ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY An Ghníomhaireacht um Chaomhnú Comhshaoil

Ireland’s Environment BIODIVERSITY IN A Review of and

John Lucey and Yvonne Doris

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY PO Box 3000, Johnstown Castle Estate, Co. Wexford, Ireland.

Telephone: +353 53 60600 Fax: +353 53 60699 Email: [email protected] Website: www.epa.ie July 2001 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

C ONTENTS

LIST OF BOXES ...... iii

LIST OF FIGURES ...... iv

LIST OF TABLES ...... iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... v

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK ...... 2

HABITATS ...... 4 and Woodland ...... 4 Hedgerows ...... 5 and ...... 6 Turloughs ...... 7 Freshwater Habitats ...... 8 Coastal and Marine Habitats ...... 8

SPECIES ...... 10 () ...... 10 Fauna () ...... 15

DISCUSSION ...... 22

CONCLUSIONS ...... 29

POSTSCRIPT ...... 32

NOTES ...... 32

REFERENCES ...... 33

APPENDIX 1 ...... 38

PAGE II A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

L IST OF B OXES

1 IRISH GEOLOGICAL HERITAGE ...... 1

2 CONSERVATION OF NATURAL AND SEMI-NATURAL WOODLANDS ...... 4

3 ...... 6

4 TURLOUGHS ...... 7

5 COASTAL / MARINE HABITATS ...... 9

6 MAËRL COMMUNITIES ...... 9

7 LOWER PLANTS ...... 13

8 VASCULAR PLANTS ...... 14

9 KERRY ...... 15

10 FRESHWATER INVERTEBRATES ...... 16

11 FRITILLARY ...... 16

12 LAND SNAILS ...... 17

13 SOME RECENT AND MITE INTRODUCTIONS TO IRELAND ...... 17

14 FISHES ...... 18

15 AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES ...... 19

16A GREENLAND WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE ...... 19

16B BIRDS ...... 20

17 MAMMALS ...... 21

18 CETACEANS ...... 22

19 EXTINCTIONS AND INTRODUCTIONS DURING THE PAST MILLENNIUM ...... 23

20 OVERGRAZING ...... 24

21 GENETIC RESOURCES ...... 28

22 THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY ...... 29

23 AND BIODIVERSITY ...... 30

PAGE III BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

L IST OF F IGURES

1 FRAMEWORK FOR THE DESIGNATION OF SITES ...... 2

2 A SELECTION OF MAJOR AREAS DESIGNATED FOR CONSERVATION...... 3

3 PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF PEATLANDS ...... 7

4 DISTRIBUTION OF KILLARNEY ...... 12

BOX 7 DISTRIBUTION OF FOXTAIL STONEWORT ...... 13

5 DISTRIBUTION OF GIANT HOGWEED ...... 15

BOX 10 DISTRIBUTION OF PEARL MUSSEL ...... 16

6 DISTRIBUTION OF LARGE HEATH ...... 16

BOX 14 DISTRIBUTION OF ARCTIC CHARR ...... 18

BOX 16a GREENLAND WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE NUMBERS 1983-1997 ...... 19

7 DISTRIBUTION OF PINE MARTEN ...... 21

8 DISTRIBUTION OF RED DEER ...... 21

9 SOME EXAMPLES OF INTRODUCTIONS AND EXTINCTIONS OF SPECIES ...... 23

L IST OF TABLES

1 INTERNATIONAL ACTION ON BIODIVERSITY ...... 2

2 CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREAS ...... 3

3 ESTIMATED OR KNOWN NUMBER OF SPECIES OF , VERTEBRATES AND VASCULAR PLANTS IN IRELAND ...... 10

4A VASCULAR SPECIES LISTED IN THE FLORA PROTECTION (1999) ...... 11

4B NON- SPECIES LISTED IN THE FLORA PROTECTION ORDER (1999) . . . . . 12

5 CORNCRAKE NUMBERS IN CERTAIN AREAS ...... 20

6 DAMAGING ACTIVITIES IN COASTAL PROTECTED AREAS ...... 28

PAGE IV A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

This report represents an extended version of A CKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Chapter 12 of Ireland’s The Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, and

Environment. A Millennium its heritage service Dúchas, as well as the Heritage Council are the

Report (eds. L. Stapleton, lead authorities in the conservation of the natural environment in Ireland and their assistance in compiling the report is gratefully M. Lehane and P. Toner), acknowledged. Environmental Protection

Agency (Wexford, 2000). Individuals who supplied specific information are acknowledged by the citing of personal communication (pers. comm.) after their

names.

Photographs used in the report were supplied by John Early, Eddie

Dunne, John Lucey, Simon Berrow, Felix Zaska and Matthew

Parkes.

PAGE V BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

INTRODUCTION Box 1 Irish Geological Heritage

This report sets out to give some Ireland has a rich earth heritage. For a account of the state of Ireland’s small country it has a wide diversity of biodiversity, or put more simply its rock successions covering large spans of natural heritage, at the dawn of the earth history, e.g. fossil and mineral new millennium. localities, volcanic and deep igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic evidence of changing environments and especially The natural heritage can be described the highly visible results of glaciations in as the inheritance of the natural the Ice Ages or Quaternary Period. environment in all its forms (Lucey These earth science sites, many of and Nolan, 1996), including the international importance, had no legal geological legacy (See Box 1). Ireland protection. This is now being redressed through the Irish Geological Heritage (IGH) Programme. owes its natural distinctiveness to its unique geology more than anything The Programme is a partnership between the Geological Survey of Ireland else (Feehan, 1997). Yet despite this (GSI) and Dúchas - the Heritage Service, which since 1998 is undertaking the uniqueness the island can boast just appraisal of geological and geomorphological sites by theme, in order to one natural World Heritage Site1: the select, on strict scientific criteria, those which should be designated as Giant’s Causeway in Co. Antrim Natural Heritage Areas (NHAs). Sites will be evaluated on a nation-wide, thematic network basis and a list of sites will be selected to represent the which is an outstanding geological diversity and range of earth science features as currently understood. Apart site and prime example of the earth’s from the NHA selection, the programme aims to establish County Geological evolutionary history during Tertiary Sites, without statutory protection, which will be incorporated into County times some 50-60 million years ago. Development Plans.

