Hell in the Byzantine World Volume 1: Essays Frontmatter More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-47415-3 — Hell in the Byzantine World Volume 1: Essays Frontmatter More Information

Hell in the Byzantine World

The imagery of Hell, the Christian account of the permanent destina- tions of the human soul after death, has fascinated people over the centuries since the emergence of the Christian faith. These landmark volumes provide the first large-scale investigation of this imagery found across the Byzantine and post-Byzantine world. Particular emphasis is placed on images from churches across Venetian Crete, which are comprehensively collected and published for the first time. Crete was at the centre of artistic production in the late Byzantine world and beyond, and its imagery was highly influential on tradi- tions in other regions. The Cretan examples accompany rich comparative material from the wider Mediterranean – Cappadocia, Macedonia, the Peloponnese and Cyprus. The large amount of data presented in this publication highlights Hell’s emergence in monumental painting not as a concrete array of images, but as a diversified mirroring of social perceptions of sin.

angeliki lymberopoulou is Senior Lecturer in Art History at The Open University. She is the author of The Church of the Archangel Michael at Kavalarian: Art and Society on Fourteenth- Century Venetian-Dominated Crete (2006) and the editor of Cross- Cultural Interaction between Byzantium and the West 1204–1669: Whose Mediterranean is it Anyway? (2018) and, with Rembrandt Duits, of Byzantine Art and Renaissance Europe (2013).

Hell in the Byzantine World

A History of Art and Religion in Venetian Crete and the Eastern Mediterranean

Volume 1 Essays

Edited by angeliki lymberopoulou The Open University

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www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781108474153 DOI: 10.1017/9781108564656 © Angeliki Lymberopoulou 2020 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2020 Printed in Singapore by Markono Print Media Pte Ltd A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. ISBN – 2 Volume Set 978-1-108-69070-6 Hardback ISBN – Volume I 978-1-108-47415-3 Hardback ISBN – Volume II 978-1-108-47416-0 Hardback Additional resources for this publication at www.cambridge.org/9781108690706 Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.

To Sir Alex Ferguson The Ultimate (Red) Devil

Contents

List of Figures [page ix] Preface [xxiii] Acknowledgements [xxv] Editorial Policy [xxxi]

Introduction [1] angeliki lymberopoulou and eirini panou

part i crete [19] 1 From Crete to Hell: The Textual Tradition on Punishments in the Afterlife and the Writings of Joseph Bryennios on Crete [21] dionysios stathakopoulos

2 Venetian Crete: The Historical Context [60] charalambos gasparis

3 Hell on Crete [117] angeliki lymberopoulou

4 Hell from West to East: Western Resonances in Cretan Wall Painting [191] rembrandt duits

part ii eastern mediterranean [235] 5 When the Visual Order Was Established: The Last Judgement and Punishments in Hell in Byzantine Cappadocia [237] rainer warland

6 Damned in Hell, Damned in the Church: Imagery and Space in Byzantium [281] athanasios semoglou

vii

viii Contents

7 Images of Hell and the Afterlife in the Churches of Lakonia [310] sharon e. j. gerstel and panayotis s. katsafados

8 Hell in the ‘Sweet Land’: Hell’s Place in the Last Judgements of Byzantine and Medieval Cyprus [346] annemarie weyl carr

Figures

4.1 North Italian(?), Last Judgement, early 9th century (the shape of the panels was modified at Reims around 860), ivory, 13.1 x 8.1 cm, London, Victoria & Albert Museum. Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [page 193] 4.2 Byzantine, Last Judgement, from a gospel book made in Constantinople, 11th century, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, gr. 74, fol. 51v. Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [194] 4.3 Byzantine, Last Judgement, 11th century, ivory relief, 15.1 x 21.4 cm, London, Victoria & Albert Museum. Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [195] 4.4 French, Last Judgement, detail: Hell, middle of the 12th century, relief sculpture, Conques, Abbey Church of Saint-Foy (tympanum of west portal). Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [195] 4.5 Venetian (with assistance of Byzantine craftsmen), River of Fire with Satan enthroned upon a monster, detail from the Last Judgement, late 12th century, mosaic, Torcello, Cathedral (west wall). Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [196] 4.6 After Herrad of Hohenbourg, angels pushing sinners into Hell, from an 1840 facsimile of fol. 253v of the Hortus Deliciarum, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Cabinet des Estampes Ad. 144. A. Fol. Reproduced from Green et al. 1979, with permission of The Warburg Institute [196] ix

