e impact of oil spills was assessed as severe in most of cern. Marine organisms, and consequently food, obtain s the transboundary waters of the Caribbean Sea/, Niger Basin from the surrounding environment and indirectly through (Guinea Current/c) and Benguela Current/. In the future, biomagnification in marine food webs, resulting in consump- oils spills are most likely in areas already intensely exploited for tion restrictions for specific species. Exposure to s in oil and around oil fields currently under development. some Greenland districts is among the highest ever mea- Nearly oil spills in the Niger River delta were re- sured. Neurobehavioural effects from exposure have been ported between and , releasing nearly tonnes observed in children in some areas of the Arctic. of oil in total. is has resulted in groundwater contamination One of the most heavily polluted river systems in the and a loss of biodiversity in the vicinity of oil installations. Oil world is the Ganges-Brahmaputra, where chemical and mi- crobial pollution is prolific. e concentrations of several chemical contaminants, including chromium, cadmium, mercury and lead, exceed health standards by between and times in both India and Bangladesh. e Ganges River is a major recipient of industrial waste from Indian factories. Downstream in Bangladesh, about large- and me- dium-scale industries and another small-scale indus- tries also discharge their waste directly into the river. In Central America, pesticides applied to sugar cane, banana and coffee plantations have caused human mutations, miscarriages and sterility in local populations. Pesticide con- tamination is also partly responsible for reduced fish stocks in the Nicoya Gulf of Costa Rica. An ongoing / project addresses these problems by reducing the use of agri- cultural pesticides in Colombia, Costa Rica and Nicaragua. In the adjacent Small Islands of the Caribbean Sea region, agriculture is also the primary sector causing water pollution, mainly through agro-chemical leaching, direct agro-chemi- cal influx from aerial spraying and improper disposal of solid wastes. is situation is exacerbated by the increasing use of low-lying wetlands for rice cultivation, which requires heavy pesticide use. Fish mortality in the neighbouring Caribbean :
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Pollution is often just one of several human Patos/Mirim Lagoon system, located on the ment has resulted in greater sedimentation, stressors affecting an ecosystem. An ex- border between Brazil and Uruguay. The increased dredging to maintain navigation ample of a transboundary system affected lagoon system includes extensive estuarine routes, reduced tourism and increased water by multiple anthropogenic activities is the habitats that in the past provided Brazil with treatment costs. It has also invoked conflict over of its fish catches. over water quality between Uruguay and Brazil. The increased water turbidity has Over the last years, rice cultivation decreased primary productivity, which com- has become the principal agricultural bined with overfishing and pollution has activity and now uses of the water reduced fish stocks. withdrawn from the Mirim Lagoon. In addition, large amounts of biocides and The Patos/Mirim Lagoon system is an all too fertilizers are applied to the rice pad- common example of synergies between dies. The contaminated run-off pollutes multiple stressors where the combined water supplies and increases water impacts are greater than the sum of the im- treatment costs. The Patos Lagoon is pacts from individual stressors. In this case, further polluted by the discharge of do- as in many others, pollution often drives mestic sewage and industrial effluents. other environmental changes, such as habi- tat modification. Deforestation to clear land for agricul- tural expansion and urban develop- (: /)
spills frequently occur in the Russian Arctic/a and the Sea Radionuclides of Okhotsk/ due to the use of antiquated equipment. Every e transboundary impact of radionuclides was assessed as year, about spills are officially recorded severe in only two regions: the Pacific Islands/ and in western Siberia, but the actual figure the Benguela Current/. In the Pacific Islands/, there is could be significantly higher. e degrada- concern over recent nuclear weapons testing by France on tion and dissipation of hydrocarbons tends Muroroa and past tests by the United States on the Marshall to be slowed by low temperatures, so Sibe- Islands. In the Benguela Current/ region, uranium mining ria and other cold regions, such as the Bar- may have contaminated freshwater ecosystems in East Rand, ents Sea and the rest of the Russian Arctic, South Africa. e large amount of radioactive waste and the face disproportionately higher impacts from numerous nuclear submarine bases in areas of Russia border- oil spills. ing the Barents Sea and the Arctic Seas also require careful Emergency response and clean-up management. operations for large oil spills are extremely costly. In the Caribbean Islands/, the spill e interactions between the various pollutants and the other off San Juan, Puerto Rico in (Fig- concerns are highlighted in the case of Patos/Mirim ure ) required more than workers Lagoon system (Box ). and more than million USD for clean- up operations. Surveys carried out in Cuba, Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic showed that tourism revenues have been ROOT CAUSES reduced due to the pollution of beaches by marine debris and tar balls. A causal chain analysis for pollution was conducted for . regions (Tables and ). Eutrophication, chemical . , pollution and suspended solids were the issues most fre- (: ) quently targeted for analysis. :
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Targeted issues
Suspended Microbiological Oil Eutrophication Chemical pollution solids pollution spills
Immediate causes
GIWA region Deforestation Agricultural land use Agricultural run-off Transport and energy sector atmospheric inputs Aquaculture effluent Industrial and domestic discharge Deforestation Agricultural run-off Industrial and domestic discharges Discards from beach users and cruise ships Long-range atmospheric transport Industry and mining discharges Waste discharges Agricultural run-off Leaking landfills Oil extraction, refining and transport
a Russian Arctic a Mississippi River (Gulf of Mexico) Caribbean Islands Barents Sea Faroe Islands East Greenland Sea Baltic Sea Black Sea Sea of Okhotsk Sea of Japan East China Sea a Mirim Lagoon (Brazil Current) b Doce River Basin (Brazil Current) a Comoe Basin (Guinea Current) e Guinea Current (Guinea Current) b Lake Victoria (East African Rift Valley Lakes) Humboldt Current a Southwest Mexico (Eastern Equatorial Pacific) : .
is section groups the root causes of pollution into In the Humboldt Current/ region, the urban popula- three broad and interlinked categories: (i) demographic and tion has increased rapidly and now accounts for of the economic trends; (ii) market failures; and (iii) policy failures. total population of million. Migration to urban areas was
Demographic and economic trends Water consumption and wastewater generation in- creases in parallel with population growth and ur- banisation. Many regional assessments found that urban wastewater treatment coverage has failed to increase at the same rate as urban growth in develop- ing regions (Figure ). Untreated urban wastewater was identified as a major source of microbial pollu- tion and nutrients in Lake Victoria. Other regional teams that highlighted discharges from urban areas as an important source of pollutants include the Hum- boldt Current/, Eastern Equatorial Pacific/, Indian Ocean Islands/b, Guinea Current/, East China Sea/ . and Black Sea/. (: / ) :
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Potential policy instruments Contributing Underlying root causes sector Short-term Long-term
Eutrophication
Redesign agricultural subsidies to foster efficient use of Encourage alternative fertilizing techniques Subsidies for chemical fertilizers inputs Encourage R&D for bio-fertilizers Agriculture Lack of awareness and training of farmers on Information campaigns Establish riparian buffer zones the use of fertilizers Promote the adoption of effective bio-substitutes Eco-payments for natural filtering habitats
Limited funding for treatment infrastructure Provide additional infrastructure and complementary Integrate sewage infrastructure in future Urban sewage Lack of incentives to operate existing technology to treat wastewater development infrastructure
Lack of appropriate technology for treatment Introduce effluent charges of industrial waste Industry Provide additional infrastructure and cost-effective Introduce clean industrial technologies Lack of regulation, compliance and technologies. enforcement
Chemical pollution
Regulate and enforce Integrate the cleaning of industrial effluents Lack of regulations and enforcement Introduce effluent charges Industry and into sector planning regarding industrial leaks and discharges Provide necessary infrastructure mining Initiate participatory measures Absence or lack of treatment infrastructure Introduce assurance bonds Introduce cost-effective clean technologies Introduce financial incentives for clean operating industries
Limited awareness of how to use chemicals Information campaigns appropriately Promote the adoption of effective bio-substitutes Encourage R&D for bio-fertilizers Agriculture Lack of resources for supervision and control Redesign agricultural subsidies to foster efficient use of Promote alternative agricultural practices of chemical inputs inputs
Suspended solids
Improve watershed planning and management Forestry, Coordinate stakeholders in participatory Improve regulations and enforcement coastal process Lack of land use planning and governance Provide cost-effective filtering infrastructure development, Upgrade governance. Establish eco-payments to improve land use mining Establish eco-labelling Mobilise resources to enforce existing regulations
Solid waste
Revise regulations Lack of collection and disposal infrastructure Apply fines General public Low awareness of impacts Awareness campaigns Participatory measures Low compliance with regulations ”Deposit-refund” measures for selected items
Industries, Lack of regulations Review regulations Provide waste treatment and recycling municipalities, Low compliance and enforcement Provide designed disposal areas and infrastructure infrastructure transportation Limited capital and technology Enforce via fines Information campaigns
Oil spills
Lack of compliance with rules Oil Build reception facilities Lack of cleaning and waste infrastructure Regulate and enforce standards for exploitation, Strengthen compliance and enforcement with rules Lack of contingency planning at regional level refineries transportation, Foster regional dialogue and spill preparation Lack of enforcement capabilities at national Improve accident response and clean-up infrastructure Improve surveillance and traffic monitoring level
Microbiological pollution
Limited resources for treatment Provide and sustain infrastructure, technology and Integrate sewage infrastructure in future Lack of incentives to operate existing Urban sewage manpower urban development infrastructure Include treatment costs in price of water Promote use of treated water Lack of local regulations and compliance : .
triggered by low agricultural productivity and profitability, chain analysis related to eutrophication (Table ). e use of violence in the countryside and open access to urban lands. fertilizers has dramatically increased global food production, ese new and, in most cases, informal settlements create a but it is the main source of nitrate pollution, with up to tremendous demand for sanitation, health care and other ser- of the nitrogen fertilizer resulting in environmental contami- vices, which governments find hard to meet. e discharge of nation rather than improving yields. e quantity of fertilizer untreated wastewater from these settlements has deteriorated nutrients entering the environment is closely connected to the the coastal waters. extent appropriate technologies have been employed in agri- Agriculture was identified as the major cause of nutrient cultural production. Agriculture is also a source of phosphate enrichment in nearly all regions that conducted a causal pollution and persistent organic pollutants, such as pesticides. :
Industrial effluents, particularly in developing coun- holders both within and across countries; and (iii) implement tries, are usually discharged directly into water bodies and and enforce these agreements. can pollute large volumes of water and infiltrate aquifers. A scientifically reliable understanding of an environ- In western South America, like in many developing regions mental problem is insufficient to trigger mitigatory actions. worldwide, effluent treatment is frequently inadequate in the For example, despite acknowledging the negative affects of mining, petrochemical, fishmeal and cannery industries. In- deforestation on aquatic ecosystems and subsequently human dustrial pollution can be transported in the atmosphere for well-being, governments rarely take action to control forestry. thousands of kilometres before being deposited. Emissions When formulating policies, governments commonly from Europe, Asia and North America are the major sources disregard environmental and stakeholder concerns. In the of chemical contamination in the Arctic. Reducing these Aral Sea/ Basin, the centralised planning policies of the sources requires significant international effort to control former Soviet Union subsidised agricultural inputs in order emissions and to enforce existing agreements. to increase cotton production, which led to excessive fertil- izer application. e governments also failed to deter cot- Market failures ton farmers from withdrawing excessive quantities of water. Transboundary pollution is rarely caused deliberately by Consequently, the Aral Sea shrank to a fraction of its former individuals or organisations, but is usually the result of neg- size and the coastal zones of Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan are ligence or actions taken to protect private interests, such as heavily polluted. avoiding financial costs for waste treatment. e social and Agreed goals and actions that address transbound- environmental costs of pollution caused by production pro- ary issues are often inadequately implemented and/or en- cesses are not included in the price of products. forced. Sea-borne pollution is still extensive in the Caribbean In the Caribbean Islands/ region, waste treatment is Islands/ region despite the adoption of the International costly for cruise line operators and there is an absence of eco- Convention for the Prevention of Marine Pollution from nomic incentives to discourage them from dumping wastes at Ships (). Enforcement of is the responsibil- sea. e countries of the region are reluctant to penalise these ity of national governments, but they lack the capacity and polluters due to their dependence on foreign exchange from the political will to fulfil their obligations. Ships can there- tourism. fore avoid compliance with the regulations. In the Baltic Sea/ region, consumer prices for water Chile, Ecuador and Peru are faced with an urban and water treatment vary considerably between the ripar- waste crisis because waste treatment is already subsidised to ian countries. Ideally, prices should include indirect costs to such an extent that they cannot afford to extend or upgrade ensure sufficient investment in wastewater treatment and to the treatment infrastructure. ere is an absence of an in- minimise pollution. However, in the Baltic region, even the centive framework, which could include clean technology direct costs related to water services are only fully recov- subsidies and regulatory enforcement. In Chile, industries ered in Finland and Sweden. In Denmark and Germany, the have stepped forward to partially address this policy failure degree of cost recovery is high, whereas in Estonia, Latvia, through industry self-regulation. Lithuania, Russia and Poland, it remains low. It is anticipated e implementation of a bilateral integrated manage- that new legislation in these countries will gradually lead to ment plan for the Mirim Lagoon Basin failed due, partly, the full recovery of costs for water services. to a lack of harmonisation between the legal instruments of Brazil and Uruguay. With both countries finding it difficult Policy failures to obtain national agreement on pollution management, it e regional teams stressed the importance of policy- is not surprising that the bilateral agreement was difficult to driven root causes of transboundary pollution. Policy failures implement. Furthermore, State agencies charged with pollu- commonly result from the inability of institutions to perform tion management lack autonomy and the capacity to control three key functions: pollution in the lagoon. (i) identify the indicators of a problem and agree on its na- In the former Soviet states, governments and inter- ture; (ii) reach agreements that balance the interests of stake- national agencies pursued decentralisation before establish- :
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The Amur River is one of the largest rivers in The GIWA regional team identified the main ernmental agreements for the management Asia, with a catchment area of million km². root causes of eutrophication to be inad- and protection of the Amur River. The basin has a population of million; over equate water management policies and a To address these policy failures, the GIWA live in China. Three other countries also lack of long-term and inter-sectoral plan- regional team recommended adopting share the river basin; Russia, Mongolia and ning. In addition, they noted that short-term Integrated Water Resources Management North Korea. economic interests have taken priority over (IWRM) principles. Their recommendations sustainable development. More specifically, The quality of surface water in the Amur include: insufficient revenues are generated from River Basin ranges from pure in the upstream Creation of an intergovernmental agree- water due to low taxation and underpric- mountainous regions to highly contami- ment on the use and protection of the ing which prevents the adequate financing nated in the downstream urban areas. Ag- Amur River Basin’s water resources; of water monitoring and water treatment ricultural run-off and sewage from urban Establishment of a basin commission to facilities. National water laws are also absent areas contribute excessive quantities of oversee the agreement and to report and or inadequate, and institutional capacity is nutrients and organic matter to the rivers. monitor progress; weak and undermined by corruption, result- Consequently, a considerable portion of the Revision of national water laws based on ing in ineffective enforcement. With such population is forced to consume polluted IWRM principles; weak national frameworks, it is not surpris- surface water, which has resulted in a high Implementation of appropriate water pricing. ing that there are no basin-wide intergov- prevalence of water-borne illnesses. (: /)
ing legal frameworks for environmental management and gen from fossil fuel combustion, and, potentially, as a result building institutional capacity. In the Black Sea, the re- of global warming. However, many technical and political peated amendment of water laws and regulations has made options are available to reduce fertilizer use, decrease nutrient long-term planning difficult and discouraged investment in run-off, encourage sustainable aquaculture and enhance sew- infrastructure. Under decentralisation, new water and sewage age treatment. facility ownership structures have made services more unreli- Similarly, suspended solids will continue to be a wide- able and impaired water resources management. Box out- spread problem. e implementation of afforestation schemes lines the policy failures behind pollution in the Amur River and the adoption of sustainable agricultural and land use Basin. policies can reduce erosion in the catchment area. Microbial pollution related to sewage is also projected to increase due to population growth and urbanisation, par- ticularly in Asia, Africa and Latin America. is trend may POLICY RELEVANT CONCLUSIONS be averted by investing in sewage treatment facilities, indus- tries adopting cleaner technologies and by strengthening the Population growth, urbanisation, industrialisation and ag- institutions responsible for waste management. ricultural development will increase pollution loads in the Pollution in international waters can be reduced, as international waters of more than three-quarters of the demonstrated by the substantial reduction in hazardous sub- regions by . Nevertheless, interventions by governments, stances and microbial pollution in the Baltic Sea/. Accord- communities, industries and s can reduce or control pol- ing to ’s Global Environmental Monitoring System lution, depending on political will, available financial re- (), other successful examples include reductions in or- sources and technological developments. ganic loading in Europe and Australia, lower phosphate lev- Eutrophication is likely to intensify in many regions, els in North America and Europe, and reduced nitrate levels primarily in response to the increased application of fertil- in the Danube Basin. e regional teams emphasised izers, especially in Asia and Africa. It will also increase in that to address transboundary pollution, governments must prevalence due to the growth in the aquaculture industry, in- recognise the need for action, increase stakeholder partici- creasing quantities of human sewage, the generation of nitro- pation, provide appropriate incentives, improve regulations, :
. : Agricultural run-off is one of the main sources of pollution in the Caspian Sea, with pesticides causing the most severe impacts. Chemical pollution hotspots are located in the dense agricul- tural areas of Iran’s river deltas. Agricultural activities and asso- ciated pollution are also prominent in the Ural, Volga and Kura river basins, with the Volga thought to contribute the majority of the total pollution load into the Caspian Sea.
While DDT was prohibited in in the Soviet states, the GIWA regional team reported that supplies are still readily available. Small-scale farmers have become dependent on pesticides, including DDT, to maintain production on infertile arable land. They have little understanding of the ecological consequences of pesticide use. Clearly, enforcement of the -year-old DDT ban must be strengthened, which requires building capacity in the institutions responsible for enforcement. One approach is to improve regional control functions and to give local officials adequate authority and resources to prohibit and seize local supplies and sales. The enforcement of the ban is expected to be highly feasible and effective as DDT is easily identified and confiscated.
(: /)
and cooperate with other nations sharing an international As discussed in Box , is widely used in the Caspian water. In many regions, capacity building is required to bet- Sea/ region despite being prohibited by governmental regu- ter monitor and enforce regulations related to transboundary lations. aquatic pollution. In the Humboldt Current/ region, many pollution Table summarises the root causes behind pollution related laws are obsolete, whilst others are inappropriate or and potential policy instruments identified by the re- have weak sanctions that do not motivate violators to improve gional teams. It also lists other instruments that have been their practices. e various national and local institutions successfully used by international and national programmes. often have overlapping responsibilities concerning environ- mental management. is has often impeded the enforce- Regulations ment of regulations. Global quality systems and certification Regulations are the most common instruments used to ad- (e.g. , clean production, organic production) can comple- dress water pollution due to their simplicity and ability to ment regulations, but generally receive inadequate govern- satisfy the interests of both the authorities and the private mental support. sector. Conditions that favour the use of regulations include: Unacceptably high economic and/or environmental costs Economic incentives and public engagement resulting from even minor contamination; Economic incentives can be highly effective in changing be- A small number of polluters; havioural patterns. e Benguela Current project uses e existence of a more environmentally friendly and eco- economic incentives to promote environmentally friendly nomically viable technology. technologies and practices, phase-out subsidies and introduce user fees. Table illustrates the main economic policy instru- e regional reports note that regulators are often un- ments for addressing water pollution, with examples from willing or do not have the resources to enforce regulations. regions. :
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Instrument Examples Instrument Examples Strengthening institutions responsible for enforcement of Reduced Reduced subsidies for fertilizers and pesticides maritime regulations (Caribbean Islands/) subsidies or Reduced taxes on waste separation and treatment technologies Information system on water resources in the Madeira River surcharges (taxes) (Indian Ocean Islands/b) Basin (Amazon Basin/b) Understanding Training and environmental education programmes (Amazon Basin/b) Subsidies to promote natural buffer zones to capture nutrients pollution problems from agricultural run-off and developing Develop national/regional contingency plans (Comoe solutions Basin (Guinea Current/a)) Tax reductions on less harmful pesticides (Caspian Sea/) Develop coordinated river and coastal management (Guinea Subsidies provided to the municipality to commence a waste Targeted Current (Guinea Current/e) subsidies collection service, and to the private sector to facilitate investment in waste minimisation/treatment (Indian Ocean Establish a water quality and aquatic environment institutional Islands/b) network (Guinea Current (Guinea Current/e) Tax incentives to encourage the use of recycled products (Indian Municipal water treatment plants Ocean Islands/b) Improve design and maintenance of purification systems (Guinea Current (Guinea Current/e)) Infrastructure Provide sufficient waste receiving and treatment infrastructure Levy water effluent charges based on the amount of pollutants at ports (Amazon Basin/b, Caribbean Islands/) Tax the disposal of industrial solid wastes (Indian Ocean Allocate funding for solid waste management (Indian Ocean Islands/b) User charges Islands/b) Taxes and fines on oil pollution (Caspian Sea/) Develop protected areas that serve as buffer zones Establish market-based fees and charges (Volta Basin (Guinea Reach agreement among governments for the creation of Current/b)) Protection special protection areas (Small Islands (Carribean Sea/a)) Strengthen national policies, regulations and law enforcement Deposit refund Consumers pay a refundable deposit for plastic bottles, batteries, for protection of water resources (Jordan/) systems etc. (Indian Ocean Islands/b) Reach agreement on common environmental standards (Small Islands (Caribbean Sea/a), Sea of Japan/, and Humboldt Current/) Performance Users of hazardous pollutants post a refundable bond to cover Integrate sector policies with environmental policy proposed by bonds potential environmental damage the various international conventions (Baltic Sea/) Transboundary agreements Develop comprehensive water policies and institutions for transboundary river basins and coastal zones (widespread, The price for insuring potentially damaging activities depends Insurance including Small Islands (Caribbean Sea/a), Baltic Sea/, on the expected loss. Insurance companies may also ask their markets Uruguay River Basin (Patagonian Shelf/), Brazil Current/, clients to use certain technologies or follow certain procedures Amazon Basin/b, Volta Basin (Guinea Current/b), Guinea Current (Guinea Current/e) and Jordan/)
Many regional teams emphasise the importance water quality. As a result, nearly all of the beaches along the of stakeholder engagement for addressing complex trans- southeastern coast of the Baltic Sea that were closed in the boundary issues. late s were re-opened in the mid-s. Initiatives often involve the construction of infrastructure and the creation of Direct government investment protected areas. Governments, however, often cannot afford Government investment can be effective in reducing pol- to make the investments or are unable to charge users for the lution. For example, the construction of wastewater treat- services. e main governmental instruments for addressing ment plants in the Baltic Sea/ region has improved coastal transboundary water pollution are presented in Table . , (: ) e international community OVERFISHING cannot achieve AND OTHER THREATS TO the Millennium AQUATIC LIVING RESOURCES Development Goal of hunger eradication without improving fisheries management. Almost two-thirds of the regional teams predicted that the effects of unsustainable fishing practices would increase in severity in their region by . Overfishing was identified as the priority concern in many parts of East Asia and Australia & the Pacific Islands. Virtually all of the mega-regions determined that the overexploitation of fish and other aquatic living resources, and the use of destructive fishing practices are major concerns. By contrast, excessive by-catch and discards were only determined to be critical at the mega-regional level in South America and Southeast Asia. Excessive fishing effort and the employment of destructive fishing practices are attributed to a complex web of root causes, including the common pool nature of fisheries resources, poverty, insufficient knowledge regarding the status of the fisheries, inappropriate subsidies, a lack of appropriate incentives and weak enforcement of fisheries regulations. :
Today, the fisheries industry employs Global situation and trends . over million people and exploits Overfishing and other threats to GIWA uses the following characteristics to virtually all international waters. e define international fisheries: aquatic living resources were as-
achievement of the Millennium Devel- sessed as the priority concern in River basins, lakes, and marine ecosystems opment Goal () to eradicate hunger that are divided by political borders which over one-fifth of the regions/ will be partly dependent on the ability do not match the distribution and migra- sub-systems. of the fisheries and their ecosystems tory patterns of fish stocks; Almost of the regional
to supply animal protein to the popu- Fleets operating in the Exclusive Economic teams assessed overexploitation lations of most developing countries. Zone (EEZ) of foreign countries; as severe. In nearly every lake and
However, there is widespread concern Two or more countries disputing the loca- Large Marine Ecosystem () as- over the sustainability of the fisheries. tion of their respective EEZs; sessed by , several fish stocks
e Food and Agriculture Organization Consumers buying fish caught in another are overexploited. reports that of the world’s marine country’s EEZ; Overfishing is primarily caused by
fish stocks are fully exploited, are Fleets fishing on the high seas, which are the excessive fishing effort of indus- overexploited and are depleted ( international commons (the high seas trial fishing fleets, but small-scale ). Furthermore, many of the eco- were not assessed by GIWA). fishers also overexploit nearshore systems that support critical fisheries are fish stocks. degraded. Excessive by-catch and discards exacerbate overfishing assessed the sustainability of international fisher- and can threaten endangered species; trawling fisheries ies (Box ) by targeting the following issues: (i) overexploi- in the North Atlantic and in numerous tropical regions tation; (ii) excessive by-catch and discards; (iii) destructive typically have significant by-catch. fishing practices; (iv) decreased viability of stocks through In three-quarters of regions/sub-systems, destruc- pollution and disease; and (v) impact on biological and ge- tive fishing practices are degrading habitats and commu- netic diversity. nities that support fisheries.
