Mausoleum-Mosque of Khan-E-.Jahan at Khalifatabad, Bagerhat
- The Architecture of the Khan-e-.Jahan Style: Context and influence
111I1I111mmJIlllIllllllllIl U 1199053#
MD. All NAQJ
, A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT DFARCHITECTURE, BANGLADESH UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY, DHAKA BANGLADESH IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIRMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARCHITECTURE
MARCH 2003
I
•• _ -4'K ---, Department of ArchitecbJre
Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology, Dhaka-l000.
The theSIS IIIled, "The Architecture of the Khan-e-Jahan Style: Context and influence" submitted by Md. Ali Naqi, Roll Number 9501005, session 1994-95-96 has be.en acceptable in partiallulfillment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Architecture. On this day, 31"' of March. Monday. 2003,
BOARD OF EXAMINlES:
Md. Khairul Enam Professor Department of Architecture, SUET. (Thesis Supervisor) Chairman-- _
Dr, Md Shahidul Ameen Professor and Head Departmenl of Architecture, SUET,
Dr. Faruque A U Khan Professor
D€partment of Architecture, SUET,
Or, K M. Manlruzzaman D€partment 01 Urban and Regional Planning, "-l """"'" ~ ~-"J " . SUET. Member _
(External)
- Candidates Deela'ratlon-
II is hereby declared thallhls thesis or any part of it has not been submitted elsewhere for the award of any degree or diploma.
Signature of the Candidate
Name of the Candidate Md. Ali Naqi Abstract
The Architecture of the Khan.•.•.•ahan Style: Context and Influence
Md. Ali Naqi
For centuries the very fertile soil of 8engal has developed a number of independent styles in its deferent regions. Among them the Khan--e-Jahan style stands out with its own Identity in the southern Sunderban area. The ArcMectural out come of thiS Style In and around the Khalifatabad city, 8agerhat bears the semantic and symbolic inner structure of reasoning systems of the builder The austere ideals of a religious leader, the necessary functionality on a marshy frontier region, the Impressions of a jungle life and moreover the hostile nature of the climatic conditions ttlese are the determlnanls that defined the structure of these architectural monuments and its place in Bengal culture. The study reveals these underlying forces that constitute the Architecture of the Khan-e-Jahan Style,
The style was nourished from the very conte>dualrealities that the builder has faced dunng his development endeavors, As a member of a fui! grown and independent Style these monuments are very sympathetic to its geo.dimatic context and have developed a number of unique techniques and systems to meet the situations. The extreme austere appearance of the bnck monuments, ttle relatively dwarf looking reduced lIOidsor openings on the facades and evolutionary development of independent to complex organization marks the identifying characters of this style Along with them the use of curved cornice. the placement of stone course at the base, the terracotta string-motifs and the water drainage system all these are directed towards a common goal, ttlatls to continue longer with minimum resource in a very antagonistic contextual setting, Through this struggie of existence the Style gained ~s strength not only to sustain but also to grow and Influence the later architectural developments In a considerable extent. The Influence of Architecture of Khan--e-JahanStyle is fell far beyond the boundaries of the 8agerhat area, Masjid Bari MOSQueat Patuakhali and Hammad's Mosque at Kumira are two finest examples of such influences The most mentionable and the noblest influence of this Style is the introduction of Choucha/a roof. The Pancharatna layout of Hindu temples drew its organizational Inspiration from the matured Ionns of Khan--e-JahanStyle.
This study can also be considered as a guideline lor the conservation of the monumenls under the Khan-e-Jahan Style The guidelines are drawn not from the apparent outlooks but from the deeper meaning of the Archttecture of Khan--e-JahanStyle: meanings rooted in both spiritual and physical conceptualities,
ii
, Acknowledgements
I acknowledge my sincere gratitLJdeto my research supervisor Professor Khalrul EllI.m for his generous gUidance and constructive suggestions at every stage of my worK Words are not adequate to convey my sense of gratitude to him. It has been a pleasing experience to work under his supervision. My thanks are due to Professor Shahldul Ameen and Professor QazJ Azizul Mowla, Department of Arcl1lteclure, Bangladesh University ot Engineering and Technology, Dhaka and Dr. Abu Say""d Mostaqua Ahmed. Associate Professor, Department of Archflecture, Asia Pacif,c University. Dhaka with whom I had constructive consultations in vanous slages,
I owe a deep sense of gratilude to the various authors on the subject whose works have been a constanl and continuous source of stimulation and either intensively used or quoted by me in lhis study I am also thankful to Ar. Ziaullslam, Ar. Fllguni Mallik, Ar. Animan Mostala, Ar. Marm Hoss.ain, Ar. Hafizur Rahman and AT. Imtia Ahmed for helping me In surveying and In the preparation of lhe drawmgs. There were also many willing people who assisled me In this research, It will not be pOSSibleto recall everybody by name but should not avoid mentioning lhe name of Mr. Shihabuddin Md. Akblt, Regional Director (In.charge), Departmenl of Archaeology. Khulna Division who supplied me with all the drawings of thai department and offered hiS full co-operation in this pursutt
My wife Dr. Nargis Akhtar, son Purha and daughter Nayrila were always a source of inspiration. They shared my wearied time and have been patient in many ways over lhe years of this research
Last but not lhe least; I gralefully acknowledge the encouragement of my parents which helped me in complellng the study. I am grateful to lhem
Md. Ali Naqi
Iii The ArchItecture of the Khan-e-Jahan Style: Context and influence
Contents Pall- Declaration
Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Table of Contents List of plates ;," List if ligures , Listof tables ,
• Backdrop of Study '-n I
1.1 Introduction , 1.2 Stiltement ofthe Problem 2 1.3 Objectives of the Study 3 1.3.1 Styleidentificationaspecls 3 '.3 2 $oc;o."ultural,""othetlc& idanlityaspects 3 1.3.3 Climaticaspecls 3 '.3.4 Organizationalaspects 3 '.3.5 St",c!uralaspects , 1.4 BrIefReview of Related Literature 4 1.5 Important issues of the Study , 1.5.1 Thecontext 1.52 TheStyle& Architecture " 15.3 InfiuenceoftheSlyle " 1.6 Organization of research " 1.61 Uteraturesurvey " 1.6.2 PhysicalSurvey " i. SelectionofAreaSurveyed " ii SelactlonofSamplemooument.
i, 1.6 3 Su~ and data colledJon
1,6,4 Analysis 01the data collected
1,6,5 Synthesisof the finding. 1.' El(pe<:ted outputs of the Study 16 l.B L1mltlltlon ofthe Study 1.' Framework of the Report " 1.10 Concluding Remarks 16"
Bengal: Context for Khan-e-.Jahan and his Style
2.1 Introduction 2.2 Historicalcontext " 2.2.1 Early Mu.lim Pemd ofBer>gal " 2.2.2 Identityof Khan.e.Jshan and hiSbacllgfound " 2.3 TheGao-polilicalcontext " 2,3,1 Topographyof Sengal " 2.3.2 The Strategic posiHon o( Bengal in ralation to centrsl India "
2.3,3 Khulns, too southern Bengal region " 2 3.4 Sundarban'''Ilion " 2.4 ClimaticFactor.> " 2.4.1 Bengal '" 24.2 KhulnaandSundarb 2.' Introduction 2.2 Semantic approach elf the Bengal Style " 3.2,1 The terms of Slyle " 3.2,2 Self-conscious process end context " 2.2 PQtentialities of Early Muslim Bengal Style " 33.1 Mt>aning01the term 'Style' " 33.2 Components of Early Muslim Bengal Styles " The Concept " The approach W." Fmm and Conlent 3.33 The func:tionaldive .., Introduction '.2 Backdrops of Syncretism ••" <4.2,1 Muslim ArcI1iteclureArohetype ~ , Complex Model " Independent Model 4.22 Ordenng prirteiples of Muslim Arohitecture <4.2,3 Pre-Muslim ArcI1itecturalTradmons 01Bengal " '.2 Onset of Syncretism " 43.1 The Mamluk Style " , Natural and socio-political fOfce. OO~" " The concept. idea iii," Form and contents: morphology iv. Philosophic trend: attitude , Symbolic nature: meaning , Ufe modes: slalus 4.3,2 The Eany Illyas Shahl Style i. Natural and sooi<>-l"'llticallorces: context ii. The concept: idea iii. Form and contents: morphology iv Philosophic !rerld: altitude v Symbol,c nalure: meaning iii. Ule modes: status - -. 43,3 Th" EklakhiStyle ,. Naturalandsocio-political!orces;context i, The "concept idea iii. Form and contents' morpholCIQY Iv PhilosophicIrer 4.3 4 The Lale VI Life modes: status 4.35 Th••HussainShahlStyle i. NaturalandSOClo-pollticalforces,conle> , • The Khan-e-Jahan Style --I 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Potentialities of Khan-e-JahanStyle as a 'Styl.' " 5,2,1 ComponentsofKhan-a.JahanStyle " The Concept II. Theapproac:/1 ill. Formandcontent 5,2,2 Thefunctionaldiversityof Khan-e-JahanStyle 66 As a factoroflhe Cfealiveprooess ii. k, a factor01evol 5 2.3 The~lrueturallevelof Kha•.••e-JahanStyle '.3 Part of World Heritage 69 vii ,.• Case StudIes: Khallfatabad, 8agemat, Khulna " ,., GROUP 01. Nine Domed mosque group 5.5.1 The Nine dome Mosque " 5.5.2 The Mausoleum 01 Khan-e-Jahan " 5.5.3 The Mausoleum- Mosque ofKhan.e-Jahan " 5.5.4 The Ronvijoypur Mosque " U GROUP 02: Shalt Gambuz mosque group " 5.6.1 The Sheil GomblJ2 Mosque " 5,6,2 The Singer Mosque " 5,6.3 The Bib, Begnl Mosque M"' 5.6.4 The Chunakhola Mosque U GROUP 03: Reza Khoda mosque group "' 5.7.1 The Rem Khoda Mosque " 5.7.2 The ZindepJr Mausoleum " 5.73 The lmdap" Mausoleurn.mosque " "' U Concluding RSmlIrks " Synthesis between Khan-e-.lahan Style & 95-117 Architecture 6.1 Introduction 6.2 ArchitectureKhan-e-Jahanstyleand Innuences " 621 Receivedinfluence. " 6,2,2 Outwardinftuences " 6.3 ArchiteduralCharacters '" 63,1 Settings and ""pressions '" 5,3.2 Function artd abstraction '" 6.4 Design PrinciplO'S '" 6.4.1 Orders '" 6.4.2 StructuralSystem'formarK!space '" 6.43 Clima~cComponents '" 6.4,4 Monumentality'COrnerturrets "" 6.4.5 Perceptualdesignproces. m'" 6.5 The makingof KhallfatabadCity '" 6.6 ConcludingRemarks m Conclusions "",u I ,., Introduction •,., The main findings of the study '" , The Style '" il. The Slyle - comext dialect iii. The InAuences of the Style Basic ISSUas of lhe Style " U RecommendatiortS m References 125-13 Appendices: A Semantic: B, concept & syml>ol : C Nomination to the World Heritage I.XVI List by UNESCO List of Technical terms: XVI.XVlU List of Plates used 1Mdifferent chapters . PI.too No. Title 8en9al; it' Topogrephy, Khen-e-J.h.n'. centre of activities i1.',b World Muslim ArchltBCtural Arch8lype '" Muslim Order of Space, axtBmization • Muslim Orner of Space, order of a mlhrab , Th. Mamluk style The Early Illy"" Shahl slyl8 " The Ekla.hi style VIII'" The Later Illy •• Shahl style The Hussain Sh.h, .tyle ," Nine dome Mosque " Mausoleum 01 Khan+Jahan '" Mausoleum- Mosque of Khan-e-Jahan XIII Ronvijoypur Mosque Sh.a Gombuz Mo.qus W'" Sjnger Mosque w, Bibi Begni M""qus m ChUM"hoie M""que XVUI Reza Khoda Mo.que '" Zind""ir Mausoleum ~ Zindapir Mausoleum-Mosque ;, '-. JlJII ..•• Influences of Khan-e-Jahan Style )()(1•.1>,c Influence in Khan-e-Jahan styl& in the Monuments oIllaro bazar )()(I-d,e Influence in Khan_oWahan styla in oltler Mosques )()(II_ Muslim order of space that is followed in Khan..e-Jal>an Styr., a.b.c,d .•. ! )()(III_ Structural System and Clima~c Component analysis a.b.c.d.e.f.g J()(l1l.•••'.11 ExtemallZatlon of circle orde,,"9 princip",," and optic!ll CO List of figures Flgut'9 01: Flow diagram of study process " Flgu,. 02: ComparaUv" mode ofform generation. Pre-Muslim and Muslim " Flgu,. 03: Development ofoome; turrets '" LIst of tables , j T.ble 01: Status of Documentation Table 02: Meaning of the name of Kl1an-e..Jahan " Ta.ble 03: Identity of Ktlan-e..Jah8ll " Table 04: Level of Khan ..e-Jahan Style " " , Chapter 01 Backdrop of Study " Introduction " Statement of\he Problem Objective. <>fthe Study " Boel Review <>fRel.led Llt \.~' .'.'.;0 .1~'Cif,oL{ --' '"•••••••••".. " _,.~... - p"'" ---~-~=".'-,.- 1.1 Introduction Bengal has a lich cultural tradition. She Involved her inhabitants into a mode of life struggle. a struggle that pushed him to the frontline of a process of maintaining their ex,stence against the very hostile forcas of nature That is why the cultural foundation of this deltaic region IS based on the very realities of nature Individual Architectural aetwijies considered in the context of their relation to the life struggle of this region constitute the behavioural pattem of the people living here, when they dialect with one another. they become culture. This is the realm of values of Styles and emotional attachment of intellectual adventures. These collective Styles of Bengal Muslims are socially acquired and SOCiallytransmitted by means of symbols, Hence these distinctive achievements of human groups, include not only such items as language, art, government, morals, religion, but also artefacts and ArcMecture In which intellectual cultural features are given practical effect, In thrs chapter some variables of the context are Identified to explain the Muslim Architecture of Bengal as a reflection of the fleeds of a community locorporated in the overall design process, Sometimes, in this respect, a concrete procedure or statement can not be cited but pragmatic overall statements are possible which represent the average group feelings of the community of that time through the semantic decoding of design assimilation. Time is specially mentioned here because we must not forget the fact that these qualitative judgments are subjected to constant changing processes. To detennine these vanables we have evaluated the components of the Style and ijs evolutIOn process. 1 • 1.2 Statement of the Problem Muslim rule in Bengal conlinued for more than six centuries Before the Mughafs, the region was ruled by the Independents Sultans. During this perIOd,which we call the Early Muslim phase of Bengal, many new settlements nourished. The centre of building activities were in and around the capital c~fesof the Sultans and In the sub-centres of the extending fronliers of the country. Khulna region was one of Ihose southern frontiers of the Bengal Sultana\. Here a distinctive Style of Muslim Bengal Architecture has developed which is known by the name of ~s founder and is called the Khan--e-JahanStyle, Perhaps Khan-e-Jahan settled the Muslim colony in th,s region in two consecutive phases, The first phase of settlement is around the present Barobazar area. Jessore and the second and more matured final phase is in the old city of Khalifatabad now known as Bagerhat - south of Khulna, The Style in its adoption of a non- urban Muslim model, auslere and purist aesthetic concep~ exposed brick construction and highly individualistic proportioning system adorned w~h terra-cotta ornaments has shown a - Vitalinteraclion of World hentage and local building tradilion in an explicit manner, Khan--e-Jahan Style was sympathetic towards the local context. which in turn helped its survival against lhe hostile forces of nature and as a result finest pieces of Archileclure evolved. Absence of permanent construction materfals, nalural caiam,ties like flood and cllange of river course. and moreover the hostile warm-humKl climate with the extreme salinity prevailing in the area raised a dialectiC platform as a context for the bUilders in Khan- e-Jahan Style. The elements and features of this Style have influenced the builders of Bengal later on, Thus lhe Style has also SUMVedin a transformed form to give continuity to lha development of lhe Architecture of Bengal. Considering the signnocanl role of the Style In the history of Architecture, Khalifatabad City was included on UNESCO's WOI1dHeritage List under the convention concerning the protection of the World Cultul 2 1.3 Objectives of the Study: In the light of above mentioned study-issues, the following are the objectives Ofthe study: 1.3.1 Style identification aspects: To make a Style identification; determination 01 the comparative position of the Khan-e-Jahan Style in the evolutionary prooess. explanation of the components of the Khan-e-Jahan Style and their archnectural expressklns is the major aim of the study. 1.3.2 Soclo-<:ultural, aesthetic and Identity aspects. -To identify the socio--culturalbackground of the Khan-e-Jahan, the founder of the Style, The individual and collective patterns embodied in the sociai tradnion thaI is, ethnic identity, lifestyle, custom, religiOUSbelief and activity patterns which delleloped a more enlightened charactenstlcs by incorporating the local aesthetic values. To determine the nature and process of Syncretism, the exchange of ideas between the modei archetypes, the contextual forces and the final form of synthesis. To decode the meaning of the Style by follOWingand re-constructing the design thought process by analysing its semantic aspects. To understand the atmudes of ,the Style and its symbols by actually reading the Architecture. 1.3.3 Climatic aspects: To testify that the builders were familiar wnh the geo-<::Iimalic,i.e. the hostile warm-humid, cornHtions of the locality. The features like the stone damp proof course, the rain water disposaltrealmen~ the curved cornrce, the use of terra- cotta etc. 1.3." Organizational aspects: To search out the ordering principles to mark !he onginal organisations of the Khallfatabad city and its monuments. 3 • 1.3.5 Structural aspects: To point out how the buildings were built of heavy walls, arches vaulls and domes. adapting to the structural system suited to the capabililie$ of the bum! clay and the local soil conditions. 1.4 Brief Review of Related Literature: A brief review of the studies directly or indirecUy related the Khan-e-Jahan Style of Early Muslim Architecture of Bengal considered as sources 01original of ideas in the explanallon of the Style ISg>venbelow', A.8.M Husain (1970):' The author chronologically described Ihe evolutions 01 Min"ra and the comer lurrets in the monuments of 'Indo-Muslim Archilecture'. He identified the comer turrets of Bengal Muslim Architecture as a 'drastic modification' 01their 'Tughlaqian forerunners'. Abul htah Mowlana Jalnul Haque Abedln (1991): 3 Basically the author followed the numerous legends that prevail in the Khulna region about Khan-e-Jahan. For" researcher, this book will provide Ihe very local view of the present folk>wers of Khan--e-Jahan and might help to understand the sociai impact of Ihese monuments on them. Abu Sayeed MO$lilque Ahmed (1997);' The only book published On the Early Muslim monuments of Bengal written by an architect. An essential part 01 his research is the draWings attached which IS the resull of extensive field-surveys Ihroughout 8engal. An inventory 01 Ihe survwing monuments is followed by 1 Tlle Ieml or __ '" 00"",111_ ••• q,_! , HuNI", "-"' ••. (,g"'I, 1Ilo>lin".'""",•.MiIsJIm~, M1eUcS-1y '" P.,,,tool, Oo>oce, 3 _". Abul F••• h -.. • .101nu1Hoq""I1"'J. _ ""onJoh"" lUI(RI, F"""''''' L,loioy, KhlJI•••• • ••••••••••Abu ""_1lIootoqtoo 1'''7), "'" r;:ho/OSo"," _ '" <';•• e A" s.omplo 0/1JIoEOI1y 1-01.""" __ 0/ BOIlgol, IrlSIIMFOt",,_~hle [)oru",,,,,,,,,mKo_~. 4 catalogues, short descnphons, dating and reference of I~erature. Classification of the mosques was done OIl the basis of 'ground plan of the mosques', So far as 'representation' is concerned, this publication would and should be the base and the most reliable source of any study on Early Muslim monuments of Bengal 8ut for 'interpretation', especially architectural interpretations the very method of classification seems somewhat retarding and to some extent misleading too. The story of the process of creating the stylistically stable expressive Archrtecture which qualitatively defrnes and quantitatively unifies the variety remains beyOlld the limits of this classification, Ahmad Hasan Dani (1956 & 1961):' The studies provide us Wlth an understanding of the different architectural developments that evolved in the context and conditions of Bengal and led to the formulation of different Styles of bUildings. The Styles are juslifred according to their context and influences on the evolutIOn process. That is why the author very klgically united the monuments of Khan-.e-Jahan under a separate and independent Style, However, ali the components of Styles are not very systematically arranged Of described. The form-space dialect in relation to detail graphical design generation process is absent in the study, So, as the author himself speculated, the study 'may no' salisfy the engif166rs nor even !tie architec/$, as !tie limited numbers of il/ustralions do nol give all the details that their special teGhni",,1 knowledga demands'. Nevertheless, the study of 8engal Muslim Architecture marked the beginning for any research on the stylistic evolution in this field, Gewge Micheli {1978 & 1!lUj" The editor has published the results of a collective research work based on a complete survey of the key monuments of Wand Muslim Architecture The main focus of this study IS on the History and SOdal meaning of these monuments in relation to the basic Archetype and models it generated, Later he extended his research work towards the preservation of MusJlm 5 0",,1, ""mod Hoaan (1~, "'"slim ~.1tI SonooI."",,,0,, SocIo'lt OfP_n, """,,", .rIIl Doni,""mad •••..., (1~"'1. __ '" 8eflg1l1, -.0 _ely OfPat; • Michl", G""lI1 (0<1,)jt~Tl!J. ""'"le of Ihe key monuments of Muslim Bengal is a reliable source of information. Johana E. van Lohuizen de Leeuw in his artide 'The Early Muslim monuments at Bagerhal' bnefly descnbed the'Slyles of these structures' and identified them as a blending of 'Delhi Impen'a/ order w~h 'local elemenls', Hablba Khatun (1990);' The author has established the ident~y, ethnic background and life history of Khan--e-Jahan from different historical references Her findings have reliably identified Khan.e-Jahan as Azam Khan, an Arab general in Sullan Gyasuddin's court of Later Illyas Shahi phase of Bengal. Khoundkar Alamgir (2001):' The author was a F;eld Officer of the Khulna Div[sional Office, Directorate of Archaeology at Bagerhat. In his published 'monograph' of Khan--e-Jahan he has painstakingly brought together eVidences of Khan Jahan's life history, detail account of his missionary activities, description and drawings of Archaeological Department of the individual buildings of Bagerhat In the last chapter of hiS book he argued that the present Alaipur village of Khulna ISthe actual srte of KhalJfatabadCity, but no archaeological evidence is yet available. Muhammad Haflzullah Khan (1!i188):' The author has described in detali the decorative use of terraootta In the Buildings of Muslim Architecture of Bengal. The influences of the World Muslim Architecture, especially the Persian and pre-Muslim local influences on these deoorailve arts are clearty chalked out with specific references, The inter-relationship between the Styles of Muslim Architecture 01 , K••••••• , ••••• lI< (1IlOO1, ~ Kh•••• nan, SI>oIOJ>U>/Ipo.BongloA<:n"""'Y, Ohab, pp, 2<0-2<1 . • Alomgl" Kno and can hardly be used in any future research work, Mulk Raj Anand (1974):'. The stylistic interpretation of 'Bang/a Desll Hanlage' is the main focus of the very brief study. The work is a compilation of articles and rearrangement of the information published earlier But, the author intends to search the continuity of Bengal Architecture through the stylistic and as well as spiritual evolution 01the monuments; and this angle of inlerpretalfon is the author's very original, buI, the works of Khan-e-Jahan is very briefty mentioned as 'Regional Archllecture' and nol as a Style of its own. Nazimuddln Ahmed (1984 & 1989):" The author in his 'sllort illustrated guide-books' intends to popularise this unique group of Early Muslim monuments of Khan--e-Jahanand other monuments of Bangladesh and highlight the problems of their preservalion Brief stylistic interpretations are provided in between the detailed description of the indivi<:lualmonuments. In detennining 'Ille architeclural Style ,ntraduced by Kllan Jalliln' he descnbed ~ as an 'uncommon' blending of the ind'Qenousand Ihe imperial Style of Delhi, The reference to Tughlaq architecture is explained as a similarity in context of 'poHticai and natural Insecurity and economic iimlli/lion', Percy Brown (1975);" The Author divided !he development of Bengal Muslim Architecture into two preliminary phases and a full grown specific Style. The firsl phase (1200 to 1340 AD.) OIlCapital Gour; the second phase (1340 101430 AD.) at Cap1talPandua and the iast phase where the Style deveioped (1442 to 1576 AD.) at the re-shifted Capitai Gour. Thai means the aUlhor has 10 ••••_ •••••k RoJ (1070), Bang'. Coon H"'rPO, ","", VohIME XXVI'. No, 2, PIl'''''- " AI1mod, Nazim""dl" ('9&lI. D/>r;(>vo,-Ill. MooJimo"" of Bo~ A ~ fo _ """"Y. '--lioII & 00_, lml,.,"'Y """'" UmrW, onoka, UNoSCO, .Jld "'''',""" Hozirnu"'o (1•••• 1. Tho 8 7 certified the Later Illyas Shah. and Hussain Shahi Styles together as a full grown and mentionable styhstlc development of Bengal. The author summed up his idea conceming the Muslim Arcl1itecture of Bengal in the following manner, •...the lsiami<; archilecture of Bengal is nol a style of building of a vel}' impressive kind. WIlen the Moslem rulers had sertled down 10 realities proceed 10 build structures of more maderole proportions as shown In the thirrl and matured phase of the styfe, their producNons W8fll more in accorrlance wllh the prevailing conditions. What they achiavad may not have b9fln great art, but ,Is construction principles were sound, ils appearances were mventive and original ,md it was pecui/arly suilabla 10 Ihe climale and 10 the purpose for which il was mtendoo.' The phase or Stykl identification by the author IS indiscreetly based on the position and shift of the polijical Capital of Bengal. Here the urban model and scale of Muslim Architecture is over emphasised as the determining cnteria for Style idenijfication and that is why, from that point of view, Architecture produced here seemed to him less impressive. But, later In hIS writing, he appreciated the matured Style developed by the introduction of the non.urban model in this region. There is no direct mention of Khan-e---Jahan or Khalifatabad In his wrijing. But, the implied view is to InClude the works of Khan-e---Jahan in the later phase of the matured Style development appreciated by the author. Satish Chandra Mitra (11114,1922):" The Author had painstakingly visited the different archaeological sites of Khulna-Jessore area and even deep in the Sundarban jungle at the beginning of the last century. The notes on his visit to these areas ara one of the earliest reliable accounts and documentation available today. In spite of tha limitations of his hme. hiS detailed description 01 the life history of Khan_ e-Jahan, the location of Khalifatabad. descnptio-ns oftha monuments and the sitas are still an unavoidable source of reterence for any study of this region . • Syed Mahmudul Hasan (1964,1979,1983 and 1887):14 The author gave graphic descripllons of lIle monuments erected under Muslim dispensation in Bengal. The aesthe~c values and lhe cu~ural heritage embodied in these monuments are taken inlo consideration. He described the Style as 'Kllan Jallani Style' and idenUfoedKhulna, Jessere, Patuakhall and Barishal as the influenced area According to the author, 'clearing jungle, reclaiming land. populatmg tha forost bUlldmg dties and propagation of Islam' are the major activities of Khan-e-Jahan in this region, There are valuable photographs (some 01 them show the building conditions before restoration worn) attached With the description of each bUilding of Khalifatabad. Q.A,.Mowla and M.A.. Naql (1992 & 1999):'" The authors studlell the contextual and stylis~c appraisal of Khan-e-Jahan Style with special emphasis on its conservation aspects There are some proposed conceptual directKlns on the evolution and city forming process of the Khalifatabad in Bagerhat. as well as directions for future research on this issue. 1,5 Important Issues of This Study: A number of studies on various monuments of Khan-e-Jahan Style have been conducted in Bangladesh. Most of them have focused on the documentation and classlfK:atlon of the individual bUildings. These architectural endeavours were judged and analysell as stalic evenls in history The histoncal approach, where the evolution 01a Style and ~s components are studied w~h respect to their context and continuity, are gwen less importance. This study recognises that the architectural interpretation of these monuments through the perception of " H'''" Syo " Mowil Q,A.,and N"". IlIA 1191'91,'Khoillota ••• sao""" •••• n. ~"" 0 •• ",,"1' SI_ O' """"'". , (~). Oet_Do< , •• , """ Ao _, ••• of KIlo" ••• J.I"'n SlyiOl" •••• ~ro, ~ -... KU. VoI-1. '10, " Juno 11'99. , concept, semantICdecoding 01the Intentions of the desig~ and the spatial expansion olthe form is 01utmost Importance. Following are Ihe key questions the study allempts to answer: t.5.1 TIWContexi a, What were the identity. ethnic background and life history of Khan-e-Jahan? b. What are the sources or influencing elements of the Khan-e-Jahan Style? c. What was ttle nature of the salting in which Khan-Nahan continued his building endeavour? 1.5.2 The Style and Architecture a. Do the monuments of Khan-e-Jahan constitule an independent 'Sty1e'? b What is Ihe place 01the Khan-e-Jahan Style in Ihe evolutionary process of Bengal Archilecture? c What are the components of Khan-e-Jahan Style? d, How did the concept and process of designing the stylistically stable expressive architeclure develop? e. What is the form-space dialect in relation to detailed graphic design generation process? I How can we read out or decode the meaning of these monuments in relation 10the basic Archetype and Models arid local elements? g. Can the Style w~h its components be justified according to their conlext? h. Whatwas Ihe e\lOlulionand city forming process in the Khalifaiabad? 1.5.3 lnfluenc. of the Style a. How has this Style influenced the Architeclure of Bengal? b. How successful was the style in the question of survival? 10 1.6 Organization of the Research: 1.6.1 Literature Survey: There are some efforts made by different individuals and organizations. which have supplied the preliminaf)' material for thiS research. A literature survey was conducted 10collect the material from the different sources, For literature survey books published on the socio-cultural. economic and political interpretation of the development of lhe Bengal Muslim ArcMecture were reviewed Written documents. drawings and maps were collected from dJlferentorganizations of Dhaka and Khulna, Figure01: Flow Dl.gl'llm of the Study P"""",,s Li"mlUre re,,,wof Lit"ature ,"vi,w or U_ "",jew 01various Dcv,lop ,,"dy ol>ject"" and ~"'CS of~" _\ludy I 1 Ilota ",llo: ""',,,,iog ond an"'l"i"f dOl' 00 th, bas" "f ,,,,"lalli, dalil ""d information (P"'""')' and '""'''""", SO""",) SY'I!'""" •• d""""" fmd;"ll' of the SIUdy Ocrj"" concl",i"", "f!he stIJ ,. ( 1.6.2 Physical SUlVey: Selection of Area SUlVey&d: The survey was focused within Khallfatabad at Bagerhat, Khulna. Monuments In Khalifatabad represent the most matured stage 01the Khan-e-Jahan Style, That Is why they were documented and presented to the finest details, For supporting information the earlier developments ot Khan-e-Jahan at Barobazar, Jessore and its adjacent areas were also sUNeyed and documented. These areas were selected because the highest concentration of monuments of Khan-e-Jahan Style Is around these regions. Moreover, the historical records of the advancement of Khan-e-Jahan towards the southern Sundarban region also confinns with the position and location of these two sires, Most of the sires coincide w,th the long abandoned main axial road of Khan-e-Jahan which runs along the old Bhairab river bank and connects Jessore, Khulna. Chittagong and goes even up to Bakerganj ii Selection of Sample monuments: t, Monuments in Khallfalabad: There were numerous numbers of monuments buiR in the city of Khalifatabad by Khan-e-Jahan. Traditionally the number of monuments is assumed to be 360". The spectacular remains of these are still visible for miles around the ruined city 17Most of the sites 01the mosques are identified by the location of the ! ponds." Among them, 12 monuments in Khallfatabad are in a condifion well enough to be studied for any architectural research, There are two tomb buildings, nine mosques and one unidentified structure'". For proper representation of the Style all the mosques and the tombs mentioned above were included in the sample list. surveyed and studied in detail •• The ".JIb« P"""Oly d_ n •• ".., •• "'''''''''" to dOl' """" orlank ooro", ~ng Ih. Iou",,"",," of 0 mooq""- Th. oxcovot<>d•• "" ""'on uoed for II"" de,",,,,,ma'" •• ttl. _ •••• ,1>on~ molOng''''''' for conolrucllon •• Tho un""""'Od """""-n" 1000'" kn""" •• So ••• oon"" "'_" "' •• ...... " of Khon.••.•••hon. The con_Ion or.,. toolfd'"", ,"lOmooquo Is 0 _01 _, G _'."" o1ller WI01••• have fdon~11o monuments of Barobazar area are of more recent diseOV€ryand still there are many a mound unexcavated in and around the area. So, the Iotal numbers of sites is still unknown; but at present nine mosques in Barobazar have been partially conserved by the Archaeology Department. Drawings oflhese monuments are yet unpublished but required for Style identification. So, here again all these nine mosques were surveyed and studied for reference in the Styie identification ot the monuments of Khalifatabad (Table 01) The monuments of other plac€s which have inftuences of Khan..e-JahanStyle have published drawings and photographs; these have been used and referred 10in this study_ Table 01. Status of Docume~ion GROUP N,. Name af mOm/men! Plan EI"". ,-, Deta;1 Photograph Commen! «'ondo''''''i Bog 13 3 Individual monuments: A check list was prepared for studying the individual monuments Information and data was collected under the following headings: a. Location/ldenlifir:ation of the buildings b, Cond~ion of surroundings, relation w~h the approach road c. Present use, d. BUlkJinginformation an<:lcondition: • Plans, Elevation and Sec!lons • Building component detai~. • Building construc!lon details, • Building materials. • Building ornamentation • Special elements/materials. 1.6.3 Survey and data collection: Before going to final survey. a pilot sUJ'leywas conducted on some of the important sample buildings selected for the study. On the basis of the data yielded by this pilot study and suggestions received from the resource persons, necessary changes and improvements were made in the study and sUJ'ley process A photographic documentation of the selected buildings with 35mm film accompanied the sUJ'leywork. The researcher himself collected the factual data regarding the sample bUildings and the preparations of the drawings were done by the researcher himself or under his direct supeJ'liSion, After finishing the drawings the last and final spot sUJ'leywas conducted lor rechecking and further detail corrections. 1.6A Analysis oftha data collected: The second part of the research was the analytical part. In this phase data collected from the sUJ'ley was processed and entered Into the computer for analysis. Appropnate computer programs (e,g., AutoCad, 3D Max and SPSS) were utilized to obtain deScriptiveand statistical information, The graphic representations oIl1le monuments were done as the followmg: • Plan • Elevation • Section • • Sketches or axonometnc drawings of special details (if necessary) • 3D models by computer simulation for spatial analysis The elements and features of the each monument of Khallfatabad, 8agerha~ Khulna included' in the Khan--e-JahanStyle were studied under the following headlines: a. Wall b. Door and opening c. Floor d Roof and cornice e. Corner furrel , Column and pilaster 9 Transverse arches and tranSItionalfonn h. Domes and vault Special elements 1.6.5 Synthesis ofth. findings; The synthesis of the data collected in the research was earned out through two differenf approaches First, 'the historic approach' within which the background, philosophical aspects, religious aspects and attitudes of the Style was sfud'ed. Second, 'the slatic approach' Within which the formal aspects were explored ;ro At the beginning Ofthe synfhesis the very definl~on of the fenn 'Style' is very methodically and systematically identified. The phiiosophical components of Style, the qualitative and quanlnative requirements of a Style, and the levels of Style are clear~ chalked oul. The capability and potentiality of the bUildingsof Khan--e-Jahanare verlf~ecf' egainstlhese stylistic criteria The focus of the synthesis is then concentrated on the fact that these buildings are created to mee! certain conditions and requirements of a tife-slyle, and it is in the fulfilment of these condilions thai forms the highest achievements of this Slyle. These architectural fonns are "-, Y"~(1001),A•.w_.f'rog_""_""',,,",W pe7 >1 """uld 110'••••• , • -. dogmo1lc.pprooOh"we stott .