x List of Figures

4.7 After Herrad of Hohenbourg, Hell, hand-coloured facsimile of fol. 255r of the Hortus Deliciarum, Paris, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Facs. Fol. 8 (xi). Reproduced from Green et al. London 1979, with permission of The Warburg Institute [197] 4.8 English, Hell, from the so-called Golden Psalter, early 13th century, Munich, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Clm 835, p. 66. Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [198] 4.9 French, Hell, detail from the Last Judgement, c. 1230, relief, Reims, Cathedral (tympanum of the east portal of the north transept facade). Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [199] 4.10 Nicola Pisano, Last Judgement, 1260, Pisa, Baptistery (pulpit). Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [199] 4.11 a, b and c Italian, Hell, detail from the Last Judgement, after 1271, mosaic, Florence, Baptistery of San Giovanni (vault). Photos out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [200] 4.12 Giotto, Hell, detail from the Last Judgement, 1305–6, fresco, Padua, Scrovegni Chapel (west wall). Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [201] 4.13 Byzantine, procession of sinners led to Hell by a devil, detail from the Last Judgement, 1315–21, fresco, Constantinople, Chora Monastery (parekklesion). Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [201] 4.14 Italian, Hell, detail from the Last Judgement, c. 1310–30, marble relief, Orvieto, Cathedral (south pier of the west facade). Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [202] 4.15 After Buffalmacco (attr.), Hell, late 15th century, engraving after the fresco of c. 1330–40 in the Camposanto at Pisa. Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [202]

List of Figures xi

4.16 a and b Italian, Last Judgement, details, 1346–7, fresco, Soleto, Church of Santo Stefano (west wall). Photos out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [203] 4.17 Neapolitan, Dante and Virgil at the Gates of Hell and crossing the Styx, from a manuscript of Dante’s Commedia, c. 1360, London, British Library, Additional 19587, fol. 4r. Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [204] 4.18 Master of the Brussels Initials, Hell, from a book of hours made in Paris, 1406–7, London, British Library, Additional 29433, fol. 89r. Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [205] 4.19 Taddeo di Bartolo, Hell, early 15th century, fresco, San Gimignano, Collegiata (first bay of north wall of nave). Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [206] 4.20 Enguerrand Quarton, Coronation of the Virgin, 1453–4, tempera on panel, 183 x 220 cm, Avignon, Musée de Villeneuve-lès-Avignon. Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [207] 4.21 El Greco, Adoration of the Name of Jesus, late 1570s, oil on canvas, London, National Gallery. Photo out of copyright: The Warburg Institute Photographic Collection [208] 5.0 Map of Cappadocia [239] 5.1 Yılanlı Kilise, Hell scenes, ground plan, Ihlara Valley, Cappadocia. After Thierry 1963, fig. 20 [242] 5.2 Yılanlı Kilise, Last Judgement scenes, c. 900, wall paintings, Ihlara Valley, Cappadocia. After Thierry 2002, 156, fig. 60 [243] 5.3 Yılanlı Kilise, Weighing of the Souls, c. 900, wall painting, Ihlara Valley, Cappadocia. Drawing printed with the permission of the artist [244]

xii List of Figures

5.4 Yılanlı Kilise, Four female sinners, c. 900, wall painting, Ihlara Valley, Cappadocia. Photo: author [246] 5.5 Pergamon Altar, Giant attacked by snakes on its eastern side, 2nd century bc, sculpture; Berlin, Antikensammlung, Staatliche Museen. After Andreae 2001, pl. 112 [247] 5.6 Yılanlı Kilise, Two-tiered Tribunal, c. 900, wall painting (vault), Ihlara Valley, Cappadocia. Photo: Drawing after Thierry 2002, sch. 60 [251] 5.7 Pürenli Seki Kilise, Hell scenes, ground plan, Ihlara Valley, Cappadocia. After Thierry and Thierry 1963, fig. 24 [253] 5.8 Pürenli Seki Kilise, Last Judgement (narthex), drawing. Drawing printed with the permission of the artist [254] 5.9 Pürenli Seki Kilise, Male sinners, 10th century, wall painting (narthex), Ihlara Valley, Cappadocia. Drawing printed with the permission of the artist [255] 5.10 Pürenli Seki Kilise, Female sinners, 10th century, wall painting (narthex), Ihlara Valley, Cappadocia. Drawing printed with the permission of the artist [256] 5.11 Male and female sinners in Hell, 12th century, Hortus Deliciarum, Strasbourg, Bibliothèque municipale fol. 255r (detail). After Green et al. 1979, 439, pl. 146 [257] 5.12 Ayvalı Kilise (Güllüdere 4), Last Judgement (vault), ground plan, Güllüdere, near Çavuşin, Cappadocia. Drawing printed with the permission of the artist [259] 5.13 Ayvalı Kilise (Güllüdere 4), Christ descending from Heaven, 913–20, wall painting (vault), Güllüdere, near Çavuşin, Cappadocia. After Thierry 2002, pl. 74 [260] 5.14 Ayvalı Kilise (Güllüdere 4), Apostle Tribunal, 913– 20, wall painting (vault), Güllüdere, near Çavuşin, Cappadocia. Photo: author [261]