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Aquaculture is the fastest growing animal-based food- to aquatic living resources would increase in severity, the producing sector, particularly in developing countries. situation in over of regions/sub-systems is ex- However, the widespread environmental and social pected to improve by following the adoption of sus- drawbacks of the industry need to be addressed. tainable management practices (Figure ). Although the majority of the regional teams pre- dicted that the impact of overfishing and other threats :
ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
Overexploitation Overexploitation occurs when fish and other living resources are caught at a rate which exceeds the maximum harvest that allows the population to be maintained by reproduction. Overexploitation of fish was assessed as severe in more re- gions than any other environmental issue evaluated by . It is a geographically widespread problem, affecting most s and many lakes, including the East African Rift Valley Lakes/b,c,d. Overexploitation firstly affects large, slow-growing . , / predatory fish, such as cod, halibut and grouper, and high- - value invertebrates, such as shrimp, lobster and large shell- (: ) fish. In many regions the depletion of large predators has led to ‘fishing down the food web’, whereby the aver- ity, such as in the major upwelling areas of the Benguela age catch composition is gradually replaced by short-lived, Current/, Canary Current/ and Humboldt Current/ fast-growing, plankton-eating fish and invertebrates at lower (Box ). trophic levels, as the predatory fish populations succumb to e affect of overfishing on the trophic structure of intensive fishing effort (Pauly et al. ). e Argentinean fish communities is exemplified in the Barents Sea/. In the hake (Merluccius hubbsi), for example, was the species prin- s, overfishing and natural fluctuations drastically de- cipally targeted in the South Atlantic Drainage System (Pa- pleted Capelin (Mallotus villosus) stocks. Cod (Gadus morhua), tagonian Shelf/b). After years of overfishing, hake stocks the most commercially important fish in the Barents Sea, finally collapsed in , whilst stocks of the short-lived and preys mainly on Capelin. e subsequent lack of prey and fast-growing Anchoita (Engraulis anchoita) tripled over the continued overfishing of cod itself reduced the cod spawning same period. e collapse caused extensive unemployment in stock biomass, and catches declined to of their highest the fishing industry, severely impacted fish processing plants levels. Although cod stocks were restored during the early and reduced export revenues. In the Caribbean Small Islands region (Caribbean . : Sea/a), fisheries production escalated to unsustainable levels, ()
from tonnes in to tonnes in (Fig- Fish biomass and catches are strongly linked to climatic variability, ure ). Many commercial species are currently at risk as a particularly in high latitude and upwelling Large Marine Ecosys- result of overexploitation and a loss of critical habitats for fish tems (LMEs).
and shellfish reproduction, such as mangroves, seagrass beds Many studies have explored the relationship between fisheries, and reefs. climate, and climate modes. The latter are dynamic patterns of It is often difficult to determine the degree to which climate variability, such as the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). fish stocks are depleted as a result of overexploitation or cli- ENSO dominates the inter-annual climatic variability of the south- matic variability. For example, the cod stocks of the Green- ern Pacific Ocean and influences global climate. Several ecosys- land Seas are sensitive to changes in water temperature, tem responses to the ENSO affect the fisheries. In the Humboldt Current/ LME, cold nutrient-rich upwelling ceases in El Niño and have subsequently declined over the last years (East years. The consequences are dramatic, including reduced primary Greenland Shelf/ and West Greenland Shelf/). Accord- production, the collapse of the anchovy fisheries and the migra- ing to Sherman (), climate is the key controlling factor tion of jack mackerel (Trachurus murphyi) to inshore waters where of fishing yields in about half of the world’s s. However, they are subjected to high predation. overexploitation exacerbates the effects of climate variabil- :
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The GIWA assessment of the South China Sea/, which includes the EEZs of nine countries, highlights the range and severity of the socio- economic effects of overfishing. Throughout the region, the reduction and collapse of the fisheries has led to a widespread loss of income and employment.
In many areas, particularly around the Philippines and Indonesia, fish are mostly exported causing local fish consumption to decline by a third. This has contributed to the malnutrition of many children. In coastal communities, alternative livelihoods are rarely available. Injuries and deaths from blast fishing and diving are common. Conflicts provoked as a result of declining fish stocks are frequent among local fishing groups, and with foreign fishers.
It is estimated that fishing effort will need to drop by to restore many fisheries to sustainable levels, particularly near urban areas. The major deficit in wild-caught fish production is expected to lead to increased aquaculture to meet growing demand (see Box ).
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to mid-s, intense fishing during the late s depleted as in many and other regions dependent on coastal stocks again. At the end of the s, people were resources, the fisheries are critical for economic develop- employed in the fisheries sector in northwest Russia, but this ment, tourism and food security. e exploitation of living figure had dropped to only a decade later. Coastal set- resources for export results in local communities losing their tlements experienced food insecurity, further unemployment best source of protein. e decline in the nutritional value of and reduced income in other sectors of the regional economy. the local diet leads to protein deficiency. Nearshore stocks are also increasingly overexploited by e effects of destructive fishing practices and overfish- artisanal fishers. e number of artisanal fishermen in India ing are also evident in many freshwater systems. Fish account is unsustainable, having increased by over the past for - of total animal protein supply in the Lake Tang- years (Bay of Bengal/). Artisanal fishing communities anyika Basin. Rapid population growth and poor manage- are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of overfishing. In ment of the resource has reduced per capita fish consump- the Guinea Current/ region, of landings are made by tion in Malawi by over , leading to malnutrition in some artisanal fishers, and since a downturn in fisheries produc- areas. Destructive fishing activities and overfishing put a tion, unemployment has increased and conflict has been pro- substantial proportion of those employed in Lake Malawi’s voked between artisanal fishers and commercial trawlers. In commercial fisheries (nearly ) at risk. In Lake Tan- the adjacent Canary Current/ region, overfishing has led to ganyika, overfishing and destructive fishing practices have unemployment in the Senegalese fisheries sector. led to large-scale unemployment following the collapse of Overexploitation of living resources affects many sec- Burundi’s industrial fishing fleet in the early s. tors of the economy. In the Bahamas (Caribbean Islands/), :
Excessive by-catch and discards Discards also create major transboundary problems if By-catch refers to the incidental capture of non-target fish, the discards from one fishery include species which are valu- invertebrates, marine mammals, sea turtles, and seabirds, as able to another. For example, foreign fishers dominate off- well as under-sized specimens of target species. But discards shore fishing in the Somali Coastal Current/ region, and refer to undesired by-catch thrown overboard; the survival discard significant amounts of edible by-catch. When rotting rate of most species discarded is extremely low. In many of fish carcasses are carried shoreward, local fishermen complain the regions assessed by , excessive by-catch accompany that foreigners are destroying their fisheries. overexploitation. By-catch changes the age structure of fish populations, Destructive fishing practices disrupts food webs and threatens endangered species. In the Destructive fishing methods, including bottom trawling, transboundary waters of many tropical and subtropical blast fishing, fishing with poisons, muro-ami nets, and sev- regions, by-catch, particularly from shrimp trawling (see fig- eral other locally employed fishing methods, significantly ure ), was assessed as having severe environmental impacts. degrade aquatic habitats. Almost three-quarters of re- In the Somali Coastal Current and South African waters, the gional teams reported that destructive fishing practices cause ratio of prawns to by-catch is : and : for trawlers, respec- moderate to severe impacts (Figure ). tively. By-catch of endangered species is also a concern, partic- Although bottom trawling was originally developed ularly in the Pacific Islands/ and Somali Coastal Current/. for use in deepwater in the North Atlantic, it is now also em- By-catch and discards can have serious socio-economic ployed when fishing shallow seagrass beds in tropical regions, implications. In the Sea of Okhotsk/, fleets discarded large causing extensive damage. However, deepwater and hard quantities of juvenile pollock during the s, which desta- seabed bottom trawling is also highly destructive to benthic bilised the age structure of the stock. e volume of pollock habitats and communities. In the Gulf of California/, the catches have subsequently declined by one-third over the last recurrent use of trawling nets has severely altered the compo- years. In , fishing companies lost revenues in excess of sition of benthic communities. million USD. Blast or bomb fishing, which uses small explosives to kill or stun fish, is predominantly used in tropical regions where it destroys the structure of coral reefs and can sub- sequently cause the collapse of reef fisheries. Poison fish- ing with toxic chemicals, such as bleach and cyanide, is also highly destructive to coral reefs. e assessment found blast and poison fishing to be major problems throughout Southeast Asia, as well as in the Brazil Current/, Ca- ribbean Sea/ and Somali Coastal Current/. Cyanide is widely used in the live reef food fishery and the ornamental aquarium fishery in East Africa, East Asia and Southeast Asia. Destructive fishing practices are the greatest threat to the reefs of the Sulu-Celebes Sea/ region. While the short-term benefits to fishermen are high, often returning - USD for a - USD investment, the social and envi- ronmental costs are considerable. Blast fishing is expected to cost Indonesia at least billion USD over the next years, and cyanide use a further million USD. A sustainable hook and line fishery, in contrast, could create net benefits of . - million USD. In some regions, human consumption of (: ) poisoned fish has led to hospitalisation, and even death. :
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Decreased viability and biodiversity Aquaculture or restocking programmes that introduce impacts of aquaculture alien species or genetically modified organisms can affect the Bacterial or viral diseases can spread from aquaculture stocks biological diversity and structure of ecosystems, as observed and decrease the viability of wild commercial stocks. e in- in several regions in Central America and South East Asia. troduction of disease through shrimp aquaculture in North In the Philippines and Vietnam, introduced species have ex- Sumatra has resulted in the collapse of wild shrimp stocks. tirpated native species. Box discusses the characteristics In the Humboldt Current/, outbreaks of disease in shrimp and impacts of the aquaculture industry. farms have cost million USD annually, excluding the subsequent economic impact on wild stocks.
. Aquaculture, both inland and coastal, is one Exports of aquaculture products provide clearance of coastal habitats, such as man- of the fastest growing food producing sec- substantial foreign exchange for many groves, and can cause eutrophication and tors in the world, with the annual growth coastal states. Unfortunately, this is often other pollution. Some aquaculture opera- rate exceeding since . Individuals earned at high social and environmental tions have introduced diseases, parasites and or corporations own aquaculture stocks, costs. Aquaculture farms often require the alien species into wild fisheries. Aquaculture whereas wild fisheries are open access. can cause the overfishing of wild species as Aquaculture is playing an increasingly cultivated predatory fish and shrimp require important role in meeting the grow- protein-rich feed. Social repercussions can ing demand for fish protein in many include the loss of traditional fisheries, and tropical and subtropical areas. China lower standards of living and reduced food accounts for over of the world’s supply for local fishers and farmers. While aquaculture production, primarily from the continued growth of aquaculture is in- traditional small-scale systems for local evitable, it will only be sustainable and maxi- markets. The cultivation of high-value mise its benefits to society if it is integrated fish and shrimp by industrial aquacul- into broader ecosystem-based manage- ture is growing rapidly. -. ment. (: ) :
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Over the past years, industrial fishing, pol- ditional stressors during the s and s lis encrasicolus), estimated at tonnes lution, habitat modification and the introduc- included chemical pollution, the alteration of in , had fallen to only tonnes by tion of species have increased. It is often dif- the inflowing rivers and continued overex- , resulting in the loss of an estimated ficult to determine the degree to which each ploitation of fish populations. jobs. of these inter-related causes affect fish stocks. In the late s, ship ballast water introduced By the mid-s, the invasion of another The collapse of the pelagic fisheries of the the invasive comb jellyfish (Mnemiopsis leidyi). comb jellyfish (Beroe sp.) somewhat con- Black Sea provides an illustrative example. By , they had spread throughout the trolled the population of Mnemiopsis, allow- Prior to the s, overfishing depleted the Black Sea, reaching densities of .- kg/m². ing anchovy stocks to partially recover. How- top predators of the Black Sea which led to Mnemiopsis voraciously consumed anchovy ever, they decreased again in the late s, ‘fishing down the food web’. Since the s, eggs and larvae, while eutrophication and due perhaps to the affects of climate warming urban and industrial expansion, intensive intensive fishing of anchovies and other small on the food web. fertilizer use and atmospheric deposition pelagic fish continued, resulting in the col- (: /) resulted in severe eutrophication, hypoxia lapse of the pelagic fisheries of the Black Sea. and bottom-up impacts on the food web. Ad- Total catches of European anchovy (Engrau- :
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ROOT CAUSES fisheries resources therefore results in overfishing and a lack of interest in maintaining fish habitats. More than regional teams selected overfishing and ree forms of property rights have been used to limit other threats to aquatic living resources as the top priority for access to common pool resources and define rights and re- their region (Table and ). Overfishing was predominantly sponsibilities of beneficiaries. However, inadequate enforce- attributed to excessive fishing effort, often in combination ment, inappropriate incentives and knowledge deficiencies with destructive fishing practices. e regional assess- regarding the fishery may result in overexploitation despite a ments confirm that, despite evidence of severely depleted fish property rights framework. stocks, governments continue to permit large and efficient e regional experts concluded that overfish- fishing fleets to overexploit fish resources. ing in the Indonesian Seas/ region is caused by the lack of awareness amongst fishers of the impacts of destructive fish- Common pool resources ing and having the viewpoint that ‘if I don’t exploit the fish- e fisheries are common pool resources and are thus difficult eries, someone else will’. In Lake Victoria (East African Rift to protect from exploitation. As a result, fishing is frequently Valley Lakes/b), weakly enforced fishing regulations per- undertaken when alternative employment opportunities are mit overfishing and the use of destructive fishing practices, unavailable. Another common pool attribute is that fishing which has resulted in reduced catch per unit effort. by one user reduces the size of fish stocks available for others. In many parts of the world, particularly inland and Many fish stocks are not “owned” by a single country but are nearshore fisheries in developing countries, increasing num- instead fished by several nations. e common pool nature of bers of artisanal fishers are using destructive fishing methods :
. concerns, while others are specifically rel- evant for the fisheries. Targeted issues Several regional teams from dif- Destructive fishing Overexploitation practices ferent parts of the world identified popula- Immediate causes tion growth as one of the main factors driving demand for fish products and subsequently the overexploitation of fish. Rising incomes per capita increase the
GIWA region demand for higher value, more nutritious and Excessive effort and fleet capacity Fishing above recommended quotas Poor recruitment of fish stocks Improved fishing technology Poaching Biomass shift (related to climatic changes) Destructive fishing practices Excessive effort and fleet capacity Inappropriate fishing gear prestigious food, including fish and seafood. Barents Sea is is of particular concern in Asia, where Faroe Plateau rapid economic growth over the past years West Greenland Shelf
Baltic Sea and the preference of the population for fish
Sea of Okhotsk products has resulted in a doubling of fish con-
Oyashio Current sumption.
Sea of Japan With nearly of fish production Yellow Sea traded internationally ( ) and export of East China Sea processed fish far greater than domestic con- Patagonian Shelf sumption, international market trends often b Canary Current South determine the nature of fisheries exploitation e Guinea Current (Figure ). An increasing number of fishers Benguela Current throughout Asia are using destructive fishing Somali Coastal Current methods to meet the growing and lucrative ex- b Lake Victoria (East African Rift Valley Lakes) port market for live seafood in China and other South China Sea parts of Asia (Indonesian Seas/). Prized reef Indonesian Seas fish, like grouper and Napoleon wrasse Chei( - Humboldt Current linus undulatus), are driven into corals where c Pacific Colombia (Eastern Equatorial Pacific) divers use cyanide-filled bottles to stun the : fish and crowbars to break the coral structure. . e fish are sold in the live reef fish markets
in an attempt to halt the decline in their catches which, in turn, reduces fish populations and degrades the habitats which support the fisheries. In response, fishers increase fishing- ef fort and adopt further destructive practices. is situation is prominent in the Somali Coastal Current/ region, where it has resulted in the reduction of household income and nutri- tion levels, and a growing frustration which often escalates into conflict between artisanal fishers and other stakeholders, especially the tourism industry and conservationists.
Global trends Several global trends are underlying root causes of the over- exploitation of transboundary fisheries, of which population . growth, urbanisation and trade are common to the other (: ) :
tion, mortalities caused by fishing and natural causes, and catch data. e status of a fishery is difficult to monitor and assess due to natural and fishing-induced fluctuations in fish populations, and the influence of pollution and climate change. Many regions lack adequate exploitation models and information on stock dynamics needed to make informed de- cisions. Several projects are addressing this issue by strengthening national and regional scientific capacity in, for example, the Benguela Current/, Guinea Current/ and Yellow Sea/ regions. regional teams recognised that even when accu- rate data is collected and analysed, the information is often . not conveyed to key stakeholders, such as fishers. As a result, (: . ) fishers lack awareness of the impacts of their actions on fish stocks and their subsequent prosperity. is is a major hin- of China, Singapore and Taiwan, fetching up to USD drance to the adoption of sustainable fishing practices. e per kg (Figure ). e governments of the countries border- regional reports note that these knowledge deficiencies were ing the South China Sea/ publicly exhort their fishermen caused by the following failures: to fish disputed waters, which has resulted in a number of Information is not communicated to fishers and food pro- conflicts, notably in the waters around the Spratly Islands. cessors; Illegal fishing, overfishing, and poaching of rare species are Information fails to change fishing practices due to un- common in the South China Sea region. derstanding difficulties, ignorance and the inability of International demand for a specific fish has led to over- individuals or firms to act alone; exploitation in several regions, such as the Indonesian Traditional knowledge is often excluded from research, Seas/, Lake Victoria (b), the Patagonian Shelf/ and despite its importance to fisheries management. In some Sulu-Celebes Sea/. In the South China Sea/ region, as regions, however, traditional knowledge is being in- in many other s, trawlers and driftnet operators are often corporated into management strategies. foreign. e value-added component of the industry there- fore benefits countries outside of the region, while the region In the Indonesian Seas/ region, for example, many local suffers from the effects of declining resources and a deterio- fishermen only have a rudimentary understanding of fish ration in environmental quality. In order to maintain catch and coral reef ecology. ey employ destructive rather than levels, local artisanal and small-scale commercial fishers are traditional fishing methods as they yield larger catches for reverting to the use of blast fishing. minimal effort and cost, despite the long-term impacts on the productivity of the fisheries. Insufficient knowledge Consumer demand determines the level of pressure on Insufficient scientific knowledge and a lack of awareness by fisheries resources. In developing countries, the exhaustion of fishers and consumers are major obstacles for improving poli- fish stocks has forced communities to find alternative sources cies and management, and changing the behaviour of con- of protein e.g. in the Benguela Current/, Indonesian Seas/ sumers and producers. , South China Sea/ and Sulu-Celebes Sea/. In de- Inadequate statistics hamper fisheries science and man- veloped countries, on the other hand, consumption of fish agement, particularly in developing countries. is problem products has not been controlled by market mechanisms as was highlighted in all regions that conducted the causal prices do not reflect scarcity due to a combination of (i) fish- chain analysis on overfishing and other threats to aquatic liv- ing subsidies, (ii) access to new fishing grounds in the Indian ing resources. Fishery management models establish allow- Ocean and in African waters, and (iii) a food industry with able catch quotas based on stock biomass, size/age composi- influential power. :
Inappropriate subsidies duced precipitously in the s, which eased fishing pressure e governments of the world grant subsidies of up to bil- but caused economic and social problems along the coast. lion USD annually (Milazzo ), thus maintaining and in- vesting in the capacity of fishing fleets. erefore, rather than Lack of enforcement establishing policies to control fishing, many governments Fishing regulations, such as property rights, quotas, pro- are actually promoting overfishing. is was highlighted as a tected areas and bans on destructive practices, are difficult problem by regional teams from the Baltic Sea/, Bar- to enforce for any government but are especially problematic ents Sea/, Oyashio Current/, Pacific Islands/ and Sea of for many developing countries. Insufficient enforcement was Japan/. identified as a cause of overexploitation in all causal chain Governments are often reluctant to remove subsidies analyses conducted (Table ). e inability of governments due to lobbying by the fishing industry and in fear of the neg- in developing countries to enforce regulations in their territo- ative socio-economic implications for fishing communities. rial waters is a further incentive for large-scale industrial ves- Despite severe overfishing, the continues to increase fleet sels to target these waters for illegal fishing (Box ). modernisation subsidies, although is now also initiating the In the Small Islands (Caribbean Sea/a), the effects of decommissioning of some vessels. Russian subsidies were re- overexploitation were assessed as severe, with one-third of fish species reported as overexploited. Existing regulations, which are weakly enforced, have failed to . maintain populations of reef fishes and large groupers and snappers at sustain- Potential policy instruments able levels, with overfishing occurring Contributing Underlying root sector causes Short-term Long-term even within national parks. Environmental management is still Overexploitation and excessive by-catch and discards
Individually transferable quotas in its infancy in Southeast Asia, with
Total allowable catch quotas Common pool Marine protected areas fisheries management less developed Zoning resources Community management Limitation of size of vessels than terrestrial environmental manage- Line and mesh restrictions
ment. e commercial fishing industry Stock assessments Insufficient scientific Catch surveys Long-term monitoring has considerable governmental influ- knowledge Modelling stocks and programmes ecosystems ence, and corruption is a root cause in
Insufficient knowledge Information on gear and Training in better management of some countries. In Lake Victoria, the by fishermen fishing techniques stocks
near-collapse of many traditional fisher- Eco-labelling of fish products Awareness campaigns for Insufficient consumer Fisheries Eco-labelling of aquarium consumers and the public ies and declines in Nile perch led to the knowledge fishes Eliminate price distortions
implementation of a number of manage- Progressive elimination of Inadequate incentives Fleet reduction programmes subsidies ment measures, including the banning of leading to fleet Reduce/redesign subsidies Promote aquaculture overcapitalisation Job conversion stimulus packages beach seines, undersized mesh nets and
Education and training in trawlers. However, relevant institutions Poverty and lack of Job conversion stimulus alternative activities alternatives packages Local economic development lack the capacity to enforce these fisher-
Review regulations ies regulations effectively, so they are Lack of regulations, Gear verifications Capacity building for enforcement compliance and Ban damaging gear Promote community management routinely ignored by fishers. enforcement Support enforcement Destructive fishing practices Poverty Review regulations Lack of regulations, Poverty is a root cause and sometimes Gear verifications Capacity building/training compliance and Ban damaging gear Promote community management enforcement a consequence of overfishing. Fishing Fisheries Support enforcement
communities in several developing re- Poverty and lack of Alternative livelihood programmes Subsidise appropriate gear alternatives Local economic development gions studied by are particularly : . vulnerable to the depletion of fish stocks :
. Illegal fishing is a global prob- enforcement makes the Sulu- of prosecutions encourages are estimated to be many times lem but its impacts are par- Celebes Sea an easy target for illegal and unsustainable fish- greater than legal catches. De- ticularly severe in Sub-Saharan illegal commercial fishers. The ing. Enforcement agencies only clining living conditions and Africa, East Asia and Southeast Indonesian Minister of Environ- have sufficient funds to inspect increasing unemployment in the Asia. The three examples below ment recently stated that illegal about of fishing activities. In s led to small-scale poach- highlight the range and com- foreign fishing may cost the Namibia and Angola, anglers are ing. The impact of which is much plexity of the issue. country billion USD. Unfortu- not even required to purchase smaller than that of illegal com- nately, accurate data on legal, let fishing licenses. mercial fishing, which is often Sulu Celebes Sea/: The marine alone illegal, fishing is generally tacitly supported by govern- fisheries contribute significantly Caspian Sea/: Official catches unavailable. ments. Enforcement of fish- to the economies of Southeast of sturgeon in the Caspian ing regulations is expected to Asia. The legal fisheries sector Benguela Current/: Although Sea dropped from a peak of remain weak due to widespread accounts for of Indonesia’s recreational fishing along South tonnes in the s to corruption and the high profit GDP but a significant proportion Africa’s west coast is regulated, only tonnes by the late margins in the illegal fish trade. of the total catch is illegal. Weak weak enforcement and a lack s. However, illegal catches
as they are highly dependent on the fisheries for their sur- being. Aquaculture will also play a crucial role in boosting vival and lack alternative livelihood opportunities. e lack fish production to meet consumer demand but precautionary of access to credit, alternative employment and social support measures should be undertaken in order to avoid associated leaves poverty stricken fishers little option but to unsustain- environmental impacts. ably exploit dwindling stocks and employ destructive fishing e severity and extent of overfishing has fostered the practices to increase catches. creation of a new ecosystem-based paradigm for fisheries management which aims to conserve the structure and func- tions of ecosystems. According to Sherman and Duda (), it attempts to minimise the impacts of fishing on non-tar- POLICY RELEVANT get species, physical habitats, inter-species interactions and CONCLUSIONS spatial processes. Ecosystem management also coordinates well with integrated water resource management, which is Global marine fish catches peaked in the late s and have discussed in the chapter on freshwater shortage. e ecosys- since been declining steadily. According to Pauly (), tem approach is increasingly being endorsed by the and global catches are predicted to continue to gradually decline. regional and national fishery institutions as a framework for If current trends persist, many regions will witness se- fisheries management and as a means of achieving the fisher- quential depletion of fish stocks and continued destruction of ies goals of the World Summit on Sustainable Development habitats. ( ). e projects incorporate an ecosys- e uncertain future of the fisheries depicted by the tem management approach to improve fisheries management, regional assessments could be avoided if the causes of combat pollution and habitat degradation, and strengthen unsustainable exploitation are addressed. Damaging subsi- governance. Several regions assessed by have adopted dies that encourage overfishing must be gradually curtailed ecosystem-based management as a goal. e policy instru- and appropriate legal, regulatory and incentive frameworks ments discussed in this section are practical ways to introduce need to be established and enforced. e collection and dis- elements of ecosystem-based management into fisheries man- semination of accurate fisheries information is necessary for agement (Table ). informed decision-making. Marine protected areas should be adequately enforced and others established. ese actions, Providing information to stakeholders adopted within an ecosystem-based management approach, Accurate data on fish stocks and recruitment is essential for can provide substantial long-term benefits for human well- fisheries management. is information must be dissemi- :
nated to stakeholders, such as fishers, the food industry, gov- ernment agencies and consumers. e regional experts , . who prepared the South China Sea/ assessment identified (: ) three key information and communication needs: (i) the col- lection and analysis of accurate fisheries data; (ii) conduct feasibility assessments prior to exploiting new fish stocks; and (iii) enhance regional communication regarding fisher- ies statistics, planning and management. ese requirements are universal for policy-makers and producers but they are rarely met. Certification of fish is a relatively new and, as yet, uncommon approach to enable consumers to purchase fish caught by sustainable techniques. Community management is normally based on restrict- ing fishing methods, as well as managing the location and timing of catches. Community-based management was rec- ommended by many teams, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa and Southeast Asia.