-..001"0 • 'S","' """"'" •• n'Y'ngIt>poI_I~ •• 1O"" """'~."'" os • "'1I1l""'" "".....,_ SljIe. _t, 111••••••'$ly1" _ ru.ther _. to bo """" '" .n _Orion or ootItm An,hite,,'.," '"'_"." Thol Is ""Y. M"col "" totm 'S"'" oM '" compo_ ••.• onalyzoO'ln_,r om fI1""•••• _~"" exprosolon•• m """...-"' _po<:! '" ••••,. """P""Onto, studied and Styles apprehended against the aspirations of the builder and the demand of local context The monuments of different periods of Bengal history are analyzed and the evolution of the Styles that emerged in lhe history of Muslim Bengal ArcMecture is traced out. Then the place "nd contributions of Khan-e-Jahan style ISK1entified.The motives of lhe builder are searched in the bUildings lhat he designed, In the setting where he worked on and In the time In l'o1lich he is placed The synthesis reveals is a story of the continuous search of our ancestors for architectural expression within a given context, and to see through these expressions the evolution of " Style. 1.7 Expected outputs of the Study: 1, Understanding the deeper meaning of Khan--e-Jahan Slyle and Muslim Beng,,1 Architecture, 2, To determine the sources of ils inspiration and the level of its influences of the development of Bengal Architecture. J. Conservation of Heritage: This study is to develop a basis of information for the preservation, reslorallon and conservation of the Khan--e-JahanStyle. 4, Provide gUideline for future: a. Architectural development: This study is 10 develop an att~ude for appreciating the rich architectural heritage of Bengal, Thus it will reflect the true aspiration of the people of Bengal and their Architecture taking ~s inspiration from the struggie of a Slyle that has survived through the ages. b. Architectural research' The output of the study Mil provide us with new understanding of the traditional and indigenous architectural and structural excellence, c. Provide valuable teaching malenal to the faculty engaged In arcMectural education 1.8 Limitations of the Study: The extent of the study sometimes became limited for the followmg reasons: Firstly, many of the potenlial sites of Khalifutabad and Barobazar areas still remain unexcavated The monuments which have been excavated by the Archaeology Department are either in such a dilapidated condition that the details are hard to be documented or they are altered to such an extent that the details are nol even worthy to be documented. Secondly, firsthand information about the foundations and part of structures which are s~uated under ground-level of these structures is not available This information can only be obtained through authorised excavation of the potential sites of the monuments, which was beyond the scope of this study. Finally, according to the records and written accounts, there could be more unexplored Sites and sources hidden deep in the Sundarban, which could have been revealed by expensive and risky expeditions. remained beyond the capabilfly of the , researcher. 1.9 Framework of the Report: The study has been presented in 7 chapters, The present chapter is introductory in nature A focus on historical, socia-political, geographical and geological confext of Bengal Architecture region has been given in chapter 2. The theoretical antecedents required for supporting the Style identmcation process and the conceptual framework with the basic premises for analysing the Early Muslim Architecture of Bengal are given in chapter 3, Chapter 4 describes the factors of evolution and the very dynamics of syncretism active in the Early Muslim Bengal Architecture, Chapter 5 defines the Slyle of Khan-e-Jahan and verifies its potentialities and place in the evolutionary process with detailed case studies of the monuments. In chapter 6 the discussions, information and analysis Of the earlier chapters are resolved into a synthesis 17 for Style Identification and explanation of contextual inward-outwaro in~uel'lCeS.Chapter 7 presents the major findings of the study and recommendations for future research. 1.10 Concluding Remarks: The necessary organizational setup has been framed in thiS chapter and the problems conceming context and inftuences have been identified. The Issues of !he study were noted down within their limitatiOns. These are the issues that the study will concentrate on in the following chapters and the final output of the study will be verified accordingly. First, a thorough analysis of the stylistic and architectural components will be done and then, the results will go through a process of synthesis to develop a holistIC view on the issue An overall conceptual framework has been drown forthe study to proceed to the next chapters. 18 • •••••. ,••••• I , Chapter 02 Bengal; Context for Khan-e.Jahan and his Style 2.1 Introduction 2.2 His/onealcontext 23 The Geo-politio.1 conte>d 2' ClimallcFactOr>l 25 SetllemenlsInBengal 2.6 PMosophlcalseJl'ngsInsoCialcontext 2.7 Cooclud,"gRemarks • Bengal: Context for Khan-e-.lahan and his Style 2.1 Introduction: The centre of Khan-e-Jahan's architectural development is largely constituted by the environment of the jungle areas of Sundarban during the Early Muslim period ot Bengal. The setting of his political and architectural endeavour IS well distributed in the Khulna region, which IS the southern part of Bengal, But, the process of the evolution and the sources of his inspirations perhaps stretch the contextual background to the whole Bengal region and beyond So, the context for hiS Style is a dynamic interrelationship that starts from Bengal, the Indian subcontinent being its backdrop and then narrowing down to Khulna region and finally to the Sundarban area The subjects to be discussed In this chapter includes tOPICSsuchas historical context and Identity of Khan-e-Jahan; geo-poljtical context; the climatic factors; the evolution of settlement patterns in the southern region of Bengal; the philosophical and reljgious sellings 10social context of Bengal at Khan-e-Jahan's time. 2.2 Historical context: 2.2.1 Early Muslim Period of Bengal:' The triumph of Ikhtiaruddm Mohammad Ibne BakMar Khalji over Nadia in 1204 A.D. is generallyassociated with the establishmentof Muslim rule in Bengal', The recorded history of Bengallrom then concentrateson Gour, the Muslim capitai of Bengal, But the fact remains that the eastern part of Bengal, specially the south-eastem region, remained beyond the • fie", the term .•••c.J'm.•• ,..0 ;nsle,d or '••••m'" _so loIam •• "" ,•••• " ""'" thon juot • pel"",,' 0< wlturaI ph"""",""",, Wh" ••• "'''rim, h•••• __ ''''''nd th. WOl1dIolho _~ or cuIlullllJuXllpoo"""" ond oyn_ "' __ oom.xtually. Tho P__ ,he _"",,"0'1' P_ IOd "' •• Orf'W\g"""" •• 1Il.r .,"" ••• pointo/ft> I_~on. ScI.tho 1<>•••'I>Itomlc'I. m"" figiO•••• _" olrfldly '" ''''' ,_. 0/ the •••~.>n. 0. the _ no"", ••• ...", 'M_ """""_ !nO ""nom"" on 2 Koo1m,~ (2001), 8 ••••••• Uwm_....- S/ooohon.Sorol Put<' •••••.•,OIIIlk"-p,'SO 19 Influences of the Muslim rulers for more than a hundred years. Even the defeated Maharaja and his descendents had ruled East Bengal for more than forty years since his retreat from Nadia' The country was known at that time as Lakhnouti (the Muslim name of Nadia, the term 'Bengal' IS of much later date), Ghiasuddin Iyaz Khalji tried to capture East Bengal in 1:227AD and later in 1236 AD. Saifuddin Ibak launched another attack from Lakhnouti but both the attempt failed to achieve the desired success,' In 1300 AD a part of East Bengal came under Muslim rule during Shamsuddin Feroz Shah, the independent Sultan of Lakhnouti. In 1338 A.D. Sultan Fakhruddin Mubarrak Shah declared his independence from Sonargaon (centre of East Bengal) against the central Lakhnouti administration. During th,s period wars between Lakhnouti and Sonargaon (West and East Bengal) were a very frequent phenomena' In 1342 A D. Shamsuddin Illyas Shah became the Sultan and in 1352 A.D. he un~ed Lakhnouti, Shatgaon and Sonargaon to form 'Bengal'. For the first time in history he claimed the ti~e 'Sullan-e- Banglah' instead of Gour or Lakhnoutl. ' He successfully defended his independent country from two major attacks of Deihl: actually the mosquitoes of the marshy land had done the major job tor him.' In the early 15thcentury Sultan Ghyasuddln Azam Shah was in the throne of Bengal. Somewhere In this phase Khan-e-Jahan started participating in the history making endeavours of Bengal. • 2.2.2 Identity of Khan-e-Jahan and his bat;:kgrouncl: The Inscriptions found in Khan-e-Jahan's tomb are the oniy historical record SOfar about him. That ,s why a great deal of controversy exists on the true identity of Khan-e-Jahan. , SO,,), ••,"~ (101'),r.ba'l""-I-Noshl. (Sengllfj "'''''UOOI. B""Il" Aca'om1. 0"'" P.28 ,• "''''' p.2' Kortm, •••••••, ('''0). a""gi,a'""""(S 7 ~rn, Abd"'{l911~), "" CIt P 102 There are some Arabic and Persian inscriptions engraved on the tombstone of Khan-e-Jah,m. In these inscriptions he is addressed both as Ulugh Khan Jahan and Khan AI Azam Khan Jahan. In one oftlle Arabic Inscriplion illS said: • Passed away the feeble slave, the supplicant to the mercy of the Lord of the Univerna, the lover at the children of chlf!f of Prophet ( Mohammad (S1) the sincem to Ihe righteous servants, the despiser of the infldeis and poIytheisl$, the helper of Islam and the Muslims, Khan-a-Jahan (UJugh Khan Jahan). Ifw mercy and forgr.eness (of Allah), be upon him from thiS world to the abode of eternity, on the nighl of Wednesday. 26" Zil-hajja. and was interred on Thurnday, the 27th oflhat month in the year 863AH (25" oct. 1459AD.) nO Another inscription descnbes. "ThiS blessed garden (grave) one of the gardens of heaven is for the exalted Khan (AI Azem Jahan), Khan-Nahan the mercy and pl9;;sure (of Allah) be upon him, It Is wntten on the 2U" ofZH-hajja in the year 863 (25" Oct. 1459 A D.). •.• TMe other inscnptions are In Persian Language and describe different religious advice for lhe common people and the names of Almighty Allah, During this period the independent Sultans ruled this region of Bengal. Many 01 their Prime MlnJsters and the other Ministers were called 'Khan Jahan', For example: Sutton S,I"",lIo' Snah KIlan AI Azam UIU9h MUKhl;sh Khan Sultan Gnlya,uddin Azam Shan Khan AI Azam Khan Jana" Khan JOhan Yaniya Suttan JalallJddln Mullammad ShOh UlIJgll Muajjem Khan Sultan N,sIr Uddin Mallmud Shall Ulugn Khan Jan.n Table 02: Meaning of tile name of Khan-e-Jahan Nom. _.M",,'l!~ Ur1gjDoiWDTd C"mm •• " ~. P""i"" title ,.- uDiv 21 From the meanings of the name of Khan-e-Jahan (Table 02), ~ can be said that lhese were all his trtIes for different posts that he was holding at fhe courts of the Sultans of Bengal. His original name IS s!fll a subject of debaie among scholars. Finding the true polilical identity of this great bUilder is the job of hlstonans but for fhe sake of this study we Will draw an ouliine on the eXisting hypotheses (Table 03) developed by the scholars In this regard: 10 Table 03: Identity of Khan-e-Jahan N•••• " Uoo" , R••••• f•• ~ '- "',•.., •..••.. D.;"';"". Co•••••" N•••• '" "-" _. ,.•••,;,,- ••m;., •• _ 1lIoro" •• ~.~"'"".. ... ,;,., ~.. .- .. , Morn,'",. .,' .. Do'" M~"",d Kojo,""" l- ".•.", G"""" 0' N"""",,h" KoJ~""" 1',,", "ll. ,~-, "- SoJ •••• Mym.",;,gh "'" ,;"" ""'moo "- 'U,,,,,,. ~.,"'...... "" U,,_,,;, %"0' M""""'"". """;'0,1,""",,",'''' "bon',"" ,,,",~,, A=n",~,"r Ko"", •• 00.-- -- h~ 0•• Khoj.> To""," .- (•••• h His original name was Azam Khan, son 01 Saikh A1awal Huq a descendenf of a Meccan Arab 10 KI>oIIo•• Ho"'bo (1&00), op. "'- PI' 2..,.247 " "" •••• , NazI"'''".'. (1S"" 0, til 0,2' 22 and brother of Sufi Noor-i-Kutub who was a very renowned and influential Muslim religious leader, At the beginning of his career Azam Khan was a general of Sultan Ghlyasuddln Azam Shah at Sonargaon in around 1415 AD The SuRan,originally a Persian (Sizistam)", was an educated and cultured person and had friendship with Persian poet HafIZ. He regularly sent handsome amount of money to Mecca for its different development projects, At a stage the Sultan left Sonargaon for Pandua. Here he developed his fascination towards the Sufis of Bengal and started maintaining a very liberal view to the non-Muslims. He even offered high posts in the court to the Hindus. among them Raja Gonesha was one. People at that time used to speak in Bengali and the Admtnistrators used Persian." In 1390 AD. Azam Khan was the provincial governor at Pandua and from this time he became the Khan-e-Jahan" 01Sultanat administration. During Ihis period Khan-e-Jahan musl have been highly influenced by the personality of the Sultan. After the dealh of Sultan Ghiyasuddln Azam Shah in 1410 A.D, his son Baifuddin Hamzah Shah became the Sultan and got killed by a slave Shihabuddin Baijid Shah, who declared himself the Sultan of Bengal, But, Ihe political power remained In the hands 01Raja Gonesha and thus the Early IIlyas Shah Dynasty ended." At that lime Khan-e-Jahan left Pandua and with follower>;and Itliyas Shahi descendents or administration proceeded lowards South Bengal to expand the Mustlm domain He remained loyal to the IIlyas Shah; dynasty and that is why he never declared himself as a Sultan or issued coins in his OWnname. He first settled at Barobazar area and bUilt a central large multi--domedmosque there. His companion, majority of whom were descendents 01Later Illyal Shahl Dynasty settled around, The central mosque at Barobazar, now known as Shat Gachia mosque, is a 35 domed mosque With circular comer turrets which resembles the Shalt Gombuz in many a ways. It has a similar extra dOOrwayin the western wall which suggests " Koom, •••••••••(1099), o~. cit ~.209. "iIl~.,1"213 """"""~h h~ original """. ~ IWom Khan. frnm '•••• Io\l. 01 hi. ""'". """'moo """"",od a. Khoo;.•••• n, Khan-l-Jo •• n. K"'n..,. ",",.n"" _ooty •• Knon.•••• n All, For1l1l._!hO ' ••••• ,noatbod ~"" g_ 'Kha...... mhan' I. la,,,, ••••• n J that it was atso the DarOOrHall of Khan-e-Jahan's administration. Bu~ all the other mosques in Barobazar have octagonal comer turrets in relaijon to the Later IIlyas Shahi Style of Gour. In the mean time Raja Gonesha took over power by killing the slave king and managed to rule for a few months, Sufi Noor-e-Kulub, brother of Khan-e-Jahan'" Invited the SuRanof Jainpur Ibrahim Sharki to over throw Raja Ganesha The SuRanof Jainpur responded to the invitation and obstructed the capital of Bengal Raja Gonesha agreed to convert his son 'Zodu' to islam and handed over the power to him. At the request of Sufi Kutub the disappointed Sultan of Jainpur lell ~engal and a moment after his departure Raja Ganesha again re-<:apturedthe throne. Aller Gonesha his son MOhendradev succeeded him but was over thrown by his brother Zodu. Now Zodu confirmed his conversion to Islam and took the name Zalaluddin Mohammad Shah. He shifted his capital from Pandua to Gour and brought certificate from the 'Caliph' and then declared himself the 'Khallfalullah'. He died in 1433 AD, and hiS son Shamsuddin Ahmed Shah succeeded him but was kiiled immediately,17 With the help of the Amirs Nasiruddln Mahmud Shah, a descendent of Illyas shah Dynasty, took the power tn 1436 A,D, He declared himself as Sultan of Bengal and as well as 'Khalfatullah'. He claimed this title to counter the claim of Sultan Zslaluddin Muhammad Shah". Thus, began the Later Illyas Shah Dynasty in Bengal. An inscription wrth his name has been found in Bagerhat, Khulna, Sullan Nasiruddin Mahmud was a peaceful personality and had never engaged himself ,nwars ,. During this time Khan-e-Jahan in Barobazar became very powerful and got hi9hly involved in the development work of this region. Iv; mentIOnedearlier he was very loyal to the Later Illyas Shahi Dynasty and he had never declared himself as the Sultan, but ruled Independenlly almost like a Sultan. Since at that time the Later IIlyas Shahi Dynasty was again in power at Gaur, probably most of his companions, who were descendents of the Later Illyas Shahi Dynasty, had gone back to the capital,n Gaur, Khan-e-Jahan with his followers, most Ofthem '" HotllbaKn"u"('.00I.Ol'ctt p 2••. " K.~m. _"I (1••• ), 0<1-c compelling reasons for this movement, firstly, he may have apprehended that he will be considered a strategic threat to the Sultan of Gour, secondly, in Barobazar he was out- numbered by the Illyas Shahi descendents and he was seeking more independence and safely with only his converted ~Iowers and finally, his intentions were to expand inhabitable land by clearing the jungle and convert more people to Islam by Involving them in this endeavour, So after 1436 A,D. Khan-e-Jahan settled in the Bagerhat area and ruled thiS area independently to build numerous monuments. Here again, we see thai the monuments were grouped around three major multi- Dome mosque and the last one with a few members around the 6 domed Reza Khoda mosque. The characteristics of the monuments of the last group with octagonal turrets are very similar to thai of the monuments of Barobazar. The use of dual language in his tomb suggests that the religious language of his administration was Arabic but some of his companions used or at least were familiar with the Persian Language lor their daily activities, It might also indicate that a few decedents of Illyas Shahi Dynasty were still WOrkingwith him in Bagerhal Here developed his own indepernlent Style and established a city in Bagemat on rural setting, which was called Khalifatabad at that time"". In 1459 A.D., at a very old age, Khan-e-Jahan died and was buried in a Mausoleum complex at Bagerhat. That " "'" sohol,,, "",mod !hal "''' " "''''''''" ••••• '" ~le 25 2.3 TheGeo-politicalcontext: The history of Bengal is the history of interaction between people and their geographic conditions, Among all the regions 01the Indian sub-continent Bengal aMraysstands alone with her outstanding characteristics and traditions. The hostile nature, mighty great rivers and ftood, inaccessible jungles, vast marshy plain land, uncertainty 01 life.-systems, heanh hazards, mosquijo and long lasting persistent urge for independence, all these traits sprang from the fertile SOilofth,s mystic land. 2.3.1 Topography of Bengal: About 4600 millron years ago india was covered wijh hoi and melted rocks which by passing offime gave form to the Archian rock construction. During this cooling procedure the Bindhya Mountains rose above the sea level In the mlddie region of India. The plateau of the Deccan JSthe oldest part of India, and Ihen the Himaiayas were formed Between the Himalayas and the 8indhya Mountain the Ganges lound her way to lum toward east, to enter Bengal. The Ganges changed her course in Rajmahal, a place al north-west of Bengal and ftowed towards south to meet Ihe Bay of Bengal." The term Bengal refers to a territory Ihat has been defined during Ihe Muslim rule and stretches from the Himalayas in the north to Ihe Bay of Bengal in the south and from the Brahmaputra, the Kangsa, Ihe Surma and the Sajjuk rivers in Ihe east to the Nagar, Ihe Barakar and the lower reaches of the Suvarnarekha in Ihe west The area described above lies roughly between 27°9' and 20"50' north latitude and 66°35' and 92'30' east longitudes. The extent 01 the province excluded the slates of Tippera Cooch Bihar and Sikkim, and the surface area covered by large rivers and estuaries was 77,521 sq miies," Bengal ISthe product of a long process of geographical formation. Widespread marine transgression followed by regression With consequenl uplifts featured ils geologic ",_~kI, iIIl'OtII\Er(''''), ~ydB""lJ'Ido.r., U_""y Ploss limrte responsible for the development 01 the tertiary folded bell of Tripura, Ihe uplift 01 the Shillong massif and Ihe uplift 01the Garo.Rajmahal basement ndge, Zl The large alluvial basIn 01 Bengal is flooded with Quaternary sediments deposiled by the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers and their numerous associated streams and distributors. Bengal is the largest and possibly the most fertile delta of the world it is a land, which is irrigated all through by rivers. Here Ihere are vasl expanses of soft alluvial deposits, which most of the time remains inundaled, The hills that we come across in the Chittagong region are composed mainly of sand though in some places formation of stone may be noticed. Hence, brick, made lorm alluvial soil was naturally the most faVOUrite building malenal lor the people of Bengal, Slone architeclure and making of stalues and representation of objects in the round or reliel by chiselling stone has never been a popular art of the people of Bengal, though sculptures 01 superb craftsmanship were carved oul of imported stone under kingly palronage. II is therefore qurte obvious that Ihe monsoon rains, the rise and fall of river levels, floods, alluvion and diluvion and changes in river courses form the substanoe of both cullural and physical geography of the area 2.3.2 The Strategic position of Bengal in relation to central India: Bengal forms the capstone of the arch formed by the Bay of Bengal, and because of the Tibetan massil to the north and position of inaccessible Jharkhanda Jungle in the south there IS a comparatively narrow ~nd-bridge befween north and east India. The connection with cenlral India is a long narrow corridor along the Ganges plain and the passage is the narrowest near a place called Teligiri. Access 10 Bengal is thus reslrlcted within this narrow passage and Tellgiri is the first frontIer defence post for Bengal.'" Traditionally it is observed Ihal most 01the invaders with their huge mililary force have many a time been driven away by a small number of Bengal frontier guards from this Teligiri point Zl _hOd, H.",u"!. (''''), Ollo Ganges from central India to the southern part of Bengal we will obviously find the noticeable rate of increase of altitude towards achieving political independence from the centre among the rulers of Bengal. 26 (Plate: I) 2.3.3 Khulna, the southern Sengal region: More precisely, Bangladesh stretches latitudinally between 20'34'N and 2so33'N, and longitudinally between 88°01'E and 82"41'E. It is one ql the most crowded rural areas in the world.The region between Jessore and Khulna down to Bagerhat is low and covered with swamps, the population is sparse, and the places suitable for dwellings are the high iands along the banks of the rivers, The river Jamuna, with tts continuation, the Kalindi, the Kholpetua and the Kanadak with their tributaries, all traverse this part of the country and debouch into the Bay of Bengal with numerous tortuous waterways as connecting links between them. 'll In the south, where this tract begins to merge in the Sundarbans, some-areas were cleared up by the p • :,=:.::.-:';.~:;.:~:~~..,.._ -" "'""",,",,Wool Beogal State 800k Iloar 28 • PLATE I Bengal It. topography .-I ahan's centres of activitY '0 • • • • Taken as a whole, Khulna region is a low--jyingcountry occupying the central portion of the southern delta between the Hooghly and the Meghna estuaries, It is intersected by a large number of rivers and estuaries, which again are connected by innumerable inter-lacing cross- channels. Its physical features are much the same as those of other deltaic districts. The country is flat, the surface being only slightly raised abo~e fIood-le~el; the banks of the ri~ers are higher than the adjacent land, so that the land sloping away from them on eijher side forms a series of depressions between thel' courses and there are numerous marshes. The villages cluster along the banks of rivers, bul large tracts are swampy, and the people who culli~ate them are obliged to reside elsewhere. 2,3,4 Sundartlanregion: Further to the south, lie the Sundarbans, a desolate tracI oniy 12 to 30 Inches above high tide level, in whK:hthe slow process of land making has not yet ceased.:!>This tract is intersected throughout by iarge rivers and estuaries, running from north to south, These are connected with each other by an intricate series of branches, and the latter in their tum by innumerable smaller channels, so that the whole tract ISa mesh of water-ways, enclosing a large number of islands of ~arious shapes and sizes. In Todarmal's assessment, thiS area was left unmentioned. In Shah Shuja's (1658) re~ision of Todarmal's original settlement of 1582, a new Sarkar was introduced to co~er the Sundarban tracts, In Aln-i-Akbari, this area is described as the 'BhattI or 'ebb tide land', This is the earliest reference to this' ban' area,29 Nearly half of the region In the south is co~ered by thick forest of mangroves, canes, creepers and olher trees thriving on muddy saline tidal banks. The Eastern boundary of the Sundarbans is formed by the ri~er Haringhata or the Baleswar and the Western boundary is formed by the river Ralmangal and the Haria Bhanga foITTIingthe border line of Bangladesh wijh West Bengal, Tile forest extends beyond Raimangal into West Bengal (India) up to the " Iloohl~,~•• "" E, {1991J. 29 estuary 01Ihe Hooghly, The Southern boundary 01Ihe lorest is the Bay 01Bengal. No defin~e line can be given for Ihe northern boundary because as the dena formation goes on: men push further southward to culli~ate the fertile allu~tOn. At any given time, therefore, Ihe Sundarban, geographically speaking begins where culti~ation ends, Howe~er, the length from the coasl running inland ~anes lrom 60 1080 miles, At prasenl, Ihe northern boundary 01the SUndarban is the northem boundary of the Go~emment forests"The total area of Ihe forests of the Sundarban in Bangladesh is 2,316square miles.'" 2.4 Climatic Factors VI.1 Bengal, Climatically Bengal falls within the monsoon zone. The excessi~e monsoon rain, ~arying between 70 to 100 inches in a year is the highest in the sub- continent which falls between June and September; excessi~e humidity a~eraging well o~er 80% is a permanent feature of life in this country." This phenomenon facilitates the rapid growth of the wild ~egetation and poses senous threat to any structure abandoned to the mercy of nature, Moroo~er the de~astating earthquake in 1897 was responsible for the obliteration of most of the historical monuments of Bengal. This is why, little remains 01any ancient architecture ISto be found anywhere in this region, For the people 01 Bengal, life IS a constant struggle against ~iolent storms, rain and thunder. Each year a large number 01 huts and houses are washed away by the mighty currents of the raging n~ers The land reformation in, thiS region has no sense of stability or permanence about it The dwelling house or building constructed on the soft and unstable soil of this land IS mherently weak and as such does not last ~ery long. As a result the people tend to build their houses on little mounds, raised abo~e the le~el of normal flood, The sky almost through the year remains cloudy, which causes glare to the eye and Ihat is why buildings are constructed with projections o~er the openings to limit •'~~Pl',~, " I"'" pp <:1-73, the field of ~ision down' to the green landscape. This also helped to protect the built en~ironment form damaging effects of heavy rainfall. The extensive monsoon rain encourages the growth of wild vegetation. Once a building has fallen into a state ot neglect it is quickly over grown by heavy foliage and this plays ha~oc with iis structure. Especially damaging is ihe Banyan tree. which hoids the building in its fatal grip, like on octopus until ihe siructure is torn apart NO traces of ancient architecture is to be found anywhere in this region. This is because the buildings constructed wilh earthen brick failed to withstand the onslaughts of rainy weather and shifting nature of sOil for long The changing course of rivers is almosl a regular phenomenon the floods cause extensive damage and destruction to crumble away almost all the old buildings of this country. '" 2.••.2 Kllulna and Sundarban region: The distinctive feature of tile climate of thtS region is the saR iaden air tllroughoutthe year specially when the winds blow from the sea, In the extreme south, air is ~ery wet and generally unhealthy The winter sets in the beginning of December and lasts !iii the middle of Febl1.Jary,Theseare cool months with a prevailing north-wesl wind and heavy dew at night. The maximum and minimum mean temperatures during the winter season vary /rom 79.9'F and 58.3°F respectively" From the middle of February the sun's rays begin to intensr!y, heat up the land but fail \0 affect the stable sea to the same extent. The land air then becomes holler and Ifghterthan the sea air, and as it rises a current of air from the sea I1.Jshesupin the form of the salty southe~y winds which prevail from February till the monsoon breaks In The _alher becomes very hot in April and continues to be so !III the middle of June. when the temperature is lowered by the setting in of the monsoon. During this dry summer (i.e, from March to June) the maximum and minimum mean temperatures are from 96.Q"F and 76.S'F respectively, '" 31 2.5 Settlements in Bengal 2.5.1 Rural Settlements The most noteworthy fact concernmg the economic life of ancient Bengal is the preponderance of rural life, and their settlements. From the commencement of the historical period. these seem to have always dominated the landscape of this province, The people established themselves in villages. and organized their lands, the fields, meadow and woodlands to serve their essential needs. Broadly speaking. they appear to have been of one unilorm pattern. For as la' as available eVidence Indicales Ihey were usually of the nucleated type, not of the single farm Iype,"" The fural population lived in compact groups and not in widely scattered habitations, to adapt to an agrarian system in which cultivation prominently figures. Inscriptions further reveal that villages usually consisted of certain well-defined parts. They are'G a) Vasfu. the habitat b) Kshelra, agricultural land c) Go.chara. Natural meadow land. Usually located at the corner of the village (gramas) along the, boundaries, d) gaffa/nala, pits and canals for drainage. e) Ushara, barren tracts f) go-parha/go-marga. catlle tracts. g) pafha-path, It is thus clear Ihat the various type of land attached to the village were not only distinguished and classified from the point 01 view of their usefulness to man. but were organized for exploitation according 10certain systems and customary practices so as to best satisly human needs. 2.5.2 Urban Settlements Although Bengal was primarily a land of villages (gramas). towns or urban settlements were by no means rare. References can be made to a large number of these towns as known from epigraphic and literary evidences. It is not impossible that few towns might have been primarily brought into being by administration or political reasons but contemporary evidence proves that they were often emporiums of trade beSIdes being political centres, Further, an analysis of the sites and positions occupied by the ancient towns of Bengal shows that they were of such a geographlcal character that they could be utilized as nodes or centres of routes by iand or by water. Both literary and epigraphic evidences make It clear that whereas the rural population was mainly dependent on the soil and its produce, the towns. although not perhaps wholiy divorced from agricultural functions, lended to serve some or all of a wide variety of functions: commercial, industrial, political Judicial and military." 2.6 Philosophical settings in social context 2.6.1 Development of Ideas in Bengal: The Vedic School", The Vedic SamMas have completely ignored Bengal and the single Brahmana text, probably also an Aranyaka, that refer 10 Its peoples do so in disparaging lerms, Even the later work Bodhayana Dharmasutra regards lhe country as altogether outside the lerritory of VediC culture. Due to the absence of positive eVidence we cannot admit that the Aryan culture made much headway in Bengal. The " Rol. AaI•• K•••••••.(191!~),110"9' _._ Song" '" til. ""'otfpIioIl Of_ h-.ller.l (5th '" 1'1" e."w,y). _,,_. c.lc 38 Roy."loy ('''7). """""" _ ~~ MIl , 80"9'"_""'. 0•••••.PI'-23--ll5 33 linguislic and elhnological evidence renders it highly probable Ihat Bengal was till then mostly populaled by non-Aryan races,"" It is difficult 10 assign preCise dates bul Bengal musl have come inlo intimate contact with the Aryan culture by Ihe monks and warriors of the middle counlries by Ihe 4" cenlury BG. After thaI, as always happens, the primitive cullure of Bengal was profoundly affected by the impact of a superior civilizalion and we possess very little knowledge of Ihe old religions, failhs and beliefs During the Gupta period the new form of Brahmanism had already laken deep roots in the minds of people. The Vedic gods had mostly disappeared and Iheir places were taken by new diVinities whom we call Puramc. The then gods were Vedic in name but had no conneclion wilh Ihe Vedic rituals; Ihey belong 10 Ihe mythOlogy of the ep'cs and Puranas. At Ihe last stages of Hinduism, during the Sena rule, a strong and orthodox class system was introduced to society In Ihe name of Brahmanism in Bengal. This forceful intervenlion to the very nalure of Ihe local people gave rise to philosophical crisis in the society of Bengal ii. Jainlsm: This is the first philosophICal revolt against Ihe orthodox class or caste system of Hinduism, According to the writings of Ihe Jains. Mahawa personally vlsiled west Bengal but was not favourably received Ihere. This religKln was established in Pundravardhana during the reign of Awka. There was a Jain vihara at Paharpur in Ihe 4'" century BG. Bul, after the 7"' century AD, during the Brahmanical sena Kings. this reiigion had almost disappeared form Bengal. 11'- Buddhist SchoolS: Another classless religIOusphilosophy developed almost parallel to Jainism. There IS no definite eVidence as to the lime when Buddhism first gained Influence in Bengal. But during the period of Asoka Buddhism was established in this area, In the ath century the Palas Bengai experienced the golden period of Buddhism. But at that time the influence of Buddhism was almost wiped away form Ihe rest of the India From 8'" to 12'. century AD Buddhism In Bengal went through many a changes and alteration. During the emergence of the SeM'S and the introduction of class system, the classless phliosophic religions like Jainism and Buddhism were suppressed and wenl out 01 royal patronlzation. Offshoots from Mahayana, a school of Buddhism, had developed in Bengal in the forms of mysticism known as nmtra; they dealt with certain deeper metaphysical problems and wrote mystic poems in oldest form of Bengali (called the Charyapada. found in Nepal in 19" century) 2.6.2 Introduction 01 Islamic SchOOl ofthoughl: Introduction of Islam in Bengal region is a multi-dimensional phenomenon. An integrated and continuous efforts of political, economic, social and cultural endeavour, Any phenomena or Architectural development during the Early Muslim Period of Bengal is a direct outcome of this major socio-poli~cal activity. The scholars In this field have developed different theories for explaining this social change in relation to the settings of the whole Indian subcontinent. More recent approaches concentrate on the very k>calcontextual factors and the geo-political ac~vities of the life-system in Bengal. Among the most preliminary thernies, the noteworthy ones are:" i. Sword Theory: the theory slre!;ses on the forced conversion of tha locals by a bunch of Invaders, Although very popular. this theory fails to explain the higher rate of conversion in the sub-urban and !mntier regions: for example areas like $undarban region in Khulna. •• "'~h)"O, Sm.oI1ch..,dro('901), SI>oIttiRong> _""". An.,d. ",",,,.,,,•.• Pvt U,Leo""",, PI'""""' . •• .••••m.A_", (2001). Bongl",blIlm81"'"Tottyo.Pu~"","""'"8~ ••••_ Sc<*IyJoomaJ, V"'19, """ ',Jun. 200',"0,,,.'$4 " il. Polltlcal Patronage theory: according to this theory the conversion mainly occurred by econom,c and politICal patronization of the ruling Muslims In a way. the theory can explain the concentration of converted locals around the Muslim author~ies. But, on the other hand, can hardly put any light on the frequent employment of Hindu Officials in the Muslim admlnistratKln or on the different rates of conversion during the Eariy Muslim phase and the later Mughallmperial phase. iii. Social liberation Theory: as e~plained earlier in th,s chapter, there was a philosophical crisis going on in the last slages of Pre-Muslim period, Orthodo~ Class systems were introduced to SOCfety by the ruling Bhahmanical Kings and the BuddhiSts, Jains and the Sahajiyas were under serious political and social pressure. On these settings, the Muslims along with their classless philosophy of Islam were considered as agents of hberty by the suppressed local Inhabitants of Bengal. iv. Persuasion TheOl'Y: the theory Implies that mtssoonaryactiv,bes of the Muslim saints (I,ke pir, sufi, faior etc.) persuaded Ihe local people to convert to Islam, But why this persuasion was more effective in the deltaic plain of Bengal than any other part of the Ind,an sub--continentis still a subject of research, More recent theories try to explain the phenomena through an understanding of multi_ dimensional and conte~tual approach, they are: v. Syncretistic ThllOry: Islam in this region was established through the arduous effurts of the 'Cultural Mediators'. The piTS,sufis, poets and fakiTS In thiS region acted as mediators to popularise Islam. In an environment of both philosophical and political crisis, in a land of uncertainty, they introduced themselves as a group of saviours. They brought order in society, gave status to the lower castes and classes, acted as social oovisors and most of all were involved in the development of cultivable land, So, the outcome was a 'syncretism' between the 'Great Trad~lon' of Islam and the 'little Tradition' \ , of local culture, The 'Models' 01the 'Great Traditions' were synthesised with the 'Little Tradition' and as a result some New Traditions evolved In the life system 01Bengal.