List of Figures xiii

5.15 Ayvalı Kilise (Güllüdere 4), Earth, 913–20, wall painting (west wall), Güllüdere, near Çavusin, Cappadocia. Photo: author [262] 5.16 Chapel Göreme 2b, drawing showing the cross relief on the ceiling and entrances, 10th century. Drawing printed with the permission of the artist; redrawn from Ousterhout 2017, fig. 4.63 [265] 5.17 Chapel Göreme 2b, 10th century, drawing showing the west wall. After Thierry 2002, n. 27 [266] 5.18 İçeridere Kilise, Last Judgement, 10th/11th century, wall painting, near Bahçeli, Cappadocia. Photo: author [269] 5.19 İçeridere Kilise, Last Judgement, 10th/11th century, wall painting (drawing), near Bahçeli, Cappadocia. Drawing printed with the permission of the artist [270] 5.20 Karşı Kilise, Last Judgement, 1212, wall painting (west wall), near Gülşehir, Cappadocia. Photo: author [272] 5.21 Karşı Kilise, Hell, 1212, wall painting (west wall), near Gülşehir, Cappadocia. Photo: author [273] 5.22 Monastery church of Panagia Mavriotissa, Hell, c. 1200, wall painting, Kastoria. After Pelekanidis and Chatzidakis 1985, 82, fig. 17 [274] 5.23 Trikonchos (former Church of Saint George), general view with Weighing of the Souls, late 13th century (drawing), opposite Ortaköy, Cappadocia. Drawing printed with the permission of the artist [276] 5.24 Trikonchos (former Church of Saint George), Weighing of the Souls (detail), late 13th century (drawing), opposite Ortaköy, Cappadocia. Drawing printed with the permission of the artist [277] 5.25 Canavar Kilise (Yılanlı Kilise), Sinners, late 13th century, wall painting (narthex), Soğanlı Valley, Cappadocia. Photo: author [279] 6.1a Church of Panagia ton Chalkeon, Last Judgement (detail), 1028, wall painting, Thessaloniki. Photo: author [284]

xiv List of Figures

6.1b Church of Panagia ton Chalkeon, Last Judgement (detail), 1028, wall painting (drawing), Thessaloniki. Drawing from Evangelidis 1954 [284] 6.2 Church of Saint Stephen, Sinners, end of 9th century to beginning of 10th century, wall painting (drawing), Kastoria. Drawing by Ioannis Sissiou; reproduced with his permission [288] 6.3 Church of Saint Stephen, Sinners, end of 9th century to beginning of 10th century, wall painting, Kastoria. Photo: author, with the permission of the Kastoria Ephorate of Antiquities [289] 6.4 Church of Saint Stephen, Rich Man (detail), end of 9th century to beginning of 10th century, wall painting, Kastoria. Photo: author, with the permission of the Kastoria Ephorate of Antiquities [290] 6.5 Church of Saint Athanasios of Mouzaki, Rich Man, 1383/4, wall painting, Kastoria. Photo: author [300] 6.6 Chora Monastery, Angel leading a soul, 1320/1, wall painting (southern chapel), Constantinople. Photo: Digital Archives of Greek Civilization AUTH, Th. Korres [304] 6.7 Chora Monastery, Abraham with Lazarus in his bosom, 1320/1, wall painting (southern chapel), Constantinople. Photo: Digital Archives of Greek Civilization AUTH, Th. Korres [305] 6.8 Chora Monastery, Rich Man (detail), 1320/1, wall painting (southern chapel), Constantinople. Photo: Digital Archives of Greek Civilization AUTH, Th. Korres [306] 6.9 Chora Monastery, Eastern domical vault view, 1320/1, wall paintings (southern chapel), Constantinople. Photo: Digital Archives of Greek Civilization AUTH, Th. Korres [308] 7.0 Map of the south-eastern Peloponnese [311] 7.1 Church of Saint Demetrios (Metropolis), Sinners in fiery river, early 14th century, wall painting (narthex, west vault), Mystras, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [312]

List of Figures xv

7.2 Church of Saint George Vavylas near Lachi, Female sinners, early 14th century, wall painting (narthex, south wall), Epidauros Limera, the Peloponnese. Photo: Panayotis S. Katsafados [316] 7.3 Church of Saint George Vavylas near Lachi, Male sinners, early 14th century, wall painting (narthex, south wall), Epidauros Limera, the Peloponnese. Photo: Panayotis S. Katsafados [318] 7.4 Church of Saint John Chrysostom, Velanidia, Potion-makers and spell-casters, mid-14th century, wall painting (narthex), Epidauros Limera, the Peloponnese. Photo: Panayotis S. Katsafados [321] 7.5 Church of Saint John Chrysostom, Velanidia, Condemned priests, mid-14th century, wall painting (narthex), Epidauros Limera, the Peloponnese. Photo: Panayotis S. Katsafados [321] 7.6 Church of Episkopi, Condemned in Hell with Satan at centre, c. 1220, wall painting (south wall lunette, narthex), Inner Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [325] 7.7 Church of Episkopi, the Gnashing of Teeth, the Everlasting Fire and the Sleepless Worm, c. 1220, wall painting (west half of southern vault, narthex), Inner Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [326] 7.8 Church of Episkopi, the Sea Giving Up its Dead below Enthroned Apostles, c. 1220, wall painting (central bay, narthex), Inner Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [327] 7.9 Church of Agetria, the Sea Giving Up its Dead, c. 1240–50, wall painting (central bay, narthex), Inner Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [329] 7.10 Church of Agetria, the Rich Man and Lazarus, c. 1240–50, wall painting (south wall, narthex), Inner Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [330] 7.11 Church of Saint Nicholas, the Weighing of the Souls and Enthroned Apostles, early 13th century, wall painting (north side of vault, narthex), Exo Nyphi,