Ireland has many examples from the The IGH site selection process is based upon geological themes with the first two completed being Karst and Precambrian to Devonian Palaeontology. various epochs in its geological heritage The Karst theme will protect some key areas, of for example, but the most recent, the Quaternary that fall outside existing designated areas or National Parks. era - with its glaciations and the post-glacial Holocene - is the One particular site from the Palaeontology theme stands out as a special one that has shaped the present case: a fossil trackway on Valentia Island in Co. Kerry. In conjunction with landscape and its flora and fauna.2 the Valentia Heritage Society, GSI drew up a plan, adopted by Dúchas, and the site, which was discovered in 1993, was purchased by the State. The site Biodiversity, which is the now is of international importance and has been dated at older than 385 million years; probably second oldest in the world. About 200 prints represent the common abbreviation used for passage of a tetrapod, a primitive four-legged vertebrate, across the soft biological diversity, may be defined sediment of a large river floodplain in Devonian times. It is a key record of as: the variability among living the important evolutionary step of vertebrates leaving aquatic organisms from all sources environments and breathing air on land. including, inter alia, terrestrial, (Sources: M. Parkes, Geological Survey of Ireland; Parkes and Morris, 1999) marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity covers all plant and animal the ecosystems/habitats of which diversity within species, between species, as well as micro-organisms, they are part. species and of ecosystems.3 Biological genetic diversity within species and Thus, Ireland’s natural heritage or biodiversity may be conveniently discussed under two main headings: habitats and species. Having described the legislative framework the report will then give a brief portrait of some of Ireland’s more ‘important’ habitats as well as elements of her flora and fauna. After a discussion of, inter alia, the main threats to biodiversity, the report will conclude by attempting to assess the state of the natural environment in Ireland and how efforts to safeguard the natural heritage are progressing.

PAGE 1 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

Table 1 International Action on Biodiversity* Title Signed Ratified Bern Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats 1979 1982 Bonn Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 1979 1983 Agreement on Conservation of Bats in (Bonn Convention) 1993 1995 on of International Importance 1971 1984 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 1946 1985 Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 1996 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) 1974 Awaits commencement orders under Wildlife Amendment Act, 2000 Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory 1996 Awaits commencement orders Waterbirds (AEWA) (Bonn Convention) under Wildlife Amendment Act, 2000 International Tropical Timber Agreement 1994 1996 Ratification expected shortly Pan-European Biological and Landscape Diversity Strategy - Endorsed 1995 *Biodiversity-related Conventions, Agreements or Processes that Ireland has ratified, signed or is a party to (from Buckley, 1998).

LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK • to give specific recognition to the 1997). The Directive was transposed responsibilities of the Minister in into Irish law on 26 February 1997, Policy regarding conservation of regard to promoting the by the European Communities Ireland’s habitats and species is conservation of biological diversity. (Natural Habitats) Regulations (S.I. formulated by the Department of No. 94 of 1997). Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Ireland has ratified or signed a number Islands and implemented by Dúchas - of regional or international legal The provides for The Heritage Service; through the instruments (e.g. CITES and AEWA) the establishment of a coherent Wildlife Act of 1976, Flora directly concerned with biodiversity ecological network of protected areas Protection Orders, the Whale and these are listed in Table 1. across the 15 member states, to be Fisheries Act of 1937 and European known as NATURA 2000. This is Union Directives. The long awaited The most important piece of the EU’s contribution to the Act to amend many of the provisions legislation regarding Convention on Biodiversity which of the Wildlife Act, 1976 was signed conservation within the European was ratified by Ireland in 1996 (See into law in December 2000. The Union4 is the ‘Council Directive on Table 1). The Directive makes main objectives of the Wildlife Act, the conservation of natural habitats provision for a three stage procedure 2000, are: and of wild fauna and flora’ (CEC, leading to the creation of the 1992), more commonly known as NATURA 2000 network of sites, • to provide a mechanism to give the ‘Habitats Directive’. Because it which are known as Special Areas of statutory protection to Natural requires areas to be designated, as Conservation (SACs).5 Special Heritage Areas (NHAs); indeed does the Birds Directive Protection Areas (SPAs), designated • to provide statutory protection for (CEC, 1979), it has been described under the Birds Directive, also form important geological and as representing the first intrusion by an integral part of NATURA 2000 geomorphological sites, including Brussels into the control of land use (See Fig. 1 for schematic fossil sites; within EU member states (Grist, representation of the process). • to enhance the conservation of wildlife species and their habitats; • to enhance a number of controls

on hunting and to regulate Habitats Directive Birds Directive commercial shoot operators; ▲ • to ensure or strengthen compliance Special Protection with international agreements and, Areas in particular;

• to increase substantially the level of

▲ fines for contravention of the ▲ Wildlife Act and to allow for the Annex I List of Special imposition of prison sentences; types • to allow the Minister to act ▲ National list ▲ Sites of ▲ Areas ▲ NATURA of sites Community of 2000 Annex II independently of forestry Importance Conservation Species legislation; • to strengthen the protective regime June 1995 June 1998 June 2004 for Special Areas of Conservation Fig 1 Framework for the designation of NATURA 2000 sites with dates by which (SACs); each stage was to be completed (from Grist, 1997)

PAGE 2 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

Table 2 Categories of Protected Areas

Category Objectives Area covered Number Protective (ha) of sites measures Nature Reserves Conservation of flora, fauna 18,095 78 Statutory protection; and habitats generally State ownership Special Protection Conservation of bird species and 230,000 109 Statutory protection; Areas (SPAs) habitats of European importance to prevent habitat damage Special Areas of Conservation of flora, fauna and ~650,000 400 Statutory protection; Conservation (SACs) habitats of European importance to prevent habitat damage Natural Heritage Protection of flora, fauna, habitats ~750,000 1,100+ At present: grant assessment, Areas (NHAs) and geological sites of financial incentive; national importance planning laws National Parks Nature conservation and public 56,987 6 Non-statutory protection; use and appreciation State-owned Wildfowl Sanctuaries Hunting of wild birds prohibited N/A 68 Statutory enforcement of hunting controls Refuges for Fauna Conservation of the habitat of N/A 7 Statutory protection for named species of animals named species

Sources: Buckley, 1998; Dúchas

Stage One - the selection of national lists of sites - was due for completion by June 1995 but no member states had finalised the process some two years after that date (Grist, 1997).

Stage Two - the establishment of a list of Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) - was to have been completed between June 1995 and June 1998 but had not.

Stage Three - the formal designation by member states of the adopted list of SCIs as SACs - was originally scheduled for the period June 1998 to June 2004 (Grist, 1997).