Reform of subsidies and fleet reduction programmes Until recently, governments have made relatively little effort to reform subsidies which currently encourage overfishing. e reduction of subsidies remains a contentious and com- plicated issue. It often involves joint involvement of national governments, regional regulatory bodies and the World Trade Organization (). ere needs to be controlled and gradual reductions in subsidies backed up with community support in order to minimise associated social problems. Al- ternative subsidies may give fishers an incentive to adopt sus- tainable fishing practices. e most straightforward measure for relieving fishing pressure is to reduce the fishing fleet. However, the feasi- bility of such a measure is dependent on the level of influ- ence the industry has on regulators and other governmen- tal institutions. Decommissioning has therefore been more Quotas and other catch restrictions effective in the small-scale fisheries of developing nations Total Allowable Catch () quotas, based on the concept of rather than in reducing industrial fishing fleets of developed maximum sustainable yield, can be used to reduce fishing ef- countries. Some fleet reduction programmes have ef- fort. By making the quotas individually transferable (s), fectively exported their overcapacity to developing regions. the efficiency of quotas is improved. e implementation China, in response to overfishing and agreements with Japan of quotas can be challenging, in terms of the initial al- and South Korea, announced it will reduce its fishing fleet by location of quotas, the level of by-catch, and monitoring and to vessels and the number of fishermen by enforcement issues. Precautionary quotas and the closure of to . million (Sea of Japan/). Although these reductions fisheries for a sufficient period have allowed full recovery of are encouraging, they are too insignificant to turn the tide of severely depleted stocks in European and North American overfishing. waters (e.g. herring, yellow flounder and gadoids). Fishing and processing quotas were also proposed by regional :
experts for freshwater systems, such as Lake Victoria. e Zoning and marine parks precautionary approach is a major step towards achieving e establishment of protected areas or fishing areas regu- sustainable fishing but requires comprehensive monitoring, lated by seasonal and zonal restrictions can allow the reju- realistic stock assessments, social and economic support pro- venation of fish stocks and the protection of target species. grammes and proper mechanisms to control implementation. Although zoning is generally effective for small-scale com- Technological advancements have made fishing more munity fisheries, it can be difficult to enforce such restrictions efficient and sometimes more destructive. However, gear on the industrial fishing industry. e enforcement of marine restrictions and the promotion of selective technology are parks is expensive, but the benefits can be significant; fish measures commonly employed in many regions and, catches near the Bamburi Marine Park in Kenya increased in some cases, are effective in protecting stocks, but they in- more than two-fold since its designation as a marine park crease fishing costs. (Somali Coastal Current/b). :
. (: . / ) :
e assessment illustrated that the world’s freshwater and marine habitats have been extensively modified by human activities. is has resulted in a loss of global biodiversity and led to the proliferation of invasive species in the coastal and freshwater systems evaluated by . Habitat modification is often the consequence of one or more of the other concerns and issues, HABITAT AND such as pollution, invasive species, COMMUNITY the modification of stream flow, and MODIFICATION overfishing. e modification of stream flow following the construction of dams and other water infrastructure, particularly to supply water to irrigated agriculture, is the major cause of habitat modification in freshwater systems. In marine systems, however, the fisheries have the greatest impact on habitats and their biodiversity. e majority of regional teams predicted that habitats will deteriorate in the future due to increasing pressure from human activities. Recent mass coral bleaching events are the single most dramatic example of global climate change affecting an ecosystem on a global scale. :
assessed the severity of the environmental and socio- . economic impacts of this concern by evaluating two principal
issues: loss of aquatic ecosystems and modification of aquatic Habitat modifications can have impacts on an international scale ecosystems, including community structure and/or species in all major aquatic ecosystems. The fragmentation of trans- composition. is chapter discusses the status of these two boundary river basins by dams and other structures may cause issues for each of five major aquatic habitats that are high- considerable changes to ecosystem functions and services in lighted in the regional reports: rivers, lakes, coral reefs, downstream countries. In lakes and semi-enclosed seas, where mangroves and seagrasses. Although direct habitat modifica- water exchange is limited, land-based and upstream sources of pollution and eutrophication may alter pelagic and benthic habi- tion is often local in extent, transboundary impacts are not tats of more than one country. Wetland habitats and communities uncommon (Box ). e overall results of the assess- are drastically modified as a result of upstream water abstraction, ment for habitat and community modification are sum- changes in the flooding regime and pollution. marised in the matrix in the back of this report. The degradation of coastal marine habitats often reduces the ex- tent of important nursery and spawning grounds for migratory Global situation and trends fish. Changes to habitats that host unique communities with high Habitat modification was the top priority issue in over endemic species diversity will result in a loss of global diversity. one-fifth of the regions and sub-systems. e alteration of the world’s freshwater and marine habi- tats has reduced global biodiversity, changed the struc- larly in Southeast Asia. ey are extremely vulnerable to ture of aquatic communities and led to the proliferation global climate change. of invasive species on every continent and in all marine Mangrove forests are severely threatened worldwide as a waters assessed by . Almost three-quarters of the result of the increased demand for timber, construction in regions/sub-systems assessed the overall impacts of coastal areas and aquaculture. habitat modification to be severe or moderate (Figure ). Freshwater habitats, particularly wetlands, are severely Coral reefs have been seriously degraded by destructive modified by land-use changes, such as drainage, river le- fishing practices and coastal land reclamation, particu- vees and deforestation.
. - :
.
Regional experts forecasted that in the majority of Rivers regions, habitats will deteriorate in the future. Only a few ere are two principal anthropogenic factors which alter regions are showing signs of improvement, including a the habitats of rivers: (i) inputs of pollutants, sediments and cluster in the Caribbean (Figure ). nutrients; and (ii) changes to the flow regime. e former is discussed in the chapter on pollution. e construction of dams and other structures that con- trol or divert the flow of water in rivers has yielded consider- ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO able economic and social benefits throughout the world, in- ECONOMIC IMPACTS cluding the generation of hydropower, the provision of water for drinking and irrigation, and the mitigation of floods. Freshwater habitats However, these structures cause massive aquatic habitat and Freshwater habitats provide invaluable services to mankind, community modification in the world’s river basins (Table but growing demand for freshwater resources and services and ). Anthropogenic activities have depreciated the value by burgeoning human populations is placing an unsustain- of many habitats for human well-being, including a decreased able burden on these habitats. e modification and loss of capacity to meet basic human needs, such as food and fuel. biodiversity and/or ecosystems, and the propagation of in- Impacts of dams arise from either changes in the hy- vasive species were identified by the regional teams as drological regime or the physical barriers imposed by dams the most frequent transboundary environmental impacts of (see also the chapter on freshwater shortage). Alterations to freshwater habitat modification. Wetlands were recognised as flow regimes invariably cause changes to habitats and com- severely modified ecosystems, the biodiversity of which has munity structures. e Colorado River Delta, for example, been impoverished by human activities. e most common which once covered ha and supported between socio-economic impacts are reduced fisheries revenue, loss of and species of plant, bird and fish, has declined to employment and increased costs arising from mitigation and less than ha. is has been attributed primarily to the treatment measures (Table , Box ). construction of the Hoover and Glen Canyon dams, and the :
. Freshwater habitats Environmental impacts Socio-economic impacts - *
Freshwater
GIWA region habitat affected Modification and loss of biodiversity and/or ecosystems Changed erosion and/or sedimenta tion patterns Establishment of invasive species Loss and decline in the population of endemic fish species Reduced fish stocks Algal blooms Reduced fisheries revenue and employment Reduced revenues from tourism, higher employment and a loss of recreational values Mitigation and treatment costs Loss of traditional livelihood and values Reduced capacity to meet basic human needs (e.g. clean water)
a Mississippi River (Gulf of Mexico) Riparian wetlands
Riparian vegetation, b Rio Bravo (Gulf of Mexico) rivers Colorado River (Gulf of California) Wetlands, riparian forests
a Yellow Sea (Yellow Sea) Marshlands, lakes, rivers
b Bohai Sea (Yellow Sea) Wetlands, rivers, lakes
a La Plata River Basin (Patagonian Shelf) Rivers, riparian habitats
a Paranaiba River Basin (Northeast Brazil Shelf) Rivers, lakes
c Niger Basin (Guinea Current) Rivers, ponds, wetlands
b Canary Current South Wetlands, lakes
Wetlands, riparian Orange-Vaal River Basin (Benguela Current) vegetation, rivers Wetlands, riparian b Lake Victoria (East African Rift Valley Lakes) vegetation, open waters Rivers, wetlands, Jordan Dead Sea River, riparian b Muray Darling Basin (Great Australian Bight) vegetation, wetlands
overuse of water by agriculture and urban areas in Arizona, . - : California and northwestern Mexico (Gulf of California/ ). In the Volta River Basin (Guinea Current/b) more The GIWA assessment of the Yellow Sea region illustrates the than dams have impounded the Sudano-Sahelian por- complexity of marine and freshwater habitat modification, and tion of the Basin, resulting in the loss of wetlands, including the resulting socio-economic impacts. Over of the freshwa- marshes and floodplains. ter wetlands, lakes, rivers and lagoons have disappeared in the e modification of flow regimes, in conjunction with last years. Alien species, such as the marine cordgrass (Spartina deforestation along river banks and poor agricultural prac- sp.), have replaced endemic species, and new diseases have been tices in surrounding catchments, has affected sediment trans- introduced into both the freshwater and marine environment. The loss of wetlands in the Huai River Basin has decreased fish catches port, erosion rates and nutrient loads in many rivers through- and adversely affected cultural heritage sites. The degradation of out the world. In the Mekong River, this has reduced fish ecosystems has reduced employment in tourism and aquaculture abundance and spawning areas, which has been a contribut- in the basin, and overall employment has fallen by over the ing factor in forcing Cambodia to shift from exporting to past decade. Throughout the Yellow Sea region, the production of importing fish to meet local demand. aquatic life used in Chinese medicine, such as seahorses, seadrag- e construction of dams has converted many water ons and scallops, has decreased by over the same period. habitats from flowing to static environments which in several (: /) regions, for example the Amazon/b and the Patago- :
. . (: )
nian Shelf/, has caused a decline in fish species that inhabit lake habitats are: (i) dams reducing downstream flows; (ii) fast-flowing, rocky-bottom habitats. Dredging for naviga- river diversions for irrigation and, to a lesser extent, domes- tion has significantly modified the benthic habitats of rivers tic and industrial water supply; (iii) drainage basin land-use in many regions, including the Brazil Current/. Common changes; (iv) the introduction of invasive species; (v) overfish- vegetation types, such as riparian marshes, have been dis- ing; and (vi) salinisation. Decreases in lake areas have been placed by aggressive invasive species, such as Water hyacinth reported in many regions, including the Aral Sea/, (Eichhornia crassipes) and Hydrilla (Hydrilla verticulata). Caspian Sea/, East African Rift Valley Lakes/, Jordan/ In the Caspian Sea/ region, international conflicts and Lake Chad/. have arisen from dam-induced habitat modification affecting e most spectacular example of lacustrine habitat the commercial fish stocks of the entire region but only the modification is the retreat of the Aral Sea/, which resulted countries that constructed the dams benefiting from the elec- from the diversion of water from the Amu Darya and Syr tricity and water for irrigation. Darya rivers for irrigation. e surface area of the Aral Sea While habitat degradation is currently more severe has been reduced by since the s and the water level in developing countries, some of the most extensive habitat has dropped metres. Moreover, the increased salinity of modification has previously occurred in developed coun- the sea has transformed it into a biological desert and caused tries. e midwestern US states have drained the equivalent the total collapse of the once productive fishery. e health of . million ha of wetlands in the Mississippi River Basin of the region’s population has deteriorated and employment (Gulf of Mexico/a) over the past years. opportunities for the former shoreline communities have de- clined. A similar fate is currently befalling the Dead Sea (see Lake habitats Box in the freshwater shortage chapter). Lakes are critical reservoirs that store surface water for a In many transboundary lakes, a reduced influx of water multitude of essential human uses and services, including and increasing eutrophication have changed the community consumption, agriculture and recreation. According to the structure from open-water systems to marshy habitats, conse- regional reports, the most significant factors affecting quently altering fish assemblages. Lake Chad/ is one of the :
world’s most dramatic examples of rapidly shrinking open- and the construction of the Turkwell Dam, which lowered water areas being replaced by marshy wetlands. An effect of lake levels, led to the collapse of the Tilapia (Oreochromis spp.) this change is that the most important commercial fish, which fisheries in the majority of Lake Turkana (East African Rift were previously open-water species, have been replaced by cat- Valley Lakes/a). e loss of income from the fisheries sec- fish Clarias( sp.) and other wetland species. In addition, inva- tor had a severe impact as there are virtually no other local sive plants now blanket half the surface of Lake Chad. employment opportunities. Lakes are the recipients of sediments originating from the surrounding drainage basins, which have increased in Marine habitats volume as a consequence of land-use changes. For example, e continued health of coastal ecosystems is essential for overgrazing and deforestation has intensified sedimentation human well-being, as well as for other ecosystem services, in Lake Malawi, Lake Tanganyika and Lake Turkana. Nu- including shoreline protection, water quality and biodiver- trients contained in these sediments have contributed to eu- sity reservoirs. Unregulated access to coastal ecosystems is trophication, particularly in Lake Victoria, where anoxic con- putting these resources at risk (Table ). e most common ditions have reduced fish abundance and diversity, especially transboundary environmental impacts are modification and/ among endemic cichlid populations. Endemic fish popula- or loss of biodiversity, and increased sedimentation or ero- tions were additionally impacted by the introduction of Nile sion. e most frequent socio-economic impacts are experi- Perch (East African Rift Valley Lakes/). enced by the fisheries and tourism sectors. In many international lakes, the impacts of habitat Coastal lagoons and estuaries, tidal mudflats, and modification, particularly on fish communities, have been -ex sandy and rocky shores are particularly affected by pollution, acerbated by overexploitation. A combination of overfishing such as oil spills, solid waste and eutrophication. e follow-
. Marine habitats Environmental impacts Socio-economic impacts
GIWA region Marine habitats affected Modification and/or loss of biodiversity Changes in populations and community structures Introduction of invasive species Loss and fragmentation of coastal habitats Reduced productivity Increased sedimentation or erosion Reduced fisheries revenue and employment Reduced tourism revenue and employment; loss of recreation values Reduced revenue from ecosystem services Mitigation and treatment costs (e.g. control of invasive species, coastline restoration) Loss of traditional livelihoods Increased user conflicts Coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass a Small Islands (Caribbean Sea) beds, sandy shores a Yellow Sea (Yellow Sea) Salt marshes, estuaries
b Bohai Sea (Yellow Sea) Salt marshes, estuaries a South/Southeast Atlantic Salt marshes, mangroves, coral Basins (Brazil Current) reefs, estuaries b East Atlantic Basins (Brazil Salt marshes, mangroves, coral reefs Current) a Northeast Brazil Shelf Mangroves, estuaries, coral reefs
Canary Current Mangroves c Comoe Basin (Guinea Mangroves, estuaries, lagoons Current) Benguela Current Estuaries, sandy foreshores
Bay of Bengal Mangroves, coral reefs Mangroves, coral reefs, wetlands, South China Sea seagrass areas Seagrass beds, muddy and sand- Sulu-Celebes Sea gravel bottoms, coral reefs Mangroves, seagrass beds, muddy a Sunda (Indonesian Seas) and sand-gravel bottoms, coral reefs b Wallacea (Indonesian Seas) Mangroves, coral reefs :
ing section, however, will concentrate on coral reefs, man- community dynamics of the reefs. Reefs and their dependent groves and seagrass beds where human impacts are manifold. species are also altered by the use of dynamite and narrow meshed nets. Coral reefs Coastal development is a major source of coral reef e condition of coral reefs varies regionally depending on degradation. In the Indonesian Seas/ region, development the level of human pressure placed on them. Coral reefs in and expansion of ports has destroyed reefs and associated more sparsely populated regions of the world, such as the islands. In addition, the construction of hotels along the fore- Coral Sea/, Great Barrier Reef/ and Pacific Islands/, shore adjacent to coral reefs increases the number of people are generally in good condition. However, in densely popu- in coastal areas resulting in the accumulation of solid waste, lated regions and in locations where reefs are easily acces- eutrophication from the discharge of untreated effluents and sible, coral reef ecosystems are degraded by overfishing and physical damage from anchoring and other tourist activities destructive fishing methods, sedimentation, inappropriate (Caribbean Sea/, Caribbean Islands/) (Box ). coastal development and tourism. e reefs of Indonesia pro- e addition of nutrients within untreated or inad- vide annual economic benefits of . billion USD, based on equately treated effluents from coastal cities has caused dra- their value for food security, employment, tourism, pharma- matic changes to many coral reefs worldwide. Reefs near ceutical research and production, and shoreline protection. urban centres in Brazil exhibit macroalgal cover, com- However, over the next years, anthropogenic degradation pared with in less populated areas (Northeast Brazil of reefs could cost Indonesia around . billion USD (Indo- Shelf/a). Poor agricultural practices and deforestation have nesian Seas/). also decreased the extent of coral reefs, especially near river Burgeoning coastal populations with few alterna- mouths where sediments, pesticides and fertilizers smother tive sources of food or income have led to the widespread the corals and impede their growth. overexploitation and degradation of coral reef ecosystems in Up until , the global agenda to conserve coral reefs many developing regions. In the Pacific Islands/ region, had concentrated on preventing direct anthropogenic im- the breakdown of traditional community controls on fishing pacts. However, during the last decade, mass coral bleach- has led to overfishing near populated areas. Here, as well as ing events provide tangible evidence of the effect of climate in most other tropical shallow water systems, overexploita- change on aquatic habitats, emerging as potentially the great- tion has greatly affected fish populations and changed the est threat to coral reefs (Box ).
. : Tourism is a vital industry for the economies of many Caribbean na- charged by cruise tions, accounting for one-quarter of GDP and one in every five jobs. liners and tourist fa- The Wider Caribbean region attracts of international scuba cilities, enters coastal diving tours; generating nearly million USD in . The cruise waters, further re- industry also represents a significant proportion of tourism, with ducing the environ- . million cruise passengers received by the Caribbean Islands/ mental quality of the region in . Employment has subsequently shifted from fishing Caribbean. to tourism. Habitat modifica-
Since the success of the tourism industry is dependent on the beauty tion reduces income , , . and services of coastal ecosystems, it is vulnerable to environmental opportunities in the (: . , ) degradation. Reef dive tourism is inadequately managed in the Ca- tourism sector as fish- ribbean Islands/, as in many parts of the world, causing significant ing, snorkelling and diving become less appealing to tourists. The anchor and diver damage in intensely visited locations. In the Central costs can be considerable; million USD of tourism revenue are lost America/Mexico sub-system (Carribean Sea/c), hotel construction annually in the Nicoya Gulf of Costa Rica. is of particular concern due to the resultant habitat fragmentation. (: ( /), / Land-based sources and ship-borne pollution, including waste dis- ( /), /) :
.