xvi List of Figures

Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [330] 7.12 Church of the Archangel Michael, Compartments of sinners and donors’ inscription, late 13th century, wall painting (west wall, narthex), Diporo, Ano Boularioi, Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [332] 7.13 Church of the Archangel Michael, the Woman who circulates outside of the house, the woman who refuses to nurse orphans, the eavesdropper, late 13th century, wall painting (west wall, narthex), Diporo, Ano Boularioi, Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [333] 7.14 Church of Saint Kyriaki, Female sinners, 13th century, wall painting (west wall), Kounos, Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [334] 7.15 Church of the Metamorphosis of the Saviour (Soter) (Transfiguration), the Sea Giving Up its Dead (detail), c. 1325, wall painting (south vault, narthex), Gardenitsa, Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [336] 7.16 Church of Saint Nicholas, the Sea Giving Up its (or her) Dead (detail of the personification of the Sea holding a boat), 13th century, wall painting (south wall), Malagari, Megara. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [336] 7.17 Church of the Metamorphosis of the Saviour (Soter) (Transfiguration), Male sinners associated with the Church, c. 1325, wall painting (south vault, narthex), Gardenitsa, Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Panayotis S. Katsafados [337] 7.18 Church of the Metamorphosis of the Saviour (Soter) (Transfiguration), Female sinners associated with the Church, the Time of Man, c. 1325, wall painting (south vault, narthex), Gardenitsa, Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Panayotis S. Katsafados [338] 7.19 Church of the Metamorphosis of the Saviour (Soter) (Transfiguration), Female sinners, c. 1325, wall painting (south vault, narthex), Gardenitsa, Mani,

List of Figures xvii

the Peloponnese. Photo: Panayotis S. Katsafados [339] 7.20 Church of the Metamorphosis of the Saviour (Soter) (Transfiguration), Male sinners, c. 1325, wall painting (south vault, narthex), Gardenitsa, Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Panayotis S. Katsafados [340] 7.21 Church of Saints Constantine and Helena, Witch, 1862, wall painting (west wall), Lagia, Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [344] 7.22 Church of Saints Constantine and Helena, Sinners sleeping on Sunday, 1862, wall painting (west wall), Lagia, Mani, the Peloponnese. Photo: Sharon E. J. Gerstel [344] 8.0 Map of Cyprus [349] 8.1 Church of Saint Nicholas tis Stegis, Last Judgement: the saved and the damned, 12th century, wall painting, near Kakopetria, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Archbishop of Cyprus and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [351] 8.2 Church of the Transfiguration, Last Judgement: Paradise, Sea and the Man Who Cheats at the Scales, 13th century, wall painting, Sotira Ammochostou, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Konstantia and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [353] 8.3 Panagia Phorbiotissa, Last Judgement: narthex looking south-east with Pantokrator and Apostles, 1332/3, wall painting, Asinou, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [355] 8.4 Panagia Phorbiotissa, Last Judgement: Hetoimasia and River of Fire, 1332/3, wall painting, Asinou, Cyprus. Photo: Image Collections and Fieldwork Archives, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington, DC [356] 8.5 Panagia Phorbiotissa, Last Judgement: composite photograph of sinners, 1332/3, wall painting, Asinou, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission

xviii List of Figures

of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [358] 8.6 Panagia Phorbiotissa, Last Judgement: narthex looking east with Deesis, Paradise and sinners, 1332/ 3, wall painting, Asinou, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [360] 8.7 Panagia Phorbiotissa, Last Judgement: narthex looking west with compartments of Communal Punishments, Hetoimasia and River of Fire, Paradise, 1332/3, wall painting, Asinou, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [360] 8.8 Church of Saint Mamas, Last Judgement, late 14th century, wall painting, Sotira Ammochostou, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Konstantia and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [365] 8.9 Church of the Holy Cross, Last Judgement, late 14th or early 15th century, wall painting, Kouka, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Limassol and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [367] 8.10 Church of Saint Herakleidios, Monastery of Saint John Lambadistis, Last Judgement: the saved and the condemned, second half of 15th century, wall painting, Kalopanayiotis, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [369] 8.11 Church of Saint Herakleidios, Monastery of Saint John Lambadistis, Last Judgement: the River of Fire, second half of the 15th century, wall painting, Kalopanayiotis, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [370] 8.12 Church of Saint Herakleidios, Monastery of Saint John Lambadistis, Last Judgement: the Rich Man, condemned sinners and the Earth Giving Up her Dead, second half of the 15th century, wall painting,