The European Commission’s evaluation of Ireland’s classification of sites (as of 31 January 2001) under the Birds Directive and Habitats Directive, for NATURA 2000, was assessed as ‘Incomplete’ for SPA classification and ‘Notably insufficient’ for list of SCIs.6

Designated Refuge for Fauna The different categories of protected Ramsar Sites areas in Ireland are given in Table 2 Nature Reserves together with details of the objective Wildfowl Sanctuaries for their designation, area covered, National Parks Special Protection Areas number of sites and protection Special Areas of Conservation afforded. A selection of the areas Proposed Natural Heritage Areas proposed as NHAs, SPAs and SACs are shown in Fig. 2. Fig 2 A Selection of Major Areas Designated for Conservation (Source: Dúchas)

PAGE 3 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

HABITATS Woodland habitats can be divided into several categories ranging from Box 2 Conservation of Natural Of the priority habitats listed in the dry woods to woodland. and Semi-Natural Woodlands Habitats Directive, 16 are found in Amongst these, three divisions are Ireland (See Appendix 1). Obviously Only very small areas of the recognised: woods mostly on acid woodlands, which represent the not all can be treated in a short soils of which oak is the principal tree mixed deciduous which discourse such as this and examples of in deciduous woods; woods on dominated the earlier post- general habitats as well as some limestone of which ash-elm-hazel are glacial landscape, remain today priority types will be given below. the principal native components; and in Ireland. It is not surprising therefore that the largest Irish the third category is scrub comprising Forests and Woodland herbivore, the red deer (Cervus open, fragmented woods and elaphus), has been reduced to a Forests would naturally cover the hedgerow. Although there have been single native herd in Kerry and greater part of the island but the long no extinctions, nine of the 16 species the largest carnivore, the wolf (Canis lupus), has long been history of forest decline over the last in the third category are thought to be vulnerable, i.e. will become eliminated. The conservation of 6,000 years, due mainly to clearance these relict woodlands, with their by man, has led to the present endangered in the near future if the complex ecological systems, is of situation where native forest cover is causal factors continue operating primary concern. Ideally, less than one per cent of the land area (Curtis and McGough, 1988). conservation begins with a survey (Cross, 1998). Of the estimated of the woodlands and only when management control has been 100,000 hectares of Ireland’s The woodland flora would appear, prima facie, to be the least threatened obtained by purchase or broadleaved woodland, not more agreement, is management than 6,000 are protected for group but extensive scrub clearance is based on scientific research conservation through ownership a feature of large parts of the west cautiously introduced to secure and/or legislation in National Parks and it is expected that several species the long-term survival of the and Nature Reserves will move into the threatened system and to permit use of the forest for education, amenity and (O’Sullivan, 1999). category, as a result, in the near future (Curtis and McGough, 1988). sport. Anticipating the Wildlife Act of 1976 by several years the The number of native and naturalised then Forest and Wildlife Service tree species in Ireland has been given Road schemes have threatened parts [now Dúchas] undertook a survey as around 30 (e.g. Nelson and Walsh, of some native woodlands. A and scientific investigation of the 1993) of which there are three celebrated long-standing protest to semi-natural woodlands and other vegetative types in State cherries (including blackthorn), three the cutting of trees in the Glen of the Downs Nature Reserve, in Co. forests. Conservation (juniper, yew and Scots management, based on that pine), two birches, alder, hazel, the , was ended by a Supreme work, has since that time been two oaks, as well as six species of Court decision in December 1999. applied in woodland sites where whitebeam (including the rowan or the priority has been to secure mountain ash), hawthorn or A distinction must be made between the effective regeneration of woodland threatened by invasive whitethorn, ash, the Wych elm, holly, native and modern forests and the latter cannot be regarded as part of non-native woody species and spindle, buckthorn and alder the depredations of sika deer buckthorn, elder, arbutus, crab apple, the natural heritage. The area under (Cervus nippon). aspen and willow. forest plantations is currently increasing by about 20,000 hectares (Source: O'Carroll, 1984) per year, one of the highest rates of afforestation in Europe. Most of Ireland’s 570,000 hectares of forest is plantation. Although plantations are poor substitutes for native woodland, they provide niches for a number of the more common mammal and bird species, some invertebrates and fungi.

The decline in the natural forest cover of Ireland was a slow process starting in Neolithic times, with cutting, burning and grazing and was increase the area of afforestation. almost complete, due to the heavy There has been a nine-fold increase in export of timber, by Tudor times the forest cover of the Republic of (Freeman, 1950). It has been Ireland, 72 per cent of which is successive government policy to owned and managed by Coillte,7 this

PAGE 4 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

century. Not everyone, however, would agree with all aspects of the claim, by Coillte (Carey, 1999), that ‘the use of exotic tree species in the restoration of Ireland’s forest cover has been a remarkable success story this century’. At present 63 per cent of Coillte’s forests comprise sitka spruce. The continued planting of this exotic species (Picea sitchensis), from the Pacific coast of North America, interspersed with a moderate and balanced use of other minor coniferous and broadleaf species, subject to site suitability, is seen by Coillte as the way forward. In The Heritage Council8 commissioned possible and consideration should the tree cover has an independent report into the be given to protecting other areas increased from just one per cent to impact of current forestry policy on of conservation value. six per cent since the beginning of aspects of Ireland’s heritage. As well • Better baseline information is the century due mainly to the as making recommendations to the needed on land use and soils, planting of sitka spruce on marginal Council, including ways of increasing native species and the biodiversity agricultural land (Beatty, 1999). In biodiversity in plantations, the report of habitats, and hydrology and the May 1999 Coillte published a identified the following areas of aquatic environment. Without strategy document, Coillte’s Forests: concern (Heritage Council, 1998): this information, a consistent A Vital Resource, wherein it strategic approach to managing undertakes to maintain biodiversity; • The Forest Strategy [i.e. the plan the environmental implications of this will include, it says, some forests for development of the forestry afforestation on different types of not being developed for timber sector in Ireland published by the land is impossible. production. The initiative also Department of Agriculture, Food promises more extensive water and and Forestry (1996)] is likely to Hedgerows soil impact assessment in the future. lead to increased planting on Following consultations with a wide marginal agricultural land and is Field boundaries, mainly hedgerows, range of relevant parties, the Forest unlikely to involve significant are a particularly prominent feature Service (2000) has produced forest diversity of species, age or of of the Irish countryside. Ireland’s biodiversity guidelines in an effort to planting. This means that much abundant hedgerows, which have get forest owners to undertake all of the new planting will be of become ‘naturalised’ over the last few work in a way which is compatible little biodiversity or landscape centuries, act as linear strips of native with the protection of the value and, in some cases, of less woodland, providing niches for a environment. The guidelines describe value than current land use. number of common woodland plant a range of measures intended to cover • Areas proposed for European or and animal species. Hedgerows are all situations relating to forestry and national designation must be especially important, given the small biodiversity. given formal protection as soon as amount of remaining woodland in the country, and they act as linking corridors between habitat patches. Hedgerows forming boundaries (and roadside hedgerows) are likely to be particularly important from an ecological and cultural viewpoint. Hedgerows have suffered significant losses, largely due to removal for agricultural purposes. The removal of hedgerows has impacted negatively on biodiversity in the wider countryside and it has also affected the cultural heritage and altered the visual landscape. The habitat quality of many remaining hedgerows may be adversely affected by ‘maintenance’ operations