Bleaching in corals is a stress response caused by the loss of the symbiotic dinoflagellates that reside within coral tissue. Although many factors can cause bleaching in certain localities, only ab- normal increases in sea temperature over a period of months can cause coral bleaching on a regional and even global scale. In the / El Niño event, bleaching caused coral mortality, effec- tively destroying around of the world’s shallow water coral reefs. The Indian Ocean was particularly affected but extensive bleaching was also reported in the South China Sea, Sulu-Cele- bes Seas, the Pacific Islands and throughout the Caribbean. Prior to coral bleaching in the s, the phenomenon was thought to be local in extent. Since then, six mass bleaching events have oc- curred, always coinciding with an El Niño event. At present, mass bleaching of corals only occurs if an El Niño of sufficient strength prevails for long enough to cause significant increases in sea tem- perature. However, if global sea temperatures continue to rise as predicted and approach the thermal tolerance limit of corals, El . , . Niños of smaller magnitude would be capable of causing mass (: . , ) bleaching. The increasing frequency and severity of mass coral bleaching events are considered the most significant threat caused by global climate change to an ecosystem on a global scale. led to the collapse of the shrimp and Jack mackerel fishery and a downturn in the freshwater clam industry (Volta Basin (Guinea Current/b)). e economic costs can be substan- tial. For example, in the Indian Ocean Islands/b, direct monetary costs from loss of mangrove habitats are USD per ha, or million USD per year. Similarly, in many re- gions, rice paddies, and sugar cane and palm plantations have replaced large areas of mangrove forest. e growth of coastal towns and cities has destroyed many mangrove forests (Figure ). In the Guinea Current/
, . region, the expansion of Accra in Ghana has cleared (: . , ) of the mangroves and significant areas of marshland in the surrounding area. e expansion of population centres also Mangroves requires infrastructure development, such as roads, ports and Mangroves are highly productive forest habitats found along waste disposal sites. In the Philippines, - of the man- sheltered tropical coastlines. ey are essential sources of grove forests have been cleared for port developments. e wood for firewood and construction, as well as invaluable reclamation of land for infrastructure development is often nursery areas for juvenile fish and crustaceans. ey also pro- most visible in densely populated islands and atolls, where vide coastal protection and filtration functions. both space and natural resources are limited. is is demon- e area of the world’s coastline occupied by man- strated in the Pacific Islands/, where more than of the groves is rapidly declining. More than a dozen regions region’s mangroves have been removed or severely degraded. reported that unsustainable timber harvesting has degraded In the Brazil Current/ region and Caribbean/&, the mangrove ecosystems. In Africa’s Volta River Delta, the deg- construction of tourist hotels and associated facilities, such radation of mangrove habitats has changed the species com- as marinas, golf courses and airports, has resulted in the de- position of of the fish communities since , and has struction of mangrove habitats. :
. In addition to the increase in global maritime b,c, South China Sea/ and Indonesian traffic and aquaculture, invasive species, Seas/a,b. The accidental introduction of which can be intentionally or accidentally the Asian mussel (Limnoperna fortunei) into introduced, are now widely acknowledged the La Plata River costs nearly million USD as a critical transboundary problem in both every day that the Itaipú Dam has to shut- freshwater and marine habitats. Invasive down power in order to remove the mussels species have caused environmental impacts (Patagonian Shelf/a). significantly altered benthic communities. in almost half of the GIWA regions. A number In marine habitats, there are a greater num- In , commercial fishing of the Red king of initiatives aimed at limiting the introduc- ber of introduced species but many remain crab began in Norway, which has increased tion and extent of invasive species have undetected. The GIWA regional teams that employment in the fish processing sector been developed, including the GEF/IMO/ highlighted marine invasive species as a con- but at the cost of jobs in factories processing UNDP Global Ballast Water Management cern include the Barents Sea/, Baltic Sea/, traditional fish catches. Several other inva- Programme (GLOBALLAST) and regional Black Sea/, Caspian Sea/, Brazil Current/ sive species in the Barents Sea have caused activities, such as the GEF-supported UNDP , Yellow Sea/, and Benguela Current/. economic losses. In Russia, the introduc- Caspian Environment Programme. The impact of invasive species on the ecol- tion of the Humpback salmon (Oncorhyn- In freshwater systems, the widespread intro- ogy of the Black Sea is discussed in Box in chus gorbuscha), which is less prized than duction of Tilapia (Oreochromis spp.), Carp the chapter on overfishing and other threats the Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) for sport (Cyprinus carpio), Nile perch (Lates niloticus) to aquatic living resources. and commercial fisheries, has reduced the and Water hyacinth (Eichhorizia crassipes) economic and recreational value of many riv- The Red king crab (Paralithodes camtschati- has significantly impacted riverine and lake ers. Parasites and pathogens caused at least cus) of the Pacific was deliberately introduced habitats, and has led to the extinction of million USD of damage to the Norwegian by Russian scientists into the Barents Sea/. endemic species in several GIWA regions, farmed and wild salmon fishery between Since its introduction, the population of Red including the Gulf of California/, Benguela and . king crab has increased and spread west- Current/, East African Rift Valley Lakes/ wards into Norwegian waters where it has
. (: ) :
Aquaculture is probably the greatest single factor be- quently harms seagrass communities and reduces biodiversity. hind mangrove deforestation, particularly in South America In Southeast Asia, trawling in coastal waters also damages and Southeast Asia (see Box ). In the Philippines, prawn seagrass beds (Indonesian Seas/, Sulu-Celebes Seas/). aquaculture occupies an area of ha and has reduced Box discusses the transboundary impacts of invasive intact mangrove forests by . In the s, governments of species in marine and freshwater habitats. the Indonesian Seas/ region allocated up to million ha of land, mostly mangrove forests, to the shrimp industry. How- ever, about of the shrimp farms were abandoned by because they had become unproductive as a result of aquacul- ROOT CAUSES ture pollution and the creation of acid sulfate soils. Mangrove conversion throughout Southeast Asia has led to conflict Habitat and community modification was targeted for causal between local inhabitants and migrants. e introduction of chain analysis in regions/sub-systems (Table and aquaculture in Brazil has created similar conflicts between ). e most common immediate causes identified by the prawn farmers and artisanal fishermen. Brazilian prawn regional teams were: (i) pollution; (ii) invasive spe- farmers buy or appropriate land, which is usually public, and cies; (iii) modification of stream flow; and (iv) overfishing. close its access to fishermen, many of whom have fished these e principal sectors causing environmental impacts were areas for many years (Brazil Current/). agriculture and the fisheries. Many of the causal chain analyses discussed the extent to which the three other Seagrasses concerns drive habitat modification. e following section Seagrass communities are highly productive habitats com- examines the root causes of habitat degradation. monly found in shallow coastal and estuarine waters in many regions of the world. In addition to providing valuable nurs- Population and economic growth ery areas for juvenile fish and crustaceans, seagrass beds are Demographic change, such as population growth, was iden- important filters and stabilisers of sediments, particularly in tified as one of the main root causes in almost every regions prone to storms, such as the Pacific Islands/ and regional report that focused on habitat modification in the the Caribbean region/ & . ese services provide consider- causal chain analysis. Increasing populations exacerbate the able economic benefits; in the South China Sea/ region the transboundary impacts and causes of habitat modification. In value of seagrass beds and coastal swamps is estimated to be the East China Sea/ region, for example, thousands of hect- million USD annually. ares of shoals have been reclaimed in the Yangtze (Changji- Seagrass beds are primarily degraded as a result of in- ang) estuary for the expansion of agriculture and urban areas creasing concentrations of nutrients and particulate matter in order to accommodate an increasing population. in coastal waters. Physical disturbance resulting from the In the neighbouring South China Sea/, as in many increasing use of the coastal zone for transportation, reclama- other regions, most of the transboundary habitat impacts and tion and fishing also causes extensive damage. their immediate causes are exacerbated by population growth In the Caribbean, land reclamation, and coastal and and migration, as well as economic and industrial growth. port construction associated with tourism have caused con- ese impacts threaten the coastal and marine habitats on siderable degradation to seagrass communities and reduced which the population depends. water clarity as a result of dredging and landfill activities. e Increased pressure on ecosystems and the consequent increase in coastal activity, particularly tourism, recreation modification of habitats are not only a matter of population and urban development, has resulted in significant impacts growth. Economic growth and increasing demand for prod- on seagrass communities due to increased sedimentation and ucts are also root causes of habitat modification. e econo- nutrient loads emanating from sewage discharges, and from mies of many countries in Southeast Asia, especially China, physical damage caused by boating, anchoring and other ac- are growing rapidly. In the Yellow Sea/ region, as in other tivities. Eutrophication, stimulated by elevated nutrient loads, parts of Asia, higher living standards have increased demand has increased the turbidity of coastal waters, which subse- for cultured fish, which has encouraged aquaculture devel- :
. Targeted issues Modification and loss of ecosystems Immediate causes Main sectors involved
GIWA region Modification of stream flow Land use practices Coastal erosion Sedimentation Pollution Introduction of invasive species Overexploitation of fish Increased urban development/expansion Agriculture Domestic Forestry Fisheries Maritime traffic Coastal development Mining Industry Energy
a Mississippi River (Gulf of Mexico)
a Small Islands (Caribbean Sea)
b Magdalena Basin (Caribbean Sea)
c Central America/Mexico (Caribbean Sea)
Barents Sea
Caspian Sea
Yellow Sea
East China Sea
b Buenos Aires Coastal Ecosystem (Patagonian Shelf)
a Paranaiba River Basin (Northeast Brazil Shelf)
b Amazon
c Niger River Basin (Guinea Current)
South China Sea
Sulu-Celebes Sea : .
opment. Fish and seafood consumption has become more ters. Consequently, farmers have little economic incentive to fashionable among health-conscious consumers in developed switch to modern and less damaging substitutes. countries, further fuelling aquaculture expansion. Aquacul- ture has increased pollution, introduced invasive species and Policy failures converted vast areas of wetland and mangrove forest. In the Niger Basin (Guinea Current/c) there is little un- derstanding of the complex human-environment interac- Market failures tions, which provides an inadequate basis for sound policy- Market prices are often not representative of the true value of making. In the Buenos Aires coastal ecosystem (Patagonian goods and services provided by ecosystems. While the short- Shelf/b), statistics for fisheries and other ecosystem-based term gains from blast fishing may be impressive, consumer activities are lacking. Furthermore, the datasets of the Ar- prices do not incorporate the cost of the long-term damage gentinean provincial and national governments, as well as the to coral reefs. If fish prices accounted for environmental and Uruguayan jurisdictions, are incompatible. Scientific experts social costs, the use of destructive practices would be discour- in the Caspian Sea/ region lack the financial and/or techni- aged. cal resources to conduct a thorough assessment of living re- In the Caspian Sea/ region, high unemployment rates sources. Governments and the fishing industry of the region have led to increased small-scale farming along the coast. e also pressurise scientists into adjusting scientific recommen- new farms, which are located on infertile soils, are dependent dations. Political expediency may help the governments of on environmentally harmful pesticides that are both readily the Caspian Sea/ region to reach agreements, but they are available and cheap. e prices of pesticides do not account not founded on sound information nor enforced, which has for the negative externalities from the run-off of these pol- resulted in a legacy of policy failures. Given the weak infor- lutants into the Caspian river basins and adjacent coastal wa- mation base and lack of coordination between executive and :
.
Potential policy instruments Contributing Underlying root causes sector Short-term Long-term
Modification and loss of ecosystems
Improved land use management Lack of monitoring and enforcement Promotion of appropriate technologies Implement land use planning and management systems capacity Market-based fees and charges Increase enforcement Agriculture Lack of public awareness Education Low-impact rain-fed agriculture Weak long-term cross-sectoral planning Capacity building Encourage the production of appropriate crop varieties Fragmented land use management Stakeholder dialogue
Energy Weak regulations Improve regulations on dam construction Construct fish migration paths production Inadequate institutional capacity Environmentally friendly farming Stakeholder dialogue
Inadequate implementation of new Promotion of appropriate technologies Improved natural resource management technology and infrastructure Industry Improved stakeholder participation Pollution taxes and fines Lack of habitat protection Strengthen local control Integrated, multilateral conservation Low enforcement capacity
Capacity building
Insufficient enforcement capacity Improved regulation and enforcement Improved management of protected areas Lack of research for making sound policies Expanded community education Fisheries Adoption of regulations at international level Inadequate implementation of appropriate programmes Partnerships fishing gear Follow recommendations of scientific organisations
Urbanisation
Inadequate knowledge of sewage treatment Urban Strengthen institutions Improve legal framework Inadequate financial capacity to promote development Increase knowledge Clear and transparent decision-making compliance Poverty
Lack of enforcement Promotion of alternative energy Coastal Rapid population growth technologies to replace wood fuels Improved control of population growth development Poverty Improved the governance framework Coastal management planning Institutional weakness Capacity building in policy formulation
scientific organisations, it is not surprising that Argentina POLICY RELEVANT and Uruguay (Patagonian Shelf/) disagree on crucial as- CONCLUSIONS pects of administering shared coastal resources and postpone difficult management decisions. Even when information is available to make sustain- Both freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems are con- able policy decisions, organisations responsible for formulat- fronted and continually degraded by a wide range of pow- ing policies may not include environmental considerations erful stressors. In freshwater ecosystems, increasing human or broad stakeholder involvement in the decision-making populations will continue to demand additional freshwater process. Political structures in some Southeast Asian coun- for drinking, irrigation, hydropower and waste disposal. e tries are still dominated by hierarchy and patronage, with introduction of invasive species will also exert greater influ- democratic decision-making yet to be common practice. is ences on freshwater ecosystems in the future. e adoption of governance model has resulted in bureaucratic inaction, the integrated management and increased public awareness of the misallocation of financial resources and a mistrust of govern- plight of freshwater ecosystems will only partially reduce the ment officials. Consequently, it is difficult to obtain local sup- rate of habitat degradation. port for many governmental management policies and even e pressures exerted by widespread poverty and popu- for collecting accurate statistics. lation growth are also placing a burden on coastal and ma- :
rine ecosystems and the resources they provide. Overfishing, like can improve the compatibility of different sectoral, coastal development, sedimentation, pollution and the expan- national and regional policies. sion of aquaculture are some of the factors that will continue to degrade transboundary coastal ecosystems. Policy integration While appropriate legislation is in place in many coun- e management of aquatic habitats and resources, as well as tries, a lack of capacity to implement or enforce such legis- addressing the multitude of causes behind the problems they lation, particularly in many -eligible regions, will allow face, has proven difficult. is has led to the development of negative habitat and community modification to continue in an ecosystem-based approach to the management of freshwa- both types of aquatic system. ter and marine transboundary waters. One ecosystem-based regional teams selected specific policy options approach that is becoming widely accepted is Integrated that address habitat modification and promote an ecosystem- Coastal Zone Management (). It is analogous to the based approach (Table ). eir suggested interventions are integrated water resource management approach discussed divided into four groups: (i) building a knowledge base; (ii) in the chapter on freshwater shortage. Many regional integrating ecosystem issues into policies; (iii) supporting teams throughout the tropics recommend pursuing, or are al- marine protected areas; and (iv) strengthening institutional ready implementing, . capacity. Most successful interventions use multiple instru- Actions to preserve habitats have traditionally segre- ments to address different root causes and take into account gated ecosystems from economic activities by establishing regional environmental and socio-economic particularities. protected areas, bans and zoning. However, some of the rich- est aquatic habitats are located in areas where human activi- Knowledge base and assessments ties take place (e.g. fishing in coastal waters). Consequently, Policy makers require information to evaluate the trade-offs policy measures that aim for sustainability have become between policies and to set priorities. Despite having made essential elements of natural resources management strate- major progress, we are yet to understand important aspects of gies. One particularly important aspect of policy integration the interaction between habitats, their organisms and human is to ensure sectoral government agencies, such as ministries actions. Furthermore, economic valuation of the goods and of forestry, energy and roads, incorporate environmental and services provided by ecosystems is still struggling to gain ac- social concerns in their decision-making. Most regional ceptance as a regular policy tool in most parts of the world. teams recommended a wider use of economic incentives, such Given the complexity of transboundary issues, these assess- as those included in Table . ey also stressed the impor- ments require cooperation between scientists from a range of tance of enforcing existing regulations. disciplines. By evaluating impacts and trade-offs, assessments
.
Instruments Incentives Disincentives Examples of GIWA regions
b South Atlantic Drainage System Ownership, management, access and use rights over biodiversity Exclusion from land and biodiversity (Patagonian Shelf) Joint, collaborative and co-management of biodiversity Enforcement and penalties for Barents Sea Property rights Leases, concessions, licenses, permits and franchises for the unsustainable or illegal biodiversity Yellow Sea management, use, harvesting and prospecting of biological resources use East China Sea c Niger Basin (Guinea Current) Improvement of existing biodiversity markets and prices, and development of new biodiversity markets and charges, including Ban on biodiversity impacting b South Atlantic Drainage System Market and charge tourist levies, entrance fees, user fees, prospecting fees and royalties products or markets (Patagonian Shelf) systems Tradable quotas, permits, rights and licenses Biodiversity impacting product c Niger Basin (Guinea Current) Develop alternative biodiversity markets and products quotas or limits Eco-labelling and accreditation of sustainable biodiversity products Subsidies for biodiversity conserving activities, technologies and Taxes or surcharges for products products which impact biodiversity Fiscal instruments Caspian Sea Tax relief or differential taxes on land uses, technologies and products Differential land use, technology Credits and offsets for biodiversity conserving activities and product taxes
Sulu-Celebes Sea Improving efficiency, scope and sustainability of biodiversity Rural development and livelihood Livelihood support South China Sea utilisation diversification and improvement c Niger Basin (Guinea Current) (: ) , (: )
Marine Protected areas Even when economic incentives are used to promote conser- vation, some valuable but fragile habitats may be degraded if economic activities are not restricted. Marine Protected Areas (s) can play a major role in conserving marine eco- systems and maintaining their associated value for human well-being. s can range from small, highly protected reserves prohibiting all resource extraction, to large reserves zoned for multiple uses and sustainable development. Unfortunately, many existing s are only “paper parks” that fail to meet their objectives. On the other hand, there are highly successful s, including: the Apo Island Marine Sanctuary and the Danjugan Island Marine Reserve in the Philippines; the Kiunga Marine Reserve in Kenya; the Chumbe Island Marine Park in Tanzania; and the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in Australia.
Capacity strengthening Designing and implementing sustainable use and conserva- tion policies requires the integration of academic disciplines and cooperation among specialists and policy-makers. In- stitutions responsible for managing habitats frequently lack essential skills necessary for ecological and economic assess- ments, management, financial reporting and control, moni- toring and enforcement. A lack of financial resources is a constraint for the conservation of aquatic habitats in many regions. Effective actions necessary for the management of protected areas and the enforcement of exclusive economic zones can only be implemented if financial resources are provided. Social instruments, many based on stakeholder partici- pation, were also frequently recommended by regional teams. Participation goes beyond consultation; it should em- power people to make the decisions and manage the resources on which their livelihoods depend. : . (: . ) Globally, the unsustainable use of freshwater and overfishing are the two most severe concerns in transboundary waters worldwide. Together with global climate change and pollution, they modify habitats and result in a loss of biodiversity. ese water-related problems are amongst the most serious and immediate threats to humanity. Although freshwater and marine issues differ greatly, they have mostly the same root causes like Conclusions poverty and population growth. e pressure on aquatic resources is increased further by poor governance, and market and policy failures. More dams, deeper wells and larger fishing fleets are not the answer; instead, the world’s limited aquatic resources need to be shared and used wisely. Broad cooperation by a variety of stakeholders is an essential component of ecosystem-oriented management. has focused on the transboundary nature and causes of the major aquatic concerns affecting Large Marine Ecosystems and international river basins, and developed potential options to address these concerns. :
A number of globally relevant conclusions can be drawn from Challenges to international marine systems the regional assessments. has confirmed that trans- e regional teams assessed three basic types of fish- boundary pressures from human activity have weakened the eries. In the shelf and enclosed seas of polar and temperate ability of aquatic ecosystems to perform essential functions. zones, a limited variety of demersal and pelagic fish species are e continued neglect of ecosystems and the inability to pro- harvested, most with a lifespan of several years. ese stocks tect water resources are compromising human well-being and are extensively overfished, but could be restored by limit- sustainable development. In general, the concerns are expected ing catches and fishing effort (preferably as a precautionary to increase in severity over the forthcoming decades, particu- measure). Climate driven regime shifts often conceal fish- larly freshwater shortage, pollution, and habitat modification ery-induced changes to stocks. e side-effects of the fisheries in developing regions. Furthermore, global climate change will could be minimised by restricting destructive bottom trawl- exacerbate the situation in many parts of the world. ing and through the introduction of regulations and selective Marine and freshwater systems are inextricably linked technologies to reduce by-catch and discards. In many within the global hydrosphere. e transboundary conse- regions, international agreements and organisations have been quences of human activities in freshwater systems are also felt established to improve fisheries management. However, the in the coastal and marine environment, including changes in effectiveness of those measures is often hindered by weak en- salinity and currents, sedimentation, eutrophication and toxic forcement and a lack of political will in the face of lobbying by pollution. Although human marine activities affect freshwa- the fisheries industry. ter systems less commonly, ocean processes impact coastal and Upwelling regions, particularly the four large western even inland environments, and human well-being in various boundary systems (the Benguela/, California/, Canary/ ways, e.g. by saline intrusion, storm surges and climate induced and Humboldt/ currents), are amongst the most produc- impacts. tive fishing regions in the world. Local and international fish- confirmed that overfishing has the most adverse ing fleets catch mainly small, short-lived pelagic fish. Fishing transboundary effects on marine ecosystems, while human-in- management must adapt precautionary regulations in response duced changes in water flow were considered to have the most to massive climate driven fluctuations in fish stocks in these severe transboundary impacts on freshwater ecosystems. regions, for example, during events. e pelagic fisheries of upwelling regions have limited side-effects.
. - : - . :
In tropical and subtropical s, small-scale, mostly ar- Land-use change, including forest colonisation, urbani- tisanal fisheries exploit nearshore stocks, while industrialised sation, draining of wetlands and irrigation of dry lands, modi- fleets, often from overseas, operate offshore. ey harvest a fies the drainage patterns and groundwater recharge rates of great variety of fish and other living resources using a broad international river basins. In many regions, changes in range of fishing methods. In many regions these fisheries the hydrological regime, resulting from both water impound- have severely depleted stocks which has led to ‘fishing down ment and land-use change, have altered evaporation rates, the the food web’, where overfishing causes a trophic shift towards seasonal periodicity of flooding, erosion-accretion dynam- small, short-lived organisms lower in the food chain. ics and the water table. ese changes have adversely affected Ecosystem-based management can be achieved in many downstream habitats, particularly wetlands, and have subse- regions through the adoption of a variety of manage- quently reduced biodiversity and modified community struc- ment instruments, including fleet reduction programmes, tures. subsidy reforms, improved definition of rights, gear control, Extensive soil and groundwater salinisation resulting and closed seasons and areas. ese measures, based on broad from reduced freshwater availability, inappropriate irrigation stakeholder involvement, aim to promote sustainability in the practices and overabstraction of groundwater was reported in fisheries and to protect marine ecosystems. many regions. Toxic and microbial pollution are addi- Coastal habitats are not only degraded by the fisheries. tional threats to freshwater systems. Hypoxic (oxygen-depleted) zones in the marine environment On a global scale, freshwater shortage is the most severe were previously restricted to enclosed seas but are now ob- aquatic concern. On all continents, the inhabitants of des- served in many coastal areas. Increased quantities of suspend- ert and semi-arid zones have strayed from their traditional ed sediment discharged by rivers or originating from coastal path of sustainable water use and now overexploit their scarce activities, such as construction and dredging, are degrading surface and upper groundwater supplies. Inappropriate land- marine habitats, particularly coral reefs. In addition, nearshore use management, inefficient use of freshwater by irrigation, habitats are modified by mariculture, oil and gas activities, evaporation from reservoirs, and greater water demand fuelled wind parks and coastal development, including the construc- by the expansion of agriculture, as well as population and eco- tion of ports and tourist facilities. Mass coral bleaching, caused nomic growth, have resulted in greater water scarcity and an by water temperature increases, is considered the greatest increase in the frequency and duration of droughts. e over- threat to coral reefs on a global scale. abstraction of fossil water from deep aquifers is increasingly e creation of marine protected areas, zoning and bans common. can conserve sensitive habitats, such as coral reefs, mangroves In the majority of arid and semi-arid regions, attempts and seagrass beds. In areas where human interference is un- to halt or reverse current degradation trends are constrained avoidable, policy measures which promote the adoption of sus- by: poverty and slow economic development; deficiencies in tainable practices were recommended by regional teams. the technical, administrative and managerial capacity of insti- Although the transboundary impacts on marine eco- tutions responsible for water management; weak national and systems could be mitigated and controlled by present man- regional legal frameworks; and a lack of international coop- agement instruments, political will and institutional capacity eration. In most regions, there is a need to increase the needs strengthening in most regions. knowledge base regarding surface and ground water budgets and for a change in water policy from building new dams and Challenges to international freshwater systems deepening wells to conserving water through demand and ef- e modification of stream flow by water infrastructure was ficiency management. the most severe and widespread transboundary impact affect- In the past, freshwater shortage has not been a concern ing freshwater ecosystems. Dams fragment rivers and create a in the humid zones of the higher latitudes and near the equa- series of lakes and large reservoirs used for a variety of human tor. Today, water is used unsustainably by large urban agglom- uses, including drinking water, irrigation and the generation of erates and irrigated agriculture, resulting in water scarcity even hydroelectricity. Stream flow is also altered by the canalisation in areas with substantial rainfall. of meandering rivers to improve navigation. :
GIWA mega-regional trends many policy responses need to be initiated by the international Considerable political and cultural differences exist between community. and within the mega-regions which affect the character- Pollution and the exploitation of water and aquatic liv- istics and relevance of the root causes for policy makers. e ing resources are often sufficiently regulated. However, -en international waters of Sub-Saharan Africa are among the forcement and implementation can be weak due to a lack of most degraded, particularly as a result of freshwater shortage. awareness at all levels, weak institutions, inadequate technical Incessant poverty and weak national legal frameworks and and financial resources, negligence, bureaucracy and corrup- institutional capacity cause unsustainable development and tion. ere is insufficient environmental monitoring in both constrain environmental management. In Southeast Asia, pol- developing and developed regions. Cooperative efforts for lution and habitat modification have the most severe impacts. training and other forms of capacity building are needed on a Increasing pressure on natural resources resulting from rapid regional basis, as well as through North-South partnerships. economic growth is insufficiently controlled by the reform of e regional assessments, in accordance with other relevant policies. In the former Soviet Union, water bodies recent assessments, found that the complexity and diversity of were considered inexhaustible and to be infinite receptors of transboundary systems require the integration of management waste; a perception that will take a long time to change. De- across countries, sectors and ecosystems. Ecosystem-based ficiencies in policy development and widespread corruption management, including Integrated Coastal Zone Manage- are impediments to habitat restoration, cleaner water and sus- ment () and Integrated Water Resource Management tainable fisheries. In South and Central America, the overall (), offers the best path for advancing sustainable devel- environmental status of international waters seems of a higher opment. An ecosystem-based approach was called for at the quality than in other mega-regions. Nevertheless, pollution World Summit on Sustainable Development (). and habitat modification are relatively widespread but can be In contrast to traditional approaches that ignore issues addressed through long-term natural resource planning, stron- which transcend limited sectoral interests, ecosystem-based ger political will and the strengthening of institutions respon- management offers a framework for changing the practices sible for environmental management and enforcement. of economic activities. e fishing industry, for example, has largely disregarded environmental warnings, opting instead Cross-cutting root causes and for the blind hope that natural population recruitment will management responses maintain the viability of the fisheries. Ecosystem-based man- Despite the above noted regional disparities, this global syn- agement needs to be flexible and adaptive to the dynamic in- thesis of the regional reports illustrates that the majority of teractions of ecosystems and societies. e success of the concerns have the same root causes: global climate projects has proven that an ecosystem-based approach can be change, population growth, migration to coastal areas, urbani- implemented in widely differing regions. sation, industrialisation, increasing economic pressures on re- sources, globalisation of trade and markets, and greater demand GIWA, lessons learnt for water-intensive goods and services. ese cross-cutting root Lessons can be learnt from the successes and weaknesses of causes are intrinsic elements of human societies. ey cannot . It has been the largest global assessment of a broad array be resolved by simple policy interventions in the water sector of ecosystem-wide water issues from a transboundary perspec- alone but require concerted actions at all levels of national and tive, holistically assessing international river basins and their international governance. e failure of global policy measures adjacent s. has prioritised and provided informa- aimed at reducing the rate of global climate change demon- tion on transboundary aquatic concerns so that regional and strates the difficulties in addressing these root causes. international policy makers and managers can better manage Further root causes, such as market failures, institutional international waters. weaknesses, knowledge deficiencies, inappropriate subsidies ’s bottom-up approach was the project’s greatest and other unsustainable policy instruments, can be resolved strength. Regional teams conducted the assessment based on by concerted action by all stakeholders in a given region. Even existing regional data and information, and adapted the meth- beyond regional boundaries. In the present era of globalisation, odology to the local conditions. In many regions, the :
assessment process has strengthened communication between mation availability varied regionally and nationally, especially social and natural scientists, as well as managers, provid- between developed and developing regions, which affected the ing the basis for long-term collaboration. It has also fostered accuracy and comparability of the results. transboundary cooperation and new partnerships within the In future, the methodology should further incorporate regions and between neighbouring regions. not only as- the multitude of interactions between the various concerns sessed the available policy critical information, but also identi- and issues. Greater involvement of governments and vari- fied key knowledge gaps. ’s bottom-up approach resulted ous stakeholder groups would strengthen the causal chain and in strong local ownership of the regional reports. policy options analyses. It is essential to maintain close links In many regional teams, however, social scientists and with other assessment projects in order to avoid conflicting policy specialists were underrepresented and stakeholder in- approaches and duplication of efforts, particularly in regions volvement was limited in several policy option analyses. Infor- where scientific and technical expertise are limited.