List of Figures xix

Kalopanayiotis, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [371] 8.13 Church of Saint Herakleidios, Monastery of Saint John Lambadistis, Last Judgement: the Archon on his dragon, second half of the 15th century, wall painting, Kalopanayiotis, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [373] 8.14 Church of Saint Herakleidios, Monastery of Saint John Lambadistis, Last Judgement: the woman who aborts or refuses to nurse children, second half of the 15th century, wall painting, Kalopanayiotis, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [374] 8.15 Church of Christ Antiphonitis, composite photograph overlaying the destroyed Last Judgement over the current church interior, early 16th century, wall painting, Kalogrea, Cyprus. Photo: author [376] 8.16 Church of Christ Antiphonitis, Last Judgement: Sinners, early 16th century, wall painting, Kalogrea, Cyprus. Photo: author [378] 8.17 Church of the Panagia Katholiki, Last Judgement, 16th century, wall painting, Pelendri, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Limassol and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [379] 8.18 Church of the Panagia Katholiki, Last Judgement: the damned, 16th century, wall painting, Pelendri, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Limassol and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [380] 8.19 Church of the Panagia Katholiki, Last Judgement: sinners with snakes, 16th century, wall painting, Pelendri, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Limassol and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [381]

xx List of Figures

8.20 Church of the Panagia Katholiki, Last Judgement: Earth, 16th century, wall painting, Pelendri, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Limassol and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [382] 8.21 Church of the Stavros tou Agiasmati, Last Judgement, 16th century, wall painting, near Platanistasa, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [384] 8.22 Church of the Stavros tou Agiasmati, Last Judgement: composite photograph with landscape, Lord of Darkness and sinners, 16th century, wall painting, near Platanistasa, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [385] 8.23 Church of the Panagia Katholiki, Last Judgement: sinners tormented, 16th century, wall painting, Psimolofo, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Tamassos and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [387] 8.24 Church of the Panagia Phaneromeni, Icon of the Last Judgement, Nicosia, Byzantine Museum of the Archbishop Makarios III Foundation, no. 100. Photo: Byzantine Museum of the Archbishop Makarios III Foundation [388] 8.25 Church of Saint John Prodromos, Last Judgement: the damned led to Hell, 16th century, wall painting, Askas, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the priest and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [390] 8.26 Church of Saint John Prodromos, Last Judgement: the Sea and the damned led to Hell, 16th century, wall painting, Askas, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the priest and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [391] 8.27 Icon of the Last Judgement from the village of Foini, Paphos District, Nicosia, Byzantine Museum of the Archbishop Makarios III Foundation, no. 101.

List of Figures xxi

Photo: Byzantine Museum of the Archbishop Makarios III Foundation [393] 8.28 Church of the Panagia Katholiki, Last Judgement: Paradise, 16th century, wall painting, Kouklia, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Paphos and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [396] 8.29 Church of the Panagia Katholiki, Last Judgement: compartments of Communal Punishments, 16th century, wall painting, Kouklia, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Paphos and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [397] 8.30 Church of Saint George, Last Judgement, 16th century, wall painting, Monagri, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Limassol and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [398] 8.31 Church of Saint George, Last Judgement: Hell, Sea and Earth, 16th century, wall painting, Monagri, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Limassol and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [399] 8.32 Church of the Panagia Chryseleousa, Last Judgement: Earth and the River of Fire, 16th century, with over-painting of 1898, wall painting, Emba, Cyprus. Photo: author, by kind permission of the Bishop of Paphos and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [400] 8.33 Panagia tou Moutoulla, Last Judgement, first half of the 16th century, wall painting, Moutoullas, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [401] 8.34 Panagia tou Moutoulla, Last Judgement: sinners, first half of the 16th century, wall painting, Moutoullas, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [402] 8.35 Panagia tou Moutoulla, Last Judgement: the damned, the Sunday sleepers and suspended sinners, first half of the 16th century, wall painting,

xxii List of Figures

Moutoullas, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [403] 8.36 Church of Saint Sozomenos, Last Judgement, 16th century, wall painting, Galata, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [405] 8.37 Church of Saint Sozomenos, Last Judgement: Earth and River of Fire, 16th century, wall painting, Galata, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [406] 8.38 Church of Saint Sozomenos, Last Judgement: Julian the Apostate and the Fornicator, 16th century, wall painting, Galata, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [407] 8.39 Church of Saint Sozomenos, Last Judgement: Sea and three sinners hanging from stakes driven into the wall, 16th century, wall painting, Galata, Cyprus. Photo: Gerald L. Carr, by kind permission of the Bishop of Morphou and the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus [408]

Preface

In the summer of 2001, I visited my colleague, Prof. Dr Vasiliki Tsamakda, in Heidelberg, to discuss our collaboration in examining the representation of Hell in the monumental art of Venetian Crete (1211–1669). Our original aim was to research the relevant wall paintings in 14th- and 15th-century churches in the area of Selino, the south-western Cretan province, with the largest concentration of Byzantine churches on the island. The Leverhulme International Networks presented us with the opportunity to expand the scope of the project by incorporating the whole of Crete as well as comparative material from the wider Mediterranean (Cyprus, Cappadocia and the Balkans). Hence, a more ambitious version of our original plan was born. We invited a team of subject experts (Rembrandt Duits, Charalambos Gasparis, Diana Newall, Athanasios Semoglou, Dionysios Stathakopoulos, Rainer Warland and Annemarie Weyl Carr) to explore the respective areas; we submitted a successful appli- cation to the Leverhulme Trust with the title ‘Damned in Hell in the Frescoes of Venetian-Dominated Crete (13th–17th Centuries)’;andwe were successful in securing funding for three years, which was even- tually extended to four. The project started on 1 October 2010 and officially ended on 30 September 2014. Due to unforeseen circumstances, Prof. Dr Vasiliki Tsamakda sadly opted not to contribute to this present publication; at the same time, two further colleagues, Sharon E. J. Gerstel and Panayotis S. Katsafados, joined us with a crucial contribution on Hell scenes from the Peloponnese. During the course of the project, the Leverhulme ‘Hell’ Team organised workshops, conferences and field trips that allowed scholars to address issues of the representation of Hell in Early Modern Mediterranean societies. We had the opportunity of viewing and discussing wall paintings in situ and, as part of this process, we visited wonderful places, enjoyed gorgeous food, drink, weather, spectacular scenery and the humbling hospitality of the locals. To paraphrase team member Annemarie Weyl Carr, if the project were a lavish xxiii