PAGE 5 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

Box 3 Bogs

Active raised bogs, once common in the Irish midlands, are now relatively rare habitats. Vegetation is dominated by with some vascular plants such as heathers, sedges and grasses. Red Data Book species include the bog orchid ( paludosa). This small orchid grows in wet, acid, spongy bogs and is difficult to detect. It has an erratic flowering habit and can be abundant in some years. It has been recorded from more than 50 sites in the past but recently confirmed at single sites in just six counties. The apparent decline may be associated with the loss of its peatland habitat. An update undertaken by local authorities and The Irish Peatland Conservation on its current status will appear in other bodies, as well as by private Council (IPCC) has identified the the new flora atlas from the landowners. Hedgerows are most following important protected bog Botanical Society of the British often removed in arable areas, and are and fen sites that are already damaged Isles (BSBI) later in the year. regularly cleared in small amounts or threatened by development (IPCC, from farms throughout the country. 1998): Blanket bogs are situated in Currently there is a number of upland areas such as the Wicklow and Slieve Bloom Mountains as controls in place which contribute to • All Saints Bog, Co. Offaly - well as in the lowlands of the mitigating negative impacts on extraction western counties of Donegal, hedgerows. For example, the Wildlife • Clara Bog, Co. Offaly - Sligo, Mayo, Galway and Kerry. Act prevents the cutting or rights and private peat extraction Among the Red Data Book destruction of hedgerows or other • Clonfinane, Co. Tipperary - Moss species are slender cottongrass vegetation between the 1st March peat extraction (Eriophorum gracile) and and 31st August, and there is also • Ballykenny, Co. Longford - Mackay’s heath (Erica guidance to ensure that the Drainage and moss peat mackaiana). Blanket bogs importance of roadside hedgerows for extraction undergo a range of deleterious wildlife is taken into account. • Barnesmore, Co. Donegal - effects from grazing and Wind turbines and road trampling by excessive development Fen and Bog stocking, peat extraction, • Scragh, Co. Donegal - Dam and afforestation and agricultural road development While the commercial forests, with reclamation. More recently the • Pollardstown Fen, Co. Kildare - their plantations of exotics, are possibility of localised erosion Road development. associated with the expanding the bogs are diminishing. infrastructural elements of wind As well as creating distinctive upland energy and telecommunication and lowland landscapes, bogs All 32 raised, 47 and 39 installations has been of contribute to the stability and general fen sites considered to be of prime increasing concern. well-being of the environment, ecological importance have been conserving biodiversity, providing proposed as candidate SACs. The Both of these habitat types, active clean water and preventing flooding IPCC had recommended that all raised and blanket bogs, are (Aalen et al., 1997). are alkaline 2,000 hectares of the surviving fen priority habitats under the Habitats with a pH of 7-8 while bogs are acid area considered to have conservation Directive (See Appendix 1). with a pH of 3.2-4.2 owing to the value should be conserved. Of fact that the water supply for the particular concern, to conservationists (Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988; former is from mineral-rich and others, had been the increase of Douglas, 1998; Foss and O’Connell, 1998; groundwater and the latter from rain- turf cutting on bogs of ecological Department of Arts, Gaeltacht, Heritage and Islands, 1999) water (Foss and O’Connell, 1998). importance despite some having

PAGE 6 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

NHA status but not legal protection due to the delay in enacting the relevant legislation (Wildlife Amendment Act, 2000). Because of the impact on these ecosystems it has been recommended that all peatland development, as well as being preceded by an environmental impact assessment (EIA), should be required to submit a specific professional plan for rehabilitation (Feehan and O’Donovan, 1996). Killaun is an example of a regenerating cutaway bog; it is managed by St. Brendan’s Community School Birr in Co. Offaly and is used as an educational resource as well as a popular spot for local walkers and wildlife enthusiasts. It is also one of the known sites of the tiny land snail Vertigo geyeri, an Annex II species under the Habitats Directive (See Box 12), the main threat to which is loss of habitat. A classic habitat in Ireland, favoured by V. geyeri, were the zones of raised bogs which have all but vanished because of drainage and turf cutting Blanket Bog at the margins (Anon., 1999a). Calcareous fens occur in limestone Fen areas subject to a permanently high water table where the vegetation Fig 3 Present Distribution of Peatlands (Source: IPCC) typically consists of a complex of Two turloughs are designated as Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, sedge communities (Ó Críodáin and Special Protection Areas, one is 1999) and all the more important Doyle, 1997) dominated by the protected in a Nature Reserve in Co. ones are listed as candidate Special black bog rush (Schoenus nigricans) Galway (Department of Arts, Areas of Conservation. and purple moor grass (Molina caerulea). Box 4 Turloughs The distribution of the remaining peatlands in Ireland is delineated in The name turlough is derived from the Irish word tuarloch meaning dry Fig. 3. lake. Turloughs are temporary water bodies on Carboniferous limestone in the western third of Ireland. Although analogous in some ways to vernal Turloughs pools found elsewhere they are peculiar to Ireland and have been recorded from 11 counties but are most continuously developed in the part of the Turloughs have been identified as lowland stretching from central Clare into central Galway. They are typically associated with swallow-holes or slugaire through which they fill and empty priority habitats under the Habitats via the local groundwater system. They are not ecosystems except in a Directive and 43 of these have been temporary sense and are transition zones between aquatic and terrestrial proposed as Special Areas of systems. One of the best known is Rahasane turlough (275 ha) in east Conservation (SACs). The chief Galway which is unusual in that it has a river flowing through it; the area is threats to turloughs are land drainage one of the most important wildfowl wetlands in Ireland and was the site of and pollution. Drainage in the 19th first discovery of the shrimp Tanymastix stagnalis in the . Among century eliminated many of the great the characteristic flora of turloughs the black moss Cinclidotus fontinaloides turloughs of east Galway and more may be seen on rocks or boulders. Because of their features turloughs lead recent schemes have also had effects, to a characteristic vegetation but sparse and unpredictable aquatic faunal e.g. seven sites of importance for communities. Their conservation requires sensitive management of the Greenland white-fronted geese and regional catchment both surface and underground. Bewick and whooper swans were (Sources: Freeman, 1950; An Foras Forbartha, 1981; Reynolds, 1996) drastically affected (Reynolds, 1996).