•' vI. Frontler theory: Bengal was considered a frontier zone during the Early Muslim period. As an active delta, the land In this region is always in a developing stage. People from the older moribund datta areas, where land is nol that fertile, migrates in huge number to this southern region. Bengal was the lenninus or ~st lim~ of this line of migration. The Muslim missionaries in this region were Involved in two levels of activities in this region. At the first level they bum numerous mosques, tanks, roads and other monuments and simultaneously they were pioneers 01proclaIming cultivable land by clearing jungles. In this way they were very successful in becoming not only religious but also economic leaders of the local people. So. colonisation, Incorporation and natural population growth are the msjor factors in the esfablishment of Islam in Bengal. v;;. Local Pel1!lonality .theory: Bengal from the ancient period shown her urge for remsining Independent. both culturally and pollt,eally, from central or Northern India, People living in this land of uncertainty and rivers of unpredictable mood basically are less orthodox in nature. So, from HindUism people converted themsewes to more progressive Buddhism; and then in the same process to the more litleral and progressive ideals of Islam. v;;I. Open ViJlag. theory: the settlement patterns of the villages of Bengal region are anthropologically defined as less corporate and opened type The administration of the villages was in the hands of the Brahmins, an untouchable class of society was not very structured and economically independent. Social order here was thus very lose and ineffective. Moreover, due to the hostile nature of the environment the villages were very weak and • • less powered &leial units. So, the conversion to Islam was in a way easier than in other regions of the Indian sulH;ontlnenl. The processes of introduction of Islam in this southem regIOn of Bengal mark a major SOClO- economic activity by the Muslims. The arcMectural Style developments during thaI period in this region, especially in Khulna, are obviously influenced by the process. 2.7 Concluding Remarks: Khan--e-Jahan was one of the pioneers of the Muslim missionary in this region. Along with him he brought new Ideals models and long experience of cu~ural exchange." Here in this region he tound not only a nature hostile to any development but a group of people courageous enough to struggle and sustain with bare minimums From them he has learnt the beauty of continuing, the excellence of austenty, Moreover. the general inaccessibility to Bengal region gives it a natural protection against any invasion, and here in Sundarban Khan--e-Jahan found an even more secured place and time of construction, independently away from any central control or strategic threat Khan-e-Jahan was a warrior and got h,mself involved in the arduous life-strugg~ of the locals at this frontier line of the expanding human activity. Even today, he Is considered as a personality of a 'Muslim Saint or Pi,' among both the Hondu and Muslim commumties This respect he has earned by establishing strong centres on which the locals could depend on and this strength is the underlying motive lor the expressions of his Style .•• To sum up, the confidence of polilical independency; the syncretism of Worid Muslim model and local open type non.urban context; the hostile nature; the strength of austerity for life- struggle and the characteristic feature of frontier expansion are the most influenCing factors in the development of Khan--e-Jahan Slyje "Haq••• Muh,m ••• d En,mu' {'075), A""""'Y"'StJII.-I>m ifl8efIgoI.A,lde _oty of IIon,g'••••• P", .•• A ••••• '". Abu' F•••• -... JaInUI ••••••• {''''). /1 Theoretical Antecedent: Conceptual framework of Bengal Style Identification 3,1 Irni'Oduotion 3.2 Sementicapproachofthe Bengal Slyl. 3.3 polenll.ll~es of Eerty Muslim 6eogel Style 3,4 Conoludir>gReman•• Theoretical Antecedent: Conceptual framework of Bengal Style Identification 3.1 Introduction Before getting into the central focus olltle study that is to Identify the Khan-e-Jahan Style, the basIc conceptuai framework for stylistic evaluation ISClearlychalked out in this chapler. The monumenls of Khan--e-Jahanwere ereeled during th", Early Muslim period of Bengal history. Muslim architecture in Bengal has gone through different distinctive phases of devtllopment. In this chapler a proper and effective framework of understanding is deveioped for the evaluation of the architectural Styles of these periods. The dynamics of th'is evoiutionary development phases is better understood by their stylistic profiles studied in rela~on to their context and Influences. Here the Early Muslim Bengal Styles as a whoie are analysed w~h respect to the components of the term 'Style', The strength, influence and potenMiWes are also evaluated with respect to the functional diversity and structu",llevels of Ihe Style itself. 3,2 Semantic approach of the Bengal Style 3,2.1 The terms of Style: For determining the styllshc charactenshcs of Bengal a semantic approach' is adopted in both the use of terms and components of arch~ecture. As menhoned 1n the earlier chapter, a study in this field from architectu",1 point of view is very rare Moreover, the research conducted, in spite of their excellence as documentation or hlstoricai accounls, iacks in definite scientific clarifications in the use 01terms and their associated meanings. One semantic analysis of a quoted paragraph for earlier studies will certainly pin point the problem in this pursu~. A. H. Dam, the pioneer and perhaps the best researcher in this field, , _ I, 111.ocIonoo Of 'rne"",Olg',a """"mp 39 has explained his approach for the selection of evaluating Bengal Muslim architecture in the following words "If architecture Is an expression of human wiN in brick and mortar 10 CJ'8818somWting sublime - some thing to express his distinctive genius on the canvass of nature whiGh is ever ready to merge him within har lap - it is neoossary that the architectural forms are studied and ~ appreclal8d against the demands of ioc There are mainly three groups of terms used in this quotation, they are:' 1 Terms, associated with the emotional and aesthetic state of a subject (of both the writer and the reader), like: expressIOn; 2. Terms, associated w~h the very understanding of process of continuity, like' s/yie, evolutionary process and contexl. Terms, associated with architecture like, form; e/amenls, buildings and monuments. The legendary study on Bengal Architecture by Dam was published about 40 years ago, During this long four decades the meanings associated with these terms musl have changed conSiderablydue to the change of the soclo--eulturalcontext and developments in the theories of architecture itself. Moreover. the meanings associated to the emotional state vary largely even among the contemporary scholars and rtwill not be a matler of surprise if Ihe number of Ihe meaning of these arcMeclurallerms coincides with the number of architects in the field. , lIOn, Ahmod fla•• n (' 0111),"" ~, 0 , (the """', •••• "" tho ! 40 The detailed glossary of terms and lheir meanrng for this particular study is prepared to counter this problem of IdenbficationOfthe Style in this sludy. Wherever in lhis study a term is used maintains the meanmg provided here, 3.2.2 Sallo(:onllCiou$ process and context:' Anotl1er aspect of the monuments of Early Muslim Bengal archileclure is considered in this study; the true archilectural aspect of the design thought process. How have these designs and their constructions been perceived: how were these spaces expanded from individual understanding to colleclive acceptance: how were tile places and the elements of architecture determined, how did lhe fealures enriched lhe overall space and form are all the questions that are raised and dissolved by the semantic architectural interpretation and the meaning of the Style. Orthodox contextualism, taking behaVIOUrismasorigin, stresses the influences 01the physical settings of a phenomenon, it considers setting as the only guiding principle for any analysis; but after the seventies wijh the publlcabon of philosopher-linguist Chomsky's 'Syntaclic Structures' 5, cognitive and stylistic meaning has come to the limelight as an effective interpreter Context in this study does not reter only as a setting to the bUildings bul more as a feedback of the mental process of the desfgners" , ••'••• nd••.•Crimp •••. (1Oil4I.IIofM.""rh. Sy"!II~••" ofFcfm, H'MlI. un"""",, P"''', combr'l"" P 6.\. S ""'d, Hnn••mn 1""1. ,",,,,,,,,,,,,,.A•• m, P",,"cotlDnS,Oha',- ,,>5 • Palm••.•Jony •••• 000'0", IOn ('""oll, """,,".ed AMI."""", Routl••••• ,"""on & N_ Yo'" PP,"'_73 I- " ••••• 3.3 Potentialities of Early Muslim Bengal Style: 3.3.1 Me~ningof the term 'Style': Words are like symbols: they point beyond themselves; they mean something. Words mean the thing they make us think of and are the tie that connects us with that thing. Words, in fact, are Ihe chief media of human communk:ation, and the formal meanings provide us with the dIctionary meaning which clearly shows the link involved between words and what they signify Then the meaning of a Style fs understood by the components that consmute it.7 In this process the meaning of the term 'Style' is determined and used for the stylistic identification of architecture In this study The meanings are directed to refer to the fol!owings:' a. Appearance: Outward form as perceived. b. Form: Conceptual elements made visible through spece and mass. o. Manner' The way a thing is done or happens d. Skill' Ability 10use knowledge effectivefy in doing something. e Wrry of designaling The process or series of slages in design, /. Mode of living: Seale of living, , Sty" ISla" ~n. , "'od 0' """ e,~In _'" '" .ppo ••.•n Sty,. n 1M' _, '1yI., fi L .1>1«.,,"e, ""m, ",'u', ,ty,. of wO"""" perin, ";n Ie L ;n StyI. - . Ih. Ram,,", """'" on ••.•_ '"0'"" "Uh • ,h"""",,","," Instrum",,' COl'" ""'" and •.•• ~ever "mllnuen~, '" """ day honol& • Abo",,,,,,,.", Slonlo)' 11~lI<),An:IIn''''tlJf!'MM. flo""" & Row, P'''~hO''',•••••YO 42 3.3.2 Components of Early Muslim Bengal Styles: To determine the identifying characteristtcs of a Style its constrtuent components are needed to be anelyzed separately, The concept, approach, form and content of Style differentiate it from the other predecessors and contemporaries Then the functional diversrtias and structural levels assign its potentialities and place in the stream of evolution of Style development. Style of the Early Musilm Bengal is a complex cuRural phenomena and Architectural Styles involve even more complex factors derived bofh from aesthetic and technical fields It developed through the syncretic dialect between the Models of Muslim Archtfecture and the Pre-Muslim context, The components of these Styles are deSCribedbelow:' The Concept: The concept of Style has aspects like intentions of the builder and is used by different sdences, including literarily criticism, art criticism, lingUistic, the history of culture, aesthetics and architecture '0 At the beginning of Muslim ruie in Bengal the polittcal center of this sut>- continent was Delhi. So, naturally the infiuences of World Muslim Architecture came to Bengal through an interpretaflon of the Delhi Imperiaiist Architecture That ISwhy most of the scholars while identifying the ,nfluences on Bengal Architecture has frequently referred to the then contemporary Delhi Styles, Apparently the references sound very logical buf unfortunately in most of fhe cases they fail to describe the phenomena that were occurring in this region. Historically during a large porlion of the Early Muslim period the relation of the Muslims of Bengal was very hostile wrth that of the Delhi centre. But, they always maintained a cultural, political or at least sp;rdualconnection to the centre of World Muslim CIVilisation,the Mecca and the seat of the Caliph. So, Archetypes generated by the World Muslim Architecture had also profound mfluences on them. Through conceptualisation of the , "","", v,"" (' 00'), op. ""- "" '50.'55. " """""",Rog'" ('070), 1JtOAos/ItOUc,"'M:Ji1l«ttHO, MeltJ which dlsllnguishes ,t from olhers. ii. Th. approach: The approach to style determines the goal of a creation - to affect the reclplenl In a certain way - the ultimate achievemenl of the endeavour. By virtue of Ihe principle of feedback, this goal influences the whole process of creating a styllsllcally expressive work and its future functioning The approach of Early Muslim Bengal Style was to create an impact on the local seltlng using the available spirilual and physical resources of the context. iiI. Fann and Content: Style in architecture is neither form, nor contenl, nor even their unity. Style reletes to form, content and their unity as the "form" and .content" 01a liVing organism relate to a set of genes In its cell. The genes determine the organization of a given being, its charactenstics as an indrv>dualand a member of a certain family and species, and its type as a whole" The raglonal traditions of 8engal Muslim Architecture formed individual units by themselves, and they express the aspirations 01a group of people faced with a common problem of life. The builders here had alluVlal day of very fine texture as raw building material and a tradition 01 buildmg with brick. Stone like black basalt is very rare in Ihls region and had to be Imported from Rajmohol Hills Sandstone and granite though very rare were collected from 8ihar. Lime as mortar or plaster was never used In Early Muslim phase. Moreover, the indigenous construction system of bamboo structure might have had a profound impression on the builders or at !east on the craftsmen who actually built them. When these combine to make Ihe larger whole, the individuality is never sacrificed. It is the realisation of a wider and happier cultural sphere thai knits the regional units into a common bond of human activity Moreover, the regional seltlng where the SiteSwere surrounded by jungles also determined the scale and details of the monuments. 11 .•••••••, F,"""I (1ga.). Form "oI As a fae;lor of Ille creetive pror:ess' The arcMecture of Early Muslim Bengal Is predominantly of Bamboo Style, the main inspiration of the creative process comes from technique which is then transformed Into beauty. ii. As a factor of evolutIOn. This period of Bengal Architecture marks the transformat,on of grandeur scale of World Muslim model to the Int,mate scale of Bengal hut. iii. As a factor of tile socio-cultural and cllmallc bemg' The development of curved cornice, use of terracotta details both as decoration and climatic protection. stone facings and damp proof courses all are responses to local culture and climate. iv As a fae;lor of tile mfluence exerted by irs expreSSIOns. The phase of early Muslim Bengal settled the form of origin of Bengal Architecture once and lor all; the forms are appreciated by the local people, The Mughal, and even the Hindus of later period in the hiStoryof evolution of Bengal Architecture." 3.3..4 The structuraltevel" of Early Muslim Bengal Style: The complex structure of Style, which has many levels, reflecting the designer's integral personal~y, his intent, the characteristic features of the trend and the entire cultural hentage which has formed the basis of his work. Level one; The deepest "generalive" levei of Style: Brick arcMecture IS the frrst level of motive for Ihe development of Bengal architecture The alluvial clay of very fine texture is the source of inspiration for these Styles, Level two: The national stylislic compollfjnts: the origin of form of Early Muslim Bengal architecture ISthe Bamboo huls of th's region. "Tho"",,,,00", ~~"""'Y •• poet dele"""." Iho"""",, of•• 'Y,.1t>"'" as 0 '$'1".' by two centred arches and the alternalive recesses all of Bamboo origin becomes the representattve identifying charactel"1>01 the Early Muslim monuments" Level four Matured mdlVlduallty of Slyle: These Bengal Styles for the first time in the history Introduced the Chouchala and Dor::halabrick roof system over the monuments. Level five Slyle oflhe epoch, The use of exposed brick and terracotta in the interior and exter'or of the monuments of the Early Muslim Bengal Style is not only the identifying character of that phase of Bengal architecture but aiso ltIe aesthetic lile-outlook of the soil. That is why. when the Impenal Mughal Styles with their plastered surfaces were introduced in this region the architecture of exposed brick and terracotta becomes source of inspiration for all the Hindu temples for once and for ail 3.4 Concluding Remarks: A structured semantic analysis for evaluating the Bengal Style has been done in thiS chapter. The term 'Style' has been pm-pointed to a constant and Independent meaning. Then the components like concept. approach, form and content: the functional diversity and structural level 01 Early Muslim Bengal Style have been discussed to determine ~s strength and potentialities as a Style in the evolutionary process The analysis shows that the Early Muslim Style as a whole conceptualiy maintained spir~ual connection to the world Muslim centre of consciousness through Archetypes; the approach of the Style was towards creating an impact through. its form and content. The Bamboo Style reduced from grand monuments to small huts secures Its place at the highest level 01 Styles of the epoch. In the next chapter this evolution ,s further elaborated with individual Styles of Early Muslim Bengal discussed in relation to the process of syncretism and components of Style, 15 IlIIIIm_'o, F.rlol (1~1, O"Ungul'hing "'otu"" or _quo A_m or _"""",I Pen,," or _., .nd ••••Ir in"""""" 00 8"'-"'.01 A",h!lecttJraI OO'ltOlopmont,Joo••• lolA"a"" -.o!y 0/8••••_, Hum" Vo,.,. No" Jooe 1~,. ~p 81-114, Chapter 04 Style Evolution of Bengal Architecture Introduction ..," Backdrops 01 Syncretism .., ons.t of Syncretl5m " Coocluding Remarks - Style Evolution of Bengal Architecture 4.1 Introduction Architecture IS an expression of ideals sUited to socio-eultural needs of man Muslims have erected monuments allover the world. What all these buildings had in common was their inner architectural vocabulary - the Muslim Architectural Archetype. Bul, the transformahon of one type of building from one climate to another and to new building materials forced the builders to confront with some obvious problems. So they consclOusly developed a new vocabulary - the 'Bengali Muslim Style' sUitableonly to the local context of this region The religion of Islam provided such an Ideal to its followers and that alone governed the;r life in its entire sphere. But these buildings are not governed by any canon of laws to be found directly in Ihe Holy Qur'an, bul they follow a tradition of buildings which the Muslims have developed In course of time' Hence they should be called Muslim ArcMecture (Instead of mOrerigk! religion dictated term "IslamiC' or narrowly termed 'Saracenic"j ThiS chapter discusses how the new SOCialdynamiCS,new spring of ideas, new aesthetic currents of an introduced religion came together in Ihe local context to bring about Ihe Syncrel~m, a special language of claSSICismthat can be learned and used With a certain freedom. it is a study of part of the transformation of one social a!tllude by anolher and prolonged crisis of responsibility and identity, The buildings described here are fascinating and as well as beautiful. They mark a point of development of our culture, a developmenl sllll in the process of resolution. Muslim archllecture of Bengal broadly falls into two cl1ronologlcal phases'> 1. Early Muslim Phase 2. Mughal Phase 1 ~II, A.K.II, Y"ub (1••• ), ","""mArdtiIo Bengal and references will be drawn to lhe laler Mughal Styles only to mark the differences and establish lhe specialities of th,s penod Moreover. some references are directed towards the development ot the ArcMecture during the Mughal period to establish the continuity of infiuences of the earlier phase 4.2 Backdrops of Syncretism 4.2.1 Muslim Architedulll Archetype:' In the semantic aspects of Muslim Architecture Archetype, the doctrine of Arab characler hold Its significance for much from the time of the Caliphs and onwards Within the code they offered such major alternatives as, 1 Complex models 2 Independent models The other minor alternatives are: 3. Fortified frontier struclures (ribBts and qasrs) 4. Hunling lodges and 5. Utilitarian structures (like bridges, watch towers etc,) with direct or indirect acceptance ot the Muslim Ideals, i. Complex Models: ThiS Model was generated in the densely populated urban areas of lhe Muslim world These structures were built 10 meet the tunctions of palace, mosque, madrasa, caravanserai, bath or privale dwelling; al different times and in different places, The prominent example of thiS phenomenon is the four-Iwan courtyard structure of Cenlral AsIa and Iran, which is also found In other parts of the Muslim world. The major charactenstrcs of lhls Complex Models are as follows: a. Archetype: The Model is closely related to the concept of an 'Archetype', where a typical architectural form is constantiy in use Irrespective of the specific functions. These buildings do nol automatically reveal the function it serves by its form. The design is not to serve a particular purpose, but is an abstract and 'perfect. scheme , Mlmo". Goocg, (•• ) I'"") 00 ~ po. 11.14 48 Ihat can be used for a great variety of functions without any difficullies. The strenglh 01this preconceived 'absolute' scheme can best be demonstrated by the monumental four-iwan plan for the mosqulHTladrasa of Sultan Hasan in Cairo', fitted inlo an irregular site thai is singularly unsuited for il. b, Adaptablllty: Generally, the Compklx model hide tis principal features behind an unrevealing extenor. Us forms do not change according 10 funclional demands but rather tend 10 adapt funclions to the preconceived forms. which are basically Ihe contmned intemal spaces. c Non-axiality: The bUildings rarely adopl an Inherent directional or axial quality The actual physical direction of a building is often different from Its functional direction, The visitor wllo enlers Ihe courtyard of a mosque is drawn atongslde the prayer hall, down Ihe width of Ihe courtyard. This is often at right angles to the true metaphysical 'direction' as indicated by the mihreb, d Organic growth This lack of Indlcalion of a direction or focus is also c1aarly expressed in the asymmetric balanced composition between the various parts of a building complex Additions to an anginal plan are governed by an inherent principle condilionlng all parts in an equal manner. Pure symmetric balanced schemes like four-iwan plans may be explained as being a pre-Islamic, Central Asian or Iranian concepl adopled by the Muslims But much more important is the d,ssolution of this original symmetric plan within the tolallty of an archilectural complex, lis absorption inlo a number of additional slructures which accumulate around the original design. eventually engulfing it completely. The Friday Mosque of Isfahan, with ils long and complex bUilding history spanning almosl a millennium, is a perfect example of this prinCipleof organic growth e, Brutal Irregul~rity. The very possibility of enlarging a given structure in any ', ..- "" direction by adding units of almost every conceivable shape and size to the original scheme,' totslly disregarding the form of the original structure, is a differentiating characteristic of Muslim architecture. Its most impreSSive manifeststion occurs in Muslim palaces, a setting where financial, legal or other material conslderallons csnnot ever have been the cause for the Incredible 'irregularity' of planning (e.g. the Topkapi palace, Istambul, or Fatehpur Sikri, India)' f. Unarticulated exterior Another principle ot this Complex Model IS its almost undecorated and unarticulated exter;ors Even where articulated exterior surface do appear, they have little relationship to the Interior organization of the building, ThiS disregard for the outside appearance of structure is otten developed to the extreme whereby even a monumental structure in an urban context is completely hidden by secondary adjacent buildings or a bazaar, That ISwhy these buildings can hardly be understood by its exteriors (Plate' II) ii Independent Models: A number at building-types were espedally developed for the non-urban context, although they trequently appear within the city as well. The major characteristics of this type of Model are, a Isolation: The caravanserais are generally situated in tile open country side along the prindple travel routes and the monumentsl tombs appear as isolated monuments Wlthina proper cemetery When the mausoleums or monumental tomb commemorate an Important personage; its very function as a commemorntive structure makes 'visibility' and physicsl Isolahon imperative, These isolated monuments had their Origin in the 'Dome of Rock', stsnding alone on its plafform and viSible from all sides, based entirely on pre-Islamic models,. The formal architectural vocabulary of this monument is that of the vanquished, not that of victors. • MI""oll, GoO'll" (od.) (1978) "" dl P ••. o H.II •••b•••• , _n111Wll), 1m""" Art _nO A 11_' 1 " .Ii! • independent model Dome of Rock Jerus.lem,&85-92A D. Complex model / PLATE lI(b) World Muslim Architectural Archetype independent model Humayun's Tomb Delhi.1565AD b. Local Conten, Basically these non-urban models consequenUy show the cuMu•.••1expression of the local contexltrom which they are derived. They bear the outcome of the World Muslim Model with constant and maximum use of pre-Muslim or non--Muslln characters produced by the process of syncretism 4.2.2 Ordering principles of Muslim Architecture: The basic ordering principle of Muslim philosophy depends upon seeing numbers and fogures as key to the structure of the cosmos and as symbols of archetypal wOOd and also a world which is viewed as the creation of God in the sense of monotheism. The internal intellectual universe of Islam propagated by the Muslims developed a school of mathematiCS in parallel to the Pythagorean-Platonlan tradition The geometry of the Muslim designers metaphysical and cosmological principles are embedded inherenlly. The mathematical basis of the Muslim ordering principles largely depends upon the most primary moves of geometry The first level of gene of ali fonns in Muslim Architecture is thus a circle formed by exlernlzation of the unfolding centre- the point.' In a generative stage these circles produce the square fonn, the symbol of 'Purity'. Interaction between the square, the circle and the space in-between is the basic and most emphasised order that have been practiced among the archrtects, designers and craftsmen through out the Muslim Wo~d. (Plate III) 4.2.3 Pre-Musfim Archiledunil Tradlllons of Bengal: Bengal has a rictl architectural trad~ion, During more than hvo thousand years of its histllry many distinguished phases have developed and disappeared and have lelllheir mal1lln !he shape of spectacuiar seltlements and monuments, the deserted relics of which ilfe still visible throughOlJl the region, During !he Buddhist and Hindu rule in Bengal many new settlements flourished onty to later become abandoned and tumed into ruins. PLATE III Muslim Order of Space Externalization of circle Instead ofthe contemporary space generation of point-line-plane-volume order the Muslim Order of space follows the point-line-.arc-circle order. That is why an understanding of such two- dimensional ordering principle is of utmost necessity to decode the generation process of any MuslimArchitectural space. All geometric proportioning system depend upon thiSOrder of Space. Point-line-arc-circle • • -.... , •" / // ,, "\ ,i \ • I ,,I \ ,I \\ i , ,, / .,-._- ./ /"" --' PLATE IV Muslim Order of Space Externallzatlon of circle Bythe generation olthe circles.developed through the point-line-drcleorder, e~ery elemenland space dimension of Muslim Architecture is derived. For example, the proportions and arrangements of the complex parts of a typical mlhrab ISgenerated through the extemalrmlion of thesame original circle. Order of a Mihrab / \ /I \ 1 I I I l,..•... \ : / , \ : / •.....•.II ,, \, , 'I ' I ," \', ___ ,-';0.::.. __ I - .••.•..,,--_. A Moorish doorway, Spilin. SOU"": Crt<:I1IOW._ , ('992) I!lamlC Poltemo, anAnol)rtle one CoomolOlJieol Approoch. n"""", arid HLICI.on. london. p:'03. • Bengal was devoid of building material of more permanent nature like rock or slone, But the genius 01 the people was focussed on the alluvial silt depostt and more durable buildings were bum 01 brick burnt out of this siR. Anhough sometimes stones were imported from nearby quarries, but in general, buildings were built 01 heavy walls adapting to the structural system suited 10 the capabili~es of the burnt clay. The structural cores in many cases were COllared with terracotta burnt tiles, 10 protect the structure from the hostile warm-humid climate, These tiles provKle base for creatlve arlistlc endeavour and thus some of the finest pieces of architecture were created and distinct architectural character evolved The basic attitude of the Pre-Muslim Architecture of Berlgal was to create numerous angles, 1aceIs, recesses and pro]ections to accommodate brick and terracotta decorations. Th~ was done by initi31ing the form generation or e>demalization from a basic square and then divKling It into a special rhythmic: proportion (Fig. 02). Strong comers and deep mouldings wrth massive walls signifies the intention of designirlg 'Heavy Architecture' • Figure 02: Comparative mode of Ionn generation, Pre-Muslim and Muslim Pre-Muslim mode of externalizing Muslim Mode of externalizing (Mandai ••) With the introduction of Islam and establishment of MusHm political domination ,n Bengal around 1204 A.D. we are confronted wilh a new definition of Style; iI is no longer to be • Oonl, ••••••••••••• n (1061), "" 52 considered as an archetypal code but rather a mode of expression. More attention paid to the effect of Style than to its inherent characterislics. The magnificent large dimensions and the sharp profile associated with Iheir background represented the richest inheritance of the Muslim culture. ArcMeeture was deliberately used to pronounce their growing domination on the political and cultural levels in 8engal; at this stage a symbol was needed to represent the progress. Tewers were erected at different places and eventually corner turrets eVOlved. 4.3 Onset of Syncretism Early Muslim Phase: At the beginning of the 13'" century when the Muslims established their power in Bengal Musl,m Architecture had already established ijs basic highly developed Styles and characters around the world. But when these norms were practiced in the deltaic land of Bengal local conte> architectural setting and soclo-<:ultural attitudes have changed and enriched the bUllding Archetype. Thus, Early Muslim Phase gave birth to individual Styles with the characteristics of their own" a. The Mamluk Style b. The Early Illyas Shahi Style c The Eklakhi Style d, The Later Illyas Shahl Style e. The Khan-e..Jahanstyle f. The Hussain Shahi Style 4.3.1 The Mamluk Style; (Representative ,,,,,,"_study: M""que of Z••••r Khan G•• I, at Tnben, ; Plate V) i. Natural and "ocio-polilfcal fore"",; context: The Style developed Under the Sultanat of Lakhnauti, initially provincial governors of Delhi bearing the @e of 'Malik', around Tribeni, Saptagram, Chota Pandua and Hugly. The Arabic word 'Mamluk' means owned. basically they were slave solders; woo had begun their • D'nl, "'"ned Hooan ('''"'J. "" dl. o-:l\l, 53 PLATE V Zafar Khan Gazi Mosque At Tribenl. (1298A.D.) The lafarKhan Gazi Mosque is an example of the Mamluk Style of Bengal developed underthe Sultanat 01 Lakhnauli. It represents all the lackings of the iniijal stages of a Styie development The oblong shaped multi-unit space is not well-represented from the exterior due to the absence ot massiveness at the corners With the use of pillars in the front row the fronlfacade became over exposed from exterior and thus further reduced the monumentality Of the structure. The central bay, which demands more width is inefficiently equal to just any other in the structure. The.., pilla", lire ioll""m:". of I_I OO"tex!sod ;"";"'110" Iorlsterslyl"" \ ;,1 ,I""iU"d< ',' ",: ~~~!]':' '.'_. 'Ii~: .. 1 / " '-.: le,•• ce"traitJ, [:' 'oJ . :-- ',:1 W.akco",",r I~...... i/ \f )]"U!bJ '''-- __ 0' -'~ --'<'-~'-'f~rrHr-'-r-~'"-~-':"-'of':'T:~iaf+r"~~ ,..__,:¥ ._'__._J~.__ ¥. ~---,~'-=,~, . ../, \,' Planof ,~afarKhanG~:. Ii I \ ' ,.,•• j"--,,:,,,,,.exposed ,/ ,~\ ,,' / ------\ .. , .,. (, •• . • i .. , , -:' , , ( ,': ,. ( rt-~ Part 01 a ruined wall shows 11>0 """Slructlon .ystem. A broken pillar 01zatar Khan GrIli The /rtIrrtlacade appe'"'''''' monumental du" (0 t/1aabsence 01004id".,.. in MO",!"". tile CO",Iru!:lJOlI , career as the military slave of some powerful Arab amir. The majority of such slaves were ethnic Turks'". II was an era of confinuous war of the Muslim rulers against the Hindu Rajas and the political environment was turbulent one. il. TIle eoneept; idea: Due to the direct political influence of Delhi the arcMecture produced is a compromi~ of local skills and treasures with the imperial Deihl model. iii. Form and contents; morphology: The buildings are multl-domed with honzontal comice. A~hough in arrangement the inspirat arrangement of the stone COlumnsrecalls local pillared halls of the Hindu temple and the huge thickness of them also recalls the brick pillar dimensions, The columns are monolithic with different facets in different sections, In the Mosque of lafer Khan Gazl, Tribenl, the interior is strikingly exposed towards the east as the front row columns directly sprang from the huge adjacent piers iv, Philosophic tl'ilnd: attitude: The very attitude of Impenallsm IS clearly expressed in the building construction. The architectural vocabulary establishes the right of a group of new invaders who are more over comers than victors. That is why rough and ready materials from existing Hindu buildings were lrequentiy reused in different places.11 v. Symbolic natures; meaning: Absence of comer turrets, the over exposed interior and horizontal cornice states thai the builder was reluctant to share ideas or exert Innuence upon the locals through architecture. This indicates the conservativeness of a confined or cklsed society On the other hand the use of stone veneer facing With brick core inside decodes the urge of the bUildersfor permanency for themselves. VI. Life modes; status: ThiS is the formative stage of Muslim Bengal Style and a new taste of Architecture with brick and bnck-stone combination was coming '" ••••• n••.• ..., R.bont 11900), .p. 54 • up. This was an inspiration for oblong shaf"'d mult~domed mosques for the later periods of Muslim Bengal Architecture." 4.3.2 Th9 Early lIIyas Shahi Style: i. Natural and soclo-political fore&S; context: The Style developed when lllyas Shah became the independent Sultan of Bengal in 1338 AD and claimed the mle of 'Shah.