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meal, this part would have been a mouthwatering dessert.1 We had the privilege of savouring every single tiny morsel.

1 The first workshop took place at The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK, 21–2 March 2011; the second workshop and first field trip took place in Chania, Crete, Greece, 4–6 September 2011; the third workshop and second field trip took place in Herakleion, Crete, Greece, 31 March–3 April 2012; the fourth workshop and third field trip took place in Thessaloniki and Northern Greece, 21–4 August 2012; the first conference took place at King’s College London and the Warburg Institute, London, UK, 31 May–1 June 2013; the fourth field trip took place in Cappadocia, Turkey, 31 August–5 September 2013; the second conference took place at the University of Mainz, Germany, 4–5 October 2013; and the fifth field trip took place in Cyprus, 12–17 April 2014.

Acknowledgements

The research project, which examined the representations of Hell on Venetian Crete and comparative material from the wider Mediterranean (Cyprus, Cappadocia, mainland Greece and the Italian west), would not have been possible without the generous funding and support of the Leverhulme Trust International Networks. We are indebted to the Leverhulme Trust for enabling us to materialise our project ‘Damned in Hell in the Frescoes of Venetian-Dominated Crete (13th–17th Centuries)’. Special thanks to Nicola Thorp, our direct contact with the Leverhulme Trust, for her help, patience and understanding in clarifying issues. A number of colleagues in the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences (FASS), The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK, were also instrumental in achieving our goals in the project, providing us with ample help and guidance. We would like to thank in particular: Caitlin Adams, Sue Cocklin, David Flatman, Anne Ford, Paul Lawrence, Rose Mepham, Catherine Tuckwood, Susie West and John Wolffe. We would also like to acknowledge and to express our thanks for the generous help we received to Antonis Katsigiannis, Ilias Mpeskenis, Georgios Mplatsiotis, Vicky Psaltaki, Nikoletta Pyrrou and the Municipal Library of Chania – in particular, to Areti Karveli and Theano Boraki. The countless field trips on the island of Crete to locate and record the churches were true adventures combined with great pleasures: on the one hand, the team of four – Angeliki Lymberopoulou, Vasiliki Tsamakda, Rembrandt Duits and Diogenes Papadopoulos – tasted a slice of Indiana Jones, having to face bats, snakes, spiders and all sorts of creepy crawlies that had made many of the churches their loving home. On the other hand, the spectacular scenery of gorgeous Crete, the lovely food and wine (dinner was our only meal of the day, which we always felt that we had more than earned) and the genuine beauty of each and every church made us feel enormously privileged every time to have been the recipients of the Leverhulme Trust’s funding, which made all this possible. It is really unfortunate that Vasiliki Tsamakda, due to personal reasons, decided not to participate in the publication of the project after the end of

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its research period; nevertheless, we are grateful for her enthusiasm and engagement during the course of it, as its co-manager. We are fully aware that, despite the generous funding and our determi- nation, this project would have never been accomplished had it not been for the kindness, help, hospitality and big-heartedness of the local people. Cretan people embraced us, guided us, served us coffee, water, food, sweets and (of course) Cretan raki, truly proving that the spirit of the ancient Greek god, Zeus, is still very much alive: according to ancient Greek mythology, the head god was raised on the Cretan mountain Ida and, ever since, has not only protected travellers but also demanded from the locals that they show them regal hospitality – something which they never ever fall short of. This pagan belief coexists in perfect harmony with Christian Orthodoxy. In fact, among our greatest benefactors were bish- oprics and local priests. The extremely few exceptions that we met over the course of four years were just that – mere exceptions that verified the rule of extreme kindness and generosity of the proud inhabitants of this historic island. The list of people which follows is a very small token of the immense gratitude we feel and we would like to express here towards all those who helped us. The list follows the four prefectures of Crete in the same way we have constructed the catalogue of the churches (from west to east: Chania, Rethymnon, Herakleion, Lassithi); within each prefecture the people are listed alphabetically, starting with the priests and followed by the laymen and women). Prefecture of Chania Club of retired Air Force Officers, for hosting and facilitating the second Leverhulme ‘Hell’ project workshop, which took place in Chania on 4 September 2011: Retired Air Force Officers’ Club, 8 Partheniou Kelaidi Street, Chania 73100, Crete; Mr Kampianakis, Antonios (president); Mr Kouratoras, Konstantinos (finance); Mr Lymperopoulos, Konstantinos (vice president); Mr Mpourdakis, Michael (catering); Mr Mountakis, Nikolaos (technical support); Mr Kampianakis, Nikoloas (technical support); Mr Mpouchlis, Michael (filming); and the whole of Greek Airforce base of Chania (115PM) for their support Brother Roussos, Nikolaos (Monastery of the Franciscan Capuchins of Chania) Father Kapetanakis, Ioannis (Pemonia) Father Loupasis, Stylianos (Kakodiki) Father Paraskakis, Dimitrios (Platanias)