(: . ) :
References A comprehensive list of references can be found in the regional reports and in AMBIO (-):-, : Trans- boundary issues in shared waters.
Arnell, N., Liu, C., Compagnucci, R., da Cunha, L., Hanaki, K, Howe, Pauly, D. (). e future for fisheries. Science :-. C., Mailu, G., Shiklomanov, I., Stakhiv, E., Doll, P., Becker, A. Pauly, D., Christensen, V., Dalsgaard, J., Froese, R. and Torres, F. and Zang, J. (). Hydrology and water resources. p - (). Fishing down the marine food webs. Science :-. in:Climate Change : Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. Pearce, D. (). Environmentally harmful subsidies: Barriers to sus- tainable development. University College London and Imperial Burke, L., Selig, E. and Spalding, M. (). Reefs at risk in South- College London, UK. east Asia. World Resources Institute, Washington D.C., United States. Sherman, K. (). Physical, biological and human forcing of biomass yields in large marine ecosystems. International Council for the Costanza, R., d’Arge, R., de Groot, R., Farber, S., Grasso, M., Han- the Exploration of the Sea, ICES CM /P:, Copenhagen, non, B., Limburg, K., Naeem, S., O’Neill, R.V., Paruelo, J., Denmark. Raskin, R.G., Sutton, P. and van den Belt, M. (). e value of the world ecosystem services and natural capital. Nature : Sherman, K. and Duda, A. (). An ecosystem approach to global -. assessment and management of coastal waters. Marine Ecology Progress Series :-. de Fraiture, C., Cai, X., Amarasinghe, U., Rosegrant, M. and Molden, D. (). Does international cereal trade save water? e impact UNEP (). Atlas of international freshwater agreements. United of virtual water trade on global water use. Comprehensive As- Nations Environment Programme, Division of Early Warning sessment Research Report . International Water Management and Assessment - North America. Retrieved May, , from Institute (IWMI), Comprehensive Assessment Secretariat, Co- http://www.transboundarywaters.orst.edu/publications/atlas/ lombo, Sri Lanka. UNDP (). World population prospects: e Revision. United FAO (). Crops and drops: making the best use of water for agricul- Nations Population Division (UNPD) Population Database. Re- ture. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, trieved May from: http://esa.un.org/unpp/ Rome Italy. USBR (). Estimated flows of the Colorado River across the inter- FAO (). FAO Yearbook, Fishery statistics, Commodities , Vol. national border. United States Bureau of reclamation, Lower . Food and Agriculture Organization of the Untied Nations, Colorado regional office, Boulder City, United States. Rome, Italy. WMO (). Comprehensive assessment of the freshwater resources of FAO (). e state of world fisheries and aquaculture (SOFIA). the world. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Swit- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, zerland. Rome, Italy. World Bank (). World Development Report : e state in a FAO (). Review of the state of world marine fishery resources. FAO changing world. Oxford University Press, New York, United Fisheries Technical Paper . Food and Agriculture Organiza- States. tion of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. World Bank (). World Development Report : Sustainable FAO FISHSTAT (). FAO Yearbook , Fishery statistics, development in a dynamic world – transforming institutions, Commodities , Vol. . Retrieved August from: http: growth, and quality of life. Oxford University Press, New York, //www.fao.org/fi/statist/fisoft/fishplus.asp United States. GWP (). Integrated Water Resources Management. GWP Tech- WSSD (). Report of World Summit on Sustainable Development. nical Committee Background Paper . Global Water Partner- Johannesburg, South Africa, August- September, . Re- ship, Stockholm, Sweden. port A/CONF./, United Nations, New York, United States. IUCN (). Using economic incentives for biodiversity conservation. WWC (). World Water Vision: Results of the gender mainstream- Emerton, L. (ed).e World Conservation Union, Economics ing project: e way forward. World Water Vision Unit – World and Biodiversity Programme, Gland, Switzerland. Water Council, United Nations Educational Social and Cultural Organisation, Paris, France. Matishov, G.G. and Denisov, V.V. (). Ecosystems and biologi- cal resources of Russian European Seas on the turn of the st Zimmer, D. and Renault, D. (). Virtual water in food produc- century. Murmansk Marine Biological Institute (MMBI), Mur- tion and global trade: A review of methodological issues and mansk, Russia. preliminary results. Retrieved May, , from: http://www.wo rldwatercouncil.org/fileadmin/wwc/Programs/Virtual_Water/ Milazzo, M. (). Subsidies in world fisheries: A re-examination. VirtualWater_article_DZDR.pdf World Bank Technical paper No , Fisheries series. World Bank, Washington D.C., United States.
Acronyms
ACOPS Advisory Committee on Protection of the Sea OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development ANA Brazilian National Agency of Waters PCB Polychlorinated Bifenyls CAS Chinese Academy of Sciences POA Policy Options Analysis CCA Causal Chain Analysis POP Persistent Organic Pollutant DDT Dichloro Diphenyl Trichloroethane SAP Strategic Action Programme DEWA Division of Early Warning and Assessment SCOPE Scientific Committee on Problems of the EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone Environment ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation SEI Stockholm Environment Institute EU European Union Sida Swedish International Development Cooperation FAO United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization Agency GEF Global Environment Facility SIDS Small Island Developing States GEMS Global Environmental Monitoring System STAP Scientific Technical Advisory Panel GESAMP Joint Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of TAC Total Allowable Catch Marine Environmental Protection TDA Transboundary Diagnostic Analysis GIWA Global International Waters Assessment UN United Nations GLOBALLAST Global Ballast Water Management Programme UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and GPA Global Programme of Action Development GWP Global Water Partnership UNDP United Nations Development Programme HAB Harmful Algal Bloom UNECE United Nations Economic Commission for Europe IAH International Association of Hydrogeologists UNEP United Nations Environment Programme ICES International Council for the Exploration of the Sea UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund IEA International Energy Agency UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development IPCC Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Organization ISARM International Shared Aquifer Resource Management UNSCD United Nations Commission on Sustainable ISO International Organization for Standardization Development ITQ Individually Transferable Quota USBR United States Bureau of Reclamation IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management USGS United States Geological Survey LME Large Marine Ecosystem WCD World Commission on Dams MARPOL International Convention for the Prevention of WHO World Health Organization Marine Pollution from Ships WMO World Maritime Organization MDG Millennium Development Goal WSSD World Summit on Sustainable Development MPA Marine Protected Area WTO World Trade Organization MSC Marine Stewardship Council WWC World Water Council NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration NGO Non-Governmental Organisation NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration : ANNEXES
Annex I: Global International Waters Assessment Origin, objectives, workplan, teams and products
THE NEED FOR A GLOBAL the overexploitation of virtually every commercial fishery. INTERNATIONAL WATERS Furthermore, freshwater and marine habitats are directly ASSESSMENT modified by urban and infrastructure development. ere is a growing public awareness and concern regarding the de- clining quality and quantity of the world’s aquatic resources, Water is a vital life supporting resource, necessary for ag- resulting in mounting pressure on governments and decision riculture and other economic purposes, and for generat- makers to initiate new and innovative approaches to manag- ing hydropower. Marine and freshwater ecosystems provide ing these resources in a sustainable manner to ensure their valuable resources in terms of fish and other aquatic living availability for future generations. resources. e management of the world’s aquatic resources for Globally, anthropogenic activities are degrading the the mutual benefit of all societies and the environment is an world’s water bodies. Aquatic ecosystems and human well- extremely complex task. Without the construction of reser- being are negatively impacted by dramatic changes in the voirs, dams and canals, water is free to flow wherever the laws flow regime of river basins, increasingly severe natural disas- of nature dictate. Water is therefore a vector transporting ters, such as floods and droughts, greater pollution loads, and not only a wide variety of valuable resources but also prob- lems from one area to another. e effluents emanating from () environmentally destructive activities in upstream drain- The Global Environment Facility forges international cooperation age areas are propagated downstream and can affect areas a and finances actions to address six critical threats to the global environment: biodiversity loss, climate change, degradation of ()
international waters, ozone depletion, land degradation, and per- United Nations Environment Programme, established in , is the sistent organic pollutants (POPs). The overall strategic thrust of voice for the environment within the United Nations system. The GEF-funded international waters activities is to meet the incre- mission of UNEP is to provide leadership and encourage partner- mental costs of: ship in caring for the environment by inspiring, informing, and en-
abling nations and peoples to improve their quality of life without Assisting groups of countries to better understand the environ- mental concerns of their international waters and work collab- compromising that of future generations.
oratively to address them; UNEP work encompasses:
Assessing global, regional and national environmental condi- Building the capacity of existing institutions to utilise a more comprehensive approach for addressing transboundary water- tions and trends; related environmental concerns; Developing international and national environmental instru- ments;
Implementing measures that address the priority transbound- Strengthening institutions for the wise management of the envi- ary environmental concerns. ronment;
The goal is to assist countries in using the full range of technical, Facilitating the transfer of knowledge and technology for sus- economic, financial, regulatory, and institutional measures needed tainable development;
to operationalise sustainable development strategies for interna- Encouraging new partnerships and mind-sets within civil soci- tional waters. ety and the private sector. :
plinary approaches that integrate environmental, socio-eco- nomic and development aspects into management must be The University of Kalmar hosts the GIWA Coordination Office and adopted. Many assessments of aquatic resources are con- provides scientific advice and administrative and technical assis- ducted by local, national, regional and international bodies. tance to GIWA. The University of Kalmar is situated on the coast of the Baltic Sea. The city has a long tradition of higher education; ey often concentrate on specific themes, such as biodi- teachers and marine officers have been educated in Kalmar since versity or persistent toxic substances, or focus on marine or the middle of the th century. Today, natural science is a priority freshwater systems separately. A globally coherent assessment area that gives Kalmar a unique educational and research profile that embraces the inextricable links between transboundary compared with other small universities in Sweden. Of particu- freshwater and marine systems, and between environmental lar relevance for GIWA is an established research programme in and societal issues, had never previously been undertaken but aquatic and environmental science. Issues linked to the concept was clearly needed. of sustainable development are implemented by the university’s Natural Resources Management and Agenda Research School.
Since its establishment GIWA has grown to become an integral part of University activities. The GIWA Coordination Office and INTERNATIONAL CALL GIWA Core team are located at the Kalmarsund Laboratory, the university centre for water-related research. Senior scientists ap- FOR ACTION pointed by the University are actively involved in the GIWA peer- review and steering groups. As a result of this cooperation the Uni- e need for a holistic assessment of transboundary waters versity can offer courses and seminars related to GIWA objectives was acknowledged by several international environmen- and international water issues. tal organisations. e Global Environment Facility () recognised that its international waters component suffered considerable distance away from the source. In the case of due to the lack of a global assessment that could provide a transboundary river basins, such as the Amazon, Nile and clear understanding of the nature and root causes of interna- Niger, the impacts are transported across national borders, tional water problems, and that could indicate priorities for thus affecting more than one riparian country. In the case of project intervention. e urgent need for an assessment of the large oceanic currents, the impacts can even be propagated causes of environmental degradation was also highlighted at between continents. e inextricable linkages within, and between, freshwater and marine en- vironments requires a drainage basin approach to The term ‘international waters’, as used cies and actions inadequately cope with managing aquatic resources. for the purposes of the GEF Operational these transboundary problems. Strategy, includes the oceans, large In addition, there is a growing appreciation The ‘international waters area’ includes marine ecosystems, enclosed or semi- of the incongruence between the transbound- numerous international conventions, trea- enclosed seas and estuaries, as well as ary nature of many aquatic resources and the ties, and agreements. The architecture of rivers, lakes, groundwater systems, and marine agreements is especially complex, traditional introspective, nationally focused ap- wetlands with transboundary drainage and a large number of bilateral and multi- proaches to managing these resources. Water, un- basins or common borders. The water- lateral agreements exist for transbound- like laws and management plans, does not respect related ecosystems associated with these ary freshwater basins. Related conven- national borders and, as a consequence, if future waters are considered integral parts of tions and agreements in other areas the systems. management of water and aquatic resources is to increase further the complexity. These be successful, a shift in focus towards interna- The term ‘transboundary issues’ is used to initiatives provide a new opportunity for tional cooperation and intergovernmental agree- describe the threats to the aquatic envi- cooperating nations to integrate many ments is required. Furthermore, the complexity of ronment linked to globalisation, interna- different programmes and instruments managing the world’s water resources is exacer- tional trade, demographic changes and into comprehensive regional approaches bated by the dependence of a great variety of do- technological advancement, in addition in order to address the challenges to in- to those created through transboundary ternational waters. mestic and industrial activities on these resources. movement of water. Single-country poli- As a consequence, cross-sectoral, multidisci- :
the General Assembly Special Session on the Environ- ment in , and demonstrated through commitments by the The primary goals of the UNEP water policy and strategy are: Commission on Sustainable Development on freshwater
in , and seas in . In , two international declara- Achieving greater global understanding of freshwater, coastal tions, the ‘Potomac Declaration: Towards Enhanced Ocean and marine environments by conducting environmental as- sessments in priority areas; Security into the ird Millennium,’ and the ‘Stockholm
Statement on Interaction of Land activities, Freshwater and Raising awareness of the importance and consequences of un- Enclosed Seas,’ also emphasised the need for an investigation sustainable water use;
of the root causes of the degradation of the transboundary Supporting the efforts of governments in the preparation and aquatic environment and options for addressing them. implementation of integrated management of freshwater sys- ese interests finally led to the development of the tems and their related coastal and marine environments;
Global International Waters Assessment () and its in- Providing support for the preparation of integrated manage- auguration in . e importance of was further ment plans and programmes for aquatic environmental hot- underscored by the United Nations Millennium Declaration spots, based on the assessment results;
adopted by the General Assembly in , and particu- Promoting the application by stakeholders of precautionary, larly the Plan of Implementation of the World Summit on preventive and anticipatory approaches. Sustainable Development () in . e Plan calls for inter alia: integrated river basin management and increased understanding of the long-term sustainability of freshwater, A broad transboundary approach that provides a truly re- coastal and marine environments; integrated assessment at gional perspective by incorporating expertise and existing the global and regional levels for the conservation and man- information from all nations in the region, and by assess- agement of living and non-living marine resources; and the ing the major factors that influence the aquatic resources use of environmental impact assessments in decision making of the region; processes. e project was intended to provide infor- A drainage basin approach integrating freshwater and mation to support the implementation of such plans. marine systems; A multidisciplinary approach integrating environmental and socio-economic information and expertise; and A coherent assessment that provides globally comparable CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK results. AND OBJECTIVES builds on previous assessments implemented within e primary objectives of are: the International Waters portfolio but has developed and To provide a prioritising mechanism that allows to adopted a broader definition of transboundary waters to in- focus its resources so that they are used in the most cost- clude factors that influence the quality and quantity of global effective manner to achieve significant environmental aquatic resources. recognises the importance of hydro- benefits, at national, regional and global levels; and logical units that would not normally be considered trans- To highlight areas in which governments can develop boundary but exert a significant influence on transboundary and implement strategic policies to reduce environmental waters, such as the Yangtze River in China, which discharges degradation and improve the management of aquatic re- into the East China Sea, and the Volga River in Russia, sources. which is principally responsible for changes to the Caspian Sea. Furthermore, is a regional assessment that has To meet these objectives and address some of the current in- incorporated data from a wide range of sources and includes adequacies of international aquatic resources management, expert knowledge and information from a variety of sec- has incorporated four essential elements into its design: tors in each country of a region. e transboundary concept adopted by includes impacts caused by globalisation, :
international trade, demographic changes and technological advances, and recognises the need for international coopera- Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) are ocean regions encompass- tion to successfully address these issues. ing coastal areas from river basins and estuaries to the seaward boundaries of continental shelves and the outer margin of the major current systems. They are relatively large regions on the order of km² or greater, characterised by distinct: (i) ba- SCALE AND METHODOLOGY OF thymetry; (ii) hydrography; (iii) productivity; and (iv) trophically THE ASSESSMENT dependent populations. The Large Marine Ecosystems strategy is a global effort for the as- In order to be consistent with the transboundary nature of sessment and management of international coastal waters. It was many of the world’s aquatic resources and the focus of , developed in direct response to a declaration at the Rio Sum- the geographical units being assessed have been designed ac- mit. As part of the strategy, the World Conservation Union (IUCN) cording to the drainage basins of discrete hydrographic sys- and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) tems rather than political borders. e geographic units were have cooperated in an action programme to assist developing countries in planning and implementing an ecosystem-based determined during the preparatory phase of the project and strategy that is focused on LMEs as the principal assessment and resulted in the division of the world into regions defined management unit for coastal ocean resources. The LME concept by the entire area of one or more catchments that drain into a has also been adopted by GEF, which recommends the use of LMEs single designated marine system. ese marine systems often and their contributing freshwater basins as the geographic area for correspond to Large Marine Ecosystems (s). Some of the integrating sectoral economic activities. regions were later reconfigured and divided into sub-systems which were assessed individually by separate teams. Not all -eligible regions, i.e. developing regions and regions with of the regions were assessed by . Priority was given to transitional economies.
a Russian Arctic ( ) Gulf of St Lawrence Baltic Sea () California Current () Patagonian Shelf () b Indian Ocean Islands Arabian Sea () Great Australian Bight b Arctic Greenland () Newfoundland Shelf () North Sea () Gulf of California () Brazil Current () Somali Coastal Bay of Bengal Pacific Islands c Arctic European/Atlantic Baffin Bay, Labrador Sea, Celtic-Biscay Shelf () Bering Sea () a Northeast Brazil Current () South China Sea ( ) Tasman Sea d Arctic North American Canadian Archipelago Iberian Coastal Sea () Sea of Okhotsk () Shelf ( ) East African Rift Mekong River Humboldt Current () Gulf of Mexico () Barents Sea () North Africa and Oyashio Current () b Amazon Valley Lakes Sulu-Celebes Sea () Eastern Equatorial Caribbean Sea () Norwegian Sea () Nile River Basin () Kuroshio Current () Canary Current () Red Sea and Indonesian Seas () Pacific() Caribbean Islands () Faroe plateau Black Sea () Sea of Japan () Guinea Current () Gulf of Aden () North Australian Antarctic () Southeast Shelf () Iceland Shelf () Caspian Sea Yellow Sea () Lake Chad Euphrates and Shelf () Northeast Shelf () East Greenland Shelf () Aral Sea East China Sea () Benguela Current () Tigris River Basin Coral Sea Basin Scotian Shelf () West Greenland Shelf () Gulf of Alaska () Hawaiian Archipelago () a Agulhas Current () Jordan Great Barrier Reef () . :
In consideration of the objectives of and the ele- Region . Caribbean Islands ments incorporated into its design, a innovative methodology Region . Barents Sea for the implementation of the assessment was developed dur- Region . Baltic Sea ing the initial phase of the project. Region . Caspian Sea A holistic, region-by-region assessment of the world’s Region . Aral Sea transboundary aquatic resources had never been undertaken Region . Sea of Okhotsk before and therefore a new methodology was required. A Region . Oyashio Current multidisciplinary, multi-sectoral, multinational approach was Region . Patagonian Shelf developed. e methodology is now available as a platform Region . Brazil Current for future international assessments of aquatic resources. Region b. Amazon e methodology focuses on five major environmen- Region . Lake Chad tal concerns; freshwater shortage, pollution, overfishing and Region b. Indian Ocean Islands other threats to aquatic living resources, habitat and com- Region . East African Rift Valley Lakes munity modification, and global change. e root causes, Region . South China Sea including global trends, policy, legislation, governance, insti- Region . Mekong River tutional capacity and knowledge, are also analysed. Wherever Region . Pacific Islands possible, the causal chain analysis was followed by policy Region . Humboldt Current option analysis which outlined potential courses of action Region . Eastern Equatorial Pacific that aim to mitigate or resolve environmental and socio- economic problems in the region. Printed thematic reports For a detailed description of the methodology, Region . Black Sea. Transboundary waters in the Black Sea see Annex II. – Danube region; legal and financial implications. Region . Black Sea. Eutrophication in the Black Sea region – impact assessment and causal chain analysis.