<-Bangla' Th,s has l>appened when the Imperial Delhi Empire was in a state of breaking away in the mid 14'" century. But SOOn~ revilled under the Tughlaqs and afterwards Sultan Illyas Shah was engaged in defending his throne against Flrol Shah Tughloq of Dethl. il. The concept; Ide.: This is a Style of experiments With ideas and scale in design. The Architecturat vocabulary bears no relahonship with the contemporary Tughloq Style 01 Delhi probably due to the hostile political relationship between the two regions, This break up With Delhi had sent the buitders 01 Bengal back to the original Mushm Architectural Archetype of Urban model. iii Form and contents; morphology: The introvert layout with the four-iwan central courtyard plan is a bold conception New pattern of screen arches were added In the front la\'3de, They sprang not from pillars but from brick piers thus Increasing the e~pression of sol'dlty, The grand scale and the conscious increase of solidity in the front ra\'3d" enriched the character 01 stability and monumentat,ty of the building, In Adina Mosque, Hajra! Pandua circular pseudO comer turrets (i e turrets not exposed beyond the exterior walts) appeared A barrel vault was placed over the central nave but the complex looses its a~lallty due to the absence of any grand entry from the eastern side, " AAmOd.""" So, ••••••••••••• (10)91), op Ol ,87, PLATE VI Adina Mosque At HaJrat Pandua, (1374 -75AD.) The Adina Mosque represents the Early Illyas Shahl Style. The grand scale altha mosque is an expression of the independence ot 'Shah-e-Bangla' Illyas Shah. This courtyard type of arrangement is of a complex urban model, bllt here it was implemented as 'a pMori', thus never repeated everafler in Bengal. p ~ g ~ i' 0,• o! -- , D • a c - r".:ooob': 0'0'.00'0'0 'i--~-" " • •, • '. ••, ,--!j ~-. Plan of Adina Mosque The central bay of Adina Mosque as seen from the inside of the courtyard. The gable window in the vaultls still visible. iv, PhilO$ophlc trend: attitudes: The denial of Imperialism of Delhi pushed the builder towards the central Purist Ideas of the Muslim Architecture. This was a giant leap backward, and obviously has failed in achieving many aspects demanded by the context on which it stands. In this respec!, Dani commented about Adina Mosque: ..Thus tho's grand mosqu(l of bold conCflpffon;s architecturally a faj/ure.13 v Symbolic natures; meaning: The appearance of pre-mature comer turrets, the monumental grand scale and revival of Complex Model ail converges towards the full expression of a local genius and this over emphasised new spirit of an independent Kingdom What the builders had in their mind is an 'a- priori' set of context of dense urban background. Such a direct denial of reality creates illusions in the viewers perception In the words of Percy Brown, •.. standing wo'lho'n Ih(l eXpanSl1lfJquadrangular COlJrtyardof Adina Mosque, surrounded by its se(lmingly endless array of arches ..presents the appearance of Ihe forum of some ancient clly rather than a self contained MuslIm house of prayer .. ,,14 VI. Life modes; status: The builder designed a grand orthodox Mosque but perhaps (like his contemporary counter- part in Delhi, Feroz Shah Tughloq) he had ideas much ahead of his time, His schemes were beyond the capability of his local HLndu craftsmen and his denial of contextual reality was a mistake A mistake that was never repeated in the htstory of stylistic evolution of Bengal Muslim Architecture, 4.3.3 The Eklakhi Style; (Represent.~ve e<>se-stLJ i, Natural and socla-polillcal forces; context: Taking advantage of the rivalry among the Muslim rulers, ethnic diversity of the courts and ioose chain of "OOn1.Ahrn.~H1•• n {,oa,), o~ CItp aZ " Brown,.''''1 (10"1. "" CIt0" PLATE. VII Eklakhi Tomb At Hajrat Pandua (ea~y 15th century), The Ekhlakhi Tomb represents the Eklakhi Style that developed at Hajrat Pandua. In this Style the independent model of Muslim Architecture was adopted to accommodate the forces of the local contex!. To resolve the problem of monumentality, that the earlier styles had confronted, the comer turrets were introduced in this structure. More local inftuencesare seen in thismonument both m Its brick construction system and m Its terra cotta surface treatments The construction system to accommodate a circular dome 00 a square base was a very oaive one, the comers were filled up with bricks, thus unnecessarily creating an octagonal interior space. Use of "'1"inoh was nQI~.t known lOtho b",lders N.rrow opening' Teora cOltlllacade lreatmenls of tho tomb wao a ",,"'ee 01 ,"OpilllMn l<>thelot., penod' Plan of Eklakhi MosquB The front facade of the Eklakhi tomb is more monumental with the introduced comer turrets command Raja Genesa seized lhe power of Bengal, Evenlually his son, Zalaluddln Mohammad Shah became converted to Islam and declared himself as Su~an; in a stage he also claimed the mle of 'Khalifa' to confirm his right rn the throne and shifted his capijal from Gour to Pandua. ii. The concept; idea: It was a time tor the expression of the Influences of the 'soil and cl,mate,15of this dellaic plane 01 Bengal. The superimposed orthodox urban model of Muslim Architecture is rejected and isolaled non-urban model was adopted as archetype. iii. Form and contents; morphology: With the devefopment of Ekhlakhi Style, for the first time in the evolution process of Muslim Bengal Architecture brick became the true representative of a major Style. The massive walls constructed were entirely of brick and from now On stone facing became rare and very occasionai in Bengai For the first time in Bengal Architecture the following features and elements came into being' a Octagonal dacorated comer turrels: Dani ident,f'ed it as Tughlaq influence'", but he also noticed lhe dllferenws from Tughtaq turrels which are plastered, circular jn plan and are lapered towards the top. On the other hand a second example of the same Eklakhi Style the Chika Building (probably originally a tomb or administrative bUild,ng,since lhere is no trace of any mlhrab), which Dani has erroneously descnbed as 'almost copy'" of Eklakhi tomb, lhe corner turrets are aclually c,rcular and recessed, thus divided in 12 segments.'" AAyway, this inlroduction of corner lurrels has emphasised the solidity and monumentailty of the building b. Curved cornice c. Battlements d Offsets and rocessed walls e. Continuous lines of mouldings with panels I' 10". P BO. •• Oonl, AOm"" H••• " (''''). "" <>t P ,. " ;~d0e~, ,e 11100011,~ I"") (10e.), 00 ". f Glazed liles g, One dome on square plan solution in Bengal Architecfure Spec,al care was taken to reduce water penetration in the slructure and for this purpose rain water drainage system was introduced. The doors are small in size and lotal number of opening is reduced to only four for the same purpose. Moreover, two courses of slone damp proof layers were provided, one at ground and lhe other at IlntelleV€1.Consequently, there are some defects present in this Style, especially where technology is concem. For example, the way the large dome of 48'--6"diameter ISplaced on the square stn;cture is obviously very crude and the intenor was unnec€ssarily turned octagonal with deep dark niches,,. IV PhilosophIc trend: attitude: For the first time in the throne of Muslim Bengal there was a local converted Muslim Naturally, he was Bengali speaking and had better understanding of lhe local culture and aspirations of the people. This was an age of Hindu-Muslim co-{)peratlon and this philosophical syncretism characterises lhe symbols of thiS Style, v, Symbolic natures; meaning: Although so many 'first times' In this Style puts ~ in a very vulnerable position the monumental aspirations in the bUilders mind is eVident in his work. This signifies belter communication Wlththe surrounding or at least more concern 10spread infiuence on subjects beyond the royal court The d,!'SigndeciSion of taking the isolated model also involves a 'bottom up' thought process That is the process starts from the local context and rises towards the non-urban type independenl Muslim Model established earl,e,- vi. Life modes; status: The adoption of non-urban isolaled monumental models, enhanced fabric of brick Withterracotta, curved cornice and the corner turrels set onward an Ideal regional model and respected Style to be followed for lhe later dates to come. 58 4.3.4 The Later IIlyas Shah! Style: (Rep""entatlve "", •.• tudy Gour mo",,,,,",",, Ookhll 001WaZ0. Choml 00"''''" Mo,~"" oM Fo", •• Minor: PI••• VIII) I. Natural and socio-polltlcal forces; context: Th~ II'yas Shahi Dynasty recaptured the throne of E! from Pandua to Gour This Sallenat continued upto 1,(67 A.D. unM the AbySlnlan Slave Dynasty over threw them to hold Bengal for about SIXcons~utive years. Among the Sullens of th;s dynasty Nasiruddin Mehmud Shah is considered as a great bUilder " The concept; Idea: The spirit of search for a common goal standing on the already established foundation of the independent Sultanat of Bengal. The principle concentration of the design was neither on over-ambitious experimentation nor on limited elaboration of the earlier Styles All the efforts were towards achielling a matured and self-sustaining Style for Bengal Muslim Architecture. iii. Form and contents; morphology: The assimilation of form and content with the context was handled with great care by developing well balanced plans, ensuring proper adjustment to the surroundjng and allowing self-controlled but highly developed decorations A dialectic relationship waS established between the architectural form and the artistic decoration. which critics have called 'a happy blend'>!' between the two disciplines. Quality of spaces With 'really charm,ng effect''', both interior and exterior, was ensured by deploying balanced proportion within the parts and maintaining scale to the sellmg on which the architecture was created. Th;s Style has produced the earltest Gate buildings (Kotwali and Dakhil Darwaja, Gour) in Mus;im Bengal Architecture. In these Gate buildings they have achieved a very effective sense of grandness and monumentality. The buildings are h;ghly proportionate in form and peculiarly suitable to their functions, On each " ",no, AOm" H•••• 11"'), ". ,rt ,,, 1fJ "~ •• " ",,~,,21. • \ PLATE VIII(a) Dakhil Darwaza (15tf1. 15th century) Chamkatti Mosque (15th • 16th century) At Gour ( Clear square .pace .': - ,.. -. I Dakhil Darwaza OJ 1 The Dakhil Darwaza and tlle Chamkatti Mosque belong to the Lale Illyas Shahi style of Bengal. These two structures represent the search for an Identity in Bengal style in two different fields, firstly In gateways and secondly in mosque structures_ More concenlration is given in archilectural proportions than in mere ,.." omamental detail and thus lhe problem of monumentality was resolved_ Plan of Chamkatli Mosque Chamkatti MO$que • PLATE VIII(b) Tantipara Mosque At Gour, (1480AD.) The problem 01 n.",,,,, ""nhl boy 10stili present in this ITOSqLJe ., o ([J.•.•...u..o..• '\ .' , " ".. " Plan of Tantip:ora Mosque The monumentality in the central bay was achieved by extensive terra cotta details in the cenlTal entry gate. These details were repeated by the later Styles deveioped in Bengal. Entry of Tantlpara Mosque PLATE VIII{c) Darasbari Mosque At Gour, (1479A.D.) Plan of o..",sbari Mosque SlNctu",1 Details face of the doorways there are tapered towers circular in plan. The first one is plain and the other has 12 sides created by vertical recesses. These corner turrets are richly decorated w~h the recesses to cope with the decorative mode of local Bengali style, Introduction of a new technique of placing the dome on square base is seen in Chamkatll Mosque, Gaur, where stone pillars were used at each comer of the octagon, thus creating a free square space inside, The ten- domed Tantipara Mosque, Goor, ISconsidered the finest monument of all in Gaur for its rich omamentations. The 18domed Darashbari Mosque had a central nave covered with barrel vaults. iv PhilosophIc trend: attitudes: The restoration of the old Illyas Shahi Dynasty was a reaction of the then conservative society against the new value system of the earlier converted dynasty, But, the later administration did not discard the alms and aSPirationSof the earlier one rather further enriched it with great care. This liberal aMude of the builders rewarded them w~h the honour of the establisher of 'The Classical Phase'" of Bengal Muslim ArcMecture. v, Symbolic natures; meaning: Introduction of so many types of buildings in this Style means increase of complexity in the life system of the builders Aspiration of monumentality is finally resolved into Architecture especially in case of the gateways." vi Life modes; etattJs: The defects of earlier Styles were removed and a fully developed Style of Bengali Muslim ArcMecture evolved. This Gour centered Style had spread extensively to the sub-urban areas and of course influenced the later phases of Bengal Archrtecture. " I~,. P27 Zl a •••••••, Per " 4.3.5 The Husain Shahi Style: (Representative cll.e"lLxll' Lott1n M"",!LJO,B••.• SO" "'""'1"", GOrolllln! MosQue .00 Chmo Son. M"",!,,"; Pial. IX) i. Natural alK! socio-political forcas; conlext: Hosain Shah, !he Arab Wazir of Ihe last Abyssinian dynasty, took over power and dedared himself the Sultan of Bengel. The capital was at Gour, The complex"" in SOCietywas Increased even m war lords and Mughals as paid solders) were getting stronger and kept the Sultan busy in their reconcillaton, However, the Sultan succeeded to manage these groups end bring order In society at least for some time. The Srea of Sultanat extended within a very short period of time, Despne the underlying SOClslstirring it was an era of peace and prospenty. ii. The concept; !lIN: TIle builders stressed cn the quentrty rather than quality of werll. The same details were multiplied over and over again until it went below the expected taste level of the spectator." The main drive of design was to further elaborate the eartier Styles We herdly find any new end creative inventions in the Slyle evollllion. Uncontrolled over-decoration replaced the Style anrichment process in this phase of Bengal Muslim Architecture. iii Fonn and contants; morphotogy: The buildings were of brick and stone facing on brick core. Th•• slone cullers' art was revived but more Importance was given to increasa permanency of the structure than enriching II A neeessny was felt at this time to use a more lasting matertal than brick, and plenty ot resources made It pOSSibleto quarry fresh stones from lhe hills, This necess'ly Is the only likely motive for the usa of stone atlhis time because the artlslic qual"" of the slone culling is 'poor in qual",,'''. Multi-dome mega structures were buill In more numbers Among the best examples Is 44 domed Bara Sona Mosque. Here the slone lacing imm.tes lhe bfick details bul the front fa~ade IS much less decorative, Anolhe< IS 27 domed Gunmanl Mosque, originally faced with btack " 00." A"on"" H••• n (""1. ,"'", ,,27. " Ill". P '''''. • PLATE IX(a) Sara Sana Mosque atGaUr(1526AD) Gunmant Mosque at Gaur (1484A.D.l These monuments represent the Husain Shahi Style in Bengal ~ J Architecture, The structures elabomle the earlier Styles and 0 0 0 0 0 0 ~ 0 are sometimes burdened with , , over-decoration. 0 • • 0 0 0 ~ 'iil 0 b, 0 00 0000HQ _, t' ", , , ,- Pliln of Gunmant Mosque ~~, '--r, , " , @' " [., [1 II Ij II IJ [j If] ICii ~ , ' !!ill q [J 0 n n !I LJ Ii II IJ ~- , , S, [~1@@J~:~IIf1E@l@j] c'CJW 1";7!Z' 0J(V>C::?v ~""V'VI'--C/v ,/ I 00i;:;'00 ';:<::::;'00 '" .. 'L l Details PLATE - x-c Nine Dome Mosque At Khallfatabad, Bagerhat Elevation ~~,,; --, Photographs I. LO(:ation: • S~uated on the western embankment of 'Thakur Dighi', the adjacent tank of Khan-e-Jahan's Mausoleum complex; Khalifatabad, Bagerhat, Khulna, ii, Surrounding environment: The mosque is now surrpunded by a brick wall enclpsure of recent dale. ill. Pl'tIsent condition and use: The mosque structure is renovated and is in use by the local people. v. Building components: Form: The mosque is a 54'--8"square brick structure. The diameter elfthe dOO1esis11'-1", The diameter 01the Ipur corner turrets is 5'-0", interior: The interior is a rectangle of 29'-6", Wali: The walls are 7'-7" thick; constructed wilh 2" x 5" x 6" bricks, Coiumn; There are four slender stone octagonal cplumns of 7 44" arm on 1'-11" base dimension, pn which arches are carrying the load pi the domes resl. The column is not monolithic; the capital, the base, and two pieces comprising Ihe shaft are joined in Ihe middle. The plasters on the walls are of brick wilh stpne capital. Opening; The three entrance doors in Ihe east are flanked with two pointed arches; Ihey are bordered within two rectangular frames with twp parallel terracplta details atlhe lop within raised brick mouldings, The central door ISslightly higher and wider Ihan the two adjacent ones. The two other Doors on I soulh and north walls are similar in detail. The two openings on Ihe northern and southern sides of Ihe mosque contain two pointed arches sprung from the recesses of Ihe side walls; Ihey are bordered wiltlin rectangular frames with mulli. cusped arched brick detail above; the rectangular form is ,~ • decorated wrth two parallel terracolta details at top within raised bTickmouldings. Mihrab: Among the three mjhrabs on the western wailihe central Ofle is larger than the others; Ihere are multi-foiled arches in front of the Ihree mjhrabs The arches terminate in a spear- headed detail. The mjhrabs are detailed wilh lo~enge motif, terracolta ftoral scroll and foliage patterns within rectangular panels. A chain-and-bell terracotta motif decorates the centre of the each mihrab; a large terracotta rosette is placed above Ihe apex. Roof Cornice: The roof cornice is curved, Ihe pick is 6.375" lifted upward at Ihe cenlre; Ihere are two bold string courses of Ihe cornice, with extensive lerracotta panels In between, there is aiso anolher course of lerracotta detail just bellow Ihe stnng courses Combination of all these delails acts as a highly decorated and rhythmtc termination oflhe bUilding. Corner Turrel: Circular In plan; wfth a base of mouldings raised up to 3'-5.5" helgh~ lour more string courses on Ihe turrel diVides the shaft inlo five parts. Transitional Form: Two point arches sprang from the stone columns and rests on the pilasters of the walls or on adjacent column: In this system Ihe interior square space is divided Inlo nine smaller square units of 11'_7"x 11'-7" dimension. These squares are lhen transformed into circles for the base of the dome above by using brick pendenlives. Dome and vault: The mne domes over the mosqueare hemispherical one; the highest point reaches up to 31'--0"from Ihe ground. vi, Sp6(:lal elements: The walls on Ihe northern and southern sides contains recesses in-between lhe openings and near Ihe comer turrets. The recesses are toped wfth mulli-<:uspad arched " Mel<. details: and decorated with two parallel lerracolta details at bottom within raised bric~ moukJings(Plate Xl. 5.5.2 Tile Mausoleum of Kilan-e-Jahan: (Plate: XI) i. Type: Single domed square Mausoleum with circular carner turrets; exposed bric~ structure with terracolta and stone details, there is a crypt under the buitding containjng the actual grave. ii. Location: Situated on the northem emban~ment of an extensive la~e, locally known as 'Thakur Ohighl'. Khal,fatabad, Bagerhat, Khulna iii. Surrounding environment: The bUilding stands on a artificially high land: enclosed by a inner and outer boundary wall with short corner turrets, approached by the anginal Khan-e-Jahan secondary road; which offshoots at a right angle towards south from the Khan-e- Jahan main road along old bed of Bhalrab River: the road reaches the Mausoleum from the north and the position 01the main gateway of the comptex IS at 90' angle wllh Ihe main aXIsof Ihe Mausoleum and the second gateway to the inner boundary; none of Ihe 5 gateways 01the outer boundary maintains the axial relation with MaUSOleum,moreover the inner enclosed area wllich is almosl a square In shape is placed non-ax;ally within the outer enclosure, thus creallng more space In the north. Iv. Present condition and use: The Mausoleum slructure is In excellent condilion in compare to the other adjacent buildings 01 the Khalifatabad crty. Locals frequently come to the Mausoleum and perform religious rituals In the Mausoleum and at the steps (Ghar) to the nearby Oighi. v, Building components: Form: The Mausoleum is a 46'-0' square brick structure The diameter oltha dome IS28'-6", PLATE: XI-a Mausoleum of Khan.e.Jahan AI Khal,fatabad Bagerhilt _ Plan Details PLATE: XI-b Mausoleum of Khan-e..,Jahan At Khalifatabad, Bagerhat - , ------ .~iiI.~_•••••-== _ Section ",,,.-,- - \-, - ,-w ,;/.'"'. /" , -- J I Details PLATE - I.e Mausoleum of Khan.e.Jahan At Kh~lif~tab Elevation Photographs The diameter 01the four corner turrets is 4'..{l". Interior: The intenorolthe Mausoleum a square of 30'-0". Wall: The walls are 8'-0" thid<; constructed wilh 2" x S" x 8" bricks. Opening: The door in the eastern side is flanked wijh two pointed arches; but the arches are transformed into rectangular door frames by large stone lintels. Two pointed arches sprang from the recesses on the openings of the other three side walls and sits on stone details: onginally these openings ~re used as doors too: traces of door details are stili visible. Niche: There are two spear-headed mulli-<:usped arched lamp- niches on each interior wall. Floor: Originally covered by mulli-<:olouredglazed Wes, remaining are seen on the base of the grave. Roof Cornice: The roof cornice is curved; lhe pick is 10.62" lifted upward at the centre: three bold string courses of the cornice acts as a strong termination of the building. Comer Turret: Circular In plan; with a base of mouldings raised up to 3'- 11.5- height: 4 more string courses on the turret dwides the shaft into -5 parts; at the top the turret is covered by ribbed copula Transitional Form: Squinches are used to transfer the square suppomng form into octagon for the circular base of the dome above: the octagon is then transformed inlo circle by using brick pendentives; the squtnches sprang from projected slone brackets on the inner wall surface at a height of 8' It from the floor level. Dome and vault: The dome over the Mausoleum is a hemispherical one; the highest point reaches up 1031'-8" from the ground; there is an iron finial above of later date; the cross section of the dome is gradually reduced 10 the lop: there are Chouahs/a 74 vaults on the gateways accommodated by two pointed arches, at the inner side of tile vaults traces of rafter details are still visible from bellow. vI. Gateway; The outer appearances of tile gateways are totally aReredby tile local people, vii. SpKlai elements: The walls are constructed on five courses of black basalt stone, which forms tile base for the Mausoleum structure; these layers protect the building from the extreme salinity prevailing In the region. There are stone spouts projectlng at each corners of the rool for roof water drainage 5.5.3 The Mausoleum. Mosque of Khan-e-Jahan: (Plate XII) i. Type: Single domed square mosque w~h circular corner turrets; exposed brick structure w~h terracotta details; very similar to the adjacent Mausoleum. ii. Location: Within the Mausoleum complex of Khan-e-Jahan; Khalifatabad. Bagerhat, Khulna. iii. Surrounding environment: The mosque was once an integrated part of the Mausoleum,complex; but, due to the presence of an open lomb structure in between the tomb and the mosque it has become detached !rom the inner enclosure. Nowaday, the mosque can only be approached from the outer enclosure through structures of later addition. iv. Present condition and use: Unauthorized and unplanned addition and extension of tile mosque has almost hidden the structure behind concrete jumbles. v. Building components: Fonn: The mosque ls a 40'.2" square brick structure. The diameter of the dome is 24'-6". The diameter of the four corner turrets is 3'-0". 75 PLATE : XII..a Mausoleum-Mosque of Khan-e-.Jahan At Khalifatabad, Bagerhat .'1 'IfJ!id,i% 'ii i II iii!-~---- I 'f ------, I II', ,III !i Wd / "", // " (~L//??i%/_L "UI" f/~.i t,','~~.. '-' Plan ,"- Details PLATE. XII-b Mausoleum-Mosque of Khan-e-Jahan At Khalifatabad, Bagerhat --, (' " /- , ' , Elevation .,"",-,-,-,-''''''--''''''""".' --- / / ------r Details T.,"' •• _ PLATE: Xllc Mausoleum-Mosque of Khan.e-Jahan At khalifatabad, Bagerhat /~ //;\ ' \ ..../';;\'" \ 1/\\ ,/ / \, I / / \ /,1 \\ 1,1 Ivl \\,/( \\, ! \/ '"~I:, \, -"---- I \ II 'i I i I --I 0 IJJww IJJ0 I, Section l, ,t , r ";,,, c-- I, I, ,,", F I I =f. Q' - , ( ,ji ~ "L-,,'= ,1,---:.'>-- /"~ " \ : ,,~ .c, , J \, , ':7+ I Details Interior: The interror of lIle mosque is completefy renovated with ceramic tiles the aesthetic beauty of the antiquity is lost for ever. Wall: The walls are 7'.2" thick; constructed with 2" x 5" x 6" bricks. Opening: The door in the eastern side is flanked with two pointed arches, but the arches are transformed Into rectangular door frames by large stone lintels Two pointed arches sprang from the recesses on the openings 01 the other three side walls Niche: There are two spear.headed multi-cusped arched lamp- niches on each interlorwall, Roof Cornice: The roof cornice Is curved; the pick is 12,94" lilted upward at the centre; two bold stnng courses of the cornice acts as a strong termination nf the building, Comer TUrTet: Circular in plan; with a base of mouldings raised up to 4'-0" height; 4 more' string courses on the turret divides the shaft Into -5 parts; Transitional Form: SqUinches are used to transfer the square supporting form into octagon for the circular base of the dome above; the octagon is then transformed into circle by using brick pendentives. Dome and vault: The dome over the Mausoleum is a hemispherical one; the highest point reaches up to 37'-8" from the ground; the cross section 01the dome is gradually reduced. 5.5.4 The RonvlJoypur Mosque: (Plate: XIII) i. Type: Largest single domed square mosque of Bangladesh; with circular comer turrets; exposed brick structure with terracotta details. 76 PLATE: XIII-a Ranavijoypur Mosque At Khal,fatabad, Bagerhal Plan Detail PLATE - XIII-b Ranavijoypur Mosque At Khallfatabad, Bagerhat Section ~,-- - , '""y.-- ~ '"Y ,,-/PO , F L .__ Details PLATE - XIII-c Ranavijoypur Mosque At Khalifalabad, Bagefhat .-. -. ----~ -~---. Elevation Photographs ii. Location: Situated on the northern side of the anginal Khan-e.Jahan road; Khalifalabad, 8agerha~ Khulna. ill. Surrounding environment: The mosque slands on the southem embankment of the old bed of Bhairab Rever, stands facing the node of Khan-Nahan road from where the secondary road which approaches the Mausoleum complex offshoots at a right angle towards south, Iv. Present condition and U$e: The Mausoleum structure has gone under extensive restoration work; some of the original features may have been lost, as some of the scholars noticed. v. Building components: Form: The mosque is a 54'-0" square brick structure. The diameter of the dome is 33'-5", The diameter of the four comer turTelsis T -0", Interior: The Interior,is a square of 35'-6". Wall: The walls are 9'-3" thick, constructed with 2" X5" X6" bricks. Opening: The three entrance doors in the east. north and south side are flanked with two pOIntedarches; they are bordered within rectangular frames with parallel terracotla details within raised brick mouldings; the main entrance door has a Chouchala hut-shaped vault resting on either side with arched frames; at the inner side of the vau~ there are !races of rafter details, The two openings on the sides of the entrance doors contains two pointed arches sprang from the recesses of the sielewalls. Mlh•••b: There are multi-foiled in arches in fronl of the three mihrabs. The arches terminate ,n a spear-headed detail The concave apses are laterally divided into six panels, bordered by rnoulding$; there are panels above which is alternatively n relieved wrth floral and plant motifs, The panels are filled with motifs of rosettes and serpentine tendrils ending in circles enclosing a flower. Roof Com ice: The rool cornice ls curved; the pick is 11.69" lifted upward at the centre; one bold string courses of the cornice acts as a termination of the building. CornerTurrfi: Circular in plan: with a base of mouldings raised up to 2'-{I- height; 3 more string courses on the turret divides the shaft into 4 parts Transitional Form: Squinches are used to transfer the square supporting form into octagon for the circular base of the dome above: the octagon is Ihen transformed into circle by using brick pendentives; the squinches sprang from projected stone braCkets on the inner wall surface at a height of 8'-0" from the fioor level. Dome and vault; The huge dome over the Mausoleum is a hemispherical one; the highest point reaches up to 39'-3" from the ground and the thickness of the dome gradually reduces at the top. 5.6 GROUP 02: Shait Gombuz Mosque group: (Plate: XIV) 5.6.1 The Shalt Gombul Mosque: I. Type: Seventy seven domed rectangular mosque with tapered circular comer turrets; the biggest brick mosque in Bangladesh; exposed brick structure with terracotta details, ii. LOCation: Situated on the eastern embankment of the vast lake 'Ghora Dighl', Khalilatabad. Bagemat, Khulna. 78 PLATE: XIV-a Shait Gombuz Mosque At Khalifatabad, Bagefhat Plan """" '- I :_;~T~~,~~~~~~~-_L~,,','~jc•.•••.•,• ...... , ,,' ':.':!.." ; I ',_ 1~"- -~-=-~=t ~-__, , ,,, ,, ,,, , ---,------Details ••• l.rw..~. l• • --,------ .. >----1-'-" -- il-11T'-il--; I-I [-:- 1- ",,""':::fl , • CP ::I I II" "I ~ N ::I J:l " •.E1,0 • -><:1"" c •••• •• !!• o III .- $' .- ••• as 'm C,c2 i t.cn:l (I) • I f-- , .' -' .' J:( I~I III[ WK --- -- • UI~(\\... \ ',', \ ',--- i, ,,[V- \ \ '~"'- /~1\'", ! II I IIIr ;'\\ \ m•.\ i'\\I( . \ ,I II I, I' I, WYr - "II-~ l~ LillI[ c - , PLATE: XIV-d Shait Gombuz Mosque At Khallfat"bad, Bagerhat Entry of the Shalt Gombuz Mosque PLATE: XIV-e Shait Gombuz Mosque AI Khulifntabad, 8frgcrhn1 Roof Domos Corner Turret Interior of Shalt Gombuz Mosque ••• PLATE: XIV.' Shait Gombuz Mosque At Khal,fatabad, Bagerhat Chouchala Detail Interior Squinch Arch detail . , . '. a iii. Surrounding envIronment: The mosque is now surrounded by a brick wall enclosure of with comer turrets and picturesque grand gateways; the mosque complex is Onthe western side 01a secondary Khan-e-Jahan road which offshoots perpendicularly toward north from the original Khan-e-Jahan's rood; the relation between the mosque, the boundary enclosure and the adjacent Dighl is non.axial. Apparently bears no axial relatklnship with Ihe nearby Singar and Bebi Begni Mosque; the approach road turns around Ihe mosque complex 10 rich the embankment of the Ghora Dighl and then runs parallel to the sides of Ihe Dighl. Iv. Present condition and use: The mosque structure was reno~ated se~eral times and was in comparatively better cond mosque is lotally altered and remo~ed the triangular pediment by the local people in c:ollaboratlon with the Archaeological Department; the fioor and the stone columns ha~e been co~ered With brick and cheap white tiles." v. Building components: Fonn: The mosque IS a 159'"11" x 104'"8" rectanguiar brick structure. The diameter Ofthe se~enty domes on the mosque is 10'--6". The Dimensions of Ihe Chouchalas o~er the central nave are 14'-S" x 10'-11" The diameter of the four comer turrets is 13'-7". The diameter of the four domes crowning the turrets is 11'-1". Interior: The interior is a rectangle of 143'-11". Wall: The walts are 8'-0" thick; constructed with 2" x 5" x 6' bricks. " The m",, columns on 1'-10' x 1'.10" base dimension, on which arches carrying the load of the domes rest The columns are not monolrthic; the capital, the base, and two pieces comprising the shaft are jOined in the middle, The plasters on the walls are of brick Opening: The eleven entrance doors in the east are flanked with two pointed arches With a terracotta geometnc motif at the top; they are bordered within a rectangular frame wrthtwo parallel terrac central door is much higher and wider than the adjacent ones, In case of the central door there are lateral panels of blind merlons above and below the moukllngs, al the top of the frame there ISa thin band of terrac Doors on eastern wall has a single band of terracotta motif panel befow the brick mouldings: All the eleven doors has decoraled terracotta rosettes in the spandrel, the central door has two more rosettes on the either side of the frame at the level of the brick mouldings; the seven openings on the northern and southern sides 01 the mosque contain two pointed arches sprang from two stepped recesses 01the side wails: they are bordered within rectangular frames simiiar to the side doors of the front facade Mih",b: Among the ten millrabs on the western wall the central one is constructed with faced stone and is Similar in design but larger than the others; the side brick mehrabs are flanked wifh mulH-foiledarches in front on octagonal pilasters over square base. The arches terminate in a spear.headed detail. they are bordered wifhin two rectangular frames, there is a lateral panel of blind merlons within ralsed brick mouldings 80 and the spandrel is decorated wiltl two terracotta rosettes on eilher Side, the space between the two frames is recently being decorated by terracotta details, earlier there were five rosettes on tis upper part; the deep epse of each mihrab has lateral brick mouldings with terracotta details and a chain- and-bell terracotta motif decorates the centre of It; above the brick mouldings of the outer !rame there IS a serres of decorated battlement of foliage type and a large terracotta rosette wtlh eight smaller rosettes around is placed above the apex. Roof Cornice: The roof cornice IS sloped towards the sides broken by a smalltnangular pediment at the centre of the !rant facade", the pick IS Z'-{l" lilted upward at the centre; there a single string courses with a lateral band below in the cornice: ea~ier the comice is said to have series of battlement ornamentations" at the top, but now there ISno trace of tI. Comer Turret: Circular in plan: slightly tapered towards the top: rises above the roof ~vel: the details of the roof cornice continues around the turrets and there IS another string cou~ just above It. The turret terminates at ltle top with a similar detail of cornice 01 the mosque rool, the turrets are capped with round cupolas but have no base mouldings like the other bUildings of Bagemat; so the turrets are diVided into two parts by the string courses at the roof level:, tile upper part of the turrets in the eastern side IS higher their western counterpart and has spiral staircase Within each, all tile turrets hava arched Windows at ltla roof level but details of the eastern ones slightly dillers from the others " T110p""m.n1 •••• '0<'/ ,,,,,,,nlly boon _. "''' ,n ."', •.••nt ,, 81 Transitional Form: Two point arches sprang from the stone columns and rests on the pilasters of the walls or on adjacent column: in this system the interior square space is divided into thirty fIVe square units on each side of central seven rectangular units; these squares are then transformed into circles for the base of the dome above by using brick pendentives. Dome and vault: The central rectangular units are covered with Chouchala or four-sided curved Bengali domes w~h curved flat lop; at the inner side of the vaults there are rafter details. The seventy domes over the mosque are hemispherical one: the highest point reaches up to 27'-3" from the ground. The Choucha/as rises up to 27'-9" from ground level. vi. Special elements: The brick Clloucha/as of this mosque is the earliest use of such architectural feature: the character of the corner turrets Is also unique in Bengal; there is also another very uncommon feature, a small arched door way In the western wall close to the central stone mlhrab. probably the entrance of the Imam or leader of the society 5,6.2 The Singar Mosque: (Plate: XV) i. Type: Single domed square mosque; clrcuiar corner turrets: exposed brick structure Withterracolla details. II. Location: Situated at the soulh--east af the Shait Gombuz Mosque; Khalifatabad, Bagerhat, Khulna Ill. Surrounding environment: The mosque is now totally detached from the Sha~ Gambuz Complex by a highway which runs between them. Originally it was enclosed by a boundary wall • PLATE :XV-a Singer Mosque Al Khaiifatabad, Bagerhat ~.., ~•~(/ '\:~ 1f2: :i \:~ ,,'" ' ,"," ,r r------l ii Ii~------.I ~ ~ 'i\\ - , /,r;i~.'0 (~ ~. ..~.. . ". \ ': ~J ~Il~'!->. ' . Plan Details • PLATE: XV-b Singar Mosque At Khahfatabad Bagerhat '''''''''. '.'''''. ,-"'•..~--- Section .. . "- -- .. -, ------" I \ .... ..- II I / ------2--r-'" /:: " :D - \J 1-;0_ .', ~ ... 2"1 \ j"- :or " 5~J , ",,,. , , L______. Details PLATE - XV-e Singar Mosque Al Khalifatabad, Bagerhal ----~ / / / \. ~'/ ~C--;;~=~__.,-"------~~---.--"=_===_,__-~=..:--:--::,JI --:;;:.- -,- '-~""-= - -.... ! ;;;;;r- 6f'-~ /:"- I"'" , 1/ \ U !",,,,,,l 1- . T Elevation !''