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Father Petros (of the Catholic Cathedral Church of the Dormition of the Virgin) Father Sartzetakis, Fragkios (retired priest of Kandanos) Father Vaidakis, Spyros (parish church of Vamos) Mrs Atsalaki, Georgia (Elyros Travel) Mr Chomitakis, Georgios (Vouvas) Mr Chomitakis, Ioannis (Vouvas) Mr Despotakis, Georgios (Kakopetros) Mr Fragkostefanakis, Konstantinos (Chania) Mrs Ieronymaki, Filenia (Asfentiles) Mr Kapetanakis, Alexandros (Pemonia) Mrs Karpadaki, Eutychia (Kakopetros, Papadiana) Mr Kochilakis, Michael (Strovles, Kalogero; we would have never found this church without the map he drew to guide us) Mr Koukoutsakis, Antonios (Moni, Sougia) Mr Koukoutsakis, Eutychios (Lucky) (Moni, Sougia) Mr Koulakis, Stylianos (Kandanos) Mrs Lymperopoulou, Eleftheria (Chania) Mr Mpitsakis, Eutychios (Kadros) Mr Ntaoudakis, Ilias (Achladiakes) Mrs Patsarika, Paraskevi (Vamos) Mr Sartzetakis, Iosif (Prines) Sergentani family (Voutas) Mr Sfakianakis, Ioannis (Platanias) Mr Sifakis, Michalis (Stratoi) Mr Tsigourakis, Nikolaos (Kopetoi) Prefecture of Rethymnon Bishopric of Lambis, Syvritos and Sfakia: His Grace Eirinaios Father Antonakis, Georgios (Petrochori, old name Aposeti) Father Chaniotakis, Konstantinos (Lambini) Father Diamantakis, Emmanouel Father Frantzeskakis, Ioannis (Kato Valsamonero) Father Frantzeskakis, Nektarios (Saitoures) Father Kamaritis, Emmanouel (Erfoi) Father Kyriakos (Vathiako) Father Marakis, Enmmanouel (Spili) Father Myrthianos, Georgios (Veni) Father Stratidakis, Panagiotis Father Tsirdinos, Nikolaos (Kissos)

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Father Vamiedakis, Emmanouel (Meronas) Lady whose name we did not record (with apologies) (Lambini) Mrs Alevizaki, Garyfalia (Hagios Vasileios) Mr Angelidakis, Michalis (Mourne for Diblichori) Mrs Dafermou, Aphroditi (Axos) Mrs Koutantou, Antonia (Axos) Mrs Mpalasari, Thekla (wife of Father Tsirdinos, Nikolaos, Kissos) Mrs Myrthianou, wife of the priest (Veni) Mr Papavasileiou, Anastasios (Roustika) Mr Theodorakis, Michail (Meronas) Prefecture of Herakleion Bishopric of Arkalochori, Kasteli and Viannos: Sevasmiotatos Andreas; Father Stylianos (Γενικός Αρχιερατικός) Father Antonios (Potamies) Father Christoforos (head monk, Valsamonero) Father Kalaitzakis, Dimitrios (Mathia) Father Kaniadakis, Michail (Arkalochori) Father Karandinos, Ioakim (Chancellor (Πρωτοσύγγελος) of the Bishopric of Gortyna and Arkadia) Father Kasavetakis, Georgios (Ano Archanes) Father Neokosmidis, Georgios (Avdou) Father Nikiforos, Nikolaos (Αρχιερατικός) Father Vlastos, Stylianos (Kassanoi) Father Xenakis, Prodromos Mr Charitakis, Antonios (Evagelismos, old name Mouchtaros) Mrs Filia (first cafe at the entrance of Potamies) Mr Mountakis (also surnamed Trevlakis), Georgios (Commissioner (Επίτροπος) of Mathia) Mr Pleurakis, Emmanouel (Arkalochori) Sygkelakis family (Kato Symi): Mr Sygkelakis, Mpampis, Mrs Sygkelaki, Eleftheria, Mr Sygkelakis, Alexandros Prefecture of Lassithi Bishopric of Ierapytna and Siteia: His Grace Eugenios Father Diamantakis, Kyrilos (Archimadrite, Chancellor (Αρχιμανδρίτης, Πρωτοσύγγελος) of the Bishopric of Ierapytna and Siteia) Father Fragkiadakis, Manolis (Chandras) Father Gialouris, Leonidas (Kritsa) Father Lepidakis, Manolis (retired priest of Chandras)