PAGE 7 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

Freshwater Habitats

Ireland has over 4,000 lakes and , which account for about two per cent of the area of the country. Many Irish lakes are still capable of supporting salmonids (Salmo salar and Salmo trutta). The salmon (‘only in freshwater’) is listed in the Habitats Directive and therefore Ireland was required to propose sites for its protection. Ireland is, de facto, one of the two most important member states in the EU for salmon rivers and for this reason there has been pressure to increase the number absence of fish (Kelly-Quinn et al., Data Book species such as garganey, of proposed sites. 1997). While the overall evidence gadwall, pintail, shoveler and from the study carried out in the pochard. Organic pollution, Some smaller lakes and ponds have Munster region was that no broad- especially from diffuse agricultural disappeared due to drainage. Certain scale detrimental effects on stream sources, is the main threat. salmonid lakes in poorly-buffered, water quality were apparent, adverse upland areas in west Galway and effects on a local scale were recorded Twenty eight lakes, covering roughly Mayo have been affected by at catchment afforestation levels 75,000 hectares, almost half the total acidification from commercial above 50 per cent (Giller et al., area of Irish lakes, are waterfowl sites plantations. Artificial acidification, 1997). In the Galway-Mayo region designated as SPAs. A number of attributed to afforestation, has been the study concluded that forestry other lakes are listed as candidate measured, by the EPA, in a feeder does increase the acid status of SACs. Two lakes in Kerry, the habitat stream to Lake Upper streams in poorly buffered of the endangered natterjack toad, are in Co. Wicklow (Bowman and catchments (Allott et al., 1997). Nature Reserves and some additional Bracken, 1993; Lucey et al., 1999). lakes are conserved in National Parks In part of a study of forested Red Data Book plants of freshwater (Department of Arts, Heritage, catchments in Ireland it was found habitats include Irish hydrilla Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999). that 24 of the 46 sites sampled in the (Hydrilla verticillata), found in only Wicklow region had mean labile one lake in Connemara, slender naiad The canal system, built in the 18th monomeric aluminium (Najas flexilis) and pillwort (Pilularia and 19th centuries, provides concentrations in excess of the level globulifera). The survival of sea trout important habitats for some plants, recommended for salmonid waters; is of particular concern in nutrient- coarse fishes and birds and has aided all of these sites were afforested to poor, peaty, western lakes. Lakes are the dispersal of many species of varying degrees and associated with vitally important for breeding and invertebrates. The two main canals, low pH/buffering capacity and wintering wildfowl, including Red Grand and Royal, have been delineated as proposed NHAs.

Coastal and Marine Habitats

Irish sand dunes are species-rich habitats for plants and invertebrates and 168 sand systems have been catalogued (Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999). In south Kerry, dune pools and margins are important spawning and feeding areas for the natterjack toad. Vulnerable Red Data Book plants include seaside centaury (Centaurium littorale) and lesser centaury (C. pulchellum). Machair (sandy calcareous plain inland of dunes) is a rare habitat restricted to the north and west coasts. It is a mosaic of dunes, grassland and

PAGE 8 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

Box 5 Coastal/Marine Habitats The number and variety of designated habitats clearly Coastal ecosystems may be divided into five major habitats: , sand- demonstrates the high ecological dunes, salt-marsh, sea-cliffs and shingle beaches. With a coastline of some value of Ireland’s coastal zone. 7,100 km, including estuaries and offshore islands, Ireland is well endowed with such habitats. With regard to vascular plants the sand-dunes are, due to human pressure, considered the most threatened with as many as 26 in that The BioMar project (Coastal zone category with three probably extinct, one endangered and six vulnerable. management: identification, description and mapping of biotypes) Habitats of international importance include the west coast maërl beds (see was carried out in the 1992-1996 Box 6) and limestone pavements with the sea urchin Paracentrotus lividus. Only one marine locality, Lough Hyne, has been designated as a National period, by the then National Parks Nature Reserve. and Wildlife Service (now Dúchas) and Trinity College Dublin with Surveys carried out in the littoral and sublittoral of Northern Ireland have three European partners, as part of an provided a useful database for establishing the range and importance of the various habitats. With regard to the data available for the island as a EU Life Programme. Included in the whole, however, it is difficult to establish the importance of the habitats. project work was an extensive survey of benthic marine habitats and their (Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988; Wilson and Lawler, 1996) communities (biotypes) in the intertidal and shallow subtidal areas , grazed by sheep and cattle and • To comment on current of the Irish coast (Marine Institute, is an important habitat for three Red management practices at each site 1999). The development of an Data Book bird species: corncrake, and prescribe future management. inshore marine biotype classification dunlin and red-necked phalarope. system led to the criteria for selection Sand dunes and machair are highly of marine SACs. Machair is a priority habitat under vulnerable to development for golf the Habitats Directive and is found courses, caravan parks, football Box 6 Maërl Communities only on the west coast between pitches, beach houses, agricultural Galway Bay and Malin Head. In intensification, and sand quarrying. These deposits of calcareous red 1996 a survey was undertaken of Few pristine examples of sand dunes algae (maërl) form a rare habitat machair sites with the following and machair currently exist, because with a rich associated fauna. Seven free-living maërl species objectives (Crawford et al., 1998a; so many have been degraded. A (Phymatolithon calcareum, Crawford et al., 1998b): number of important sites is currently Lithothamnion coralliodes, under threat. Since 1997, the best Lithothamnion glaciale, • To assess these sites according to examples have been listed as Lithophyllum hibernicum, their potential suitability for candidate SACs. Four sand dune Mesophyllum lichenoides, selection as SACs; systems are protected in Nature Lithophyllum dentatum and • To make an inventory of Annex I Reserves, covering 1,352 hectares Lithophyllum fasciculatum) are habitats and Annex II plant (Department of Arts, Heritage known to occur in Irish marine waters with some species species recorded at each site; Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999). forming deep deposits (maërl • To make an inventory of the beds) that are harvested for vegetation types occurring at each site; A brief account of Ireland’s coastal agricultural and horticultural use. • To describe the main habitats and the measures for geomorphological characteristics protecting them has been outlined The faunal richness of maërl beds of each site; recently (Marine Institute, 1999). has recently been assessed, by Aquatic Services Unit from NUI Galway, as part of a wider project studying their distribution and extraction potential. More than 70 per cent of the species recorded were ; of which over 85 species have been identified, illustrating the taxonomic richness of this biotype. Some rarely recorded isopods, such as Munna cf petiti which is only known with certainty from three locations in the Mediterranean and Cymodoce spp., were identified among the Crustacea.

(Source: Marine Institute, 1999)

PAGE 9 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

others, according to Coastwatch Europe (Dubsky et al., 1998). These and other impacts will be discussed later.