~ :,,",-, ,-. ,---- - Photographs wijh four corner turrets and a small arched gateway on the east, the enclosure was demolished dunng the construction ofllle highway. iv. Present condition and use: The mosque structure is recen~y restored by the ArchallOlogy Department. v, Building components: Form: The mosque ISa 30'-<3"squarebrick structure. The diameter of the dome is 24'.1"_ The diameter of the four corner turrets is 4',2" Interior: The interior is a square of 25'-6". Wall: The walls are 7'-0" thick; constructed with 2" x 5" x 6" bricks. Opanlng: The three entrance doors in the east are fianked with two pointed arches: they are bordered Within rectangular frames with parallel terracotta details Within raised brick mouldings at the top: the central door is much higher and wider than the others The single openings on the northern and southern wall contaln!wo pointed arches sprang from the recesses of the side walls are similar to the eastem doors in detail from outside Niche: There are !WO spear-headed multi-cusped arched lamp- niches within rectangular frames With parallel terracotta details at the top in the western wall and two other smaller ones in the north and south walls. Mihrab: There are multi-foiled arches in front of the slngie central m;hrab. The arches raises from decorated octagonal pilasters and terminate In a spear-headed detail: they are bordered within two rectangular frames wilh two parallel terracotta details at the top wilhin raised brick mouldings and the spandrel IS decorated with two terracotta rosettes on eilher Side; the space between the two frames Is decorated by terracotta details; a chain-and-bell terracotta motif decorates the deep apse of the mihrab and at the top of the !fames there is a series ot battlements. Roof Cornice: The roof comice IScurved: the pick is 12" lifted upward at the centre: there are two slender string courses on the cornice, with e>denslveIerracotta panels of blind merlons in between, there is also another thin course of terracotta detail just bellow the string courses, Combination of all these details acts as rhythmic termination ot the building. Comer Turret: Circular in plan: With a base of mouldings raised up to 2'-2", height: 4 more string courses on the turret divides the shalt Into 5 parts, Transitional Fonn: Squinches are used to transfer the square supporting torm Into octagon for the circular base of the dome above: the octagon is then transformed into circle by using brick pendentives: the squinches sprang from brick piiasters on the inner wall surface, Dome and vault: The dome over the mosque is a hemispherical one; the highest p 5.6.3 The Blbl Begnl Mosque: (Plate: XVI) I. Type: Single domed square mosque: circular corner turrets; exposed brick stn.Jeture w~h Ierracotta details. Ii. LOC;ltion: Situated at west of the Ghora Dighi of Sheit Gombuz Mosque: Khalifatabad, Bagerha~ Khulna. IIi. Surrounding environment: The mosque stands on the southern side of an un-metalled road which runs on the embankment of the Dighi. The surrounding area is inaccessibje due to PLATE, XVI-a Bibi Begni's Mosque At Khallfatabad, 8agerhat ,.:\ ~.'0: % /" .t " '. "./ '>c .,~k • Plan / ------Detail C',, PLATE: XVI.b Bibi Begni Mosque At Khal,fatabad, Bagerhat Section ....m ] ,. L __~ _ Details PLATE - XVI-e Bibi Begni Mosque At Khallfatabad, Bagerhal Elevation .,.--.'r" -,.", . Photoghaphs unplanned growth of trees almost creahng a Jungle and obslnJding all the.views of the mosque; this also resulls in increase 01dampness in the building. lv, Present condllion and use: Although the mosque was restored earlier, due to severe salln~y the building structure was highly damaged and started showing symptoms to fall apart, recently Archaeology Department has again started its restoration work. v. Bulldlng components: FOrni: The mosque is a 51'.10" square brick structure. The diameter 01the dome is 31'-0", The diameter 01the lour corner turrets is 4'.5" Interior; The intenor is a square of 32'-10•. Wall: The walls are 9'--6" Ihick; constructed with 2" x 5" x 6" bricks. Opening: The three entrance doors in the east are flanked with two pointed arches; the central one, which is much higher and wider than the others, is bordered wifh two rectangular frames; the space between Ihe two frames is filled with terracotla details; the other two doors devoid of any further decorations The two Single doors at the centre of the southern and the northem wall are similar 10Ihe central one olthe east wall. Niche: There ere two spear-headed multi.cusped arched lamp. niches each in the northern and southern walls. Mlhrab: The mihrab details in Ihls mosque different from the others; The central mlhrab IS bordered with geometric motifs and blind me~ons; separaled by laleral bands of brick moutdings, the spandrel is decorated wilh two terracolta rosettes on eilher side; the mulll--cusped arches raises from decorated oct"9onal pilasters; the apse of the mihrab contains panels of motifs simila~y separated by mouldings and a chain-bell motif at the centre; the smaller slde-millrabs are similar in detail but with an added series of battlements at the top Roof Cornice: The roof comfce is curved, the pick is 2'-6.94" lifted upward at the centre; there is a single slender string courses on ltle cornice; the termination of such huge mosque seems a little weak in compare to the other mosques of Khan--e-Jahan Slyle. Corn&r Turret: Circular in plan; With a base of mouldings raised up to 2'-4" height; 6 more string courses on the turret divides the shaft into 7 parts Transitional Form: Squinches to form the octagon for the circular base of the dome above rises from slender brick semK:lrcular pilasters, these pilasters in compare to the huge dlmens,on 01 the dome above seems very inadequate Dome and vault: The dome over the mosque is a hemispherical one, the highest point reaches up to 40'-3" from the ground. vi. Special &I&menis: The exterior walis 01this mosque are peculiariy barren even in compare to the other austere looking bUildings 01 Khan-e- Jahan Slyle The exterior projection of the mlhrab on the west wall contains two e>dra circular comer towers rising about half height of the building, The arches of the mlhrab are constructed by brick corbelling system; this seems to be either an exception or an eITorof restoration • 5.6.4 The Chunakhola Mosque: (Plate' XVII) I. Type: Single domed square mosque; circular corner turrets: exposed brick structure With terracolta details. Ii. Location; Situated at far west of the Ghora Dighi of Shalt Gombuz Mosque. Khalifatabad, Bagerhat, Khulna iii. Surrounding environment: It stands alone on an isolated low mound in lhe midst of vast flat nce-field and has no road connection Wlth the adjacent mosques. ;Y. Pl"e$entcondition and use: Although the mosque was heavily eroded due to severe salin~y, specially the lower part of the building structure was highly damaged, Archaeology Department has restored the bUilding: the lower part of the building IS almost entirely rabu,l! and shows some definite symptoms of erroneous restoration. v. Building components: Form: The mosque is a 40'-0" square brick structure The diameter of the dome is 23'.10" The diameter of the four corner turrets is 5'-5". Interior: The interior is a square of 25'-0 •. Wall: The walls are 7'~" thick; constructed With 2" x 5" x 6" bncks Opening: The three entrance doors in the east are flanked with two pointed arches; they are bordered wilhin two rectangular frames with parallel terracotta details within raised brick mouldings at the lop of the frames; the space between the two frames is decorated by terracotta details; at the top of the brick mouldings there is a series of battlements and the central point is crowned by a kelese motif, the central door is higher and Wider than the others: The other two doors in the east are bordered Within rectangular frames with parallel PLATE: XVII •• Chunakhola Mosque At Khailfalabad, Bagerhat ... !"!"'.-!",.-!"';_~ -. Plan ------_._---~~-~-- 0_ Ceok.1 Mell,ab Side Meh",b ,.... '------""- ---T----". "'-.11 '''''' .. __~_L _ Details • PLATE: XVIl-b Chunakhola Mosque At Khalifatabad, Bagerhal Section --;:::-;q 1- \~. \\' !f.\. (, +I"" .-t r, 0 r (\(;;;)'1" ,-,J T' t8 'IU',IJL,'IIUUU' I'" flIi'"~~"''''''''''""""',,'",,'''""'.""""'''''.~~I -"= ------~i1J C,. ~~" -j------;i . .",- _L --' " ":'" \- " I- ,-" "'". ,i T_' 112'" 11~'_"-,---;.= Details ! PLATE. XVIl-c Chunakhola Mosque At Khalifatabad, Bagerhat ------~ / r- •... 11 " --- , ~ i '. ~A II Elevation 'IJ''''~''''',.,••,.••..•••..••• _ •• Photographs terracotla details within raised brick mouldings at the top; The single openings On the northern and southem wall contain two pointed arches sprang from the recesses of the side walls are similar to the eastern central door In detail. Niche: There are two spear-headed multi-cusped arched lamp- niches each in the northem and southern walls. Mlhrab: The mihrab detail is almost identical to the Singar Mosque described earlier; the multi-foiled arches with spear-headed detail, decoraled octagonal brick pilasters, two rectangular bmdenng frames, raised brick mouldings, decorated terracotta rosettes in spandrel, decorated terracotta details between tlle two frames and a series of battlements at the top are all alike; again there are the a chain-and-bell terracotta motif in the apse of the mihrab; the apse also has panels of motifs separated by mouldings; the slde-mihrabs are similar in detail but with without any battlement at the Roof Cornice: The roof cornice IScurved, the pick is 7" iifted upward at the centre, there are three string courses on the cornice; the upper and lower ones being bold and strong conlaining the comparatively weaker one in between., moreover below the string courses there is a band of geometric terracatta patterns with rhythmic intervals witllin a continuous frame; all of them together creates a spectacular termination of the mosque. Comer Turlllt: Circular in plan, with e base of mouldings raised up to 4'-3" height; 3 more string courses on the turret divides the shaft into 4 parts 88 •••. Transitional Fonn: Squinches form the octagon and then this octagon is resolved Into a circle for the base of the dome above the. square space. Dome and vault: The dome over the mosque is a hemispherical one: the highest poinl reaches up to 32'-9" from the ground vi. Special elements: The exterior of this mosque shows some resemblance with the Singar Mosque described earlier, but, walls here are more articulated than the earlier; the solid sunaces in between the doors and the corner turrets of the extenor wall are decorated with terrecolta features 5.7 GROUP 03: Reza Khoda Mosque group: 5.7.1 The Reza Khoda Mosque: (Plate: XVIII) i. Type: Original name was Reza Khan's Mosque, six domed rectangular mosque with octagonal corner turrets: exposed brick structure with terrecotta details ii. Location: Situated on the western side of a secondary Khan-e-Jahan road: Khalrtatabad, Bagerhat. Khulna iii. SurroundIng environment: The approaching secondary Khan-e-Jahan road offshoots perpendicularly toward south from the or~inal Khan-e-Jahan's main road', the mosque is adjacent to the Zindaplr Mausoleum complex. iv. Present condition and use: The mosque structure is now in a very dilapidated condition; only the parts of the four walls remain up to 6 to 7 ft.; the corner turrets are totally destroyed oller the base level. the pieces of the stone columns are found scattemnghere and there, some partially buned under ground: In spite 01its condition, the mosque is a very special case-study for the examination of its original structural systems; a 89 PLATE : XVIII-a Rezakhoda Mosque At Khallfatabad, Bagerhat --~- , e•••••.•'__ 5'''._ Detail PLATE: XVIII.b Reza Khoda Mosque At Khahfatabad, Bagerhat tempor~ry structure has been erected inside the mosque and is used by the 10c~1 poople for prayers. v. Building components: Form: The mosque is a 50'-7" x 37'-7" rect~ngular brick structure. The diameter olthe domes is 11'-3"" The arm of the four octagonalcorner turrets is 1'.3". Inlerior; The interlor;s a rectangle of 39'-3" x 26'-3", Wall: The walls are 5'-8- thick: oonstructedwith 2" x 5" x 6" bricks. Column: There were two slender stone columns, on whiCh arches carrying the load of the domes rest. Pilasters on walls are of brick, Opening: Among the three entrance doors in the east the central door is sllgh~y wider than the two adjacent ones, Mlhrab: The central one of the three mihrabs on the western w~11is larger than the others: the mlhrabs are lIanked by richly deoorated octagonal brick pilasters; there are mUIiL-Ioiled arches in front of the three mlhrabs. The arches terminate In a spear-headed det~il; ~ chain-and.bell terracotta motif and I~teral bands of terracolta panels decorates the apse of the each mihrab, ComerTurrel: Octagonal in plan with a base of mouldings Transitional Form: The interior rectangular space Is divided into six smaller square un~s of 11".9" dimension to transform them into circJes for the base of the dome above by using brick pendentives. vi. SplH:lal elements: The solid surfaces in between the doors and the comer turrets of the eastern exterior wall are relieved w~h two sunken panels, The inner panel is toped w~h a mul~-foiled arch brick detail and a hanging chain-beil mo~f; the comer turrets join With the exterior walls on two stepped recesses; 90 ••• the two other openings on south and north walls are similar In detail containing panels and recesses In-between the openings and near the corner turrets. 5.7.2 The Zindapir Mausoleum: (Plate: XIX) i. Type: Single domed square Mausoleum with octagonal corner turrets; exposed brick slnJcturewith terracotla details ii. Location; S~uated on the southern SIde of a terliary Khan~-Jahan road; Khalilalabad, Bagerhat. Khulna. iii. SUrTOunding environment: The tertiary Khan~-Jahan road offuhoots perpendicularly toward east from the original Khan~-Jahan's secondary road which leads to the Reza Khoda Mosque; the Mausoleum is within the boundanes 01 the Zindapir Mausoleum complex; there ISan approach gateway to the walled (01laler date) complex that contains a large number 01 plain masonry graves without any inscnpt,on on them, The mausoleum ISplaced non-axially in the boundary complex iv. Present condition and use: The Mausoleum structure is now in a very dilapidated condition; only the four walls remain up to 5 It; the comer turrets are totally destroyed; only the base at ground level IS viSible which suggests thai they were octagonal in shape; a temporary structure has been erected inside the Mausoleum, many a locals viSit the Mausoleum which is now maintained by a family who claims to be the descendents of the Pi'" ; since the anginal walls are still exposed the buikling constructkm system is clearly visible. 1 Plan II ,"'''' f------f r-'1 ]."", ,?, ~ ,- L...... s Fonn: The M~usoieum is a 35'-3" square brick structure The diameter of the domes is 23'-7-. The arm ofthe four octagonal corner turrets is 1'.{I,8", Interior: The Intenor is a square 0125'-3", Wall: The walls are 5'.0" thick; consln.Jctedwtth 2" x 5" x 6" bricks, Niche: There are two niChesin the northern wall, Opening: The northern wall contains only one entry which is the widest in the Mausoleum sln.Jcture:among the olher three entrance doors in the west, south and east the central door is slightly wider than the two adjacent ones Comer Turret: Octagonal in plan, 5.7.3 The Zindaplr Mausoleum_Mosque: (Plate: XX) t. Type: Single domed square mosque wilh oelagonal corner turrets, exposed brick structure wrth terracotla details ii. Location: Situated Withinthe boundaries 01the Zindapir Mausoleum complex; Khallfatabad, Bagerhal, Khulna. iii. Surrounding environment: Unlike the Mausoleum-Mosque 01 Khan--e-Jahanthis mosque is more exposed from the approach road, there is no axial relationshiP between the Mausoleum, mosque, gateways or the graves wtthln the complex. IY. Present condition end use: Renovatlon of the mosque structure is almost complete now; a part 01the originai dome which was present even two or three years ago has been completely replaced by a new one, Y. Building components: Fonn: The mosque is a 24'-6" square brick structure, • PLATE: XX Mausoleum-Mosque of Zindapir At Khalifatabad, Bagerhat Plan 1111- •••••••• - ~~ , , ,,, ' . I " II'•••• I , "-T' I .1 ~----:- ~-- I 1'''- i 1'''"-j-'""1''''<". 1- 1_1 __ -----___ 1_- _.------Details • The diameter of the dome IS15'.2", The arm of the four octagonal comer turrets is 1'-3". Interior: The interior is a square of 16'-0-. Wall: The walls are 4'-3" thick; constructed w~h 2" X5" X6" bricks, Niche: There are two niches in the western wall and two smaller ones in the north and south walls adjacent to the west wall. Opening' The northern and southem walls contain only one entry, among the other three entrance doors in the east the central door is slightly wider than the two adjacent ones, Corner Turret, Octagonal In plan Transitional Form: Four squinches transfonn the square supporting fonn inlo octagon for the circular base of the dome above; the octagon ISthen transfonned inlo Circleby using brick pendentives; the sqauinches sprang from bricll pilasters on the inner wall surface. Dome and vault: The original hemispherical dame over the Mausoleum is replaced Witha complete new one vI. Spectal el&mems: The exterior walls of this mosque are more articulated than 10 other austere looking buildings of Khan-e-Jahan Style The solid surfaces in between the doors and the COmerturrets of the exterior wall are relieved panels and stepped recesses; these recesses are decorated with Ihree parallel string courses of terracotta details at bottom w~hin raised bncll mouldings; this detail is a continuation of the base mouldings of the corner turret, this is an exceptional feature because in the other buildings the string courses of the corner turret never continues to the solid walls, ., 5.8 ConcludingRemarks Intllis chapter it has been established that Khan-e-Jahan Style is to be considered as an Independent Style in the evolulion process of Muslim Bengal Arcllitecture The frontier cu~ure 01a Muslim domain in the southern region of Bengal has been truly expressed in this Style. The Style not only exerted its ,nfiuence to the regional level but has also been recognized as a part of the Wortd Heritage. The monuments of Khan-e-Jahan Style 01Bagemat have been divided into three groups The Nine dome mosque group which contains the mausoleum 01 Khan-e-.Jahan represents the most matured and final stage 01 the Style development. The Shari Gombuz Mosque group represents the earliest stage where the searc!l lor an identity of the Style itsell is clearly evident The last group, that is, the Reza Khoda Mosque group shows the characteristics 01a sub-8tyle within the Khan-e-Jahan Style In the next chapter, the synthesis between this Khan-e-Jahan Style and its architecture is studied as a phenomenon 01 continuity In the Styie making process The architectural characteristics of the monuments developed under the Khan-e-Jahan Style are evaluated to determine their contextual relationship and the strength 01 place is determined by thel[ exerted infiuences on the predecessors Chapter 06 Synthesis between Khan.e-Jahan style & Architecture InlmdUCllon ArchileClure Kh.r>- ••..J.h.n Slyle .nd Infiuenoes Archilectur.1 Characters Design Pnnciplas The mai<,;ng 01 Kh.lil.l.bad C,ly Conclud'ngRem.". Synthesis between Khan-e--Jahan Style & Architecture 6.1 Introduction The developing process of the t(h.m-e-Jahan Style from a multi-domed large structure to single-domed small structure clearly depicts an idea getting absorbed and becoming adjusted to its contextual seiling. This unique process has produced some Identifying characters for the architectural monuments thai have b'*ln developed under th,s Style. The sense of austerity and the approach to funclionality of these monuments mar1 approach of this Style In Its building process excelled its influences over a long period of time on the making of 8engal Architecture 6.2 Architecture of Khan-e-Jahan Style and influences 62.1. Received influences: The most frequent reference of influence that the architecture of Khan-e-Jahan Style experienced is drawn from the Tughlaq Style of Imperial Delhi. The earliest reference to the Tughlaq influence is found in the works of Dani,' The tapered corner bastion like towers of Sha~ Gombuz mosque, use of stone lintels in Khan-e-Jahan's mausoleum and the overall expression 01ausferity in the buildings of Khan-e"Jahan Style ISthe central logic behind thiS idea The Tughlaq Style of central Imperial Delhi was an incidenf of about hundred years earlier. The Tughlaq Style became obsolete in Delhi for about half a century earlier than Khan-e-Jahan's period. At a time Khan-e-Jahan was considered as a probable , 0>"', Ahmo • ethnic Turk and It was another reason for whteh the similarity was drawn between him and the Tughlaqs, who were also of Turk in origin. But resent research has definitely proved thai Khan-e-Jahan was not a Turk; rather he was a descendent of a renowned Meccan Arab family', The ArcMeclural form development analysis of the Tughlaq Architecture and Khan-!!- Jahan's Architecture tells us a differenl story. The two storied Khlrki mosque, Deihl bui~ in the penod of Firoz Shah Tughlaq In 1375 A D., which apparently shows close relationship with Shait Gombuz mosque, is actually a single storied mosque on a bastioned fortress like podium. The design principle IS similar to Ghyasuddin Tughlaq's mausoleum, which is square in plan without any comer turret, stands on a pentagonal bashoned podium. The difference in the case of lhe Khirki mosque IS that the size of the mosque coinCides With the size of the podium underneath. So, the bastions of the podiums are continued over the roof level of the mosque. The above understanding of the deSign development process indicates that lhese bastions of Khirki mosque are not an integral element 01the mosque, rather are only extension of the podium The Tughlaqs never used comer turrets or comer bastions what so ever in any of the" bUildings w~hout a podium Even the tomb of Feroz Shah Tughlaq himself ISa simple square in plan (Plate XXI-a) If the form is considered With Its external appearance only then lhese comer turrels or so-called bastions of Shalt Gombuz mosque better resemble the sub-uman caravanserais that developed along the lrade and travel routes of the Mushm world. Moreover, the Shall Gombuz does not represent the final and most matured phase of Khan-e-Jahan Style. , """,.n, H••••• ('"""I."" M P 24& 96 PLATE: l-a(1) Tughlaq influence on Khan-e-.Jahan Style B • , • ~.. • •••• • "M'" ~ •• _. .• .. •• • • Wi.~'iI! c;;~~;;~jr~~;;i'•• -.-.-.-.-.--.- ..•...••- ,~ PIa •• & elevo""" of KtOr1<,t.lo,,"ue Delo, 1311 PI>-I & ,Ie>'",," <$ SsiII Gwl'lblld MosqlJl!, KalOataO>:l 8IJ,I" •• 1t>e ""'''''' of eu~ In'nt ptI100of F,= Sho" Tu,",,,,, (13".'1) ~~,,,," I,omet" wew of s.,1tl Gumb,d """0"" The'",e'"""1 0'''''0"' .nd ••• "",nded "",,,,., "","II, the ;m"'le 0' th. K',,1<, "',,",,"" of Delh, ; ,! Some "'~"" "'.t,,,,, 01 ••• Khatl+J.aMn Slyl. conform, to ••• d,"",'" am' "' well •• '"e cu",,,,1 """'"''"''",,1 0' 10. loco' •• PLATE: XXI-a(2) Tughlaq influence on Khan-e...Jahan Style Khirki Mosque At Deihl (' 375 A.D,) Likethe otherlwtl mosques ot the Tughlaqs this Khirki mosque appears simiiarto Sha;tGombuz This is the podium on which the mosque stands, the minars are an extension of the bastions, • Tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq - . -- - . Al Deihl (1325 A D.) This mausoleum is also a structure on fortress like podium, it should be noticed that the tomb itself has no turrets • o '''co ,LA' • B"'VATIO>"'""~"..• .,. KHIRIU _ • .. 0=0"".'"M •• """ • , "" Aller the constructIon of Ihis muill-dome huge structure Khan-e-Jahan concentrated on developing more coherenl smaller Iorms for his building activity. None of these later monuments have a tapered corner turret- which means that. a, The tapered comer turrets of Sha~ Gombuz were an experimenl in his building endeavour, and was nol much appreciated or repeated by the builder himself. b. The decision of tapering the towers had functional reasons (like achieving more height w,th less building materials) forthat particular build,ng only c. The designer wanted Ihis central monument to look bigger and more monumental than its actual size by accentuating its 3-point perspectlVeeffect Another resemblance to lhe Tughlaq arcMecture is generally drawn by the similarity of use of stone lintels The only example of such slone Iintei is in the mausoleum of Khan--e-Jahanat Bagerhal. Th,s building is built allhe last and mosl matured phase of Khan-e-Jahan's Style, Here, the use of five consecutive stone layers beneath the walls at plinth level proves lhat the builders have already become aware of the dampness rising from the ground. The stone spouts for rainwater disposal used at the Khan-e-Jahan's Mausoleum is another addition to the building. These features I,e. the stone lintel, the stone damp proof course and the rain water disposal trealment testify that the bUilders were famil,ar w,th and sympathetic to the gea-dimahc conditions of the locality' and at least some of fhe monuments af that time has already started showing symptoms of decaying'. So, Ihis use of stone is hardly an extemalrnfiuence of a long forgotten Style of more than 100 years earlier in date, rather; !hey are lhe desperale attempts of the bUilders to give permanency la the mausoleum 01 their beloved leader, ,l MowI. Q.A.••n. Naql M,A. (1~e~),op Ql P 11. ''''' "'~. concept. But, we must admit that there are similarities at least in appearance and in decision making process of these two Styles of architecture, The best prob under 'somewh"t simll", conditions, such as .,.diminlshing (or scarce) resources ... poIitic,,' end netural sacurity end economic limita/lons" Moreover, fhese two groups of builders bear similar mode 01 personality as recorded in hisfory Both the Tughlaqs and Khan-e-Jahan had fheir personal record as successful warnors in their early life and family b importance, The Tughlaq Sultans were highly educated, for example Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was considered as an expert in 'Dialectic Philosophy'" of that time and he developed magnificent ideas (like: commissioning copper coins, introdudng inter--eity bell-ma,1systems elc.) far ahead of their time They were followers of a very austere hfe-mode and even banned the use of gold as utensils of the Sultan himself The best resemblance between these two characters is their fascination towards arcMecture, Feroz Shah Tughlaq in his biography has written, "Anrong the gifts God bestowed on me, HIS humble servant, was a desire to erect Public Buildings" Now, this archetype of personality is not rare in the history of Muslim Khalils and Rulars. The mosl quotable and probably the best of such archetype after Prophet Muhammad (S) is Khalil Omar bin Aziz (R)". The archetype w~h all fls characteristics remains latent in the collectIVe unconSCIOUSof fhe Muslim world and with the nourishment from proper setting and in the demand of time they emerged In consecufive period of time', There are so many 'Omars' and his archetypes onthe , Mmod, NozImoddln 1'"'01, "" • K.orlm,"""ul ('90'), 0', <~p ., , F._S~,~ T~loq, "'fuhat •..F""" Shohi(T,."~,",,byf'iIJot).Voltil,"~"2 • GoUI'"",.,A_ (1Q~7I,ISJOm, (Bengali ""","""",J, Tn.u_ Pr•••Ud.•on••••pp. '''''2 • jun9, C,n (M.) I""), Man_"" Sy_ I'On 800"," Ltd, ,0nOO" PO"S-O,. 98 history and even in the present time among ltle Muslim leaders that a lisl can hardly be produced here. All these subjects draw their inspiration trom the same centre of intellect-self and produce similar activities but apparenUy have no socio-polit,cal, historical or even stylistic connections among ltlemselves The trend of intellectualism among ltle Arabs, utilitarianism among the Turks and emotions at Persians are the outcome ot these repeating Archetypes ,n their society.lO it can be said that both Tughlaqs and Khan-e-Jahan belongs to the same archetype of personality and draW'Sinspiration lrom the very centre of the austere Ideals of Islam", Thus, when ltIese personalities come to meet a crisis, in different span of time. produce individual solutions very similar to each oltler. Here predecessor does not exert infiuence on the later comer The mythical status 01both is to be measured from the reference of the central seif, the collective unconscious," On Ihe other hand. the Khan-e.Jahan Style in Khalifatabad has its roots deep into the Bengali brick monuments of Later Illyas Shaihi Style developed earlier around Gaur The spirit of developing a self.-<>ustainableArchitecture,emphasis on form rather than on decoration, endeavour to achieve balanced proportions and liberal attitude towards local context all these altitudes are the direct infiuences olltle later Illyas Shahi Style Here it is noteworthy that there IS monument of the later lIIyas Shahi Style. the Dakhil Darwaza With circular tapered towers at its two corners, different in appearance but similar in deSign thinking ot resolving symbolic constraints" of monumentality. Moreover, the tapering towers in the torm of minar of gateway are to commemorate the victory are presence by many a medieval Muslim rulers These towers acted as landmarks ,n their settlements conveying to the subjects the message regarding the strength of the ruler Here In Shalt Gombuz mosque the 10 R.nm"", lIoyHur,I,"&4), .." "'lrodtJcIron 101,1.",,, C"," •• on/7. 8aog1.-....,., 1)hoIoo.l'-;O. n GtIIU.u•••• """" ('~71. uP 99 tapering lowers at the four comers serve the same purpose wrth a unique architectural expression, 6.2.2 Outward influences: The Style developed by the Architecture of Khan-e-Jahan sustained better in the hostile climate of lhe southern region partly because of lhe measures laken by ds bUilder and partly because of pure luck, The adjacent river changed its course away from the city of Khalifalabad. otherwise like many of Ihe settlements in this region this city would have been washed rmay Without leaVing any trace, However, direct influence of the matured stage of this Style can be observed in some other buildings outside Khalifalabad region - they are slx-domed MasJldkur Mosque at Chandkhal" MasJ,dBan Mosque at Patuakhali and one domed Hammad's Mosque near Kumlra" The mosques of Barobazar though were probably example of earlier works of Khan- e-Jahan has the similar charactenstlcs of the monumenls of Khalifatabad. Except the grand mosque of Satgachia, which is almos! same as lhe monumenls of Bagerhat the other mosques of Barobazar are closer 10Later i11l'asShahi Style than the Style of Khan-e-Jahan (Plate XXI-b, c, d, e). Moreover, the indirecl influence of this Style IS also observed in many regLons The noblest introduction of this Style in Bengal Architecture is the Chouchala roof which was for the firsl time used over the central nave of Shail Gombuz mosque. The long lasting and the deepest aesthetic influence of Khan-e-Jahan Style comes from his matured works 01 Bagerhal. His mausoleum building, wllh its four turrets at the comers, is one of the main sources 01inspiration for the development of pancha rotn" layout of later Hindu temples," •• -.n, Sy" "Ohmudol{""7)."" oil. " 120.1611,'0" 15McC"ohoo.o. •••u. (1'''1. W. _ T_oI SefJgof.The••••••," Soo>oIy."""""" P.'" PLATE XXI(b) Influences of Khan-e-Jahan Style Baro Bazar Galakata Mosque Ih",,., II"ee mosque-; al lklro EJaLar~'" e,"",ples or rr,ultl unll "'osq""" WllhSimilar ~Iyl~ nt the monuments ot lJaqerllat The rUineD"trud"r"" 011l1H~algdchla shaw that tho ''',,"que hud ""culm lurr~!f,al the corners very "mil,,, 10 ii" B"u~rhal counwrp"rts TI", r"pLJkur ~osque seems to I,ave d tHick qallelY ,,'S'ae the ""'"'I'"' structura Pirpukur Mosque Satgachia Mosque PLATE XXI(c) Influences of Khan-e-Jahan Style Saro Bazar Gorar Mosque This one unit mosque" highly deTailed with lerru COII~ In Ihe lacades Tho verandah wilh three bay, seem" 10 be , luler"d Thissmallone unitm'''''lue re,embles 10 the lJagerh~1 nlC"'ques In lis proportioning'ysl~m Shukur Mallik Mosque n,e "truciure IS completely in rUlnc Monohar Mosque -.'",,~,"~.","- ,;;•.••~- TIle single unil mosque havo only thr~e opemrtgs at Ihe easl side ond there 'liP Iwo larga niches on Ihe ~orth vnd "oulh walls the traalmenls r()""ml~"" 10Ihe Reza Khoda group "I Ihe Ek,gerhal monumenlS Jote Bangia Mosque Plan 1111-.-_::- 111- •• , " , ,, . . ", .'-8" -"1"- , ,. I i mI ••••• I I 4'.8" II II II __ 1 __ - 1"'.".-1-3'_8111'6"_ ~' - , Details PLATE: XXI-c(2) Galakata Mosque At Barobazar, Jgssore Plan / d' , ,. ; ----<'"'''''' •• ".' '''" .. , -i ...... " ... I- -I II U tr • -'- IlT~. I,,~., .•.j ,.<" j , .•. _,ii', ..•. '_4-<,/2' -l Details PLATE: XI-c(3) Nunagola Mosque At Bam Bazar, Jessore Plan \''',"!",~._.~. ,- -- i I I 5'.S" I I I••••••~~S" I/-_I_L-j / / Details PLATE: XXI-c(4) Pathagar Mosque At Bam Bazar, Jessore Plan ~~---';;-~----.!' , , , . , . 1_;:', ' 'c" ~ mlh'" \ ! .. i , . \, , , ---....- ',: : I j ,~. " , I _,_ I' ':I: ~--1'---+-D': , -. i, , "~1W , I 'I , I " I '---'-, l ,/ I ~--- -~:,~:""'" t -" ;. ',_I. ,/J ,- I / / '" /./ -"~,,,.-_. I Details PLATE - XXI-e(S) Shukurmallik Mosque At Bam Bazar, Jessore Plan ,""",. --_-I'" .,1 , \ \ ,. "."1,,,•. , I ."1, , I I ".•t,"" " 1------,I I J " I I 1'),/2" II" . \ ", , ;t."" •••_ j'~t.. -' I Details " PLATE: XXI-c(6) .lore BangIa Mosque At Barn Bazar, Jessore Plan ! ~~,~ IFf-- I" ! I Details • PLATE XXI(d) Influences of Khan-e-Jahan Style , , , ,o O .• q DDD~ Masjidkur Mosque Khuina, Unlncnbed, mid 15th CoolU"" Molla simla Mosque Ha , ," ,:t- , , ,.'.~,-- , ,, ", , ,, " '- Qasba Mosque Be'erg,oj: Unlnoni>ed, early 16l;h GenlU"" - PLATE XXI(e) Influences of Khan-e-.lahan Style , , . , -, .0 Shallkup. Mosque Jhenaidah; highly altered, 16th ConllJry '0:"",.". Hammad Mosque Kumira, Chittagong; Dunng HDss.in Sh.h Goaldi Mosque Sonargaon. Dhaka; 1619A.D. 6.3 Architectural Characters The basic Architectural character of Khan-e-Jahan Style owes its inspirations from its contextual settings. The very identlfying expressions the Architecture of lIlis independent Style are largely governed by the conditions of [ts settings and function that they performed. 63.1. 5ellings and expressions: The most common expression of all the monuments of Khan-e-Jahan Style is its austere looking facades. The external exposed brick facades are plain devoid of any extensive decorations. The terrac articulate Ihe terminations of the buildings and in the mihrab in the interior, 8agemat, before the establishment of Khalltatabad City It was a rural setting just produced by cleaning lIle jungle. In this setting where the monuments obselVed from a distance the delails on its external fa~ade virtually would have no Impact at all, The extensive ornamenlations of the earlier Styles were products of urban settings, as lIle concentrales in and around Gour, lIle most developed capital 01 Bengal From a distance lIlese delail with minimal depth appears to be somewhat fretted and only in urban setting, where it is difficult to have long views, these details are most effective " The monuments are actually representatives of true brick architecture of Bengal. The massive walls, entirely of brick are the emphasised and most prominent element of architecture of Khan--e-Jahan,The Style of offsets and the recesses in the external walls that have been developed in the ea~ler Ekhlakhi Style, Gour is deliberately avoided here. ThiS is clearly evident In the central Shail Gombuz, probably the first building constructed by Khan-e-Jahan at Bagerhat", where lIle ,,'bld,~.1'•• ~ '" • eastern facade is plain and stark in character where as the less exposed and shorter facades of the two sides are recessed at the either sides of the openings. The expression of Architecture of Khan-e-Jahan is less ornamental but is more representational. The Architecture represents the ideal of a political and religious leader working in the midst of a marshy land with barely accessible jungle around in the most frontier province of Muslim Bengal. This preference of representational over ornamental Architecture" depicts the des'9ners aesthetic interest In austerity The intenor of the Salth Gombuz mosque metaphorically represents a forest" of column which led spectators to compare it wijh a damer hall'" than mosque, These two references clearly express the setting conditions for this architecture. 6.3.2. Function and abstraction: Although Khan.e_Jahanhas never declared himself as an independent Sultan, he almost In all aspect acted like one. The region was under his independent command and the mullitude of hiS building activity has produced a magnificent city In Bengal history after Gaur. Among the newly converted Muslims of this region he was the torchbearer of a new Ideal, 'a friend' and to the remaining 'the infidels and poiytheist population 'the despiser'," So, the function of Architecture for him at first was being a tool for propagating this social information, ThiS duality Of intentions is expressed in the evolutionary development 01 monuments Khal a fort with its imposing bastion type comer turrets or like temporal caravanserai 01 central Asia, The function intended a sense of organi2ationalism, containing conglomeration of huge number of friendly population Inside and impOSinga very " Sc,,"O", R_I1979), n..A•.••_ 0/ ArcI>"""",. ",.,,_ & Co It '" • • strategiC threal oulside, Where as the later monuments are more like houses or chambers for medilation both al interior and exterior refers to an achie\l<'!d sense of security in builder's attitude. 