GIWA REGIONAL ASSESSMENTS Published on web Region b. Arctic Greenland The regional reports Region . Faroe Plateau e results of the assessment for each region are pre- Region . East Greenland Shelf sented in the regional reports. ese reports provide a brief Region . West Greenland Shelf physical and socio-economic description of the most impor- Region . Gulf of California tant features of the region. e remaining sections of the re- Region . East China Sea port present the results of each stage of the assessment. Each Region . Yellow Sea regional report is reviewed by at least two external reviewers Region . Canary Current in order to ensure scientific validity and applicability. Region . Guinea Current e project has published regional and thematic as- Region . Benguela Current sessments in printed form (or in preparation for print) and on Region . Sulu-Celebes Sea the web, and a further are available online at www.giwa.net Region . Indonesian Seas (see list below and the fold-out map inside of the front cover). To obtain copies of the printed reports, please contact: Regional reports printed or in preparation for print Division of Early Warning and Assessment, Region a. Russian Arctic United Nations Environment Programme, Region a. Caribbean Sea/Small Islands PO Box , Nairobi , Kenya, Region b/c. Caribbean Sea/Orinoco, Magdalena, Tel: + -, Fax: + -, Catatumbo/Central America, Mexico Email: [email protected]. :
The global network Barents Sea ...... Natalia Golubeva In each of the regions, the assessment was conducted East Greenland Shelf ... Mogens Dyhr-Nielsen by a team of local experts led by a Focal Point (Figure ). e West Greenland Shelf .. Mogens Dyhr-Nielsen Focal Point can be an individual, institution or organisation Baltic Sea ...... Ain Lääne that has been selected on the basis of their scientific reputa- Black Sea...... Felix Stolberg, Olena Borysova, Valery Michailov tion and experience in implementing international assessment Caspian Sea...... Felix Stolberg, Olena Borysova, Rovshan Mahmudov projects. e Focal Point is responsible for assembling mem- Aral Sea ...... Felix Stolberg, Olena Borysova, Igor Severskiy bers of the team and ensuring that it has the necessary exper- Gulf of California...... Edgar Arias Patron, Omar Vidal tise and experience in a variety of environmental and socio- Bering Sea...... Suzanne Marcy economic disciplines. e selection of the team members is Sea of Okhotsk ...... Arkady V. Alekseev one of the most critical elements for the success of . In Oyashio Current...... Arkady V. Alekseev Kuroshio Current ...... Roger Juliano order to ensure that the most relevant information is incorpo- Sea of Japan...... Arkady V. Alekseev rated into the assessment, team members were selected from Yellow Sea...... Teng Seng-Keh a variety of institutions, such as universities, research insti- East China Sea ...... Jing Zhang tutes, government agencies and the private sector. e teams Patagonian Shelf...... Ana Mugetti included representatives from each country in the region. Brazil Current...... Marcia Marques Northeast Brazil Shelf.. Maria Irles de Oliveira Mayorga Amazon ...... Ronaldo Borges Barthem Canary Current ...... Mhammed Tayaa Guinea Current ...... Jean Folack, Julius Wellens-Mensah Lake Chad ...... Johnson A. Oguntola Benguela Current ...... Kim Prochazka Agulhas Current...... Chris Magadza Indian Oceans Islands.. Rolph Antoine Payet Somali Coastal Current Renison K. Ruwa East African Rift Valley Lakes...... Eric Odada Red Sea & Gulf of Aden...... Habib N. El-Habr, Najah T. Mistafa . Euphrates and Tigris River Basin ...... Habib N. El-Habr, Najah T. Mistafa Jordan...... Habib N. El-Habr In total, almost experts contributed to the Bay of Bengal...... Jayampathy Samarakoon project, building strong local ownership for the reports and South China Sea...... Clive Wilkinson, Lyndon DeVantier, Russell Reichelt creating a global network of experts and institutions that can Mekong River...... Anond Snidvongs facilitate the exchange of experiences and expertise. Sulu-Celebes Sea...... Clive Wilkinson, Lyndon DeVantier, Russell Reichelt e regional assessments would have been impossible Indonesian Seas ...... Clive Wilkinson, Lyndon DeVantier, Russell Reichelt without the remarkable efforts of all regional task teams. North Australian Shelf. Clive Wilkinson, Lyndon DeVantier, Russell Reichelt appreciates the work and contributions of the teams to Coral Sea Basin ...... Clive Wilkinson, Lyndon DeVantier, Russell Reichelt , particularly the focal points: Great Barrier Reef ...... Clive Wilkinson, Lyndon DeVantier, Russell Reichelt Great Australian Bight. Clive Wilkinson, Lyndon DeVantier, Russell Reichelt
Russian Arctic ...... Alla Tsyban Pacific Islands ...... Fabián Eguiguren Valdivieso Arctic Greenland...... Mogens Dyhr-Nielsen Tasman Sea...... Clive Wilkinson, Lyndon DeVantier, Russell Reichelt Gulf of Mexico ...... Alejandro Yáñez-Arancibia Humboldt Current ...... Ulises Munaylla Alarcón Caribbean Sea...... Francisco A. Arias-Isaza Eastern Equatorial Pacific...... Ulises Munaylla Alarcón Caribbean Islands...... Antonio Villasol Nunez :
MANAGEMENT OF GIWA NOAA: Kenneth Sherman. SCOPE: Gotthilf Hempel who also served as the Am- e project was implemented by the United Nations Envi- bassador. ronment Programme (), in collaboration with the Uni- SEI: Arno Rosemarin. versity of Kalmar, Sweden, with financial support from Sida: Kent Blom, Mats Segnestam, Bengt Johansson, Mats (), the Swedish International Development Cooperation Eriksson. Agency (Sida) (), the Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Fin- University of Kalmar: Åke Hagström. land (), the Norwegian government, the Municipality of UNDP: Andrew Hudson. Kalmar, the University of Kalmar and . e funds were e World Bank: Inesis Kiskis, Stephen F. Lintner. mainly used to support assessments of -eligible regions. WWC: Vanessa Lemaire-Drinkwater. Assessments of non-eligible regions were conducted by various international and national organisations as in-kind During the development of , a number of experts made contributions to . significant contributions, especially in the development of its e project, managed by the / Core unique methodology. would like to acknowledge the team, was comprised of the following staff: following: Scientific Director: Dag Daler (-), Per Wramner Olena Borysova, John Dixon, William Hogland, Nor- (-). man Lee, Olof Lindén, Marcia Marques, Laurence Mee, Coordinator for the Northern Hemisphere: Elina Rautalahti- Anond Snidvongs, Felix Stolberg, Galina Titova. Miettinen (-). Coordinator for the Southern Hemisphere: Juan Carlos Belau- A special acknowledgement is extended to the University of steguigoitia (-), Nick Mandeville (-). Kalmar, which served as the executing agency, for its out- Coordinator for Sub-Saharan Africa: Edith Mussukuya (- standing team of hardworking and devoted staff comprising ). of the following individuals: Officers from the Headquarters who liaised with the core team included Salif Diop, Ahmed Djoghlaf, Scientific team for the regional reports: Vladimir Mamaev, John Pernetta, Takehiro Nakamura, Scientific Advisor: Erik Arrhenius (-), Olof Lin- Pinya Sarasas, Dik Tromp, Isabelle Vanderbeck. dén, who also served as Acting Coordinator for the Southern e project was guided by a Steering Group con- Hemisphere (-, ), Ulla Li Zweifel (-, sisting of representatives from the following agencies and ). scientific bodies: UNEP/DEWA as chair of the Steering Group: Dan Supporting scientific team Claasen, Timothy Foresman, Steve Lonergan. Petre Badulescu (-), Ye Chun, (-), Sara UNEP/DGEF: John Pernetta, Vladimir Mamaev. Gräslund (), Bertil Hägerhäll also served as acting Co- GEF Secretariat: Alfred M. Duda. ordinator for the Northern Hemisphere (-), Linda GEF/STAP: Angela Wagener, Alexei Maximov. Holm (), Marcia Marques (-), Göran Rudbäck, ACOPS: Jubomir Jeftic, Viktor Sebek. Liaison Officer (-), Susanna Stymne Airey (), ANA: Jerson Kelman. Bo Wiman (-). CAS: Jing Zhang. Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland: Eero Kontula. Editorial team for the regional reports: GESAMP: Stjepan Keckes, Michael E. Huber. Scientific Editor: Ulla Li Zweifel (-). GWP: Kahlid Mohtadullah, Emilio Gabrielli, Supporting editors: Kristin Bertilius (-), Pierre Erik Skoglund, Björn Guterstam. Blime (), Johanna Egerup (-), Giovanna Municipality of Kalmar: Anders Engström, Lars Malmborg. Fistarol Salomon (), Matthew Fortnam (-), Ministry of the Environment, Norway: Per W. Schive, Rasmus Göransson (), Niklas Holmgren (-), Hanne-Grethe Nilsen. Malin Karlsson (-), Marianne Lindström (- :
), Eva Lövbrand (-), Najah Mistafa (- Between and , interns from various parts of the ), Sanna Mels (-), Joakim Palmqvist (- world participated in the project to learn and gain ex- ), George Roman (), David Souter (-), perience in the field of international waters. Monique Stolte (, ). Special thanks are also given to: the Collaborating Information & web team Centre on Water and Environment for its in-kind contribu- Åse Allberg (-), Peter Dietrich (-), Britt tion to a number of regional assessments and for its staff, in Hägerhäll (-), Elisabet Idermark (-). particular Per Bögelund-Hansen, Mogens Dyhr-Nielsen and Niels Ipsen; Grid Arendal, in particular Hugo Ahle- Administration team nius, Lars Kullerud, Philippe Rekacewicz and Svein Tveit- Elisabeth Andersson (-), Maria Carlson (), dahl; and to David Aubrey, Mike Bewer, Johan Holmberg, Niklas Carlsson (), Lena Månsson (-), Caisa Jeff ornton. Oskarsson (-).
University of Kalmar administration & scientific support: Björn Lange (-), Ulf Lidman (-), Bengt Sedvall (-). :
Annex II: GIWA methodology
e specific objective of was to conduct a holistic and Considering the significant regional disparities in terms globally comparable assessment of the world’s transboundary of the quality, quantity and availability of data, and socio- aquatic resources. To achieve this, the assessment incorpo- economic and environmental conditions, an innovative ap- rated both environmental and socio-economic factors and proach was required to achieve global comparability. e as- recognised the inextricable links between freshwater and sessment focuses on the impacts of five pre-defined concerns marine environments. enables to focus its resources in transboundary waters: freshwater shortage, pollution, and provide guidance to governments and decision-makers. habitat and community modification, overfishing and other e combination of all these elements into a single coherent threats to aquatic living resources, and global change. ese methodology had not previously been attempted and there- encompass a diversity of issues which were grouped under the fore posed a significant challenge. five concerns. In total, the impacts of issues were evalu- e methodology was achieved through an inter- ated (see Table ). active process, guided by a Methods Task team comprised of e assessment integrated environmental and socio- experts with water, environmental assessment and socio-eco- economic data from each country in the region to determine nomic backgrounds. e preliminary versions of the meth- the severity of the impacts of each of the five concerns and odology underwent extensive external peer reviews and pre- their constituent issues. e assessment was implemented liminary testing in selected regions, the results of which were by conducting two participatory workshops that typically incorporated into the final methodology. involved to environmental and socio-economic experts from each country in the region. During these workshops, . - the regional teams performed preliminary analyses based on their collective knowledge and experience. e results were substantiated with the best available information, which is GIWA concerns Environmental issues presented in the regional reports. Modification of stream flow Freshwater shortage Pollution of existing supplies e methodology can be divided into four logical Changes in the water table steps: i) Scaling defines the geographic extent of the region; Microbiological Eutrophication ii) Scoping identifies and prioritises problems based on the Chemical Suspended solids magnitude of their impacts on the environment and human Pollution Solid wastes Thermal societies in the region; iii) Causal chain analysis () de- Radionuclide termines the root causes of those problems; and iv) Policy Spills options analysis () assesses various policy options that Overexploitation Overfishing and other Excessive by-catch and discards address those root causes in order to reverse negative trends threats to aquatic Destructive fishing practices living resources Decreased viability of stock through pollution and disease in the condition of the aquatic environment. ese four steps Impact on biological and genetic diversity are summarised below and are fully described in two docu- Habitat and Loss of ecosystems community ments: ‘ Methodology Stage : Scaling and Scoping’ and Modification of ecosystems modification ‘ Methodology: Detailed Assessment, Causal Chain Changes in hydrological cycle Sea level change Analysis and Policy Options Analysis’ (Figure ). Global change Increased UV-B radiation as a result of ozone depletion
Changes in ocean CO2 source/sink function :
e Gulf of Aden/ and Red Sea/ were merged into the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden/.
Some regional teams decided to undertake separate assess- ments for transboundary water systems identified within their region. Often this included assessing the separately from the transboundary river basin. e Guinea Current/ regional team, for example, assessed five sub-systems: Comoe Basin/ a; Volta Basin/b; Niger Basin/c; Congo Basin/d; and Guinea Current /e. Altogether, assessments were under- taken in regions and sub-systems. When analysing the results of the assessments in . this global synthesis, the regions were grouped into the fol- lowing mega-regions: Arctic Rim; Europe & Central Asia; North America; Central America; South America; Sub-Sa- Scaling – Defining the geographic extent of the region haran Africa; North Africa & the Middle East; Northeast Scaling defines the geographic scale of the assessment. e Asia; Southeast Asia; Australia & Pacific Islands; and the world was divided into contiguous regions that are gen- Antarctic. erally defined by a large but discrete drainage basin and its adjacent coastal waters, rather than political boundaries. In Scoping – Assessing the GIWA concerns many cases, the boundaries of the marine areas coincided Scoping assessed the severity of environmental and socio- with those of Large Marine Ecosystems (s) as defined by economic impacts caused by each of the five pre-defined the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric and Administra- concerns and their constituent issues. It is not designed tion (). During scaling, the regional teams inspected to provide an exhaustive review of water-related problems the boundaries proposed for the region during the prepara- that exist within each region, but instead identified the most tory phase of . If necessary, they revised the boundar- urgent transboundary problems in the region and prioritised ies to remove important overlaps or gaps with neighbouring the most important issues for remedial actions. e priorities regions. e regional teams identified all the transboundary determined by Scoping are one of the main outputs of the elements of the region’s aquatic environment and determined project. whether they could be assessed as a single coherent aquatic Focusing on pre-defined concerns and issues ensures system or if there were two or more independent systems that comparability between the assessment results of the different should be assessed separately. Other regional teams decided regions. e magnitude of the environmental and socio-eco- to merge their region with an adjacent region. e following nomic impacts caused by each issue was assessed for the en- changes were made: tire region using the best available information obtained from e Arctic/ was divided into the Russian Arctic/a, Arc- a wide range of sources and the knowledge and experience tic Greenland/b, Arctic European/Atlantic/c and Arctic of the regional experts. In order to increase the global com- North America/d. parability of the results, to remove bias caused by different e Amazon/ was divided into the Northeast Brazil perceptions of the severity of the impacts, and to encourage Shelf/a and Amazon/b. consensus amongst the team, the issues were evaluated using e Agulhas Current/ was divided into Agulhas a standardised scoring system involving a four-point scale: Current/a and Indian Ocean Islands/b. = no impact reported e East Bering Sea/ and West Bering Sea/ were = slight impact merged into the Bering Sea/. = moderate impact e Yellow Sea/ and Bohai Sea/ became the Yellow = severe impact Sea (Yellow Sea/a) and Yellow Sea (Bohai Sea/b). :
Each issue was scored according to a detailed set of . pre-defined criteria that are used to guide experts in the as- Weight Environmental sessment. For example, the criteria for assigning a score of Environmental issues Score Weight averaged concerns to the issue ‘loss of ecosystems or ecotones’ is: permanent score destruction of at least one habitat, reducing its surface area . Modification of stream flow Freshwater shortage .
by > over the last - decades. e full list of criteria for . Pollution of existing supplies environmental and socio-economic impacts is presented in . Changes in the water table Tables - at the end of this Annex. A trade-off associated with assessing the impacts of . each concern and their constituent issues for an entire region
is that spatial resolution was sometimes low. Although the Criteria for Economic Raw score Score Weight assessment provides a score indicating the severity of impacts impacts Size of economic or public Very small Very large of a particular issue or concern for an entire region, it does sectors affected Degree of impact (cost, Minimum Severe not mean that the entire region suffers from the impacts of output changes etc.) that problem. For example, eutrophication could be identi- Occasional/Short Continuous Frequency/Duration fied as a severe problem in a region, but this does not imply Weight average score for Economic impacts that all waters in the region suffer from severe eutrophica- tion. It simply means that the degree of eutrophication, the . size of the area affected, the socio-economic impacts and the number of people affected are of sufficient overall severity to Criteria for Health impacts Raw score Score Weight Very small Very large meet the criteria defining a severe problem and that regional Number of people affected actions should be initiated in order to mitigate the impacts of Minimum Severe Degree of severity this problem. Occasional/Short Continuous Frequency/Duration Once each issue has been scored, it is weighted ac- cording to the relative contribution it makes to the overall Weight average score for Health impacts environmental impacts of the concern and a weighted average . score for each of the five concerns is calculated (Table ). Criteria for Other social e socio-economic impacts are assessed for each con- Raw score Score Weight and community impacts
cern, not each issue. e socio-economic impacts are grouped Number and/or size of Very small Very large into three categories; economic impacts, health impacts and community affected Minimum Severe Degree of severity other social and community impacts (Table -). For each Occasional/Short Continuous category, the size, degree and frequency of the impact is Frequency/Duration evaluated and a weighted average score is calculated for the Weight average score for Other social and community impacts overall socio-economic impacts of each concern. In addition, to ensure the long-term applicability of the options that were developed to mitigate these aquatic con- economic impacts of each concern. e prioritised concern cerns, Scoping not only assessed the current impacts of these is then analysed further in the and . In the example concerns and issues but also predicted the future impacts ac- presented in Table , the scoping assessment indicated that cording to the “most likely scenario”, which considers demo- habitat and community modification was the priority concern graphic, economic, technological and other relevant changes in this region. e top priority concern(s) identified by the that will potentially influence the aquatic environment in the numerical outcome should correspond with the knowledge of region by . the experts in the team and should be substantiated with sup- In order to identify which concern is the top priority porting information. for the region, a final overall score is calculated based on the However, in cases where the numerical results did present and future scores of the environmental and socio- not yield consensus among the regional experts in terms of :
. - ,
Type of impact Environmental score Economic score Human health score Social and community score Concern Overall score Present (a) Future (b) Present (c) Future (d) Present (e) Future (f) Present (g) Future (h)
Freshwater shortage . . . . . . . . .
Pollution . . . . . . . . . Overfishing and other threats to . . . . . . . . . aquatic living resources Habitat and community . . . . . . . . . modification Global change . . . . . . . . .
the ranking of priorities, the team continued by assigning is conducted by identifying the human activities that cause weights to the relative importance of present and poten- the problem and then the factors that determine the ways tial future impacts. Similarly, the team assigned weights in which these activities are undertaken. However, because indicating the relative contribution of environmental and there is no universal theory describing how root causes in- socio-economic factors. e team should then recalculate the teract to create natural resource management problems and weighted average score for each concern taking into account due to the varying local circumstances, the is not both present and future impacts and environmental and a rigidly structured analysis but rather a guiding framework. socio-economic factors. e outcomes of these additional Ideally, the would be conducted by a multidisciplinary analyses are then subjected to further discussion to identify group of specialists that would statistically examine each suc- the overall priorities of the region. cessive cause and study its links to the problem and to other e assessment recognises that the five concerns causes. However, this approach (even if feasible) would use interact with each other. For example, pollution can destroy far more resources and time than those available to . aquatic habitats that are essential for fish reproduction, which It was therefore necessary to develop a relatively simple and in turn can cause a decline in fish stocks and subsequent practical analytical model. overexploitation. Once the priority concern for the region is agreed, the team should highlight the links between the con- Conceptual model cerns in order to identify where strategic interventions could A causal chain is a series of statements that link the causes of be applied to yield the greatest benefits for the environment a problem with its effects. Recognising the great diversity of and human societies in the region. local settings and the difficulties in developing broadly ap- plicable policy strategies, the focuses on a particu- Causal chain analysis lar system and the issues that have been prioritised during the e causal chain analysis () traces the cause-effect path- scoping assessment. e prioritised issue and its related envi- ways of the prioritised transboundary issues; from the socio- ronmental and socio-economic impacts are the starting point economic and environmental impacts back to their root for the . e next element in the chain is the immediate causes. e aims to identify the most important driv- cause, defined as the physical, biological or chemical variable ers of the aquatic concerns, so that they can be targeted by that produces the issue. For example, for the issue of policy measures in order to prevent further degradation of the eutrophication, the immediate causes may include: region’s aquatic environment. Increased nutrient inputs and concentrations Root causes are not always easily identifiable because Trapping of nutrients in stagnant water they are often separated, spatially or temporally, from the River and stream alterations actual problems they cause. e was developed to Run-off and storm water help identify and understand the root causes of environmen- e sectors of human activity that contribute most signifi- tal and socio-economic problems in international waters and cantly to the immediate cause are then determined. Assum- :
ing that the most important immediate cause in the example methodology, which was developed to test the performance is increased nutrient concentrations, the most likely source of various options under various circumstances, was kept sim- of those nutrients would be from the agricultural, urban or ple and broadly applicable. industrial sectors. After identifying the sectors that are pri- marily responsible for the immediate causes, the root causes acting on these sectors are established. For example, if agri- culture is found to be primarily responsible for the increased GIWA ASSESSMENT CRITERIA nutrient concentrations, the root causes may be: FOR SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS Economic (e.g. subsidies for fertilizers and agricultural products) Socio-economic impact categories: Legal (e.g. inadequate regulation) Economic impacts: e key economic and public service Failures in governance (e.g. poor enforcement) sectors that are affected by the degradation of the aquatic Technology or knowledge-related (e.g. lack of affordable environment should be identified and their relative im- substitutes for fertilizers, or lack of knowledge regarding portance to the regional economy assessed. e degree to their application) which the quantity and quality of their output has been reduced and their costs of operation increased should be Policy options similarly assessed. Finally, the frequency and duration of Despite considerable efforts by many governments and other the impacts should be determined. organisations to address transboundary water problems, Human health impacts: e approximate number and there is still much to be done. An important characteristic of types of people affected should be identified, the nature ’ policy option analysis is that its recommendations are and degree of severity of the health impacts should be firmly based on a better understanding of the root causes of assessed and the frequency and duration of the impacts the problems. Freshwater scarcity, water pollution, overfish- should be determined. ing, and habitat modification are complex phenomena. e Other social and community impacts: e number, size policy options analysis () consists of two tasks: and principal characteristics (e.g. presence of vulnerable groups) of the affected communities should be deter- Construct policy options mined, as well as the aspects of community life affected. Policy options are different courses of action that aim to solve e extent to which community life is affected and the or mitigate environmental and socio-economic problems frequency of these impacts should also be assessed. in the region. Although a variety of policy options could be constructed to address each root cause identified in the ree broad criteria are considered when scoring the degree , only those with the greatest likelihood of success were of severity (-) of the impacts: analysed by . Size of the population or economic and public sectors af- fected (categorised as: very small; small; medium; and Select and apply the criteria against which the policy options will large). be evaluated Degree of severity of the socio-economic impacts experi- Although there are many criteria that could be used to evalu- enced (minimum; small; moderate; severe). ate any policy option, focuses on: Likely duration of the impacts (ranging from very Effectiveness (certainty of result); occasional/very short-term to continuous/long-term). Efficiency (maximisation of net benefits); Equity (fairness of distributional impacts); Practical criteria (political acceptability, implementation feasibility). e policy options recommended by are envisioned as contributions to a larger policy process. As such, the :
. Score = no known Issue Score = slight impact Score = moderate impact Score = severe impact impact Issue : Modification No evidence of There is a measurably changing trend in Significant downward or upward trend Annual discharge of a river altered by of stream flow modification of annual river discharge at gauging (more than of the long-term mean) in more than of the long-term mean; “An increase or stream flow. stations in a major river or tributary annual discharges in a major river or or decrease in the (basin > km); or tributary draining a basin of > Loss of > of riparian or deltaic discharge of streams There is a measurable decrease in the km; or wetlands over a period of not less than and rivers as a result of area of wetlands (other than as a Loss of > of flood plain or deltaic years (through causes other than human interventions consequence of conversion or wetlands through causes other than conversion or artificial embankment); on a local/regional embankment construction); or conversion or artificial embankments; or or scale (see Issue for There is a measurable change in the Significant loss of riparian vegetation Significant increased siltation or erosion flow alterations interannual mean salinity of estuaries or (e.g. trees, flood plain vegetation); or due to changes in flow regime (other resulting from global coastal lagoons and/or change in the Significant saline intrusion into than normal fluctuations in flood plain change) over the last mean position of an estuarine salt previously freshwater rivers or lagoons. rivers); or - decades.” wedge or mixing zone; or Loss of one or more anadromous or Change in the occurrence of exceptional catadromous fish species for reasons discharges (e.g. due to upstream other than physical barriers to damming. migration, pollution or overfishing. Issue : Pollution of No evidence of Any monitored water in the region does Water supplies do not meet or Rivers draining more than of the existing supplies pollution of not meet or national drinking national drinking water standards in basin have suffered polysaprobic “Pollution of surface surface and water criteria, other than for natural more than of the region; or conditions, no longer support fish, or and ground fresh water groundwaters. reasons; or There are one or more reports of fish have suffered severe oxygen depletion supplies as a result of There have been reports of one or more kills due to pollution in any river Severe pollution of other sources of point or diffuse fish kills in the system due to pollution draining a basin of > km . freshwater (e.g. groundwater) sources” within the past five years.