Recently a report outlining a framework for an action plan, on marine biodiversity in Ireland, has been published (Costello, 2000). The report found that despite the economic benefits arising from and legal obligations to protect marine biodiversity, its management is still compromised by insufficient information on what is there, how it changes in time, and why it changes in space and time. It concludes that there is an urgent need to improve understanding and develop theory on marine biodiversity to support management and conservation of marine biological resources and makes Shingle beaches (including the strand study. It appears, from the study, that recommendations on issues of policy, line) are rare, and are significant aquatic flora and fauna is rich management, monitoring and research. invertebrate habitats. Characteristic compared with other regions of plant species of vegetated sites include western Europe (Healy and Oliver, SPECIES couch (Elymus spp.), spear-leaved 1998). Among the biota, charophytes orache (Atriplex prostrata), sea (Stoneworts) and insects in particular A prerequisite to any conservation Mayweed (Tripleurospermum were well represented. Overall 53 policy or strategy is to establish the maritimum), curled dock (Rumex species of plants, 220 species of number of species occurring and crispus), sea milkwort (Glaux aquatic fauna (invertebrates and fish) thence find out their status. While maritima) and sea beet (Beta and 209 Carabidae and Staphylinidae the number of species for all groups vulgaris). Red Data Book plant (Coleoptera) were recorded from in Ireland has not been established species include the sea pea (Lathyrus lagoon shores. Charophytes were the known figures or estimates have japonicus) and oysterplant (Mertensia present at 11 of the sites intensively been computed for some and these maritma); another species, the purple sampled for aquatic vegetation and are listed in Table 3. Unlike habitats spurge (Euphorbia peplis) is now Chara baltica (Baltic stonewort) a new no Irish species have been given extinct in Ireland. Sandy beaches can Irish record, was found to be common priority designation under the be important feeding areas for waders at one of these, Lough Aconeera in Habitats Directive (See Appendix 1). because of the productive invertebrate Co. Galway while two other Red Data Flora (Plants) populations. Tern species nest and Book species Lamprothamnium roost on shingle beaches (e.g. little papulosum (Foxtail stonewort) and The flora of Europe contains some tern) while common seals and grey Chara canescens (Bearded stonewort) 11,000 species of vascular plants of seals haul up on remote sandy beaches were found at new locations (Hatch which 1,500 are deemed threatened in southern and western areas. The and Healy, 1998). throughout their range across the main threat to this habitat is the continent (Curtis and McGough, widespread and often illegal removal As well as erosion, threats to the 1988). The isolation of Ireland from of shingle and sand for building quality of Ireland’s coastal zone Britain and mainland Europe, (Department of the Arts, Heritage, include litter, sewage, builder’s rubble following the retreat of the ice after Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999). and plastic fishing gear, among the last glaciation, has resulted in a

Coastal lagoons are also identified as Table 3 Estimated or known number of species of insects, vertebrates and vascular plants priority habitats in the Habitats in Ireland (from Webb et al., 1996; Ashe et al., 1998; Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999). Directive and a survey was carried out Insects Amphibians Reptiles Freshwater Birds Mammals Vascular in 1996 of the 56 sites in the national fish plants inventory. The sites are mainly ~16,000 3 2* 27 140-168** 31(42)*** 1341 situated on the south and west coasts, *Including slow-worm from Wexford to Donegal, and 20 of **Represents resident, passage migrant, summer visitor and winter visitor species which occur regularly these were selected for more intensive ***Including regularly occurring marine species (See text for other groups)

PAGE 10 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

reduced flora: some 1,000 species of Administration and Ministerial are deemed worthy of legal protection flowering plants and are native Functions) Order, 1994 (S.I. No. within the : to Ireland compared with about 443 of 1994), particular plants can 1,500 species in Britain (Scannell be protected under a Flora Alchemilla alpina L. (Alpine Lady’s-) and Synnott, 1987). The total Protection Order the most recent onopteris L. (Irish spleenwort) vascular flora, including well being the Flora (Protection) Order, Crambe maritima L. (Sea-kale) established introductions, according 1999 (S.I. No. 94 of 1999) which Lepidium latifolium L. (Dittander) L. (Fiddle Dock) to a count made by Curtis and revoked the Flora (Protection) Rumex pulcher Salvia verbenaca L. (Wild Clary) McGough (1988) is 1,309. In the Order, 1987 (S.I. No. 274 of 1987). Euphorbia amygdaloides L. (Wood Spurge) latest edition of An Irish Flora there Under such an Order it becomes an purpureum Villars (Little Robin) are 1,341 vascular plant species and offence to cut, uproot or damage dasyphyllum L. (Thick-leaved hybrids covered (Webb et al., 1996). these plants unless licensed to do so Stonecrop) In reviewing the species diversity in by the Minister for Arts, Heritage, Orobanche rapum-genistae Thuill. (Greater the Irish flora, Neff (1996) Gaeltacht and the Islands. The same Broomrape) concluded that one overriding fact Order protects the habitats of these Ranunculus parviflorus L. (Small-flowered was apparent: plants, 68 of which are vascular (See Buttercup) Table 4a). Alchemilla glaucescens Wallr. (Glaucous That the number of taxa in Ireland Lady’s-mantle) for any given group of plants is low in comparison to our neighbours, but in The omission of certain species from The Atlas of the British Flora, has, since some groups it is clearly rich, e.g. the list of plants in the Order has led its publication in the early 1960s and stoneworts. to criticism from some quarters. For (Perring and Walters, 1962) remained Under the Wildlife Act, 1976 example, O’Mahony (2000) has the general standard work on the (Section 21) and, more recently, the listed, with reasons, the following distribution of vascular plants in Britain Heritage (Transfer of Departmental dozen species which, in his opinion, and Ireland. Since that time the Table 4a Vascular plant species, including ferns, listed in the Flora Protection Order (1999) Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name Common Name Acinos arvensis Basil Thyme Logfia minima (Filago minima) Slender Cudweed Allium schoenoprasum Chives Lotus subbiflorus (L. hispidus) Hairy Birdsfoot Trefoil Alopecurus aequalis Orange Foxtail Lycopodiella inundata ciliata Fringed Sandwort (Lycopodium inundatum) Marsh Clubmoss Arthrocnemum perenne Mentha pulegium Penny Royal (Salicornia perennis) Perennial Glasswort Mertensia maritima Oyster Plant Asparagus officinalis Wild Asparagus Minuartia recurva Recurved Sandwort Asplenium obovatum subsp. Misopates orontium Lesser Snapdragon lanceolatum (A. billotii) Lanceolate Spleenwort Najas flexilis Slender Naiad Asplenium septentrionale Forked Spleenwort sylvatica Astragalus danicus Purple Milk Vetch (Gnaphalium sylvaticum) Wood Cudweed Calamagrostis epigejos Wood Small-reed Otanthus maritimus Callitriche truncata Short-leaved Water-Starwort (Diotis maritima) Cottonweed Cardamine impatiens Narrow-leaved Bitter Cress Papaver hybridum Round Prickly-headed Poppy Cardaminopsis petraea Northern Rockcress Pilularia globulifera Pillwort Carex depauperata Starved Wood Sedge Polygonum viviparum Alpine Bistort Carex divisa Divided Sedge albida Centaurium pulchellum Lesser Centaury (Leucorchis albida) Small-white Orchid Cephalanthera longifolia Narrow-leaved Helleborine Puccinellia fasciculata Tufted Salt-marsh Grass Colchicum autumnale Autumn Crocus Pyrola rotundifolia ssp. maritima Round-leaved Wintergreen Cryptogramma crispa Parsley Fern Sanguisorba officinalis Great Burnet Deschampsia setacea Bog Hair Grass Saxifraga granulata Saxifrage alsinifolium Chickweed Willow Herb Saxifraga hartii Hart’s Saxifrage Equisetum X moorei Moore’s Horsetail Saxifraga hirculus Yellow Marsh Saxifrage Eriophorum gracile Slender Cotton Grass Saxifraga nivalis Alpine Saxifrage Galeopsis angustifolia Red Hemp Nettle Scirpus triqueter Groenlandia densa (Schoenoplectus triqueter) Triangular Club Rush (Potamogeton densus) Opposite-leaved Pondweed Scleranthus annuus Annual Knawel Gymnocarpium robertianum Simethis planifolia Kerry Lily (Thelypteris robertiana) Limestone Fern Spiranthes romanzoffiana Drooping Lady’s Tresses* Hammarbya paludosa Stachys officinalis (Maxalis paludosa) Bog Orchid () Betony Helianthemum nummularium Common Rockrose Trichomanes speciosum Killarney Fern Hordeum secalinum Meadow Barley Trifolium glomeratum Clustered Clover Hydrilla verticillata Irish Hydrilla Trifolium subterraneum Subterranean Clover Hypericum canadense Canadian St. John’s Wort Trollius europaeus Globe Hypericum hirsutum Hairy St. John’s Wort orobus Bitter Vetch Inula salicina Irish Fleabane Viola hirta Hairy Violet Lathyrus japonicus Sea Pea Viola lactea Pale Heath Violet Limosella aquatica Mudwort *This orchid, also known as Irish Lady’s Tresses, is said to have been first introduced into the British Isles, from the eastern seaboard of Northern America, by the Greenland White-fronted goose (Heslop-Harrison, 1953).