6.4 Design principles 6.4.1 Orders: Llke any other monuments of Ihe Muslim ArcMeclure the initiation point of Khan. e-Jahan's Architecture is a 'point', the self evident origin of all the geomelrlc form. This first stage is very similar our known ordering pnnciple thai W€ use In !tie ArchLtecture of today. In the next step, the point unfolds to become a line, apparently this is also a very familiar process 10 us, Bul, In facl the line is created not through extension of Ihe point rather by expansion, a phenomenon of extemization, which always refers to its origin as a Poinl of departure Then Instead of extending to a rectilinear plane the Muslim order slarts encompassing an area by creating an arc at Hs path, consequently the area takes the form of a circle," Now, thiS circle becomes the archetypal tor generating the triangle, square, hexagon and octagons through the tsngential arrangement of circles ot the same radius. By foilowmg Ihe number of arms of !tie unfolded shapes !tie Muslim progression of number series becomes like: 1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 14 ... and so on, The significance of understanding this number series IS that the trace of origin in the creative process In thiS order is to be not backward but inward, Another unavoidable consequence is thai irrespective of the reallhree--dimensional wo~d '" the Muslim in!elligence and creativity remains confined within the boundaries 01 two dimensions" This two dimensional nature of paradisal world is reflected In Ihe works of Khan- e-Jahan Style through the crystallising order of radial symmetry and the rhythms of externization 01the circles is the key-mode pattern of his every decISion (Plale XXII-a, b, c. d, e, I) 6.4.2. The StrLlctural System: form and space Form and space: The Architectural form and spaces of Khan-e-Jahan' monuments, like other Muslim monuments, are generated lrom the understanding Of the structural system for brick construction and are generated as units of In!eractlon between the circles and a base square. This characteristic of ju> situanons. There are two different structural systems used in the buildings of these monuments, They are: a Unils lor Multi-domed Structure b. Units lor Single-<.fomedStruclures In case of multi-dome structure the circular base of Ihe semi-circular dome s~s directly on the square made by the lour arches festing on the stone pillars. The area between the arches is filled With lateral layers of pendentives. These pendentives are constructed with diagonally placed cantilevered. radial and header-sided brick layers to achieve the perfect circle as the base of the dome at the top, This unil is then repeated to achieve lhe desired length and breadth 01 the interior space, In case of the un~s near Ihe walls the arches sprang lrom the pilasters slightly projected from the wall surface The exceptional generation of 2J110"'""11. O'••••d (ed,) 1'"'2), Philo_ ~""""""'.on,,_, SiockwellP P '" "" PLATE: XXII-a Muslim Order of Space followed in Khan-e-Jahan Style Unfolding of mythmic circle Rhythm of 7_14-28 Rhythm of 8-16-32 Rhythm of 11-12.24 Rhythm of 3-6-9 PLATE: XXII.b ------ ~- -- 1 - F>\' ",iii __ --. .>--~'\:-¥~--*,::/--~~- I .....J'-~="-' '"' .. J / - -'--)-.-r-- --- Rhythm of thirty two Chunakhola mosque PLATE: XXII-e Rhythm of circles in mehrab C/Iu","_la __ PLATE:XXIl-d order of externalizing a circle Proportion study of Chunakhola mosque PLATE XXII-e Motifs and Details in Khan-e-Jahan Style a. Terra cotta rossette: Shalt gombuz Mosque, b Stone rossette, do, c Spear head deta,ls: do; d, balliement mOlrf: Chunakhola Mosque; e, Tera cotta Jell work do, f, Terracolla mouldings and pan nels. Sheit Gombuz Mosque 'fJl$ I, ;', '0TWrr:I) I ,I I r :~ ?fi: ;,' l"(',' .--.V! i__ ,!f);,''--.)''i,'! };'\ f"'h ,le, '\ ,le, '\ .. . ,~----- . "• , . .. . , JIFiJ U~tjLrLf'ULrL 'ffi[ilIJTIlIIdJllhldl,"]]U,llllliJ,IIII,lI,IJll.IllLllill,1l1m,IIII,II,lllllirnnITrITInm'";I)' d - . :77- ""=-';:;';::&i';Y7Z:Z~=='~,-'_ f PLATE XXII.' Motifs and Details in Khan-e-Jahan Style a, Kalasa detail Over entry: Chunakhola Mosque; b. finial over dome. Mausoleum of Khan-a-Jahan, c. Only surviVing copula over COmer lurret: do: d. terracotta detail: Chunakhola Mosque, Chaln-bell mot~ in mlhrab: do Spear-head foil arch: dO; 9. Stone p'lia~ Sha~ Gombuz Mosque; h, Stone pillar in mihrab; do, Slone pillar' Nine dome Mosque; Turret lop Singar Mosque: Turret lop: Chunakhola Mosque. ~ , ,\ r'\ \1 (\ ./ \, b lr-rtl :J:'[ I 1- liT j ,, , ." ,',11,hD bd 9 space in Kh~n-e-Jahan's Architecture comes wrth the introduction 01 seven Chouchala Bengali domes in the middle row 01this bUilding which has become a lyplCal Beng~li arcMectural feature lor the days to come and has been repeatedly used in the monuments 01the later date. The single domed mosques, the represent~tive 01 individual characte~sbcs 01 Khan--e-JahanSlyle. takes the base square and rotate 11to 45 degrees ~round the centre 01origin, Thus producing an octagon and then pulling the circle over It This octagonal base is structurally achieved by using four squinches at the comers and the circular base for the dome above is then made by filling the gaps with brick pendentives ThiS squinches are series of diagonal arches placed one behind another gradually reduced by height and width The squinch thus takes the shape of a corbelled hall dome to meet the corners of the square interior space. These arches 01 the squinches sprang from the wall sometimes from a slone bracket, as in case of mausoleum of Khan--e-Jahan,or lrom brick details, as in case of Singer mosque. ThiS Iorm generic octagon is the basic decision making guideline lor positioning the other elements like mlhrab, Doors and openings and niches in the interior space (Plate XXIII-a, b, c, dj Foundation: Since authorized excavation was beyond the scope of this study any description of loundatJOnsunder the ground level of lhese structures can nol be given, As seen over the ground level, the topmost layer of the foundation is slightly projected outward at the base of the wall. From observation on the structures in dilapidated condition it can be said that the foundation structure has a regular sized outskirt brick layer with a core filled With irregular shaped brick or rubbles, The only exception is the mausoleum structure of Khan-e-Jahan, where the base 01the walls stands on layers of Slonecourses Wlthhorizontal mouldings. This stone layer is successfully protecting the brick structure and acting as a damp proof course for the upper structure. PLATE; XXIlI-a Virtual reconstruction -'Multi-unit structural system. The structural system of the multi-unit monuments starts from the construction of a single un~ standing on stone pillars at the four comers of a square. The four arches sprung from the pillars form the four , , points for the base of the dome above Now, the . " ~,-, gaps are filled with pendentives to ach;eve the i',", J ti circular base, on which the dome is constructed This un~ is then repealed in the four sides to cover the required spaces, 1 L , 5 The bricI 7 MOlbpl. ""IS PLATE: XXIlI-b Virtual reconstruction o. Single-unit structural system. The structural system of the Single-unit brick monuments starts from the foundalt ~,lb, do"",.odcu,,,,"_ 7 Then""llmm Floor: The floors of all the monuments of Bagerhut have been reconstructed several times, as they are still used as seat of prayers by the local people. The floor level from the ground varies in different structures, both the floor level and the ground level are not 10its anginal state. In case of the mausoleum of Khan-e- Jahan original multi-coloured glazed Illes are stili visible placed in scattered manner at the base of ttle grave. Some of these tiles are hexagonal in shape. In some structures small outlets with corbelled tops are found at ttle floor level on the walls to drain-away water !fom InSideoul. Plinth: Since the floors of the monuments are not ,n its original state it is vel)' hard to make any definite comment on the conditions of the plinth level. But In general it can be said that the remaining low plinth height was determined In accordance Withthe surrounding low laying area and there is a 6" raised platform placed In each doorway to prevent water penetration. Walls: The wall thickness vanes in the monuments ot Bagerhat from 4'-3" (Zlndap" mausoleum mosque) to g'--6" ( Bibi Begni Mosque). The Reza Khoda group of bUlldings, with octagonal turrets, has comparatively less thicker walls and the large single domed mosques of the other two groups has the highest thickness of walls, The wall construction system of these monuments reminds us the construction techniques of the earlier Hindu-Buddhist periOdS" Basically they are out-skirted with finished brICks with core of irrogular shaped bricks or rubbles. The outer sides have lime mortar masonl)' where as the core is filled with only mud mortar. The inner side of the finished bricks are rough and irregular. In the mausoleum of Khan-e-Jahan, there are slone layers at the base of the walls and stone lintels. There are slone bracket details at the springer level afthe '" PLATE: XXIII-c Structural components of Khan-e-Jahan Style Briel< wall with rubble core '.J;- ~A• , Slone pillars for mull,_unit structure Non-structural polygonal corne, turret Mlhrab with original terra cotta details Non-structural circular corner turret Brick layers in wall section Base of s!rucrural pillars Slone layers at base level arches of the squinches. Similar treatment of stone IS seen in most of fhe mosques of the Gaur. but in case of Bagerhat these stone treatments are used only in the mausoleum of Khan-e-Jahan as stone in !his region is very scarce. There are different shapes of bricks used in these bUildings, The polygonal shaped bricks are used for !he polygonal furrets, wedged shaped bricks are used ,n the circular turrets and rectangular or square shaped bricks are used in the walls. The thickness of these bricks varies from 1.5 fo 2.5 inches and the length from 5 to 9,5 inches, Pillars and pilasters; In case of fhe single domed mosques there is no need of pillars to support fhe structure, but for the multi-<;lomedmosques there are series of freestanding stone pillars in fhe intenor. These pillars are slender in shape consisting of a number of horizontal layers of stones There are three parts the base (square in section), the shall (octagonal in section) and fhe capital (square in section). These iayers are jointed by iron dowels In case of the monuments of Bagerhat the number of segments In fhe pillars are greater than the other monuments of Bengal region Usually the shaft of these Bagerhat monuments confalns two p,eces of stones placed on one another This is because of fhe fact fhat the stones were brought here from a distant source and was cut Into smaller pieces for ease of transportalion The stone pillars of Bagerhal area are almost devoid of any ornamentation and its teJdum is strikingly very rough and unfinished looking, The p,lasters used in the multi-<;lomedmosques are of brick construction slightiy protruding from the walls either as rectangular projections or in the shape of the central free standing stone pillars. Domes and vaults: The semi-cin;uiar domes of ltle multi-unk mosques of Bagerhal are much smaller in size; for example the diameler of Ronvijoypur Mosque's dome is 33'-5. whereas the diameter of Shait Gombuz Mosque's domes is only 10'--6.,almestone-third of the former. 0;:"> • PLATE: XXIlI-d Structural components of Khan-e..Jahan Style Entry arches over the side watts Pendentive to form circular base for dome Stone pillars Wlth recently apptled bricl< cladding In BrICk dome on CIrcular base Shait Gombuz Mosque Onglnal stone p,ttars of Shall Gombuz MOSQue Chouchata ,001 on rectangutar base The domes of all the monuments of Bagertlat are entirely constructed by bricks. These are pure semi-<:irculardomes, where bricks are placed radraily from the centre towards the edges.25The thickness of the domes in the smaller unils is same in all sections but for large spanned domes in the single unit mosques, like Ronvijoypur, Bebi Begni and Singer Mosques, it varies and gradually becomes thinner at the top, This special treatment makes it possible to construct larger span domes with brick as the vertical load IStransmitted through the edges and a lighter top reduces this load to a considerable limit The wider central nave of the Shail Gombuz mosque IS covered with a special type of vault called the Chouchala dome This new Iype of vauilis introduced for the first time here after the traditional ehauchala hut structure of Bengal. The vault consists of four curved Sides which meet In curved ridges, Each side Is a segment of a circle, imitated from the original bamboo structure. The inner surface ISdecorated with bamboo rafters and purlln motifs. The very shape of th's vault might have been derived from the bamboo scaffoldings used during its construction. 6.4.3 The Climatic Components The principal factor respons,ble for the rapid decay and dlslntegralion of these monuments is the extreme salinity in Ihe area, The floor levels of most of these monuments are built in level with the surrounding low country-side. As a result, the buildings perceplually remain saturated with salt-laden moisture, the corrosive effects of whiCh are very apparent on the brick walls and stone columns which often buckle or cave in. Use of stone beneath the walls at pllnlh level of some of the structures, testify that the builders were aware of the dampness rising from the ground. Another feature ISthe method of rainwater disposal, by stone spouts projecbng at each comer of the roof and small outlets in floor level with corbelled tops, in use at the Khan~-Jahan's Mausoleum. These features i.e. the stone ,. Ibid P 178 W8 • PLATE XXIII-e Climatic Co ponents Khan-e-.lahan Style, Bagef'hal A Exleriorof Beb, Begni mosque: the C Chunakhola mosque: Moldings and lerra coIta details protecting the surface underneath A B c ,• PLATE XXIII.' Climatic Components Khan-e..Jahan Style, 8agerh ••t A Mausoleum of Khan-e-J ahan' A. Use of stone layers beneath tha walls at plinth level B. Stone linlels, C, Jail work inthe boondarywal', D, Stone spouts alrooflevel. E Protected original wooden door ot the mausoleum, F Stone details. B c PLATE XXIII-g Climatic Components Khan.••.••ahan Styl., Bagerhal A Shalt Gomuz mosque: Tha sari"" of slone pillarsand a1fed of dampnessonlhem, B The western side of Shalt Gornbuz mosque: The recessed wall arid the moldings at roof level prol/ides cl,matic protection to thasurface bricks. C,Abradad fioorsurface in Nine Domed mosque, D. West facada of Nine Domed mosque' The vertical recesses dearly shows how the brick surfaces are oo;ng protected E Use ofjaliworl; in theShait Gombuz mosque, c --_ce. D , -,--"'-'-'-~""""""";"~ PLATE: XXIlI-h Climatic Components Khan-e-.Jahan Style, Bagerhat I /'" "~ /,1, / /"',,, / .\ •\ •/ / ~'\/'/ • / \ i i • / \ • i \'1 // ,I/\ ",,~,\~ • I., i ):/ I .. / - , ~O••,-.., f] • • I Stone lintel details MoldIngs"'"'" over opening plinth level spouts DPC, the rain water disposal treatment, the curved comk:e, the use of terra-cotta eIC.testify that the builders were familiar with and sympathetic to the goo-<;Iimatic conditions of the locality. 6.4.4 Monumentality: comer turrets Another major decision of Khan--e-Jahan's Arct1itecture is the introduction of circular turrets In its monuments. As mentioned earlier, the brick corner turrets first appeared in octagonal form in Bengal Architecture during the Eklakhi Style phase, and again the reference of influenced is generally drawn from Tughlaq Style,'. A careful study in the evoiutionary process of the Early Muslim Architecture brings out the fact that the corner turrets are not tile only element that have developed in the Ekhlakhi mosque of Eklakhi Style, another most prominent detail of roofing system, the curved cornice, is also for the first time introduced in the same building The curved cornice had its origin in the gentle curved form of bamboo hats of rural Bengal "D. Similar other details like bamboo rafters also appeared in the bUilding fa<;ade which confirm thiS concept of origin. The introduction of these curved cornices must have produced a crisis in the proportioning systems of these monuments, The hemispherical domes without drum underneath, the vast solid fa<;ade for rafter details, the smaller openings together would accentuate the 'dwarf" appearance of these monuments. Specially, when the corners of the square or rectilinear form goes down WJththe curved cornice below the highest roof level at the centre The very innovative solution to this design problem was achieved by the Bengal Architects by introducing a bold and vertical element at the four corners of the form. A copula was added on the top of it to get the height just above the height '" " of the roof at the centre of the fa~ade. This added component not only reduced the dwarf appearance of the form but also accentuated its monumental~y to such a level that it becomes a very popular symbol for Bengal Architecture, So, ~ can be stated here that the introduction of these comer turrets draws ~s inspiration from ~s very local context Bengali hut form and the remarkable sense of proportion of the builders are responSible for this classic invention of ordering element. The circular corner turrets of Khan-e-Jahan owe rts origin in the very unfolding process of the central pOintand rhythmic extemization of a circle. The evolution of the turrets in Bengal ArcMecture shows that, although the octagonal comer turrets of Eklakhi mosque is the pioneer, an under.(jeveloped form of such comer treatment is present in the Adina mosque buill under Ea~y Illyas Shahi Style, But, In this case they are 14 fiuted in details and IS contained Within walls, The next monument that contains corner turrets is the Chika building of same Eklakhl Style; here the turrets are circular in plan with 12 vertical recesses, then the Dakhil and Kotwali Darwa~a of Later IIlyas Shahi Style shows use of circular corner turrets with 12 vertical recesses like Chika building of earlier Style, Rest and majorities of the Illyas Shahi monuments has octagonal corner turrets. Then we find that the majority of the Khan-e-Jahan Style monuments containing circular turrets, Afterwards during the Hussain Shahi period, when Styles of earlier period were copied with excessive decorations of either terraootta or its copy on stone", again we find circular turret in Gunmant mosque, Bara Sana mosque with 8 sides, 12 sided turrets in Choto-sona mosque and even 14 fiuted turrets in Lattan mosque, '" ••••• Now, we plol the above data In a conceptual graphical fOnTltaking x-axis as chronological development of Styles and y-axis as number of side5 or rotation to generate the shape of predominant comer turrets of that Style,'" Figure 03: Development of corner turrets 'm-'1"4',-"'"0'.--, I 6112 sides 08 sides 01 sides Eklak~1 U., K~.n.•. Husuin "'"IUyas style lIIyos JaM" Sb.bi S~a~f S~.~I style style style "" The above conceptual representalron shows a depression 111thelime period of Khan-e-Jahan This depre5sion is not an accidental phenomenon, the tendency to reduce the sides riches lis pick point in Khan-e-Jahan's Style and Iighl after that goes b The tendency of this curve points oul three historical and stylistic conditions: a. The curve goes up when eclecl1C1smpredominatesthe Style, in other words more individual~y and purity 111Styleless the number 01sides b. More decorative Styles show preference to more multi-Sided shape, Prob reason for thls is the fact that building decorations in Bengal are predominantly guided by rectilinear terracotta tiles. When motifs are engraved in stone they are simply the faithful copies of their terracolta " This ron",pIU.' .""'''''' ,""ce>enIIlUoo "" 001 "'''''"en! the ..,.. ,,",,",,Ie """""cal 0"'''''' or ""I Styfo, •• many of the _I •• oItho! Slyi. """", ••••outo,,101he •• m~ , ••• ,en...,,,, h••.•• Irea be employed on a lurret surface the shape of the turret natul tendency to become mU~l-Sided. c, Level of political stability and prosperity is another determinant of the choice Inslability in political atmosphere ends up in scarcity of resource; the e~pression ofwhlch is increasing austerity in design thinking. So, the inlroduction of these circular austere looking comer turrets was the outcome of a long process of achieving Arch~ectural purity prevailing in the Styles of Bengal. At lhe tIme of Khan-e-Jahan the highest achievement of Purism-Bengall-Style is attended. It is nol a bac~ard move of the designer rather to be precise should be called as Inward progress. lowards the inner point from where every thing starts, Many a time attitude of Purism ,n the history of Architecture achieved lis highest points only to gwe Eclecticism" and here purism of Khan-e-Jahan's Style also shares the same fate 6.4.5. Perceptual design process: Design decisions in Khan-e-Jahan Slyle shows its special interest towards achieving delICate proportions and scale, If lhe composrtlons of the elements of the monuments are decoded there IS certain proof that many a deliberate measures were laken to achieve the highest apprecialion from the spectato~ The corner turrels of Shait Gombuz mosques are not equal In height, they varies in size and in treatment. Both the eastern turrets are higher then their western counterpart. This variation of height starts from the roof level where lhe curve cornice meets the turrets. The reason behind this variation is thoughl to be In difference of use of the lurrets The Ironlai turrets are supposed to be mezines"" • 112 • place for giving aazan: the spiral stairs inside the towers are one of the main reason behind this speculation The very small windows provided at this upper level are then very inadequate for this function. Moreover the treatment of the windows ot the two sel of turrets are very different and somewhat strange in appearance Although the total height varies, the height ot the openings is kept the same. To do this the designer has pushed the openings otthe western turrets upward and literally cui through the turret cornices above. Not only has that, the booleaned pieces of the cornice remamed attached to the top of the opening. Form th", treatment of the opening il can be certainly stated thaI the designer wanted to create an illUSion01 vieWing four equal sized corner turrets in the spectators perception, At first, the intention seems to be very contradictory to the design deCISion.A detailed inspection of the total form taking plan, elevations and sections together reveals the actual Intention of the deSigner(Plate XXIIl--e). In spite of the grand scale of the Shalt Gombuz mosque, the monument is subjected to very carelul and sensitively handled optical corrections. Beside the widened central bay, all the outer bays adjacent to the wails are slightly smaller than the others. Thus, produoing the four smallest square units at the four cOrner>; of the building. The mihrab In this unit is also smaller and lowest in height; even the openings towards thiS smallest unit are also the smallest among all. Externally the height dome on these four units IS the lowest The towers like turrets are now placed just adjacent to them. The Most natural reaction for any spectator will be that the tower like turrets will appear higher than their actual size, The tapering in the turrets will accentuate this effect to even further extent The curved roof is gently tilled towards east so Ihat more domes are visible in the front fa<;:ade.The domes outside the roof becomes lalfler towards the east as a resull the domes of the western side appears smaller in size, The triangular 113 PLATE. XIII-e optical corrections To achieve the grand monumentality the Shalt Gombuz Mosque has been treated with optical corrections, Firstly, the front towers are tappered in 2 degrees upward and at the same time the height of the back towers are reduced in such proportion that the Inclination is also 2 degrees with the horizontal axis. Secondly, the front side domes are made more exposed by increasmg the roof-slope towards east edge, Finaly, the bays near the outer wall are made smaller In dimension, All these treatments enhances the perspective effect to make the mosque appear even I'arger 10any viewer approaching the complex from the eastem Side. //~ -, thiS op"nlng IS .ame .0 anJlle deliberately ,!ted uvward to ereffie the ! opticalltlu.",n / ,. ~ o .0 , ",I '''"',1 i J J ".. '-,.. '''..~/. , oom., op""lngs .r" 01r"du""d size Shait Gombuz Moque, south elevation ,. T• + I ~ [ I I 1 , ,i • . •.. • • ,. • • . •• '..• ;;; ~~ , ". ~ ,. ", . ," .• • , • •• • '. •• • •• •••••••• • •• I I ! ,!• ! , - , )( • •• w "~ ••5 pediment placed at the centre of the front fayade and the Chouchliias behind tt increased the expanded nature of the front Together ailihese measures end up in the accentuated a perspective effeel of grandeur appearance of the mosque structure. The tower like corner turrets, the central pediment, and the optical corrections produced a remarkable solution of monumentality, a fulfilment of a long deSired aSPirationof 6engal Architecture. The position of the circular lurrets of Khan.e-Jahan's Architecture in 6agemat depends of the outer dimenSion of the walls that IS the square or rectangle on which the turrets are attached to. The data series of the dimenSionsof the outer most conceptual outline was tested in regression analysis with the outer dimension of the walls. The result certainly proves that relation stands and the two series are in posttive linear relationship, From this statistical analysis it can be said that the corner turrets are only actually accentuating visual elements of the outer fa98de which depends only on the outer dimenSions not to any structural element of the building The perceptual exposure of the total fa~a<;Ieisfirstly fixed and then the radiUSof the turret ISadjusted With the fa<;ade More the radius will be more II Will penetrale into the wall and vice- versa. The radius of the turrets holds no direct relationship with the any other formal dimensions in the monuments (Plate XXIII-f). The positioning of the side doors or openings In the eastem fa<;ade of the monuments is according to the proporboning system generated from the outside elements and features, Where as, the positloOlng of the side mihrobs in the western wall correspond with the gUideline provJdedby the interior elements and features; like the squinch at the corners, pilasters in the wall etc, that is why the axis of Ihese two elements does not colncadewhen seen in plan. This ISanother proof of the deliberate attempt of the designers to bring perceptual harmony both in the exterior appearance and in the interior space, "' 0 • 0 ~ • • i" 0 '-{lj~~is. '"'" 0 0 E 0 • Lll'l8.~ • • 0" 0 I!, f 'CC ~ '" e "-'6 " ,; • 0 ~ •0 0 - a.~1!" 0• C " 0" .It m°l-, 0 oj 0 i' • E • c ,,~li ~ 0 IlC • ~ 'C !'! • o" . ' "o • • 1ll~-2~ ~ ••D. •0. ~. "fU~"!!,_ 0 . o .!l!"•• 0 - 0 . Gl -".,."C •i" " " ~<,!B_lj j O • Uio _ 'iii 0,",,'" 0 0 E ~~-~~ 0• • III ~Q]ii~ !I " •• '6~",.!'! ••• " )C •• E :il .;; m , 0 • 0 LU;':'6o~ ,, 0 0 0 " 0 " oN."0- ~,~O ] ,. '.,-_. •U o o ! ;(- •• ••5 6.5 The making of Khalifatabad City Khan-e-Jahan's Khaltfatabad- city stands on an earlier Buddhist.Hindu loundation of 5"' century AD that had been abandoned due to hostile nature of the region, Today the city, once a prosperous Muslim centre, has become a backwater to the busting commercial of Khulna. Mucl1of its monuments and roads have already disappeared, Only 50 of the sites of either a monument or a pond have been detected yet; among the legends of 360 SiteS.Most of them are uni<:lentlfiedand in a state 01advance ruin" From such a condition it is very difficult to come to any concrete decision on the process of making the city However, the existence of a original Khan-e-Jahan main road, kx:ally known as Khanjali road, about 50 feet wide which roughly divides the Khalilatabad City into two zones locally known as Uttar D,hi and Dakshin DiM ,gives us with some direction in th,s pursuit. ThiS main road runs along the old bed of the adjacent Bhairab river and from It a grid of secondary and tertiary roads subdivides the city In an almost 'chess board pal/em"" This pattern of settlement, also known as 'goo iron pal/ern~', indicates the dependency of the city administration on the local agrarian society in this region. But. within these grids, places where the monuments are more densely clustered, the traditional attitude of changing axial direction 01complex model of Wo~d Muslim Architecture is evident In Khalifalabad City The best example is the Khan-e-Jahan mausoleum complex where the developments of the spaces are more organic than aXial The dispersed sites, like that of Chunakhola Mosque, where the structures stands isolated In a vast fieids the monuments and the adjacent roads shows more symmetric and axial intel-relationship, as a character of independent model, than the earlier ones, The architectural characteristics among the monuments of these two types vary in their extent of detailing also, 33 iIlld.p >5 •Ibid. " "-,Q••••.""" N,." M.A, ('092), "" "'-. p.>:' Where they are in closely clustered around a central large multi dome mosque they seem to be more detailed then others Moreover among the three groups the monuments of the Shalt Gombuz Mosque group contains the monuments With circular turrets only. Reza Khoda Mosque group contains all the monuments of excessive decoration and of 8 faced octagonal turrets of the dty, Nine dome mosque group represents the most matured stage of Khan-e-Jahan Style are more decorated than the others contains some features collected from multi-level sources. Persian influences" like; the extensive recesses In the exterior wall and mat-pattern of terracotla detain below the cornice; Influences 01 Gaur and local pre-Muslim characters mentioned earlier are frequent In this final stage. The society of Khan-e-Jahan constituted with population from different ethniC groups, The leader himself was a Syed, Arab, thus the administration 01the City was predominantlyArabs. The next most prominent group were the, decedents of the Later Illyas Shahi dynasty who were Pers~ns in origin and finally the group of converted local Muslims who became the major prominent group at the final stage of Khan-e-Jahan's rule. The placement of such a converted Muslim, locally known as Mohammed Taher alias Pir Ali's grave') within the inner boundary of the Khan--e-Jahanmausoleum complex is the deflnite proof of the statement. The placement of that grave and stone structure With mscriptlons on it proves that it was an alter thought but the person was a growing Influential personality at that time Although all these ethnic groups were living in Khallfatabad under a singte administration but must had maintained their own territories. ThiS IS the main reason for developing three distinct groups among the monuments of the crty and these groups show their differences 01 charactelist;os under sub-Styles of the dominant Khan--e-JahanStyle (Plate XXIV a. b, cj, "" Khan,ll.nornmtd H•••••II•• ('9'8), r_. Om"""",,"_ in ••••• m_ oI8of1goJ, A""",, SooieI)'orBItlgI"_ 31 P ''', ,•• ••••m ••••••• 'mU01<1n("")."<>- 116 ( 6.6 Concluding Remarks In this chapter we have analyzed. and verified the relationship between Tughlaq and Khan-e-Jahan Style through comparing the architectural elements and features of the both. The apparent similarity between the two Styles is derived from a similar stale of contextual decision making process. The direct influence of the monuments of this Style, especially In its matured stage, is emment in many a buildings of bolh Muslim and Hindu architecture of Bengal region. The aeslhetic interestm austerity, shilt and development from grand organisational scale to a scale of individualism. continuity of Muslim tradition of westernization of a point through circles, preference to use circular comer turrets, use of optical corrections and a 'dwarf like appearance in the facades - these are the general characters of the architecture produced under the Khan--e-JahanStyle. ThiS chapter also gives us an indication towards the process of development of Khalifatabad city In relation to the development of the archilectural Style The central Shalt Gombuz Mosque IS the beginning point of the Khalilatabad City Then the Reza Khoda group IS represents a sub-Style malntamed by a definite ethnic group and the octagonal turrets are the symbol of their identity and the at the final phase ot Khan-e-Jahan Khalilatabad the Nine dome Mosque represents the end result of the long syncretic process' Ihe final matured Khan- Style, a Style independent of its own at this stage the Citywas grown to be a fully developed form Withclosely connected monuments in compact situation around a dominant multi-clomedstructure. PLATE: XXIV-a Khalifatabad City The groop of monuments Io ',__ I, i GROUP 1 jqROUP" 3 / ' •• N • The", are ""me otnJ<:ture, 01 """,j .<101<100to 'hIS """",,,,, Eve" """" of to"'" 'he on\li'" _, ".""","" "'_0", do of ""'_ the whola compie> Tho .,,,' """~" '''''g •••• •••• tn. _'",eh",'''!he •• ,tom "'0 0' .,,-.""='••::::..'.0==••.: j ••• """1''"' w •• thO m.ln 10••.••, .o""neo 10 orlg", Exls""'reo' corner •• rre1:! .00 '1rOOg "'"""" ,oo! of lIle .1ruCltWe'"PPD"'''''' idea, ThOre ,. • "'iP' In 'oo moln mou,oIa,m "''''''"Q con1a;n1ng "'0 11'"'.an' "'" '"""000'" "'" tho",,, •••• """"red with """gonol •••, ",10""'"Iea. 1M """' a' 111.""""-_ corn., I. m. only ••••• In~g origin", ono. Tho """"'"0"' on ••• I"~, 'M "tn.r "ottJror; conn"", toM,." 'he 1"",1 '"'00"""''''' the "han+J,,,"n ""~ KI1•....,.J.h.n's M.u""leum Compie>. • PLATE: XXIV-a Monuments of Khalifatabad •...... II:;,~ ~u•••••• Pian 0_ ofJ." 00 doo, pan'" ""',Ior Corn., '"rret ..., Io••• Ro"'joypur Mooqu. "tIIlif"- w • ,..*4. " Chapter 07 Conclusions 7.1 Irrtroduction 7.2 ThemainfindirlgS of thestL>dy 7.3 Recommendations Conclusions 7.1 Introduction The study all the e~olutiollary process 01the Early Muslim Arcl1~ectureof Bengal was carried out 10 make a knowl€dge base all the identification 01the architecture of the Khan-e-Jahan Style in respect to ~s context and inftuences The study covered the broad base of World Muslim Architectural traditions, then the initial architectural endeavours of the Early Muslims in Bengal. Finally. the focus is on the architecture produced by the Style of Khan-€-Jahan, In this concentratioll the syncretic nalure of lhe Style development ISemphasised to Identify the gUiding Ideals. The local context and ~s trad~ional architecture as the base are studied In respect 10~s philosophical background which acts at lhe feeding end of the syncretic process For analysing Ihe buiiding information collected in the field survey a thorough semantic approach was employed which meticulously decodes the e~ery detail of Khan-e-Jahan's Architecture and ilS Style and it also draws out the intentions of the des>gner ,n clear and defined communicable terms. 