Issue : Changes in No evidence that Several wells have been deepened Clear evidence of declining base flow in Aquifers are suffering salinisation over the water table abstraction of because of excessive aquifer draw-down; rivers in semi-arid areas; or regional scale; or “Changes in aquifers water from or Loss of plant species in the past decade Perennial springs have dried up over as a direct or indirect aquifers exceeds Several springs have dried up; or that depend on the presence of regionally significant areas; or consequence of human natural Several wells show some salinisation. groundwater; or Some aquifers have become exhausted activity” replenishment. Wells have been deepened over areas of hundreds of km;or Salinisation over significant areas of the region.
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Loss of agricultural uses (crops, livestock, aquaculture) Reduced availability of fish as food Increased damage to water-related equipment
Loss of human drinking water supplies Loss of waste assimilative capacity Damage to infrastructure
Loss of recreational use or aesthetic values Increased costs of alternative water supplies Increased costs of deepening wells and pumping
Loss of hydroelectric power production Reduction in future use options Population migration
Loss of coastal harbours and inland transport Human health impacts Transboundary implications
Loss of industrial uses Reduced agriculture productivity (crops, livestock, Increased vulnerability to sea level rise aquaculture) Increased potential for upstream/downstream conflicts Increased intake treatment costs
.
Issue Score = no known impact Score = slight impact Score = moderate impact Score = severe impact
Issue : Microbiological Normal incidence of bacterial There is a minor increase in Public health authorities aware of There are large closure areas or very pollution related gastroenteric disorders in incidence of bacterial related marked increase in the incidence of restrictive advisories affecting the “The adverse effects of fisheries products for consumers gastroenteric disorders in bacterial related gastroenteric marketability of fisheries products; microbial constituents and no fisheries closures or fisheries products for disorders in fisheries products for or of human sewage advisories. consumers but no fisheries consumers; or There exists widespread public or released to water closures or advisories. There are limited area closures or tourist awareness of hazards bodies.” advisories reducing the exploitation resulting in major reductions in the or marketability of fisheries exploitation or marketability of products. fisheries products. Issue : Eutrophication No visible effects on the Increased abundance of Increased filamentous algal High frequency (> event per year), “Artificially enhanced abundance and distributions of epiphytic algae; or production resulting in algal mats; or intensity, or large areas of primary productivity in natural living resource A statistically significant trend or periodic hypoxic conditions, or high receiving water basins distributions in the area; and in decreased water Medium frequency (up to once per frequencies of fish and zoobenthos related to the increased No increased frequency of hypoxia transparency associated with year) of large-scale hypoxia and/or mortality events or harmful algal availability or supply of or fish mortality events or harmful algal production as compared fish and zoobenthos mortality blooms; or nutrients, including algal blooms associated with with long-term (> year) data events and/or harmful algal Significant changes in the littoral cultural eutrophication enhanced primary production; and sets; or blooms. community; or in lakes.” No evidence of periodically Measurable shallowing of the Presence of hydrogen sulphide in reduced dissolved oxygen or fish depth range of macrophytes. historically well oxygenated areas. and zoobenthos mortality; and No evident abnormality in the frequency of algal blooms. :
Issue : Chemical No known or historical levels of Some chemical contaminants Some chemical contaminants are Chemical contaminants are above pollution chemical contaminants except are detectable but below above threshold limits defined for threshold limits defined for the “The adverse effects of background levels of naturally threshold limits defined for the the country or region; or country or region; and chemical contaminants occurring substances; and country or region; or Large area advisories by public Public health and public awareness released to standing or No fisheries closures or advisories Restricted area advisories health authorities concerning of fisheries contamination problems marine water bodies as a due to chemical pollution; and regarding chemical contamina- fisheries product contamination with associated reductions in the result of human No incidence of fisheries product tion of fisheries products. but without associated catch marketability of such products activities. Chemical tainting; and restrictions or closures; or either through the imposition of contaminants are here No unusual fish mortality events. If there is no available data use High mortalities of aquatic species limited advisories or by area defined as compounds the following criteria: near outfalls. closures of fisheries; or that are toxic or If there is no available data use the Some use of pesticides in small Large-scale mortalities of aquatic persistent or bioaccumu- following criteria: areas; or If there is no available data use the species. lating.” No use of pesticides; and Presence of small sources of following criteria: No sources of dioxins and furans; dioxins or furans (e.g. small Large-scale use of pesticides in If there is no available data use the and incineration plants or bleached agriculture and forestry; or following criteria: No regional use of s; and kraft/pulp mills using Presence of major sources of Indications of health effects No bleached kraft pulp mills using chlorine); or dioxins or furans such as large resulting from use of pesticides; or chlorine bleaching; and Some previous and existing use municipal or industrial incinerators Known emissions of dioxins or No use or sources of other of s and limited amounts of or large bleached kraft pulp mills; furans from incinerators or chlorine contaminants. -containing wastes but not or bleaching of pulp; or in amounts invoking local Considerable quantities of waste Known contamination of the concerns; or s in the area with inadequate environment or foodstuffs by s; Presence of other contami- regulation or has invoked some or nants. public concerns; or Known contamination of the Presence of considerable quantities environment or foodstuffs by other of other contaminants. contaminants. Issue : Suspended No visible reduction in water Evidently increased or reduced Markedly increased or reduced Major changes in turbidity over solids transparency; and turbidity in streams and/or turbidity in small areas of streams wide or ecologically significant “The adverse effects of No evidence of turbidity plumes or receiving riverine and marine and/or receiving riverine and areas resulting in markedly changed modified rates of release increased siltation; and environments but without marine environments; or biodiversity or mortality in benthic of suspended particulate No evidence of progressive major changes in associated Extensive evidence of changes in species due to excessive matter to water bodies riverbank, beach, other coastal or sedimentation or erosion rates, sedimentation or erosion rates; or sedimentation with or without resulting from human deltaic erosion. mortality or diversity of flora Changes in benthic or pelagic concomitant changes in the nature activities” and fauna; or biodiversity in areas due to of deposited sediments (i.e., grain- Some evidence of changes in sediment blanketing or increased size composition/redox); or benthic or pelagic biodiversity turbidity. Major change in pelagic biodiversity in some areas due to sediment or mortality due to excessive blanketing or increased turbidity. turbidity. Issue : Solid wastes No noticeable interference with Some evidence of marine- Widespread litter on beaches Incidence of litter on beaches “Adverse effects trawling activities; and derived litter on beaches; or giving rise to public concerns sufficient to deter the public from associated with the No noticeable interference with Occasional recovery of solid regarding the recreational use of recreational activities; or introduction of solid the recreational use of beaches due wastes through trawling beaches; or Trawling activities untenable waste materials into to litter; and activities; but High frequencies of benthic litter because of benthic litter and gear water bodies or their No reported entanglement of Without noticeable recovery and interference with entanglement; or environs.” aquatic organisms with debris. interference with trawling and trawling activities; or Widespread entanglement and/or recreational activities in coastal Frequent reports of entanglement/ suffocation of aquatic species by areas. suffocation of species by litter. litter. Issue : Thermal No thermal discharges or evidence Presence of thermal discharges Presence of thermal discharges Presence of thermal discharges with “The adverse effects of of thermal effluent effects. but without noticeable effects with large mixing zones having large mixing zones with associated the release of aqueous beyond the mixing zone and reduced productivity or altered mortalities, substantially reduced effluents at tempera- no significant interference biodiversity; or productivity or noticeable changes tures exceeding ambient with migration of species. Evidence of reduced migration of in biodiversity; or temperature in the species due to thermal plume. Marked reduction in the migration receiving water body.” of species due to thermal plumes. Issue : Radionuclide No radionuclide discharges or Minor releases or fallout of Minor releases or fallout of Substantial releases or fallout of “The adverse effects of nuclear activities in the region. radionuclides but with well radionuclides under poorly radionuclides resulting in excessive the release of radioactive regulated or well-managed regulated conditions that do not exposures to humans or animals in contaminants and conditions complying with the provide an adequate basis for public relation to those recommended wastes into the aquatic Basic Safety Standards. health assurance or the protection under the Basic Safety Standards; or environment from of aquatic organisms but without Some indication of situations or human activities.” situations or levels likely to warrant exposures warranting intervention large scale intervention by a by a national or international national or international authority. authority. Issue : Spills No evidence of present or previous Some evidence of minor spills Evidence of widespread Widespread contamination by “The adverse effects of spills of hazardous material; or of hazardous materials in small contamination by hazardous or hazardous or aesthetically accidental episodic No evidence of increased aquatic areas with insignificant small- aesthetically displeasing materials displeasing materials from frequent releases of contaminants or avian species mortality due to scale adverse effects one assumed to be from spillage (e.g. spills resulting in major interference and materials to the spills. aquatic or avian species. oil slicks) but with limited evidence with aquatic resource exploitation or aquatic environment as a of widespread adverse effects on coastal recreational amenities; or result of human resources or amenities; or Significant mortality of aquatic or activities.” Some evidence of aquatic or avian avian species as evidenced by large species mortality through increased numbers of contaminated carcasses presence of contaminated or on beaches. poisoned carcasses on beaches. :
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Increased risks to human health Costs of weed control Increased costs of animal protection (esp. endangered species) Increased costs of human health protection Loss of wildlife sanctuaries Displacement of valued species Loss of water supplies (e.g. potable water) Costs of increased navigational clearance, navigational surveys or dredging activities Avoidance of amenities and products due to Increased costs of water treatment perceptions of effects of contamination Increased costs of fish surveillance in the case of Costs of preventive medicine toxin incidence Costs of public reassurance Costs of medical treatment Costs of reduced fish marketability due to Maintenance of monitoring and radiological aesthetic perceptions protection activities for public reassurance Costs of clean-up purposes Loss of protected areas Loss of tourism or recreational values Costs of preventive measures (e.g. tanker design/ Reduction in options for other uses of freshwater construction) Loss of aesthetic values Potential for international conflicts Costs of contingency measures Loss in fisheries Loss of reservoir storage capacity Costs of litigation Costs of increased fisheries product processing Damage to equipment (e.g. particle impacts) Costs of insurance Change in fisheries value Increased costs of coastal protection from waves/ Costs of disruption to shipping, marine reserves Reduced options for aquaculture development storm surges/erosion and marine scientific activities during survey and clean-up of spills Costs of cleaning intakes Risk to aquaculture Endangerment of species Loss of property values
.
Issue Score = no known impact Score = slight impact Score = moderate impact Score = severe impact
Issue : Overexploitation No harvesting of fish with Commercial harvesting exists One stock is exploited beyond More than one stock is “The capture of fish, shellfish or commercial gear for sale or but there is no evidence of MSY (maximum sustainable exploited beyond MSY or is marine invertebrates at a level subsistence. overexploitation. yield) or is outside safe outside safe biological limits. that exceeds the maximum biological limits. sustainable yield of the stock.” Issue : Excessive by-catch and Current harvesting practices Up to of the fisheries yield - of the fisheries yield Over of the fisheries yield discards show no evidence of excessive (by weight) consists of by-catch consists of by-catch and/or is by-catch and/or discards; or “By-catch refers to the incidental by-catch and/or discards. and/or discards. discards. Noticeable incidence of capture capture of fish or other animals of endangered species. that are not the target of the fisheries. Discards refers to dead fish or other animals that are returned to the sea.” Issue : Destructive fishing No evidence of habitat Habitat destruction resulting in Habitat destruction resulting in Habitat destruction resulting in practices destruction due to fisheries changes in distribution of fish moderate reduction of stocks or complete collapse of a stock or “Fishing practices that are practices. or shellfish stocks; or moderate changes of the far reaching changes in the deemed to produce significant Trawling of any one area of the environment; or environment; or harm to marine, lacustrine or seabed occurs less than once per Trawling of any one area of the Trawling of any one area of the coastal habitats and communi- year. seabed occurs - times per seabed occurs more than ties.” year; or times per year; or Incidental use of explosives or Widespread use of explosives or poisons for fishing. poisons for fishing. Issue : Decreased viability of No evidence of increased Increased reports of diseases Declining populations of one or Collapse of stocks as a result of stocks through contamination and incidence of fish or shellfish without major impacts on the more species as a result of diseases or contamination. disease diseases. stock. diseases or contamination. “Contamination or diseases of feral (wild) stocks of fish or invertebrates that are a direct or indirect consequence of human action.” Issue : Impact on biological and No evidence of deliberate or Alien species introduced Measurable decline in the Extinction of native species or genetic diversity accidental introductions of alien intentionally or accidentally population of native species or local stocks as a result of “Changes in genetic and species species; and without major changes in the local stocks as a result of introductions (intentional or diversity of aquatic environments No evidence of deliberate or community structure; or introductions (intentional or accidental); or resulting from the introduction of accidental introductions of alien Alien stocks introduced accidental); or Major changes (>) in the alien or genetically modified stocks; and intentionally or accidentally Some changes in the genetic genetic composition of stocks species as an intentional or No evidence of deliberate or without major changes in the composition of stocks (e.g. as a (e.g. as a result of escapes from unintentional result of human accidental introductions of community structure; or result of escapes from aquaculture replacing the wild activities including aquaculture genetically modified species. Genetically modified species aquaculture replacing the wild stock). and restocking.” introduced intentionally or stock). accidentally without major changes in the community structure. :
. - Reduced economic returns Loss of food sources (e.g. sources of protein) for human Increased risks of predation, competition and/or or animal consumption disease for commercially valuable species Loss of employment / livelihood Reduced earnings in one area by destruction of Inter-generational equity issues (access to resources) Potential new employment possibilities juveniles in other areas (migrating populations) Possible human health impacts Improved catch/earnings Loss of protected species Conflict between user groups for shared resources Reduced commercial value resulting from tainting including space
.
Issue Score = no known impact Score = slight impact Score = moderate impact Score = severe impact
Issue : Loss of ecosystems or ecotones There is no evidence of There are indications of Permanent destruction of at Permanent destruction of at “The complete destruction of aquatic loss of ecosystems or fragmentation of at least one of least one habitat is occurring least one habitat is occurring habitats. For the purpose of habitats. the habitats. such as to have reduced the such as to have reduced the methodology, recent loss will be surface area by up to surface area by > during the measured as a loss of pre-defined during the last - decades. last - decades. habitats over the last - decades.” Issue : Modification of ecosystems or No evidence of change in Evidence of change in species Evidence of change in species Evidence of change in species ecotones, including community species complement due complement due to species complement due to species complement due to species structure and/or species composition to species extinction or extinction or introduction extinction or introduction; and extinction or introduction; and “Modification of pre-defined habitats introduction; and Evidence of change in Evidence of change in in terms of extinction of native species, No changes in ecosystem population structure or change population structure or change occurrence of introduced species and function and services. in functional group composition in functional group composition changes in ecosystem function and or structure or structure; and services over the last - decades.” Evidence of change in ecosystem services. . ().
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Reduced capacity to meet basic human needs (food, Loss of opportunity for investment income and Costs of responding to risks fuel) for local populations foreign exchange from former ecosystem (e.g. loss of Intergenerational inequity Changes in employment opportunities for local materials for potential pharmaceutical products) populations and associated changes in social Human conflicts, national and international Modification or loss of cultural heritage structures Loss of educational and scientific values Costs of controlling invasive species Loss of aesthetic values / recreational values for local populations Increased risks to human population and capital Costs of restoration of modified ecosystems Loss of existing income and foreign exchange from investment fisheries, tourism, etc. Loss of land due to loss of physical protection :
.
Issue Score = no known impact Score = slight impact Score = moderate impact Score = severe impact
Issue : Changes in hydrological No evidence of changes in Change in hydrological cycles Significant trend in changing Loss of an entire habitat through cycle and ocean circulation hydrological cycle and due to global change causing terrestrial or sea ice cover (in desiccation or submergence as a “Changes in the local/regional ocean/coastal current due changes in the distribution and comparison with a long-term result of global change; or water balance and changes in to global change. density of riparian terrestrial or time series) without major Change in the tree or lichen lines; or ocean and coastal circulation or aquatic plants without downstream effects on river/ Major impacts on habitats or current regime over the last - influencing overall levels of ocean circulation or biological biodiversity as the result of decades arising from the wider productivity; or diversity; or increasing frequency of extreme problem of global change Some evidence of changes in Extreme events such as flood events; or including .” ocean or coastal currents due to and drought are increasing; or Changes in ocean or coastal currents global change but without a Aquatic productivity has been or upwelling regimes such that plant strong effect on ecosystem altered as a result of global or animal populations are unable to diversity or productivity. phenomena such as recover to their historical or stable events. levels; or Significant changes in thermohaline circulation. Issue : Sea level change No evidence of sea level Some evidences of sea level Changed pattern of coastal Major loss of coastal land areas due “Changes in the last - decades change. change without major loss of erosion due to sea level rise has to sea level change or sea level in the annual/seasonal mean sea populations of organisms. became evident; or induced erosion; or level as a result of global change.” Increase in coastal flooding Major loss of coastal or intertidal events partly attributed to sea- populations due to sea level change level rise or changing prevailing or sea level induced erosion. atmospheric forcing such as atmospheric pressure or wind field (other than storm surges). Issue : Increased / radiation No evidence of increasing Some measurable effects of / Aquatic community structure is Measured/assessed effects of / as a result of ozone depletion effects of / radiation on radiation on behaviour or measurably altered as a irradiation are leading to massive “Increased / flux as a result of marine or freshwater appearance of some aquatic consequence of / radiation; loss of aquatic communities or a polar ozone depletion over the organisms. species without affecting the or significant change in biological last - decades.” viability of the population. One or more aquatic diversity. populations are declining.
Issue : Changes in ocean CO No measurable or assessed Some reasonable suspicions that Some evidence that the impacts Evidence that the changes in source/
source/sink function changes in CO source/ current global change is of global change have altered sink function of the aquatic systems “Changes in the capacity of sink function of aquatic impacting the aquatic system the source/sink function for in the region are sufficient to cause
aquatic systems, ocean as well as system. sufficiently to alter its source/ CO of aquatic systems in the measurable change in global CO
freshwater, to generate or absorb sink function for CO. region by at least . balance.
atmospheric CO as a direct or indirect consequence of global change over the last - decades.”
. - Freshwater availability Human migration Loss of income and employment Food security Damage to human life and property Loss of property & capital assets Employment security Response costs for extreme events Loss of incomes and foreign exchange from fisheries Changes in productivity of agriculture, fisheries and Costs for avoiding navigational hazards Loss of opportunity for investments (both domestic forestry and foreign) Increased costs of coast protection and emergency Changes in resources distribution and political response/forecast Increased costs of human health care jurisdiction over them :
Annex III: GIWA’s key: Causal chain and policy options analysis in a theoretical perspective
was created “to develop a comprehensive, strategic iour of those who consume water and water-related resources. framework for the identification of priorities for remedial and e last group includes general trends and conditions that mitigatory actions in international waters”. Establishing pri- affect the demand for and supply of water and water-related orities for actions implies not only an assessment of the sever- resources. Figure illustrates the links among immediate ity of the problems but also an analysis of what can be done causes, root causes, environmental problems and human wel- to solve or mitigate these problems. One of the salient char- fare. acteristics of the assessment is that its recommendations are based on understanding the root causes of the problems. Policy-related root causes Freshwater scarcity, water pollution, unsustainable exploita- Policy-related root causes refer to the reasons why govern- tion of living resources and habitat destruction are complex ment actions (or the lack of them) contribute to increased phenomena. Policy options that are grounded in a better un- pressures on aquatic ecosystems. Policy-related root causes derstanding of these problems will contribute to the creation attempt to explain two forms of policy failure. e first one of more effective responses to the extremely complex water- refers to policy interventions that create or aggravate an en- related transboundary problems.