PAGE 11 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

Table 4b Non-Vascular plant species listed in the Flora Protection Order (1999) Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name Common Name Scientific Name Common Name

Mosses Pottia wilsonii - Petalophyllum ralfsii - Bryum calophyllum - Tetraplodon angustatus - Plagiochila atlantica - Bryum marratii - Tortella inclinata - Catoscopium nigritum - Weissia longifolia - Drepanocladus vernicosus - Weissia rostellata - Fulgensia fulgens - Leptobarbula berica - Liverworts - Orthrotrichum pallens - Stoneworts Leiocolea gillmanii - Orthrotrichum sprucei - Lamprothamnium papulosum (Lophozia gillmanii) - Orthrotrichum stramineum - Foxtail Stonewort Leiocolea rutheana Fen Flapwort Paludella squarrosa - Nitella gracilis Slender Stonewort (Lophozia rutheana) - distribution of many species has plants. The only bryophytes listed in understood.9 Dr Neil Lockhart of altered as a result of changes in the Irish Habitats Regulations are Dúchas discovered a relict moss agricultural practice (particularly Leucobryum glaucum and Sphagnum species (Paludella squarrasa), new to intensification of farming) and species (peat mosses). Although some Ireland in 1998 (Anon., 1999b). Two land-use (e.g. afforestation and building parts of the country have been well days of fieldwork in Fermanagh, development) while many alien species, studied, such as Killarney and Ben after a meeting of the European previously unknown, have become Bulben, the full Irish bryological flora Committee for the Conservation of widespread in the countryside. distribution is imperfectly Bryophytes (ECCB) in Belfast, yielded a long list of species for the A new initiative, to update that county, three of which, all mosses, work, the Atlas 2000 project, was were new to Ireland (Hodgetts and launched in April 1996. The Hallingbäck, 1994). In a study of the objective of the exercise, which is bryophytes of Foynes Island and the organised by the Botanical Society of adjacent Co. mainland, 76 the British Isles (BSBI) with Irish moss and 18 liverwort species were funding coming from Dúchas recorded (Wiltshire, 1995). The (Republic of Ireland) and the number of species recorded for Environment and Heritage Service Ireland is 533 mosses and 226 (Northern Ireland), is to map the liverworts which represents known distribution of all vascular respectively six per cent and three per plants in the British Isles for the cent of the known bryophytes world- millennium. The scheme ran for the wide (Department of Arts, Heritage, four-year period to autumn 1999 Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999). during which the fieldwork for the project was undertaken. Data on all Under the Flora (Protection) Order, 4129 taxa, included in the scheme, 1999, 14 mosses, four liverworts, have been used to produce including Petalophyllum ralfsii, two biodiversity maps. The Atlas is due to stoneworts and one are be published later in 2001 and protected (Table 4b). should serve as an accurate update on the status of the Irish vascular flora.

Ferns and their allies, the , are the most primitive of the higher plants. Although they possess vascular systems and produce they do not produce Pre 1970 and : they are spore-producing Post 1970 Based on presence vascular plants. The clubmosses in 10 km squares (Lycopodium spp.) are listed in the Irish Habitats Regulations. Killarney fern (Trichomanes speciosum) Fungi (e.g. mushrooms, moulds, rusts This beautiful small fern occurs in dark, sheltered places with a humid atmosphere such as near and yeasts) are simply-organized plants Ireland, because of its moist climate, waterfalls. In Britain it is extremely rare and just lacking green colouring matter one site in remains. Collecting, chiefly in has a flora rich in mosses and the 19th century, has been responsible for its (chlorophyll) and thence unable to liverworts. These bryophytes do not decline in some areas such as in south-west Ireland. photosynthesise. They, as Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988; possess vascular systems nor roots and Merryweather and Hill, 1992 heterotrophs, need organic material to are classed among the so-called lower Fig 4 Distribution of Killarney Fern grow and are normally found on