7.2 The main findings of the study: i. Identity of Khan-e-Jahan: Khan-e-Jahan was the title of Azam Khan, son of Saikh Alawal Huq a descendent of a Meccan Arab. Starting his career as the general of Sullan Ghyasuddln Shah at Sonargaon in around 1415 A,D, became the provincial go~ernor of Pandua in 1390 AD Aller the death of Sultan Ghyasuddin Shah In 1410 A.D. Khan.e-Jahan left Pandua and arri~ed at the southem regions of Bengal wilh his followers and some descendents of Illyas Shahl Dynasty. Before arriving at Bagerhat area he settied in a number of places on his way, among them the most notable one is near Barobazar, Jessore. When '" Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah 01 Laler IIlyas Shahi Dynasty became the Sultan of Bengal in 1436 AD., Khan--e-Jahanremained loyal to Ihe authorijy 01 the Sultan but moved further to the soulh deep into Ihe Sunderban, Here he ruled almost independently like a Sultan and aIIer bUilding numerous numbers 01 monuments In and around Bagerhut area died 01old age in 1459 AD ii. Sources or Influencing elements of Khan~-Jahan Style: The Khan-e-Jahan Style had procured its position in Ihe evolutionary process of the character development of the Early Muslim Architecture of Bengal through the dynamiCs 01 syncretism belween the local context and Wortd Muslim Architecture and its archetypes, The Style drew ijs inspiration from the very centre 01 the austere Ideals 01Islam. In Ihis respect it is similar to Tughlaq Style of Deihl, at Ieasl in its altitude towards architecture Itself, However, the Khan--e-Jahan Style shows Its continuity with the Style development process of the brick monumenls of Bengal, especially with that of the Later Illyas Shahi Style and Hossain Shahl Style of later date. iii. Nature of setting for Khan~..Jahan Style. Khan-e-Jahan came to this southern part of Bengal not only as a ruler but also as a 'cultural mediator'. In a land 01 hostility these ClIllural mediators came for the salvation of the local people and to bring them into the religious orders of Islam through the process 01 expanding cultivable land by clearing Ihe deep lorests of Sunderban, Khan--e-Jahan became the econom.c leader from a religious one to the localities and eventually gained the status of a spiritual leader among his lollowers, both the Muslims and the Hindus, The region where this Style has developed was surrounded be deep Ioresls 01 Sundartlan. The building materials available w~ bricks and terracolla bonded by lime or mud mortars; techniques available were the experiences 01 Gaur, the Hindu construction system of corbelled brick and the bamboo Chouchala '" • construcnon system, stone was rare and the dima~c conditions were hostile In nature. From these conditions and constrains of settings the Style came up with a solution which produced the remarkable phase of BengalArchitecture. "' The Independence of the Style' The Khan--e-Jahan'sarchitecture has been justified against every comjXlnent of style identification and fouml fa consjijute as a full grown independent Style, It further elaborates that this typology is not only a part of fhe Muslims buf of the Wo~d Heritage. The Style had fhe sfrengfh to produce sub-styles within self and represents an era of fhe masf southern frontiers of Bengal in the Ea~y Muslim Bengal period Place of Khan-e-Jahan style in !Jle eVOlution: The Early Muslim Styles of Bengal developed through a process of syncrefism between World Muslim Archefype and the tradition of the local settings. A search for Idenfity and a Style coherenf with the contextual setting is evident in fhis evolufionary process After the achievements of Later Illyas Shahl Style the creative sfrengfh of this searen became timid and was ending up In the less imaginative repebtlon of proto-types, DUring fhis period the Knan-e-Jahan emerged in the fronfier regions of Muslim Bengal and had shown its potentialities to develop creative and as well as utilitarian solutions to meet the demands of the local context. Moreover, the Style had Introduced one major roof system, the Chour;;hala roof, in the Bengal style In all these respect the Khan-e-Jahan Style slands out as an imlfvidual Style in fhe evolution of the Bengal ArcMecture and secures its own place in the continuity of the development process. vi. Components of the Style: The experimenlal changes in this Style, starting from monumenlal grand paviliOn structures to ending up In imlividualistlc small structures show us the Spirit of search for identity and the spirit of dynamic characters In it. The Stylistic components that Khan-e-Jahan Style shares witn the other Muslim Bengal Styles are the brick structure with tarracotta details, the '" curved cornice and the use of stone details in the structu~. The individual distinguishing characters of this particular Style ts the austere and dwarllooking fa<;:adewith smaller openings of two centred pointed arch, the circular turrets, the Chouchala roofing system, the perceptual corrections and compact proportlons that has been used in the torm generation, Vll Concept of the Style: The very concept of the Khan-e-Jahan Style is In Its utllijarian characters, Buildings here were perceived not as art forms but as p;eces of architecture where torms are generated by contextual needs and organisational simpliCity. The basic intention of this Style concentrates on the purist approach to architecture and the inner life-mode of austerrty. Architecture here is not seen as a container of decorative art rather a fully Independent disciplme collecting Its resources from art, aesthetics, technique and philosophical, Ideals. viii. Form-space dialect of the Style: In case of the Shaij Gombuz Mosque the space generated in the monument is 01a pavilion type for mass organization. The interior resembles to a forest of stone pillars and the exterior expression is of a fort-Ilke monumentality. Resolving these two opposite characters in one structure was a challenge that tha builder had successfully met. The corner tower,"lke bastions with predetermined proportioning system, the Inclined walls of the tower and the perceptual corrections made the structure appear more grandeur and monumental in scale. In case of the single domed structures the sizes of the corner turrets were very carefully chosen so that the scale remains within the limits of the individualistic mode. The elements of the interior of the monuments are placed according to the guidelines provided by the basic circle-square- octagon form from which the proportion of the whole structure is denved ix. Meaning of the monuments: The grand scale pavilion type monumental structures were symbol of power of a neWly established value system to the 121 localities. It represented the new ordering principles that the society had to learn and admire. The monument addresses to the mass and intends to provide spaces for large group activities, either religious or political Al the more matured staj,Jeof Khan-e-Jahan Style the monuments became more reduced in scale and express more individualistic and spir~ual att~ude The self conlained space centres on individual and isolates him from the crowd towards the path of self actualization. TII& Style-conl&xt dialect: Khan-e..Jahan Style IS sympatlletlc to llie geo- climatic and social context The designer here had emphasised on the formal expression and functional requirements of 1115arcliitecture and tile Style developed by him has served Its purpose with remarkable excellence, The Style coped with the expanding frontier region by ijs concept of austerity. The less ornamented facades ensured qUick and ease of construclton The smaller openings reduced lhe exposure 10 the hostile nature and the use of stone minimised lhe damaging effects of dampness and lhe decaying nalure of brick construction, XL The cily fonning process of Ihe Style: The Khalifalabad city was developed on gnd Iron pattern evolved from the settings of an agrarian society. The eanlest monument was the grand Shait Gombuz Mosque where the city administration is localed The site organization of the monuments is complex in nature and seems to grow in a non-flxlai organic pattern, There are more sub-<:enlres in the city where monuments of Similarcharacters are localed in close VICinity In case of all these sub-cenlres there IS a centrai mulli-domed large mosque and a group of single-domed mosques arranged around them. Reza Khoda group and Nine domed group are such sulH:entres still remaining in the Khalifatabad c~y. In the city centres complex model afwalled compounds with non-axlai arrangement and at lhe outskirts the isolated independent model is more a dominant phenomena. xii. The influences of the Style: The Style lakes its inspiration from the local context and the spiritual ideal of Khan-e-Jahan Ihe warrior, the saint and the builder, The achievements of this Style are nol accidenlal ralher a fuffilmenf of a long aspiring goal of the 8engal region, Infiuences of Khan-e-Jahan Style are eVldenf In many other buildings beyond the Khalilatabad city. Specially, the influence is felt in the monuments of 8arobazar, Potuakhali, Chandkhali and even up to Kum,ra area The Introduced Choucha/a roofing system had influenced the Mughal architecture of later date and the mausoleum of Khan-e-Jahan was a source of insp,ration for fhe Pancharalna femples of the lafer Hindu temples. xiii. Survival of the Style: Khaiifatabad, long abandoned perhaps due to the changing course of the adjacent river, has been engulfed by the growing vegetation, by farms and encroachment from the expanding local town and settlements. Today only a few buildings are stili standing, a few ruins have been located but many more must have been destroyed altogether. This study shows that fhe bUilding characteristics of the Style were familiar with, and sympathetic towards fhe local confext, which in turn helped Its survival against the hostile forces of nature. Use of stone OPC against dampness, rainwater disposal system, curved cornice and terracotta details and an organization of less exposed Interior gave these monuments a distinct characteristic for which some of the finest pieces of architecture evolved under the Khan-e-Jahan Style. 7.3 Recommendations: The architecture of Khan-e-Jahan Style was developed in such a setting that it requires our constant attention and care. In this context, there is a need fa create awareness for conserving these monuments. The conservation is of utmost importance to bridge the gaps between our past, present and future and also to expose new gamut of thought before the students. researchers and the pracl~ing architects 01the present generation, The meaning and the functions of these built forms must exist together to sustain our heritage and to create a proper environment required by society. For any effort of conservation of these heritages, a proper underslanding of the fonn and morphology 01these complexes are to be established, Conservation of architecture is a social phenomenon. The general people are to be made aware of the cultural, historical and arch,tectural importance of these monuments. In this endeavour architects should take a leading role. For the preparation of taking this responsibility one has to develop and Increase understanding and communication skill between the different disciplines related to this field. Terminologies used m Architecture are often obscure, superfluous and sometimes becomes hard to comprehend, even for an expert Any future research in this field should take proper precaution aga,nst this crisis. ThiSstudy is to develop awareness for the rich bUilt-heritageof Bengal which reflects the true aspiration of the people In forming lIleir Architecture, taking inspiration from lIle struggle of a Style that has surl/wed through the ages A search of the continUity prevailing in the Architectural history of Bengal will not only bridge up the gaps but Willaiso expose new gamut of thought before the present generation Identifying the Architectural characteristics of the , monuments of Khan-e-Jahan at Bagemat through Stylistic evolution is the goal of this study but not the end of the process, Rather. it can be the beginning of on going process; a process waiting for the participation of fresh, imaginative researcher who would be devoted to this countryarnJits architecturaihentage '" References Abedin, Abul Fatah Mowlana Jainul Haque (1991), H8jrat KhanJ8h8nAli (R), Forn8nia Libral)l, Khulna Abedin, M. zainul (1996). A Hand Book of Research for the Fellows of M. Phil and Ph.D, Programmes, Book Syndlcale, Dhaka. Abercrombie, Stanley (1984). Archilacture as Arl, Harper & Row, Publishers. New York Abrams, M.H. (1985), A Glossary ofLiferary Terms, Hon, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., Florida, Ahmed, Abu Sayeed Moataque (1991), The Chota Son~ Mosque in Gaur. An Example 01 ihe Early Islamic Architeclure of Bangal, Inslilul Fur Baugeschlchte Der Universllat Karlsruhe. Ahmed, Nazimuddin (1984), Discover the Monumenls of Bangladesh: A Guide 10 their History, Localion & Developmenl, University Press limited, Dhaka, UNESCO Ahmed, Nazimuddin (1989), The Buildmgs of Khan Jahan in and around Bagertlat, UNESCO. Alamgir, Khoundkar (2001), Khan Jahan (r): Rular, Builder and SainI, Parash Publishers, Dhaka. Alexander, Cristopher, (1964), Noles on lhe Synthesis of Form, Harvard University Press, Cambridge. All, A.K.M. Yakub (1984), Muslim Archllecture, Islamic FoundatIOn,Dhaka. Amen, Farooq (1989), Form Making In Order. Sher06-Banglanagar, MasIer's Ihesis (unpublished), University of Califomia, Los Angeles. Baqee. AbdUl (1998), Rur81Setllemenl. Charact8ristlcs, Developmenl and Planning Issuas, Banga Publishers, Dhaka. Bari. K.G.M. Latlful (ed.l, (1978), Bangladesh Districl Gazettears Khulna. Bangladesh Government Press, Dacca, Baml, Zia...aJ_Din(1982). Tarlkh-I-FerozshalJi"(Bengall/rans/alion), Bangia Academy Bhatia, Gautam (1994), Sileni Spaces: And Other Stories of Architecture., Penguin Books, India, Bondopadhya, SUl"8shchandra (1991), Shakfi Renga Bangabhuml, Ananda Publishers Pvt. Ltd. Calcutta. Borev, Yuri, (1981), Aes/helies, Progress Pubiishers, Moscow. Brown, Parey, (1975), Indiao Architedure (Islamic Period), D, B, Taraporevala Sons & Co. PY! Ltd. Bombay Chakrabarti, Dilip K. 1992), Ancient Bangladesh' A study of tile Archaeological SOUfCflS, University Press Limited, Dhaka, Critchlow, Keith, (1992) tsiamlC patterns, an "Analytic and Cosmological Approach, Thames & Hudson, London Dani, Ahmad Hasan (1957), Muslim Inscriptions In Bengal, Asiatic Society of Pakistan, Dacca, Danl, Ahmad Hasan (1961), Mustim Archliecture m Bengal, Asiatic Society of Pakistan, Dacca Ghose, Probhat Kumar (1988), Gangaridl 0 Bangabhuml, J,S, Prakashani, Calcutta, Guillaume, Alfred (1997), Islam, (Bangali translation), The Univers~y Press Ltd , Dhaka Habiba Khalun (1990), Bagemater Khanjahan, Shatapushpa, Bangia Academy, Dhaka, Hallsnbrand, RoberT! (1999), Istamlc Art and Architecture, Thames and Hudson, London, Hanning, Oswald (ed.) (1992), Philosophical Aesthetics: an mtroduction, Blackwell Publishers, Oxford UK & Cambridge USA, Haque, Muhammad Enamul (1975), A History of Sufi-Ism In Bengal, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, Haqua, Zolekha (1970), Terracotta Decoration, Late Mad/aeval Bengal, Portrayal of a SockJty,Asiatic SOCiety,Dacca Hasan, Syed Mahmudul (1983), GI/mpses of Muslim Art and Arcllr/aclure, Islamic Foundation Bangladesh Hasan, Syed Mahmudul (1979), Mosque Archilecture of Pre-Mughal Bengal, University Press Limited, Dhaka. Hasan, Syed Mahmudul ,(1987), Muslim Monu/mmls of Bangl Husain, A.B.M. (1970), The Mtnara in Indf>-Muslirn Architeclure, Asiatic Society of Pakistan, Dacca. Karim, AbdUl (1999), Banglar It/has(Sultani AmaD, Ja~ya Grontha Prokashan,Dhaka. Karim, Abdul (2001), Bhara[jya UpomotJadeshe Muslim S/lashon, Borai Publishers,Dhaka, Khan, Muhammad Hafizullah (1988), TatTacolta OrnamentatIOn in Muslim Architecture of Bengal, Asiatic Society of 8angiadesh Kuhn.l, Emest, Islamic Art and Arr;hlrecture, (B(lI1gall translation), 80highar Publishers, Chittagong. '" Lawson, Bryan (2000), How D~signer..; TIIink, The Design Process D~mystified, An::Mectural Press, Oxford. Micheli, George (ed) (1978), ArdlltectUf9 of the Is/ami(; World: its history and social l116aning, Thames and Hudson. Michell, George (ed,) (1984), lsiamk; Heritage of Bengal, UNESCO. Mojumder, R.C. (ed.) (1943) The H,story of Bengal, Vol-1 & 2, Dhaka Unlverslt;o, Dhaka. Mollett, J.W. (1996), Dictionary of At! and Archa~o/ogy, Br.lcken Books. London, Mitra, Salish Chandra (1914-1922), Jessore Khulnar ftihas. Vol. I & II (re-print 2001), Rupantar, Khulna Norberg-8chulz, Christian (1971), £Xistence, Spl'lCe & Architecture, Preeger Publishers, New York Norberg-8chulz, Christian (1981), Intentions in Arch~ture, The MIT Press, Cambridge. Palmer, Jerry and Dodson, Mo (1996), Design and Aestheti(;s, Routledge, London & New York. Parker, John Henry (1994), A Concise Glossary of Architectural Terms, James Parker and CO.Ox/ord. Rahim, Abdur,(et.el) (1999), Bangladesher Itihas, Nawroze Kitabistan, Dhaka. Rahim, M.A. (1982), Social and Cultural His/Dry of Bengal (Brmgeli translation), Vol-1 & 2, Bangia Academy, Dhaka. Rahman, Sayedur (1984), An Introduction to Islami(; Culture and Ph"osophy, Bangia Academy, Dhaka. Rashid, Haroun Er (1991), Geography of Bangiade;;h, Universfly Press Limited, Dhaka. Rasmussen, Sleen Eiler (1962), Exp~riencing Archjtecture, The MIT Press, Cambridge. Ray, Aniruddha and Chatlropadhyaya, Ralnavali (ed,) (1992), Society and Cullure In Mediaeval Bengal. A Collection of Arlie/as In Bengali, K.P. Bugchi and Co. Calcutta. Ross, Peter G (1995), D~sign Thinkmg, The MIT Press, Cambridge, Roy, Ajoy (1997), Primilive Bangall: Anthropo/ogi~1 and SociologICal AnalysjS, Bangia Academy, Dhaka, Roy, Aslm Kumar (1 988), Banga Britlanta; Bengal in the descliphon of foroign traveller..; (5th Iv 1fh Century), Hnddhi India. Calcutta Scruton,Roger (1979), The AestllatlCs of Architecture, Methuen & CO.Lonclon. Senaarma, Prlyadarsan (1990), D~fence Study, Vol-I. II & III, West Bengai State Book Board, Calcutta. SensalTml, Priyadarsan (1990), Tile Military History of Bengal, West Bengal State Book Board, Calcutta Sharma, V.D. (1982), Deihl and ils mtighboumood, Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi. Slra], Mlnhaz-I (1983),Tabaqual-I-Nasirl, (BengaJl transiavon), Bangia Academy, Dhaka, Stevens, Garry (1990), The Reasoning Archifecl, McGraw-Hili Publishing Company. Tarachand (1988), The Influence of Islam on Indian Culfure, (BengeH transletion), Bangia Academy, Dhaka Zimmer, Heinrich (1971), Philosophies of Indie, Princeton University Press, New Jersey Articles: 1, Alam, Aksadul,(2001), Banglay Islam Bistar, Tattya-Porjacholona, Bangladesh Asiatic Society Joumal, Vol-19, part 1, June 2001. 2. Anand, Mulk Raj (1914), Bangia Desh Heritage, Marg, Vol-JME XXVII, No 2. 3. Imamuddln, Farial,(1998), Distinguishing features 01Mosque Architecture of Pre-Mughal Penod of Bengal and their Influence on Subsequent Architectural Development, Joumal of Asia/k; SOGietyof Bangladesh. Hum, Vol-43, NO.1, June 1998 4. Mowla A. and Naqi M.A. (1999), An appraisal of Khan - e - Jahan Style In architecture University Studies, KU.Vol.1, No 1, June 1999 S, Mowta a,A.,and Naqi M.A. (1992). Khaillatabad Sangrnkshan vide Quarterly Slapaltya 0' Nlrman, I (4), Oct-Dec. 1992 12. Appendix -A Semantic Also called semJOlics, semology, or semasiology, the philosophical and scientrfJc study of meaning, The term is one of a group of English words formed from the vanous derivatives of the Greek verb semalno ("to mean" or "to signify") The noun semantics and the adjective semantic are derived wom semantlkos ("slgnlficanrj; semiotics (adlective and noun) comes from semeiotikos ("pertaining to signs"), semotogy from sema ("sign") + logos ("account"); and semasiology from semasia ("signification") + logos ("accounf'). It is difficult to formulate a distinct definition for each of these terms because their use targety overlaps In the literature despite ,ndividual preferences. SemarJtics IS a relatively new field of study, and ~s origirJators,often worimg Independently of one arJother fe~ the need to colrJa new name for the new discipline; hence the variety of terms derJoting the same subject. The W(jrd semantics has uttimalely prevaiied as a name for the doctnrJe of mearJlng, in partlculsr, of linguistic meaning. Semiotics is stilt used, however, to denote a broader f,eid, the study of sign- using behsviour In general. Modem development of semantics The concern w~h meaning, always present for philosophers and linguists, greatly irJcreasedIn the decades following World War II, The sudden rise of Interest In meaning can be attributed to an interactiorJ of several hnes of development In vanous disciplines From the middle of the 19th century onward logic, the formal study of reasoning, underwent a period of growth unparalleled S,nce the time of Aristotle Although the malrJ motivation lor a renewed Interest irJlogic was a search for the fourJdations of mathematics, the chief protagonists of this elfort-notably the German mathematician Gottlob Frege and the English philosophar Bertrand Russel~xtended their inquiry into the domarn of the natural languages. which are the origirJal media of humarJreasoning. The irJfluence of mathematical thirJking, and 01 mathematical logiC irJ psrticular, however, left a permarJent mark On the subsequent study 01semantics Positivist theory This mark is nowhere more obvious than ,n the semant,c theories offered by the Neopositivists of the Vienna C,rcle, which flourished in the 1920s and 1930s, snd which was composed of philosophers, mathematiciSrJS,and SCientistswho discussed the methodology and epistemology of sci,mce To such "logical" posnivists as the GermarJ-oorn philosopher Rudolf Carnap, for instance the symbolism of modern loglC represented the grammar (syntax) of arJ "ideal" larJguage. Because the Logical POSitiViStSwere,at the same time, radical EmpiriCists (observat,orJahsts)in their philosophy, the semantiCSof the" ideal ianguage has been given In terms of a lie connectirJgthe symbols 01thiS language w~h observable erJtitiesin the world, or the data 01one's serJseexperience, or ooth. Against such a rigid ideal as logiC, natural larJguage appeared to these philosophers as something primitive, vague, inaccurate, snd confused Moreover, since a large part of ordinary and philosophical d,scourse, particularly that concerning metaphysical and moral issues, could not be captured by the Ideal language, the Positivistic approach provided a way to brand all such talk as rJonsensical, or at least as "cognitilfely" meaningless Accordingly, the Posl\ivists engsged In a prolonged, Philosophical views on meaning Meaning and reference On a rather unsophisticated lavei the problem of meaning Can bEl approachad through the lollowing steps. The perception of certain physical ent~les (objects, marks, sounds, and so on) might lead an intelligent being to the thought of another thing With some regularity. For example, the sight 01 smoke evokes Ihe idea 01 lire, footpnnts on the sand makes one think of the man who must have passed by The smoke and the footpnnts are thus signs 01 something else, They are natural signs, inasmuch as the connection between the sign and the thing signrlied lS a causal link, established by nature and leamed from expenence, These can be compared with road signs, for example. or such symbols as Ihe outline of a heart pierced by an arrow. The connection between the symbol and the thing signified in these cases is not a natural one, It IS established by human tradrtion or convention and is leamed from these sources These non-natural s'gns, or symbols, are widely used in human communication. In this framework the elements of language appear to be non-natural signs, The Interest In words and phrases reaches beyond their physical appearance their perception IS likely to direct attention or thought to something else. There are some words lor which thiS approach seems to work very straightforwardly. The name Paris means (signifies, stands for, relers 10, denotes) the City 01 Paris, the name Aristotle means that philosopher, and so Iorth. The initial plausibility of such examples created an obseSSion in Ihe minds 01 many thinkers, beginning with Plato Regarding proper names as words par excellence, they tried to extend the referential model of mean,ng to all of the other classes of words and phrases. Plaia's Iheory of "forms" may be Viewed as an attempt to lind a referent for such common nouns as "dog" or for abstract nouns like "wMeness" or "justice' As the W{)rd Socrates in the sentence "Soaates is wise" refers 10 Socrates, for example so the word w Philosophical views on meaning Meaning and thought In Witlgenstein's chess example, moves are made by moving the pieces. In a language, moves (say,ng something) are made by using words. And, according to the use theory, as a Piece is defined by its move potentlai, so (the meaning of) a word IS defined by its "say"'g" potential. Th,s analogy W{)rks only up to a certain limit Whereas chess is only a game, the use of language is much more. One plays chess-----(lr any other game-lor Its own sake; one speaks however, wrth other ends in mind Games, as ~ were, do not point beyond themsetves: speech does. In order to see this, compare an ordinary conversation with such word games as children ptay-e,g , exchanging words that rhyme, or words thai beg", With the same letter, These W{)rd games are tanguage games and nothing more because the children USe words according to certain rules. In doing so, however, they do not say anything exceplln the triv;al sense of uttering words; nor are they called to understand what the other children say beyond the minimal feat of recognizing the words. " In real speech the situaliOfl is radically different The point of using words in a real speech act is to be understood. If someone says, "It will rain tomorrow' his aim is to make the hearer believe that II Wilt rain tomorrow It i5 poss,ble, of course, that the hearer or listener will not believe the speaker Nevertheless, If the hearer understands whallhe 5peaker says, he will at lea5t know that thl5 i5 what the other person wants him to believe by saying what he says. S,milarly, if one says, "Go home," and the listener understands what is said, then, whether or not the listener will actually go, he will at least know that this.s what the speaker wants to bring aboul by using these words. Thus, the notion 01 saying someth,ng 's inseparably tied to such concepts as belief, intention, knowledge, and understanding The view just outlined IS a refonnulation of a very tradijional idea, namely, that speech is essentially the expression of thought Words are used not to playa game Wltl1 fixed rules butlo express beliefs and judgments, intentions and desires; that is, to make olhers know, by the use of words according to fixed rules, that one has certain beliefs, desires, and so forth, and that one Invites others to share them. "ExpreSSion of Ihought' sounds rather vague For one thing, what is a Ihought? Suppose John believes Ihat Joe has stolen hiS watch, John can express thi5 belief by saYing, "Joe ha5 stolen my watch" or "My watch has been stolen by Joe" or "II is Joe who has slolen my walch" and so on Moreover, If John,s a multilingual person, he can express Ihe same belief In German, French, and so forth These variants, called paraphrases and translations respectively. will expreS5 the same belief, the same thought. But whereas ij makes sense to ask for the exact words 01 John'5 statement or to ask about the language in which It was made, it would be foolish to ask for the exact words 01 John's belief or to ask about the language In which ij is framed. The aRernatllle in "Do you believe that Joe has stolen the watch or that the watch was stolen by Joe?" does not make sense Consequently, the same thought-the Same proposition, as some philosophers prefer to call it-can be expressed by us,ng vanous linguistic media. In other words, the same thought can be encoded .n vanous codes (languages) and 'n various ways in the same code (paraphrases) In much the same way as Ihe same Idea can be expressed in speech Or In writing and the 5ame numbers can be written by using Roman or Arabic numerals, From this point of view, ~ appears that saying something involves encoding a Ihought aod that understanding what one said involves decoding and recovenng the same thought. The meaning of a sentence will consist In ijs relation to tha thought it is used to encode. ThiS may be viewed as the fundamentai theSIS of the psychological theory of meaning As previousty explained, no theory of meaning can be adequate as long as it treats sentences as indiVISible uMs. For, ,n the first place, the potentially InfiMe number of sentences WOuld defy any attempl to learn their meaning one by one, and second, such a theory could not account for the obvious ability of fluent speakers to understand entirely novel sentences There must be, therefore, a correlation between certain recurring elements of sentences (roughly words) and certain recurling elements of thoughts (roughly, concepts or idees). Accordingly, the learning of the semantic component of a language will conSISlln the learning of these connectiOllS, In thiS learning process two notions playa prominant role: synonymy and analyticijy As the sentence5 that express the same thoughl stand in the relation of paraphrase (or translation), so words or phrases that code the same idea are related as synonyms-e,g .. "vixen" and "female fox' Again, becau5e one concept may Include another, the sentence expressing this relation will record e cooceptualtruth or analytiC propOSItion; e.g, "A dog i5 en animal." A definition, finally, will exhib~ all parts of a concept by a combinalLon of such proposijions Meaning in linguistics Semantics in lite theory of language The sCIence of Ilrlgulsi "I theory must embrace three domains: pragmatics, the study of the language user as such; semantics, the study of the elements of a language from the point 01 view 01 meaning, and syntax, the study of the formal interrelations that exist between the elements of a language (i.e, sounds words) themselves. Subsequently, certain authors spoke of three levels; the phonetic, the syntactic (the phonetic and syntactic together are often called grammatical), and the semanlic level On each of these levels a language may be studied in isolation or ,n comparison with oIher languages In another dimension, the investigation might be restricted to the state of a language (or languages) at a given time (synchronic study), or It might be concerned w~h the development of a language (or languages) through a period of time (diachronic study). Semantics, then, is one of the main fields 01 lingUistic science. yet, except for borderline InvestigationS, the Iinguisfs interest in semantic matters is quite distinct from the philosophe~s concern. lNhereas the philosopher asks the question "What IS meaning?", the typical questions the linguist is likely to ask include: "How is Ihe meaning of words encoded In a language?" "How ISthis meaning to be determined?" "What are the laws governing change of meaning?" and "How can the meamng 01 a word be gillen, expressed, or defined?" There are some obVIOUSregularities In the change of meaning that are of Interest to the linguist. One sum regulanty 1Sthe extensFon or transference of meaning based upon some similarities- ie" the phenomenon 01 metaphor For example, one can speak of the leg of the table, the mouth of the river, the eye of the needle, and lhe crown of the tree These are anthropomorphiC metaphors: the transfer goes from something belonging to an individual or close to him (hiS body, garments) to something more remote. The same principle operates in the extension of meaning from a domain close in interest rather than In phYSical proximity, Baseball-minded people are apt to speak of "rlOt getting to f,rSI base," .striking out," or .scorlng a hit" in contexls often remote from basebail. For a Similar reason, many abstract concepts are denoted by wmds transplanted from the concrete domain Such phrases as "grasping ideas," "seeing the point of a joke," "body of knowledge," "in the back of my mind," and many others, ale the resuK of this very Important move from the abstract to the concrele Meaning changes 01 another type are the resuk of emotive factors. The word democracy, for instance, has all but lost ~s origlnat meaning and has become a word applicable to any system the speaker wants to praise. The contrary development is exhibited in the recent history of such words as 'FaSCist" and "aggression." In order to avoid derogatory connotations one IS often forced, by SOCialpressure, to use euphemisms, often 10 the detriment of clarity, Examples of thiS Include the sw~ch from "underdeveloped nallOns" to "devetoplng nations: from "retarded children" to "exceptional children," and from "old people" to "senior cltlzens,"The preceding are bul a few examples concerning coding and meaning change, The questions about the ways of finding oul what a word means and about lhe manner of giving an adequate defin~ion of a word deserve a more detailed account. Me.aning and style in language Types of meantng Lexicat m6llnlng The olher component of sentence me8fT1ng is wQ(d meaning, the indiVidual meanings of the words in a sentence as iexicalltems The concept ofword meaning is a familiar one, Dictionaries list words and ,n one way or another state tI1eir meanrngs. It is regarded as a sensible question to ask of any word In a tanguage, "lM1at does it meanT This queslion, like many others about language, is easier to ask than to answer It IS through texical resources that tanguages maintain the fleXibility their open-ended commilments demand. Every tanguage has a vocabutary 01 many thousands of words, though not all are in active use, and some are known only to relatively few speakers Perhaps the commonest delusion in considering vocabutanes is the assumption that the words of different languages, or at least their nouns, verbs, al1d adjectives, label the same inventory of !tungs, processes, and qualilies ,n the wortd but unfortunatefy label them with d N language to language. If thiS were so, Iranslatlon would be easier than It is; but the fact that translalion, Ihough often difficutt, ISpossible Indicates that people are talking about similar worlds of expenence in their various languages Languages in part create the world In wh;ch men live, Of course, many words do name eXisting bits and pieces of earth and heaven: "stone," "tree," "dog," "woman:' "star," "cloud," and so on Others, however, do not so much pick out what is there as classify it and organize one's relations wllh il and wilh each other with regard to tt, A range of liVing creatures are mammals or are vertebrates, because people c1ass~ythem in these ways, among others, by applying seleeled crileria and so determining the denotation of the words mammal and vertebrate Plartts are vegetables or weeds accordirtg as groups of people classify them, and d;fferent plartts are included and excluded by such ClaSSificationSindifferent languages artd different cultures, Time and tts associated vocabulary ("year," "month," "day," "hour," "minute," "yesterday," "tomorrow," and so on) do not refer to discrete sections of reality but enable people 10 impose some sort ot order, in agreement with others, on the prucesses of change observed in the world. Personal pronouns pick out the persons speaking, spoken 10, and spoken about; but some languages make different dLstinctlonsin their pronouns from those made in English. For example, in Malay, kita, which meanS "we," including the person addressed. ISdistinct from kaml, a form for "we" that includes the speaker and a third person or persons but excludes the person addressed. In Japanese and in several other languages, a variety of words denoting the 1st and 2nd persons indicate additionally the observed or IntendedSOCialrelationshipof those Involved Other word meanings are even mOrelanguage and cutture bound, and ,n consequence harder to translate "Right' and "wrong," "theft," "Inheritance," .property," "debt:' "sin," and "crime" (as different sorts of wrongdoing) are lust a few of the words regulaling one's conduct and relalions with one's fellows in a particular culture Translation becomes progressively harder as one moves to languages of more remote cultures, and it has been said that it requires "a unification of cultural context," Insofar as a person's understanding of the unLverseand of the retatlons between himself and other people is closely I1nkedWiththe language he speaks, tt must be assumed, and the eVidence confirms this aSSumption,that the child progressively acquires such understand,ng along WithhiSlanguage, The great mal0rlty of word shapes bear no d"ect relation to Ihe" lexical meanings If they did, languages would be mOrealike. Whal are called onomatopoeic words are rather s,milar in shape through different languages: French coucou, English "cuckoo," and German Kuckuck directly mimiCthe call of the bird, English "d,ngdong" and German blm-bam share several sound features ,n common Ihat partlalfy resemble the clanging of bells. More abstractly, some direct "sound symbolism" has been Seen between certain sound types and Visual or tactile shapes, Most people agree Ihat Ihe made-up word "oomboolu" would better des,gnate a round, bulbous object than a spiky one, In addition, the appropriateness of the vowel sound represented by ee in English "wee" and i in French petit "small"and Italian piccolo "small" for expressing things of small size has been traced in several languages AlllhlS, however, is a very small part of Ihe vocabulary of any language For by far the largest number of words In a language there is no direct association between sound and meaning, English "horse: German Pferd, French cheval, Latin equus, and Greek hippos are all unrelated to the animal so named, except that these words are so used in the languages concerned. ThiS 's what ISmeant by the term arbitrary in Ihe second definilion of language quoled al the beginning of this article Vocabulary has to be largely arbitrary, because the greater part of the world and of man's experience is not directly associated Withany k,nd of noise, and It is a contingent, though universal, fact of history and biology that sound and not the material of some other sense is the baSISof human language, The relations between sentence struelure and structural meanings are also largely artlltrary and lacltly conventional Though loudness and stress for emphasis and certain linguistic indicatLonsof v anger, excitement, and the like are more closely akin to nonlinguistlc ejaculations and are somewhat similar across language divisions, actual intonations and features such as word order, word inflection, and grammatical particles, used In maintaining distinctions In structural meaning, . differ markedly In different languages. Semantic f1eKibillty Not only are word meanings somewhat different In different lar19uages: Ihey are not fIXed for all time In anyone language, Semantic changes take place all along {see below), and at any moment the semantic area covered by a word is indeterminately bordered and differs from context to context This is a further aspect and condition of the inherent and necessary flexibility of language Methods of synchronic linguistic analysis Struclurallinguislics Semantics Bloomfield thought that semantICs, or Ihe study of meaning, was the weak point In the scientific invesligalion of language and would necessarily remain so untillhe other sciences whose task rt was to describe the universe and man's place In rt had