ROOT CAUSES
In order to identify root causes, regional teams conducted causal chain analyses. A causal . chain is a series of hypotheses that link a problem with its effects and causes. e causal vironmental problem. A public project of low but inflated chain methodology includes immediate and root causes. economic return and high (but underestimated or neglected) Immediate causes are physical, biological or chemical fac- environmental impacts, and an energy or fuel subsidy to ex- tors that directly influence the system under analysis. Two tract groundwater are two examples of this form of policy examples of immediate causes are increased nutrients (in the failure. e second form of policy failure refers to the lack of case of eutrophication) and water diversions (in the case of interventions when they are needed and could be realised in freshwater shortage). A root cause operates in an indirect way an efficient, effective and equitable way. What are the causes by forcing immediate causes to exert a greater pressure on the of these two forms of policy failure? system. Root causes may be divided into three groups. e e regional reports look at failures of government first group contains the factors that explain policy failures. policies to perform three essential functions: (i) detecting sig- e second group encompasses factors that shape the behav- nals and distributing information; (ii) reaching agreements :
that balance stakeholder interests; and (iii) implementing, as most obvious is the international dimension, but balancing well as enforcing, these agreements (World Bank ). In the interests of different sectoral users (e.g. agriculture, en- order to perform these essential functions, governments re- ergy, industry, fisheries, households, etc.) is also a clear di- quire enabling legal and organisational frameworks, as well as mension. Perhaps the most difficult balance is between direct the ability to mobilise the required financial resources. use to meet human needs and environmental preservation. Human uses need to be allocated in a way that ensures the Detecting changes sustainability of ecological and hydrological systems. e first vital institutional function is the ability to detect is balancing of interests should be conducted at dif- signals of changes and trends that affect the status of human ferent levels. At a project planning level, water infrastruc- activities and their impact on aquatic ecosystems. Signals ture projects should contain a complete evaluation of social, take various forms. In the Volta Basin (Guinea Current economic and environmental costs and benefits. During the /b), in Sub-Saharan Africa, the combination of climatic allocation decision making process, the interests of the dif- changes and increased damming led to a reduction of of ferent users and the environment should be voiced. In the the region’s headwaters, with an associated reduction of up to course of court processes or private negotiations, information of the stream flow in some catchments, while the water should be used to establish an understanding of the sufferers demand increased by . e governments of Burkina of a transboundary pollution problem and the contributors to Faso and Ghana failed to take into account this drastic that problem. change. In just a few years, water scarcity and misuse of the remaining supplies had translated into a negative trade bal- Executing decisions and inducing compliance ance for agricultural products, farmland loss, as well as the e execution of policy decisions is essential in order to have resettlement and migration of a large percentage of the popu- their intended impact; decision making alone is clearly not lation. Monitoring the balance of ecosystems between their enough. Even if a more efficient and equitable legal and -or status and the human demand for their services, as well as ganisational framework for water allocation is adopted, if detecting signals of such changes and predicting their poten- there are no incentives for users, or the authorities lack the tial impact, could have triggered the right policy response at commitment to penalise or reverse transgressions, the imple- the right time (World Bank ). mentation of that decision will probably fail. How are policy decisions implemented and enforced? Much environmental Providing information regulation has been ‘command and control’, where govern- In addition to the collection and monitoring of key aquatic ments require or prohibit specific actions or technologies, ecosystem data, such as stocks, flows and quality, as well as with potential fines or jail terms for those who do not follow information on all the human-environment mechanisms af- the rules. If sufficient resources are made available for moni- fecting them, the proper and timely distribution of informa- toring and enforcement, command and control approaches tion to the right stakeholders is essential. is is why local are effective. But when governments lack the will or resources assessments are so important. Local assessments allow insti- to guard ‘protected areas’, when major environmental dam- tutional organisations not only to gather knowledge, but also age comes from hard-to-detect sources, and when there is a to distribute it to key stakeholders, allowing them in turn need to encourage innovation in behaviours or technologies to make well-informed decisions. In a transboundary water rather than to require or prohibit familiar ones, command context, ‘providing information’ also means that governments and control approaches are less effective. Other approaches need to share data and decisions that will affect their com- may be more effective. Voluntary approaches and those based mon aquatic resources. on information disclosure have only begun to receive the at- tention they deserve as supplements to other tools. Success Balancing interests appears to depend on the existence of incentives that benefit e failure to balance interests in international waters is a leaders in volunteering over laggards and on the simultaneous frequent cause of environmental and socio-economic prob- use of other strategies, particularly ones that create incentives lems. e balancing of interests has several dimensions. e :
for compliance. e difficulties created by sanctioning pose that govern the use of those resources. In this context, prop- major problems for international agreements. erty rights refer to a bundle of entitlements that define the owner’s privileges and limitations on the use of the resource. Behavioural root causes Property rights can be vested with different agents, for ex- Environmental problems in international waters (freshwater ample, individuals, the state and in groups of people. Each of shortage, pollution, overfishing and habitat modification) are, these has numerous subtypes, and a myriad of hybrids exists to a great extent, the result of human activities that use natural as well. Regulations affect people’s behaviour by proscribing resources and produce pollution. Environmental problems in certain conduct (as in the case of a mandatory technology) or international waters are not the result of a conspiracy of any performance (as in the cases of limits on fish catches or pollu- specific group, nor are they attributable simply to negligence, tion effluents). Both laws and regulations are enforced by the ineptitude or malevolence. ey are the result of ordinary peo- threats of administrative penalties (fines, loss of licenses, etc.) ple doing ordinary things; farmers irrigating their lands, fish- or, in some cases, imprisonment. ermen catching fish, and households and industry using water. Problems are aggravated by faulty social coordination mecha- Education and training nisms. Users do not take into account the impact that their ac- Education and training can alter attitudes and beliefs about tions impose on other people. Water is particularly difficult to environmental problems. ey shape the behaviour of indi- manage because all life and all sectors of the economy depend viduals by increasing their knowledge of a problem, by con- on water and, because of this, all users are interdependent. is vincing them that the severity of the problem calls for their basic fact gives rise to two questions: (i) what are the factors personal involvement, and by preparing the person to be able that determine/influence the ways in which people use water to take specific actions to help mitigate the problem. and water-related resources?; and (ii) how can user behaviour that threatens social welfare and environmental sustainabil- Economic considerations ity be discouraged, and behaviour that enhances social welfare Economic considerations (especially prices and wealth) affect and environmental sustainability be encouraged? is section people’s production and consumption decisions. Prices play answers the first question and provides the foundations for the three critical roles in market economies: (i) they match supply policy options section to answer the second. and demand of goods and services (as a commodity becomes dearer, consumers reduce consumption and producers in- Culture and sense of community crease supply); (ii) they allocate goods and services; and (iii) Culture and sense of community affect the way people relate they prevent wasteful use of resources (input prices can have a to aquatic ecosystems. ere are at least three ways in which considerable effect on their usage). Unfortunately, in the case culture impacts this relationship. Firstly, culture can have a of environmental services, the price system often fails to per- major impact on economic behaviour through its effect on form these functions. work ethics, motivation, and attitudes towards risk, among other factors. Secondly, culture influences political partici- Economic possibilities pation. e culture of participation can be essential to the People’s behaviour depends on their economic situation. management of aquatic ecosystems. Finally, culture moulds e role of poverty deserves special attention. Establishing social solidarity and association. Apart from economic and causal links between poverty and environmental degrada- political interactions, the preservation and guardianship of tion is complex and debatable. ere are many examples of common assets (like community-managed fisheries) is largely poor communities that have managed their resources in a influenced by what members of a social group may voluntarily sustainable way. e impact of poverty on the environment do for each other. ultimately depends on the alternatives that poor people have to generate income, invest in conservation and procure food, Laws water and energy. ese alternatives in turn depend on insti- e way in which people use natural resources depends on a tutional factors like the definition of property rights (uncer- number of issues, but one critical aspect is the property rights tainties of property rights are common among poor farmers :
and poor fishermen) and access to markets (access to credit tions that deserve a more detailed assessment which will be seems particularly important in this context). transferred to stakeholders so that the options can be further analysed in the decision-making processes. e analysis sum- Technology marises the views of regional experts in different disciplines Finally, with regard to technology, case studies have and is meant to provide policy makers with a practical and focused on the reasons why environmentally friendly tech- systematic way to evaluate the pros and cons of different pol- nologies are not used. Lack of enforcement of environmental icy instruments. Policy analysis must be tailor-made to suit regulations is the first, and most obvious, explanation. Insuf- the particular conditions (environmental, economic, social, ficient information is another natural explanation. Informa- political and administrative) of the problem. e meth- tion is a public good and, as such, markets will in general odology is based on a list of tasks and choices designed to fail to provide it. e way in which sectors are organised may make the methods and conclusions transparent. Accordingly, also pose a problem for the efficient diffusion of environ- each regional team followed this approach. mentally friendly technologies (e.g. fishermen may get their gear from processing firms or from traders). Uncertainty is e task list contains the following items: another potential reason for the slow adoption of environ- Problem definition; mentally friendly technologies. Producers and consumers may Assembling evidence and information; wonder whether new technologies will perform as expected. Identifying instruments; Lack of access to credit to finance the acquisition of innova- Selecting evaluation criteria and evaluating outcomes; and tive technologies may also play a part, especially in the case Selection of actions. of the poor. Finally, cultural conformity and inertia may also be part of the explanation for the slow (or non) adoption of e definition of the problem is the link between the policy innovative environmentally friendly technologies. options analysis and the rest of the methodology. e scoping phase identifies the priority problem and the causal General conditions chain analysis establishes the immediate and root causes. General conditions include population dynamics (growth, e problem definition combines the priority problem and its geographical distribution and migration), economic growth most important immediate causes. For example, in the case and natural phenomena (e.g. El Niño). A larger population where pollution results from eutrophication, and run-off from requires more goods and services, which in turn requires fertilizers is the only immediate cause, the problem defini- more water for food, energy and industrial production. Half tion might be: “there is too much nutrient run-off from fertil- of the Earth’s population lives in coastal areas, and that pro- izers”. portion is expected to grow. is trend, coupled with urbani- sation, will exert additional pressure on fragile aquatic eco- e second task is to assemble evidence and information systems. Economic growth also affects the demand for goods about the environmental and the socio-economic context of and services provided by aquatic ecosystems. Trade, one of the problem. e information gathered should help answer the engines of economic growth, poses special challenges and the following questions: opportunities for resource management. Who are the stakeholders and what are their interests? What is the institutional background for the situation (laws, regulations, norms, traditions, authorities, etc.)? What are the roles, responsibilities and capabilities of dif- POLICY OPTIONS ANALYSIS ferent authorities (e.g. sub-national and national govern- ments)? e last step in identifying “priorities for remedial and miti- What is the status of the ecosystem and what are the im- gatory actions in international waters” consists of analysing portant ecosystem processes for the area of concern? policy options to address the priority problems. e policy analysis is preliminary; it is designed to screen op- :
e third task is to identify policy instruments. It is useful existing markets sometimes only target the real problem in to divide policy instruments into two groups, depending on an indirect way (e.g. using the markets of agro-chemicals to whether or not they are aimed at changing human behav- address pollution). iour. e policy instruments aimed at changing human be- Creating markets can also provide positive incentives haviour can in turn be divided into the following categories for people to alter their behaviour in a socially and envi- (World Bank ): ronmentally positive way. Many environmental goods (or Using markets; problems like pollution) and services do not have their own Creating markets; markets. is lack of markets discourages the production of Using environmental regulations; environmental services and encourages the creation of envi- Engaging the public; and ronmental problems. If the owners of wetlands were paid for Developing international environmental agreements. the environmental services that their properties offer, land use changes would diminish. Similarly, if polluters had to pay Using existing markets to provide economic incentives to for the amount of pollution they generate, pollution would change people’s behaviour may be very effective. Unfortu- decrease. e main categories of instruments that rely on cre- nately, prices often do not promote sustainable use of natural ating markets and some examples of their use are shown in resources, for two reasons. Firstly, certain subsidies lower the Table . financial cost of overexploiting a natural resource or pollut- . ing the environment. e other reason is that usually when it comes to goods and services linked to natural resources and Instrument Example Establishing property rights Water markets the environment, market prices only reflect private costs and Tradable fishing quotas Tradable permits and rights benefits, disregarding the effects on other people or on the Tradable effluent rights environment. e prices of pesticides and fertilizers that pol- lute watercourses do not reflect the social and environmental e main advantage of these types of instruments is that they costs that their use imposes on others. e main categories of target the actual problem in a direct way, getting the incen- instruments that rely on existing markets and some examples tives right and encouraging cost-effective solutions for envi- of their use are shown in Table . ronmental problems. eir main disadvantages are that they require solid institutions for their implementation and that . they may be costly to implement. Instrument Example Energy to pump groundwater Regulations are the most common type of instrument Subsidies reduction Pesticides to address environmental and natural resource problems. Targeted subsidies Payment for non-marketable ecological services Pesticides e reasons for this are mainly due to their intuitive simplic- Taxes Effluent taxes ity and to the fact that they frequently match the interests of User charges Irrigation water Deposit refund systems Plastic bottles both the authorities and the regulated community. e main Tourism development of coastal areas Performance bonds categories of instruments that rely on regulations and some Hazardous pollutants management examples of their use are shown in Table .
. Policy instruments based on existing markets have two Instrument Example positive characteristics: Firstly, they are, frequently, easy to Boat and mesh sizes implement and they may have positive fiscal impacts (as in Action (technology) standards Zoning Bans the case of reducing subsidies or levying taxes on goods or Effluent standards Performance standards services that have a negative environmental impact). e Total allowable catch quotas main disadvantage of this family of instruments is that most of them are politically difficult to implement because they Conditions that favour the use of regulations include: impose an additional financial burden on users of water and Unacceptably high costs of even minor quantities of a water-related resources. An additional disadvantage is that pollutant (or any undesired effect); :
A minimal number of polluters; . Monitoring results is expensive while monitoring tech- Instruments Examples Eco-labelling nologies is simple; and Information for consumers Information disclosure ere is one clearly superior technology. Best practices dissemination Information for producers Compliance promotion River basin councils Perhaps the most important disadvantage of regulations is Participation Irrigation management Community management that authorities misuse them easily (because of their intuitive appeal) when regulators do not consider all the direct and indirect costs that regulations impose. An additional problem their deeper values. Information-based instruments work best is the risk that regulators may identify themselves with the when they are coupled with other instruments. Similarly, a interests of the regulated community rather than with the call for increased participation is on its own not likely to be interests of society as a whole (including the regulated com- effective. Instruments based on participation require solid in- munity). stitutions to balance the interests of the different stakehold- Engaging the public means providing people with more ers. information and giving stakeholders the opportunity to par- Economic, social and demographic dynamics are in- ticipate in the decision-making process. Lack of information creasing the interdependency of nations. e use of water, can be an obstacle to more environmentally friendly behav- its pollution, the destruction of aquatic ecosystems and the iour because the links between individual behaviours and unsustainable exploitation of fisheries have local, national their environmental impacts may be difficult to understand and frequently regional and even global effects. Address- from personal experiences. Providing more information al- ing regional environmental problems requires cooperation. lows the public to act in the economic and political arenas International environmental agreements offer a framework to demand better environmental quality. In the economic for cooperative management of aquatic ecosystems. However, arena, consumers can affect production processes by demand- effective international environmental agreements are neither ing environmentally friendly products. In the political arena, easy to craft nor implement. ere is no problem in discuss- information can trigger political demands for a better envi- ing an agreement but the combination of self-interest and ronment. Information can also help producers improve their sovereignty may keep important countries out of the agree- environmental performance, as in the case of best practices ment. Moreover, it may happen that signatories to such an and information on the environmentally correct application agreement may not uphold their responsibilities. of certain inputs, like pesticides. Public participation in decision-making processes is Non-behavioural interventions the other major way to engage the public to solve or mitigate Direct government involvement, including different forms environmental problems. One of the main features of envi- of government investment, plays an important role in both ronmental problems is that some decision-making processes actual and potential interventions. Funding protected natural may not always consider the interests of all stakeholders. In- areas, financing improved understanding of natural phenom- creased participation to improve environmental quality may ena, investing in infrastructure and financing research are be achieved at different levels (project planning, monitoring some of the major categories of direct government interven- and evaluation of large infrastructure; operation of irrigation tion. Economies of scale and the public-good nature of many infrastructure; management of small scale natural resources; environmental and natural resource services are the main rea- court processes etc.). e main categories of instruments that sons to include instruments based on government investment rely on engaging the public and some examples of their use on a list of effective actions to solve or mitigate problems in are shown in Table . international waters. Public goods provide services that com- Providing information is not enough to guarantee a munities enjoy in common, such as unpolluted water. Gov- change in people’s behaviour. Furthermore, better informa- ernment intervention is required to produce public goods be- tion is only likely to induce behavioural changes that are not cause most people would not voluntarily pay for a service that very expensive to the people and that are compatible with they can get for free. e funds raised by voluntary contribu- :
tions to finance large infrastructure projects (e.g. water treat- litical support; etc. Robustness is a useful criterion to apply ment plants) would not be enough to finance the required when some of these situations are likely to occur. project at its optimal scale. e scale of these projects may Efficiency refers to the maximisation of net benefits. require the taxing and borrowing capacities of governments A full evaluation of efficiency is beyond the mandate (and to raise the necessary funds. e main categories of instru- resources) of the . However, most regional teams ments that rely on direct government involvement and some did include lists of the costs and benefits of the options they examples of their use are shown in Table . analysed. Even in this limited and unquantified form, a list of costs and benefits serves a useful purpose: it reminds policy . makers of the potential impacts (both positive and negative)
Instruments Examples of a policy decision.
Understanding, describing and predicting Meteorological systems Equity is not usually the main objective of environmen-
Infrastructure Municipal water treatment plants tal and natural resource policy. However, we should question
Protection Protected areas the justification of any measures designed to improve envi-
Research ronmental conditions in international waters whose costs are disproportionately paid by the poor. Furthermore, unfair pat- terns of incidence may erode the political support necessary e main drawback of policy instruments based on for policy interventions. e methodology instructs government investment is the lack of funding due to the fiscal regional teams to evaluate the fairness in the distribution situation of governments (especially in developing countries) of costs and benefits of the analysed options. It also advises and their inability (again, mainly in developing countries) to regional teams to suggest compensating measures in certain charge beneficiaries for the positive outcomes that these in- cases. terventions generate. A policy option may have great theoretical appeal, but e next task is selecting evaluation criteria and evalu- its eventual impact will be determined by what happens to ation outcomes to assess the expected results of the selected the option as it goes through the decision-making and policy options. e methods used to test the performance of options implementation processes. Practical criteria are meant to as- under the different criteria are practical and simple because sess the prospect of a successful transit through these pro- the policy option analysis is only meant to provide op- cesses. e most widely used practical criteria are political ac- tions for further analysis and discussion. ceptability and administrative feasibility. ere are several criteria that can be used to evaluate A quick (and preliminary) way to assess the political the outcomes of policy interventions. A combination of the acceptability of an intervention is to look at who gains and following criteria is frequently used: who looses from it, and to estimate the expected actions and Effectiveness (certainty of result); impacts of the opposing and supporting groups. Administra- Efficiency (maximisation of net benefits) or cost effective- tive feasibility includes considerations about the legality of an ness (achieving a set policy goal at minimum cost); intervention, as well as the capacity (technological, financial Equity (fairness in the division of costs and benefits); and and operative) of the implementing organisation. Practical criteria (political acceptability, implementation e last task is to choose actions from the list of anal- feasibility). ysed options. In most circumstances, instruments are comple- mentary and a combination of incentives, regulations, infor- To evaluate the effectiveness of an instrument, it is useful to mation and direct government involvement is the best way think about situations that could hinder its successful imple- to address a problem. Consider the case of pollution. A good mentation, as well as the likelihood that these situations will programme to improve water quality would probably include occur. e list of adverse situations is unfortunately long: bu- regulations (e.g. banning certain pollutants in water effluents reaucratic resistance, lack of political will, “capture” of policy and setting acceptable ranges for others), incentives to induce benefits by an undeserving group; excessive administrative the required reductions in pollution discharges, information costs; lack of enforcement; waste; abuse that undermines po- :
on best practices, and the provision of collective infrastruc- In these cases, what option(s) is (are) chosen depends on the ture (e.g. treatment facilities). relative weights of the different criteria and on the differences Options have to be prioritised when they are substitutes in performance under each criterion. or when restrictions (budgetary or otherwise) do not allow e relative weights of the criteria may depend on the the implementation of all the interventions that would have conditions of each particular problem. Equity considerations a positive impact on the problem. If one of the policy options will probably not be influential if the problem affects a soci- under consideration is expected to produce a better result ety with an even distribution of wealth and modest imple- than any of the other options with regard to every evaluative mentation costs. In contrast, if the problem takes place in a criterion, the choice is obvious. However, this is not always context of a skewed distribution of wealth, and the imple- the case. It may also happen that under a specific criterion mentation of an option would entail net losses for the poor, one instrument outperforms another but the relation is re- equity should be strongly weighted. Regardless, effectiveness versed if another criterion to evaluate performance is used. should be weighted heavily. THE GIWA SCORING MATRIX BY MEGA REGION THE GIWA LME MATRIX
GIWA Assessment scoring s Severe impact Some of the regions include one or more
Moderate impact within their boundaries. However, the numbering system Slight impact used by is different to that used for s. Where the No impact reported considered several sub-systems within an , an ad- justed score of the sub-systems was applied at the scale. erefore the scores presented in this matrix do not always correspond with the regional scores. e findings for the concerns of Overfishing and other threats to aquatic living resources, Pollution and Habi- tat and community modification as well as information from other sources, were arranged into the five modules. THE GIWA SCORING MATRIX BY MEGA REGION FRESHWATER SHORTAGE POLLUTION OVERFISHING HABITAT MODIFICATION GLOBAL CHANGE Annex IV: ISSUES IMPACTS ISSUES IMPACTS ISSUES IMPACTS ISSUES IMPACTS ISSUES IMPACTS y cle funktion y y diversit y cy y Matrix of GIWA concerns w ards stock genetic suppliestable actices ource/sink er pr of s t communit y and 2 communit wa al hydrologicalradiation CO al and atch and disc existingthe -c fishing the ange -B solids viabilit h UV ocean of in ation biologic in c in ation of stream flo astes al social ALL on ation of ecosystems ALL ALL obiologicw level er social and communit erexploitationessives tructiveby vironmental h VERALL adionuclides vironmental ther c ecreased vironmental ther socialVERALL and communit vironmental ther social and community vironmental ther social and ModificPollutionChanges En EconomicHealthOt O SuspendedEutrophic Micr Solid ChemicSpills R ThermalEn EconomicHealthO OVER Ov Ex De D Impact En EconomicHealthO O ModificLoss of ecosystemsEn EconomicHealthO OVER ChangesSea IncreasedChanges En EconomicHealthO OVER 1a Russian Arctic 1b Arctic Greenland
m 11 Barents Sea
tic Ri 13 Faroe plateau c
Ar 15 East Greenland Shelf 16 West Greenland Shelf 28a Bering Sea (West Bering Sea) 28b Bering Sea (East Bering Sea) 17 Baltic Sea 22 Black Sea al Asia ope & r 23 Caspian Sea Eu entr C 24 Aral Sea 2a Gulf of Mexico (Mississippi River) 2b Gulf of Mexico (Rio Grande/Rio Bravo) 2c Gulf of Mexico (Usumacinta/Grijalva) 2d Gulf of Mexico (Rio Hondo/Chetumal Bay) a 3a Caribbean Sea (Small Islands) 3b Caribbean Sea (Orinoco/Magdalena/Catatumbo)
al Americ 3c Caribbean Sea (Central America/Mexico) entr
C 4 Caribbean Islands 27 Gulf of California 65a Eastern Equatorial Pacific (Southwest Mexico) 65b Eastern Equatorial Pacific (Central Equatorial Pacific) 65c Eastern Equatorial Pacific (Pacific Colombian)
38a Patagonian Shelf (La Plata River Basin) 38b Patagonian Shelf (South Atlantic Drainage Basin)
a 39a Brazil Current (South/Southeast Atlantic Basins) 39b Brazil Current (East Atlantic Basins) 39c Brazil Current (São Francisco River Basin)
South Americ 40a Northeast Brazil Shelf 40b Amazon 64 Humboldt Current
41a Canary Current (North) 41b Canary Current (South) 42a Guinea Current (Comoe Basin) 42b Guinea Current (Volta Basin) 42c Guinea Current (Niger Basin) 42d Guinea Current (Congo Basin) 42e Guinea Current LME
a 43 Lake Chad 44 Benguela Current an Afric 45b Indian Ocean Islands ahar S 46a Somali Coastal Current (Juba/Shebelle)
Sub- 46b Somali Coastal Current (Tana/Athi/Sabaki) 46c Somali Coastal Current (Wami/Ruvu/Pangani) 46d Somali Coastal Current (Rufiji/Ruvuma) 46e Somali Coastal Current (Lake Jipe/Chala) 47a East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Turkana) 47b East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Victoria) 47c East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Tanganyika) 47d East African Rift Valley Lakes (Lake Malawi) st Ea 51 Jordan th Africa & Middle Nor 30 Sea of Okhotsk 31 Oyashio Current 33 Sea of Japan theast Asia 34a Yellow Sea (Yellow Sea) Nor 34b Yellow Sea (Bohai Sea) 36 East China Sea 53 Bay of Bengal 54 South China Sea 55 Mekong River 56 Sulu-Celebes Sea 57a Indonesian Seas (Sunda) GIWA Assessment scoring Southeast Asia 57b Indonesian Seas (Wallacea) Severe impact Moderate impact 57c Indonesian Seas (Sahul) Slight impact No impact reported
58a North Australian Shelf (Wet Tropics) Likely direction of future changes 58b North Australian Shelf (Dry Tropics) for Environmental impact 59a Coral Sea Basin (South PNG and Papua) Increased impact 59b Coral Sea Basin (Coral Sea) No changes cific Islands
Pa 60 Great Barrier Reef Decreased impact 61a Great Australian Bight 61b Great Australian Bight (Muray Darling Basin) Australia & & Australia 62 Pacific Islands 63 Tasman Sea . The Global International Waters Assessment (GIWA) is a holistic, globally comparable assessment of the world’s transboundary waters that recognises the inextricable links between the freshwater and the coastal marine environment and integrates environmental and socio-economic information to determine the impacts of a broad range of influences on the world’s aquatic environment.
BROAD TRANSBOUNDARY APPROACH GIWA recognises that many water bodies and resources, and the human impacts on them are not confined to a single country.
REGIONAL ASSESSMENT GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE GIWA provides a global perspective of the world’s transboundary waters by assessing regions that encompass major drainage basins and adjacent Large Marine Ecosystems. e GIWA Assessment incorporates information and multidisciplinary expertise from all countries sharing the transboundary water resources of each region.
GLOBAL COMPARABILITY In each region, the assessment focuses on five major concerns that are comprised of specific water-related issues.
INTEGRATION OF INFORMATION AND ECOSYSTEMS GIWA recognises the inextricable links between the freshwater and the coastal marine environment and assesses them together as one integrated unit. GIWA recognises that the integration of socio-economic and environmental information and expertise is essential in order to obtain a holistic understanding of the interactions between the environmental and societal aspects of transboundary waters.
PRIORITIES, ROOT CAUSES AND OPTIONS FOR THE FUTURE GIWA identifies the priority concerns of each region, determines their societal root causes and discusses options to mitigate the impact of those concerns in the future.
THIS REPORT e GIWA Final Report provides a comprehensive review of the most important findings from the GIWA regional reports. It summarises the major transboundary concerns and their environmental and socio-economic impacts. To better understand these concerns and develop solutions to address them, the Report identifies the root causes and draws policy relevant conclusions. It also outlines knowledge gaps which impede the sustainable management of international waters.
ISBN --- UNEP/GCSS.IX/INF/