Acknowledgements xxix

Father Mprokakis, Georgios (Kritsa) Father Titos Father Tsagkarakis, Antonios (Lithines) Father Vardas, Georgios (Kroustas) Head nun and all nuns of the monastery of the Virgin Kera Kardiotissa Mr Adamakis, Ioannis (Chandras) Mr Angelakis, Dimitrios (Voulismeni (Vigli)) Mr Kapantaidakis, Pavlos (Meseleroi) Mrs Kasotaki, Niki (Kavousi) Mrs Koufinaki, Maria (Kavousi) Mr Manolarakis, Demetrios (Meseleroi) Mrs Tsironi, Niki (Kavousi) Mrs Tzanaki, Argyro (Kritsa) Mr Vardas, Ioannis (Kritsa) Mr Xenikakis, Ioannis (Chandras) We, of course, also owe immense thanks and gratitude to institutions and individuals in places other than Crete, which are explicitly conveyed in the chapters devoted to those places. Last, but by no means least, special thanks to two young ladies, Anna-Ritsa Duits and Isabella Teodori, for being impeccable when their mothers were away on the Cretan field trips. We are also immensely grateful to all the people who helped us put this publication together. Michael Sharp’s impeccable professionalism, out- standing understanding and help have been flawless on every step of the way and he could certainly claim that he acquired a substantial feel of what ‘Hell’ feels (let alone looks) like in the process. We would also like to thank Jane Burkowski, Hal Churchman, David Cox, Mathivathini Mareesan, Marianne Nield and Sarah Starkey. Special thanks are due to Sharon E. J. Gerstel and Panayotis S. Katsafados, who joined the publication with a vital contribution on the material from the Peloponnese, which did not form part of the original proposal but has, nevertheless, enriched the project’s approach; to Eirini Panou, who proved to be a tireless and the most invaluable Research Assistant I have ever had the pleasure of working with; and to Mick McTiernan (various errands on Crete), Lea Viehweger (translation) and Andrew Watson (editorial). The four Ephorates of Antiquities of Crete – Ephorate of Chania, Ephorate of Rethymnon, Ephorate of Herakleion and Ephorate of Lassithi – gave us permission to study, photograph and publish the Cretan Hell material. The paper trail and email communication of this

xxx Acknowledgements

process was long, and we would like to thank all the colleagues involved in ensuring the process; in particular, Dionysios Achtypis, Thanassis Mailis, Chrysa Mpourmpou and Eleni Papadopoulou (Chania), Nikoletta Pyrrou and Anastasia Tzigkounaki (Rethymnon), Vaso Sythiakaki (Herakleion), Marianna Katifori, Georgia Moschovi and Chrysoula Sofianou (Lassithi). We would also like to thank Mrs Gerousi and Mrs Vlazaki (Ministry of Greek Culture, Athens). Furthermore, the Ephorates of Antiquities of Crete, along with the Ministry of Greek Culture, gave permission for the Cretan material to be presented in a database, which will be hosted by The Open University, Milton Keynes, UK. Therefore, the final and last, but by no means least special thanks are reserved for Diana Newall, who was also the project’s facilitator and populated the database; and to Mathieu D’Aquin, the ‘father’ of the database, his labour of love, to whom we are immensely grateful for working with us in creating it.2

2 The database will be accessible free of charge upon registration, via a password-protected link. Users will be able to access all the Cretan material illustrated in the present volume in multiple photographs and close-up details in full colour – watch this space: http://ledaproject.org.uk.

Editorial Policy

The Greek inscriptions which accompany many representations of Hell in the material included in this volume are provided in the following ways: verbatim as they appear on the wall paintings; with the correct Greek spelling (if different), following monotoniko unless rendered in Byzantine Greek, where it retains its original accents; with a transliteration in Latin script; and with a translation into English.3 The Greek names that appear in the sources from the Archivio di Stato di Venezia (ASV) have been transliterated to reflect as closely as possible their rendering in Greek. Moreover, in rendering the Greek names and place names mentioned in this volume the standard Anglicised forms have been used, where they exist (for example, Constantine instead of Konstantinos). In the remainder of the cases, following a trend that has been gaining acceptance recently, all names have been transcribed as literally as possible, avoiding the various Latinised versions (e.g. Komnenos instead of Comnenus). Obviously, in all publications cited in the footnotes and in the bibliography, the names have remained unchanged and appear as their authors intended. Maps indicating various locations mentioned over the course of this volume can be found at the beginning of each chapter examining the relevant geographic area (Cappadocia, the Peloponnese and Cyprus; all Cretan maps have been placed in vol. 2). In the Bibliography, for all Greek entries the single accent system (monotoniko) has been used, regardless of whether they predate its adoption in Modern Greek in 1982. For indicating an era, bc (Before Christ)/ad (Anno Domini) has been chosen rather than ce (Common Era), on the basis that the former reflect better the understanding of time of the people who commissioned and originally viewed the monumental works the volumes explore.

3 Because of the sheer amount of the material covered in Chapter 3 in this volume, an appendix (Appendix 3) has been included covering correct spelling and transliteration, to avoid unnecessary repetition in the text.

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