advanced beyond their present state, In his textbook Language (1933), he had himsell adopted a behaviouristic theory 01 meaning, defin,ng the meaning of a lingUistic form as "the SituatIon in wh,ch the speaker LItlers rt and \he response which it calls forth In the hearer: Furthermore, he subscribed. in prinCiple at least, to a physfcal,st thesis, according to which all sCience should be modelled upon the so-called exact sciences and all scientllic knowledge should be reducible, ultimately, to statements made about the properties of the physrcal world. The reason for his pessimism concerning the prospects for the study of meaning was his leeling Ihat it would be a long time belore a complete scientific description of the slluatlons in which utterances were produced and the responses they called lorth In the,r heqrers would be available. At the time that Bloomfield was wr~ing, phYSicalism was more widely held \han It is today, and It was perhaps reasonable lor him to believe thai linguistics should eschew mental,sm and concenlrate upon the directly observable As a result for some 30 years after the publicatiOll of Bloomfield's texlbook, the study of meaning was almost wholly neglected by his followers, mosl Amencan lingUISts who received theLr training dUring thiS period had no knowledge of. still less any interest in, Ihe work being done elsewhere in semantics Two groups of scholars may be seen to have constituted an exception to Ihis generalization; anthropologically minded linguists and linguists concerned With Bible translatio'l. Much of the descnptlon of Ihe indigenous languages 01America has been cerned out since the days of Boas and hiS most notable pupil Sapl! by scholars who were equaily profiCient both in anlt1ropology and in descriptive linguistics; such scholars have frequently added to their grammatical analyses 01 languages some discussion of the meamng 01the grammatical calegories and of the correlations between the structure of the vocabularies and the cultures in which the languages operated. It has already been pornted out that Boas and Sapir and, followrng Ihem, Whorl were attracted by Humboldt's view of the inlerdependence of language and culture and of language and thought. ThiS Vlf3w was qlltte widely held by American anthropotoglcal linguists (athough meny of them would not go as far as Whorl in asserting the dependence of thought and conceptualization upon language) Also of considerable importance in the description of the indigenous languages of America has been the work of linguists trained by the American Bible Society and the Summer Institute of L,ngulstlcs, a group of Protestant missionary lingUISts Because their pri'lcipal aim IS10 produce translations 01 the Bible, \hey have necessarily been concerned wrth meaning as well as with grammar and phonology, This has tempered the otherwise fairly orthodox Bloomfieldian approach characteristic of the group The two most Important developmenls evident In recent work in semantics are, first, the application of Ihe structural approach to the sludy of meaning and, second, a better appreciation of the relationship between grammar and semantics, The second of these developments Will lie treated In the lollowing section on TransfollTlationalijenerative grammar, The lirst, structural • ,semantics, goes back to the period preceding World War II and is exemplified in a large number of publications, mainly by German scholars-Jost Trier, leo Weisgerber, and their collaborators The structural approach to semantics is best expla,ned by contrasting it w~h the more traditional "atomistic" approach, according to which the meaning of each word in the language is deSCribed, in principle, independently of the meaning of all olher words. The structuralist takes the view that the meaning of a word is a !unction of the relationships it contracts w~h other words Ina particular lexical field, or subsystem, and that It cannot be adequately described except in terms of these relationships. For example, the colour terms in particular languages constitute a lexical field, and the meaning of each term deperlds upon the place It occupies In the field Mhough the deno!atlOrl of each of the words "green," "blue," and .yellow" in English is somewhat impreCiseat the boundaries, the poSItionthat each of them occupies relative to the other terms In the system ISfIXed:"greerl" is betweerl "blue" arld "yellow," so that the phrases "greenish yellow" or "yallowish green" and "blUishgraM" or "greerlish blue" are used to refer to the bourldary areas, Knowing the meaning of the word "green" Implies knowirlg whal cannot as well as whal can be properly described as green (and krlowlng of the t>orderlln6 cases that they are borderline cases). Languages d[ffer considerably as to the number of baSICcolour terms that they recognize, and they draw boundaries within the psychophysical corltinuum of colour at different places, Blue green, yellow, and so on do not exist as distirlet colours in nature, wa~ing to be labelled differently, as It were, by different languages: they come into existence, for the speakers of particular languages, by virtue of the fact that those languages impose structure upon the contlrluum of colour and assigrl to three of the areas lhus recognized lhe words "blue," "green," "yellow." The language of any society is an int8{lral part of the culture of that society, and the mearllngs recognized within the vocabulary of the language are leamed by the child as part of the process of acquiring the culture of the society irl which he ISbrought up Many of the structural ddferences found in the vocabulanes of differerlt larlguages are to be accounled fOf in terms of cultural differences This ISespecialfy clear Irl the yocabulary of kinship (to which a considerable amount of atlerltlon has been given by anthropologists and linguists), but ,t holds true of many other semarltlc fields also, A cOrlsequerlce of the structural dlffererlCilS that eXist betweerl the yocabularies of different languages 's that ,n many instances, It IS Irl pnnclple Impossible to lrarlslate a sentence "literally" from one larlguage to another, ~ IS Important, nevertheless, rlot to overemphasize the semarltlc incommerlsurabitily of larlguages Presumably, there are many physiological and psychological constraints that, In part at least, determine one's perception and categOrization of the ~rld, It may be assumed that, when One is learning the denolation of the more baSICwords irl tI1e vocabulary of one's natlye language, a1tenl,orl is drawrl first to what might be called the naturally salient features of the erlyirorlment and that one IS,to thiS degree at least, predisposed to identify and group objects in one way rather than another. It may also be that human beings are genetically endowed w~h rather more speCific and lingUistically releyant pnnciples of categorization, It is pOSSiblethai, aKhough languages differ il) the number 01basic colour categories that they distingUIsh,there ISa Ilm~ed rlumber of hierarchically ordered basic colour categones from which each language makes its seleeMn and lhat what COUrltsas a typical instal)ce, or focus, of these universal colour cat8{lories is fixed and does not vary from one larlguage to another If tI1lShypotheSISis correct, then It IS faise to say, as marlY structural semantiCists have said, that larlguages divide the continuum of colour in a qUite arbitrary manner, But the general thes,s of structuralism is uneffected, for it stili remains true thai each language has its own unique semantic str~cture everl though the total structure is, irl each case buik UP0rla substructure of universal distinctions Langer's semantic theory of art Representation and expression irl art Various theories have been proposed in arlSwer to these questions, the most popular being that the forms of art are similar \0 language and are to be understood as tarlguage Is understood, In terms of CDnyentiorls and semantic rules A few examples of contemporary theories that have described art In thiS way irlclU V" philosophy of symbolic forms, Susanne K. Langers theory of presentational symbols. and the works on semiology and semiotics, largely Inspired by the wr~ings of Roland Barthes, that have been fashionable In continental Europe. It seems Important to review soma of the arguments that have been employed both for and against the overall conception of art that such theories share In favour of tha view, ,t ISunde'liable that many works of art are about the world t'l somewhat the way that language may be about the world This is eVident in the case of literature (which," ItseK a'l i'lstance of natural language), It is no less evident ,n the case of painting A portrait stands to ~s sitter In a relatlo'l that is 'lot unlike that which obtai'ls betwee'l a desc"ption a'ld the thing described. EV8l1ff the majority of pictures are of, or about, e'ltirely imaginary people, scer.es, and episodes, this is no different from the case of literature, In which language IS used to descnbe purely imaginary subjects. This relation between a work of art and its subject, captured in the word "about," is sometimes called representation-a term that owes Its currency in aestheltcs to Croce and Colhngwood, who used ~ to draw the familiar contrast between represe'ltatlon and expression The concept of expression IS vanously analyzed. Its principal function in modem aesthetiCS, how ExpreSSionmust be distinguished from evocation. To say that a piece of music expresses melancholy IS not to say that it evokes (arouses) melancholy. To descnbe a piece of music'as expressive of melancholy is to give a reason for listening to it; to descnbe It as aroUSing melancholy is to give a reason for aVOidingIt (MUSICthatis utterly blank expresses nothing, but it may arouse melancholy.) EXpreSSion,where ~ eXists, IS integral to the aesthelic character and ment of whatever possesses it. For sim,lar reasons, expression must not be confused with association, in sp~e of the reliance on the confusion by many 18th-eentury EmpIricists. The distinction between representation and eXpreSSLOnISone of the most important conceptual deVices in contemporary philosophy of art Croce who introduced It, sought to dIsmiss representation as aesthetically irrelevant and to elevale expression into the Single, true aeslhelic function. The first, he argued, is descriptive, or conceptual, concerned WIth class Symbolism in art Later philosophers have been conlent merely to dIstinguish representation and expression as different modes of artistic meamng, characterized perhaps by different formal or semantic properties Nelson Goodman of the United States is One such philosopher. HIS Languages 01Art (1968) was the first work of analytical philosophy to produce a distinct and systematic theory of arl Goodman's theory has attracted conSiderable attention, the more so In that it [San extension of a general philosophical perspective, expounded in works of greal "gour and finesse, that embraces the entire realm of logic, metaphysics, and the philOSOphyof science. VIII Goodman, hke many others, seeks the nature of art in symbolism and the nature of symbolism in a general theory 01 signs (This second part of Goodman's aim ISwhal Ferdinand de Saussure callad semiology, the general science of signs [COUISde Iinguistique generale, 1916; Course of General Linguistics]). The theory derives from the uncompromising Nominalism expounded in Goodman's earlier works, a Nominalism developed under the Influence of two other US philosophers, Rudoli Camap and WV Quine, but also showing certain affinrties with the later philosophyof Witlgenstein. According to Goodman's general theory of signs, the reiation between signs and the worid can be described, like any relation, in terms of Itstormal structure. the objects related, and its genealogy, But, apart from that formal and factual analYSIS,there ISnothing to be said. Words are labels that we attach to things, but the attempt to justify that practice merely repeats it. In us,ng words, It presupposes precisely the justiflcallOn that it alms to provide. A corollary of this view is that relations of identical logical structure and identical genealogy between relevantly similar terms are really one and the same relation. Thus, If we assume that paintings, like words. are signs, then portra~s stand to their subiects In the Same relation as proper names to the objects denoted by them. (This is the substance of Goodman's proof that representalion IS a species at denotation.) We should nat worry Ii that leads us to no new under5tanding at the relation (e.g, if it leads to no procedure for decoding the painted sign), for GOodmanbelleve5 the seardl for sudl procedure is incoherent. The meaning of a sign is Simply given. along with the art,sbc practice that creates it.Goodman proceeds to generalize his theory at symbotism, using the word reference to express the relation between word and thing, (We might well characterize thiS relation as labelling.) Denotation IS the special case of reference exemplified by proper names and portra~s--a case In which a symbol labels one indiVidual When a Singlelabel picks out many things, then we have not a name but a predicate Sometimes the process at labelling goes both ways, A colour sample is a sign for the colour it possesses-say, the colour red, iltherefore refers to the label red, whidl in tum refers back to the sample. In thiS case, the predicate red and the sample mutually label each other Goodman calls this relabon exemplification, and analyzes expresSion as a special case of it-namely, the case wnere the exemplification at a predicate proceeds by metaphor. For example, a piece of music may refer to sadness; it may also be metaphoflcally sad In this case, Goodman argues, we may speak of the music as expressing sadness. The economy and eleg In Ihls respect, Goodman's theory,s similar to many semantic theones at art: it proves that expression, for example, deSCribesa symbolic relation only by giVing a theory at symbolism that Is so geneml as to include almost every human artifact. It becomes ImpoSSibleto extract from the result a procedure of Interpretation-a way of understanding a work of art Irl terms of its alleged symbol,c function. In particuiar, we cannol extend to the discussion of art those theodes that show how we understand language In terms of Its peculiar syntactic and semantic structure, for such theones always seem to rely precrsely on what is peculiar to language and what distinguishes language from, say, music, painting, and architecture, A similar result can be found in an earlier theory upon whidl Goodman's is to some extent modelled-the one proposed by Langer in her Philosophy In a New Key (1942) and Feeling and Form (1953). She argues that works of art symboli~e states at mind ("feelings"), but that the relabon is not to be explained in terms of any rule of referenca such as operates in language, Works of art are, Langer says, "presentational symbols" whose relation to their objects is purely morphological. The symbol and its object are related by virtue at the fact thai they possess the same 'logical form." It follows that what the symbol expresses cannot be restaled in words, words do not present the "logical form" of individuals but rather that of the properties and relations that characterize them. (Here again ISthe familiar view that art presents the Individuality of ~s subject matter and is therefore not conceptual or descrIptive,) With such a Viewwe can no longer explain why we say that a work of art expresses a feeling and not that the teeling expresses the work: for the relation of expression, explained In these morphological terms ,s clearly symmetrical. Moreover, like other semantic theories, Langer's analysis prOVides no procedure for Interpretation, nothing that would give application to the cla,m that in understanding a work of art we understand It as a symbol Notwithstanding these difficulties for semantic theones of ert, most philosophers remain convinced that the three categories of representetion, expression. and understanding are all- Important In making sense of auf experience of art. They have become Increasingly persueded, however, with Croce and Collingwood, thai the differences between representation and expression are more Important than the similarities In particular, while representatlon may be secured by semantic rules (as in language itself), there cannot be rules for the production of artistiCexpression To think otherwise ISto imagine that the difference between a Mozart and a Selien ISmerety a difference of skill ExpreSSionoccurs In art only where there is expressiveness, and expressiveness IS a kind of success to be measured by the response of the audience rather than by the grammar of the work. This response crucially Invotves understanding, and no theory of expression that ISnot also a theory of how expression ISunderstood can be persuasive x , Appendix-B CONCEPT Cognitive development The mental actfv;t,es involved In the acquls,tion, process,ng, organization. and uSe of knowledge are collectively termed cognition. These activ;ties ,nclude selective attention, perception, dlscriminatron, interpretation, c1assmcatlon,recall and recognition memory, evaluation, inference, and deduction The cogn;tive structures that are involved in these processes ,nclude schemata, images, symbols, concepts or categones, and prOpoSJtIOnS,A schema is an abstract repre5ef1tation of the distinctive characteristics of an event These representations are not photographic COpiesor visual Images but are more like schematiC blueprints that emphasize the a'Tangemenl of a set of salient elements which supply the schema with distlncliveness and d,fferentiete Itfrom similar events The child's abihty to recognize the face of another person is mediated by a schema, for example. Young Children already display a remarkable ability to generate and store schemata. Another type of early cognlt,ve un~ is the image; this ISa mental picture, or the reconstruction of a schema, that preserves the spatial and temporal detail of the even!' Symbols represent the next level of abstraction from experience: they are arbitrary names for things and qual~ies Common examples of symbols are the names lor objects, letters, and numbers. Whereas a schema or Image represents a specmc experience, such as a sighl or sound, a symbol is an arbitrary representatiOll of an event. The letter A ISa symbOl,and children use schemata, images, and symbols In their mastery of the alphabet SymbOlsare used in the development of higher cogn;tive units called concepts, A concept, or category, may be thought of as a .pecial kind of symbol that represents a set of atlributes common to a group of symbols or images The concept represents a COmmonattribute or meanJng from a diverse array of experiences, while a symbol stands for a particule! class of events, Concepts are used to sort specific experiences Into general rules or classes, and conceptual thinking refers to a person's subjective mampulationsof those abstract classes, Symbols Religious symbolism and iconography respectlve~, the basic and often comptex artistic forms and gestures used as a kind of key to convey religious concepts and the visual, auditory, and klnetic representations of religiOUS.deas and events Symbolism and iconography have been utiilzed by all the religions of the world Systems of symbols and pictures that are constITuted in a certain ordered and determined relationship to the form, content, and intention of presentation are believed to be among !he most important meansof knowing and expressing religious facts Such systems also contribute to the maintenance and strengthefllng of the relationships between man and the realm of the sacred or holy (the transcendent, spiritual dimension), The symbOl is, in effect, the mediator, presence, and real (or intelligible) representation of the holy In certain conventional and standardized forms The nature of religious symbols and symbolization The word symbol comes from the Greek symbolon, which means contract, token, insignia, and a means of identification, Parties to a contract, allies, guests, and thllir host could identify each other with the help of the parts of the symbolon. In its original meaning the symbol represented and communicated a coherent greater whole by means of a part. The symbol is based, therefore, on the pnnciple of complementation The symbol oblect, picture, sign, word, and gesture require the association of certain conscious ideas in order to fully express what IS meant by Ihem To this extent it has both an esoteric and an exoteric, or a veiling and a revealing, function The discovery of lis meaning presupposes a certain amount of active cooperation. As a rule, it is based on the convention of a group that agrees UPOl1its meaning The concept of Ihe religious symbol also embraces an abundantly wide variety of types and meanings, Allegory, personifications, figures, analogies, metaphors, parables, Pictures (or, more exactly, pictorial representations of ideas). signs, emblems as individually conceived, artrflcial symbols With an added verbal meaning, and attributes as a mark used to distinguish certain persons all are formal, hlstoncal, literary, and artifiCial categones of the symbolical Symbols in the religious consciousness The formalion of rehgious symt>ols thai occur when unconscious ideas are aroused or when a process of consciousness occurs is prinCipally a matler of religious experience. Such symbols usualry become intelleclual acquisitions, and, as religiOUS concepts are further elat>orated upan, the symbols may even flnaily become subjects of major theologIcal questions. OccaSionally, religion .s regarded as the ong,n and the product of certain established (or fundamental) symbols. In such cases the outcome of the process 01 the structural'zation of religiOUS consciousness woukj then be the establishment of a symbol that is generally applicable to a particular histoncal species of religion, In any event, the symbOl belongs to the essence of man's coming of religious consciousness and to the formation of history's institutional religions II plays a fundamenlal and continual part in the further grOWing of such religions and in the mental horizons of their followers The relation of the symbol and the sacred . The signs, such as a stake, posl, or pillar, that delimit the area themselves are endowed With sacred symboliC meanings, which often can be noted by their particular designs. The ground plan of the secred bUilding and its Orientation, wells, roof, and arches are all utilized to symbolize the ""cred,or holy Temple in Jerusalem a symbol of Yahweh, the Holy of Holies In Sh,nto shnnes (honden) a symbol of the dlvlMy, and the Time as a tr'lrtsparenl symbol of the sacred may be represented by means of the cycle of Ihe sacred year and its high panls. The relation of the symbol and the sacred Ceremonial and ritualistic objects Retation to the social realm Religion often draws its symbOls and pictorial forms from the social, political, and economiC domains. Persons (e,g" king, father, mother, child, slave, brother) and conditions and structures In socrety and the state (e.g government, a people, family, marriage, occupation) all receive meenlng as symbolical and pictonal motifs in myth and cull. Examples of such motifs are throne, crown, sceptre, standard, arms, instruments, the figures of the father, mother, and child, and symbols offamillal relationships. The morals, law, administration of Juslice, and the customs and haMs of a society contain religious symt>ols and symbolical ections, as In Iha anointing of a king and in the administering of the oath or ordeal or ,n the observance of tradlllOns and customs associated with birth, mamage, and death. X" Relation to the literary and visual arts Religious symbols and pictures may be Identical with, related to. or similar to those of language (metaphors) and to pictorial expreSSiOnS In prose and poelry, They are relaled in allegory, parable, fairy tales, fables, and legends in which they can appear in a form that is closely related to thai of religiOUSsymbolism Modes of symbolic expression In the long history of the forms of symbol,cal expression a nafTower (exclusive) and broader (Inclusive) Idea of what a symbol is has gradually evolved, Th,S evolution is reflecloo in the vanous manners of symbolical expression that may influence and combine w~h one another. Diagrammatic and emblematic Symbolic representations are usually depicted in diagrammatic or ideographiC modes as signs, abbreviations Images, and objects of all kinds thal indicate a larger context. In th,s category belong the simplmoo or abstract forms of objecls of nature or other objects and geometncal forms, as well as colours, letters, and numbers. The Circle, Ihe disk, the rosetle, or lhe swastika, for example, may symbolize the sun, universe or a star, The square and the cross may symbolize the Earth or the four cardinal points: the wreath, the labynnth, the spiral, the plait, and Ihe knot may indicate eternity, the flow of lime, or a magical spell. Icons and systems of iconography Throughout the history of the,r development, religiOUS iconography and symbolism have been closety Interrelated. Many retlglous symbols can be understood as conceptual abbreviations, simplifications, abstractions and styli:zations of pictures or of pictorial impressions of the world of sense Objects that are manifested in iconographiC representations. In wnceiving. describing, and communlcaling the experience of reality, the realistic picture and the nonrepresentational sign both have as their pnmary function the expression of thiS experience in religiOUS terms, In religious pictures lhat are of a wmpound or complex nature, particular symbols occasionally reappear. These pictures may also Include other types of symbol,c representation, such as words, tones, gestures, ntuals, and architecture Iconographic forms Temples and other sacred places The arch'tectural iconography of sacred bUildings and places of worship,s a field of its own The ptace of worship, insofar as it is understood as the ,mage of the unrverse and Its centre, must be architecturally patterned according to a speCifiC design of the universe, The place of WOrShiPmay be wnsidered to be the navel of the world e g. the rock in the temple area of the Dome of the Rock (Mosque of Omar), in Jerusalem, A holy place usually is built around these holy points, The holy place as a structurel creation together With its natural seWng may create an Idyllic or overwhelming effecl, evoking in the beholder an experience of religiOUSlNIe or devotion. Iconographic types Influences from nature The main streams of the Influence from nature are derived from man's experience of nature ilsell, his pos~ion in the universe. and hiS a1templto master his world In rel,gious lerms. The space Ihal surrounds man provides him wilh lhe dimenSional coordinates of hiS reiigious experience. Height depth, breadth, direction, proxim~y, and distance are the spalial forms In which the holy manifeSts Itself. The holy may reside on a mountaintop, In heaven, ,n a chasm, in the underworld, in watery depths, or In a desert. The holy way or path proVides man with his direction to the dlvLne end a means of approaching It The infinity of space may be represented by geometncal and linear figures, Emptiness or fullness may characterize the utilization of spaces and surfaces that are usually intended for lhe reception of symbols and signs. XIII Works of art may be totally absent In certain architectural structures, o'r all available space may be filled Wltha dense profusion of all kinds oj figures and objects, all oj which may sometimes be encircled by an ornamental network or web of branches, vines, leaves, and blossoms: an example of such embellishment is Islamic art. The ebb and flow of, time and things, the flow of water, and the cycliCrecurrence of time are pictorially expressed-in symbols such as the wheel, spiral, wave, and CIrcle Phytomorphic. or plant-form, representatlons of the divine also are nch ,n diverse examples and often enigmalic Holy plants and plants considered to be diVine are represented in conneclion with gads in human form The tree of life the world tree, and the primeval cosmic plant all have characterlStics related to the nature and origin of the cosmos, The grapevine is a prominent ritual motif. It ISfound, for example, in representations of Dionysus and Christ Painted ar'ldsculptured leal, flower, and plant motifs decorate Christian churches and many religiOUSandfuneral monuments Plants bound into a wreath symbolically promise Victoryover death and the joys of heaven Chrematomorphic motifs Objects that are used, or chrematomorphlc objects, prOVideanother form of pictOrial representation Holy Objects, especially those used in worship, fall in th,s category The holy book, the cross, the throne and other insignia of power and majesty, lights, tamps, and canopies become representatives of the hory Absence of represenlatlonat forms The absence of an expected object, person. pient, or animal In a picture or the absence of all p,ctorial representation may also represent the holy or diVine. The rejection of a picture as a means of represenMg lhe holy also is a symbolical way of positrvely asserting the presence of God Cultural influences Other cultural, pol~ical, social, and economiC Inst~ullDns and conventions also influence religiOUSsymbolism and iconography. Work and leisure, war and peace, and the myriad things associated With them-()ccupations, positions in society, classes and their funct,ons, the tools of domestic and professional life. technical equipment, forms of international relahons and strife-all play an important part In man's interpretation and understanding at rellg,ous reality and hence in hiS symbolization of thiSexperience Warriors and missionaries and their activities are represented in religiOUSpictures end appear In the verbai symbolism of religion, Man's religious act,vlt,es may also be expressed In terms of play and sport, training, competition, and victory, Conceptual influences tdeas Influence of man's environment on religiOUSsymbolism and Iconography theories, and st~ctured systems of thought also are incorporated ,nto religiOUS symbolism Abstract ideas-such as wholeness, unity, and the absolute---- Conclusion Within the horizons of a secularized, skeptical, and egnostic society, religious symbols Seem to be dispensable, but nonetheless a new and increasing interest In symbols was appeanng, especially among the younger generallons who came into contact with both Eastern and western religious and cultural trad~ions with their rich sources of symboiic images and modes oIthinking. Appendix-C Document of Nominations to the World Heritage List by UNSECO for Khaitfatabad City, Bagemat, Bangladesh. Di3tribu'=~on Ii"," ~eo "'OICONF. 008/9 UNrTED NATrONS EDUCATI~, SCIENTIFrC AND CULTl)RAL ORGlINrZATrON ::'IN\fENTIo:1C8NCLRKIllGTHEp~O'n'C'tIO~ OP j'HE .\'ORLDCULTURAL.~~D~A'IUPJ\]'H~RI7AG£ World Heritag@ Cammitt~~ ~~,,~h Ol:diooI"/ Sesoioc. Ut'~5COH~adg'BH~,", Poris, 2-6 Dccembe~ 1985 REPCRT 0, TIlE RA?POnSU? i. Th :.LOt). session of t'.~ ~Io,ld He=itaq~ COJ"J"littc~ wa, h~1c' ~t U)jESCOE~,O(lg'l"'ters in 2an, frD", 2 lD 6 D~cembeI ~%~. It ,,~> at~cndcd by th~ following Sta-;:cs ~!~mbe" of the '"'arli Hcr;,t"g~ COTiL"nitt~e:.Ug~,,". Aus~Ialia. 8Ean1, bulgal:ia, Cae.ada, Cyp""', Germa~l' ':,cc:cIal Re~~bl~c of), GEccce, (,lJic.~a, ]"J:,,,, JOEda~, Leb""o~. ~ibyar. A~ab J~m,h"nya, f'~uco. Ncrwav, SIi Lanka, 1'urkey, [1c.ite~ RepubLc ~f Tanzan;"o, Ye,"~n A=a~ P.e; 2_ R~pre5~nt"t~ves 0::' t.'~ '"."~n"tic~"l Counell of Mo:cu""",L" c.nd Site, (ICOM05),u( the Intern"tion~l [J~lon [or the Con,~n'atior. of ~ature and l\atural R,"ouroes IWCN) and of the l"t$L"atH'''ol Cen~IC [or taa St~dl' 0= tne ?'eserlat,o~ and the RestoIatioc. of ,""ilu=al PIcpeItl' IrC;;~OMIatte~icd the rreatlng "" "c. adviso~y ca; II-IX aEe official docume-ntsi x. Nm~INA'l"IONSroTHEWOR~D~~!UTAGELl~T 29. "he- Cc=i~tee exam~ned 37 c.O.tw."ticns t~ the No~li HeIit,'ge ',cst, t~kng oGGount of tc.c Bu"eac's reco:o.'1lendations, and of t1-.e evalu3tions of ICOMOSa"d JUCI' ~OE ~ach p~operty_ Th~ CorrJ"liae~ "e~,ded tc incLie 30 c'oHmal "r.d r.atural pIcpcrties on ne WoI:ld HC",tage I.15t. A. Propertie, included j" lhe ""odd Hecitaqe Ll~l ContIactiug Sta~c ha"u.g Ident . ~a:rtc propeIty CT1~e[~a sub,JOitted De nominat10n 00. " 0' Lhe proparty acco"daoce with the'" Convention Bac.Jladcsh 321 n.e h' no=ic mesque . 11") GLty ., Bagerhat i T!.e Cornmitt~e reccrmen""d tc the "ang1adc.,h aulhori~ies that bey pursue a ~resernti"n ""d :nana'w",~r.t pla~ ~" accordauo" w,th th conclusion, M the U~ESCQmission Sent to the sHe in 1983. Scur"", http: ( (www . unes co . org! cu1tu"e (he, ~lOge(tar.g ible/bang1adesh/h tml eng / i nde~ en.8h~",1 (date:20.01.LD03) xv, ., List of technical terms T,~ Meaning Intended in Ihis study Aazan Muslim tradition of calling for p~ayer Aesthetic Metacategory of beauty, sublime, base etc. Aesthetlcs Human values, their percep~on, creation and assimilation Analysis Detailed examination of cons~tuent parts Appearance Outward form as perceived Archetype Original model or prototype Architect The professional arcMects, In contemporary sense. Architecture The lolal Architectural activity aspects, including Idea, Form and Function Attitude Subjective inclination Austerity Being severely simple and morally strict Bangladesh Peoples Republic of Bangladesh Bastion Projecting part of a fortifica~on Bengal Historically determined region Builder The person responSible for construction and its process, Building The construction and its process, Chouchal•• Traditional four sided curved roof structure of Bengal Coding System of representational symbolic meaning Composition Arrangement of the parts Concept Dominant expression or Idea of combining elements into singular~y Conservation Making an object socia-culturally and physically sustained, Conlenl Substance of form Context Relevant circumstances or surroundings Culture Customs and achievements of a particular civilization or group Darbar hall The Seat of the ruler or the hall 01justice Oeocodtng Deciphering the symbolic meaning Oeocorations Added beautification Design Imaginative object generation and problem solVing process. Designer Imaglnatill<'! object and envlronmenl generator Details Small particular treatments assigned for particular duties Dialectic Process whereby contradictions merge to form a higher truth Documentation Collection and classification of information Ecleoclicism Selecting ideas from various sources Element Constituent parts Evolution Gradual dell<'!lopment by unfolding the events Expre8Slon Unfolding of ideas in phYSical world ExIl1rntzatlon Unfolding outward from a center • Features Additive enriching parts Form Conceptual elements made visitlle through space and mass Grave Bunal place of a corpse Heritage Inhented circumstances and tlenefils worthy of preservation Identity Condition of lleing a specified person or thing Indigenous Native or belonging naturally to a place individualism Idea of being independent or different .". Vaultel:l or domed space with one side opentng on the court Life_system Li~ing things and their senes of acti~ihes for existence lintel Horizontal memtler across the top of a door or window Manner The way a thing is done or happens .~, Cense aggregation of otljects Mausoleum Monumental structure on a tomtl Munlng Significance, both apparent and underlYing Mihrab Niche in the qibla wall of a mosque Mode Any of se~eral types of scale Model S,mplified representation of a system Monuments The establishment, end product and the Image, Mosque Muslim place of worship Motif Repeated omamental patterns with representational meaning Motive What ,"duces a person to act in a particular way .,~ Traditional thoughts embedding popular ideas Order Authoritative conditions Organizationalism Idea of be,"g a part of the mass people Panchamna A type of Hindu temple with fi~e towers Pattern Repeated comtlinatlon of regular and logical shapes Phenomena Occurrence that is perceived Preservation EnhanCing Objects continuity. Proc""s Sertes of stages in course of development acti~ity Purism Idea of scrupulous pur~y Qlbla The direction of prayer towards Mecca Rntoratlon Taking objects back to its original state, Semantic Meaning of language Skill Ability to use knowledge effl!ctively in doing something. Space Intervals and backdrop of mass Status Relative importance and its place Structure The Structural system and ~s components Sufi IslamiC myslics Symbol Thing regarding as typifying or representing an Idea xvii Syncretism ClassiCism leamed and used wrth freedom Synthesis Combination of elements into a whole Syntax Arrangementof terms System Logical set of connected things or parts T.~ Word for a definite concept used in a mode of expression Tomb Structure on a grave Towers Tall structures Tradition Custom or belief handed down to poslerily, related 10 mode of production Turrets Decorative towers added 10 structures XVIIi •