PAGE 12 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

Arran Islands, for more than a quarter Box 7 Lower Plants of a century, has yielded 424 species Petalwort (Petalophyllum ralfsii) is a small thallose (i.e. leafless plant) 17 of which have their only Irish liverwort found in coastal dune slacks and machairs. It is listed in Appendix I stations within that region (McCarthy, of the Bern Convention and in Annex II of the EU Habitats Directive. It occurs 1987). A total of 1,050 taxa has been in scattered localities along the western seaboard, from Kerry to Donegal, as recorded of which 34 are believed to well as some dune sites in Dublin. Its sites were re-surveyed in 1997-98 when at least four of its 13 former stations have been lost: two to agricultural be threatened European species intensification, one to golf course development and the only known inland (Seaward, 1994; Department of Arts, site to competition from vascular plants in a disused quarry. Many of the Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, older records, including a small population in Kerry not seen since 1890, 1999). Ireland has 30 per cent of the were re-found during the survey. Nine new localities were also discovered total number of European taxa which, and it now appears that its most important sites in Ireland are the machairs compared with other flora groups, is a of Galway and Mayo; these machairs support what are believed to be the largest populations of this species in the world. All 18 populations in the relatively high proportion and is Republic are within proposed NHAs. probably attributable to the reasonably (Source: Neil Lockhart, pers. comm.) good air quality. The only lichen listed in the Irish Habitats Regulations is the Stoneworts: The stoneworts are a separate , Characeae, of the green algae () of which a total of 33 species have been recorded for ‘reindeer moss’ (Cladonia subgenus Britain and Ireland. Many stonewort species prefer calcium-rich but nutrient- Cladina) while Fulgensia fulgens is the poor situations and parts of the Grand and Royal canals provide such only one on the Flora (Protection) conditions; the Curragh Aquifer provides highly calcareous water for the Order (Table 4b). former while Lough Owel does the same for the latter. Canal maintenance and heavy boat traffic in the canals can be threats to these plants. Stoneworts are deemed to be so important and vulnerable that they are the subject of a Although not all algae are aquatic, Red Data Book for Britain and Ireland. Ten species are listed as being they are a diverse group found endangered in Ireland and one, Tolypella prolifera, has already become extinct largely in freshwater and marine during this century. The contraction of the Characeae flora was a feature of habitats. Some are unicellular but the eutrophication effects of Lough Sheelin. Recent surveys of lagoons and many, such as seaweeds and coastal lakes have identified one species new to Ireland and rediscovered weeds, are multicellular plants. To another, Chara muscosa, which was believed to have become extinct. date a total of 524 species of macro- Foxtail stonewort (Lamprothamnium papulosum) (Sources: Stewart and Church, 1992; Champ, algae and 181 species of 1998; Roden, 2000) phytoplankton has been recorded from the Irish marine environment Foxtail stonewort (Lamprothamnium papulosum): This stonewort grows in (Department of Arts, Heritage, brackish lagoons with salinities in the Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999). range 1-3 per cent. It is protected Algae can cause problems in both under the Flora Order (1999). Having freshwater and seawater. The group recently been recorded from two new formerly known as blue-green algae sites, both high salinity lagoons, it is now known from five locations. Its are now classed among the bacteria saline lagoon habitat is threatened, (Cyanobacteria). Seaweeds have long inter alia, by land reclamation, water been used to aid soil fertility, pollution and changes in salinity; the particularly along the western latter occurs at one of its sites, Lady's seaboard, and are collected also for Island Lake in Co. Wexford, from the use as food and medicine. A mapping regular cutting of the sand bar which and assessment survey of the separates the lake from the sea. Based on presence in 10 km squares exploited seaweed resources (Sources: Stewart and Church, 1992; Hatch and Healy, 1998) (Ascophyllum nodosum and Laminaria spp.) along the west coast has been decaying matter. As a group the fungi 1985; Ing and McHugh, 1988). undertaken and their sustainable are apparently a neglected area for Because of their simple structure and study in Ireland and while some 3,500 their importance in brewing, baking, species have been recorded it is as antibiotics as well as plant and believed that the true figure is closer to animal diseases some fungi have 7,800; the latter estimate would give become ‘honorary microbes’ to the Ireland about 0.5 per cent of the microbiologist (Postgate, 1992). world’s fungal flora (Department of Others live in association with special Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the algae forming lichens. Islands, 1999). What is known of Irish fungal diversity is largely due to work Several rare European lichens are undertaken, in the 1980s, to catalogue found in Ireland. Research carried out the species (e.g. Muskett and Malone, on the lichen flora of the Burren and

PAGE 13 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

potential yield gauged (Hession et al., Box 8 Vascular Plants 1998). An atlas of the seaweeds of Britain and Ireland is due to be Meadow Saffron: The decline of this wetland species, also known as the published later in 2001. There are an autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale) because of its August-October flowering habit, is apparently a result of loss of habitat due to intensive estimated 700-1,000 species of agriculture and drainage. Found on basic or neutral soils in damp freshwater desmids and 25 known and woods in Britain and parts of Europe where its occurrence is local but Irish stoneworts; the latter figure is sometimes in quantity it is now regarded as one of the most endangered equivalent to about 10 per cent of the species of wild flora in Ireland. It was once locally common in the Nore known species world-wide. valley, where it occurred in old damp meadows and on river banks, outside Stoneworts (See Box 7) are often of which its only other recently recorded sites were in one area of as well as County Armagh where it has become naturalised. It was mistaken for higher plants. Under last recorded at the Limerick site, formerly an old pasture, in 1995 but has the Flora (Protection) Order, 1999, not been seen since then; ownership of the site changed hands and the land 68 vascular plants are listed as was subsequently ploughed. The remaining County habitats, at protected (Table 4a). There are no and , on either side of the are threatened flowering plants listed in the Irish by the construction of a bypass for the former through which a proposed Habitats Regulations but the two route would pass. species (Najas flexilis and Saxifraga It contains a toxin, known as colchicine, and there have been occasional hirculus) listed in the Habitats instances of fatalities to livestock although it is generally avoided by Directive are among those in the animals. Despite its toxicity it has long been used as a treatment for gout above Order. and is still considered an important plant from a pharmaceutical point of view. This aspect together with its rarity and threatened status should make Among the rare and threatened its conservation a major objective. aquatic plants some examples are (Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988; Stace, 1995; Anon., 1999c; C. Ó Críodáin, pers. comm.; worth mentioning. The river water- S. Reynolds, pers. comm.) crowfoot (Ranunculus fluitans) has to Oyster Plant: Mertensia date not been found in the Republic Also known as the shore-wort, the oyster plant ( maritima) is a perennial of shingle beaches and gravelly seashores. It was but is recorded for one river in Co. previously recorded from eight counties on the north and east coasts but Antrim in Northern Ireland underwent a gradual decrease in range over the past century and has (Hackney, 1992). Up until 1988 the recently been confirmed from only three of these, viz. Donegal, Antrim and three-lobed crowfoot (Ranunculus Down. Climatic factors are obviously important to a species on the edge of tripartitus), whose habitat is generally its north-western range in Ireland and are usually given as the reason for its acidic or oligotrophic lakes, had been decline. However, other factors may also be implicated and shingle removal, particularly at one site, is seen as the greatest threat with grazing by sheep recorded from five sites in the south- reported in the past from all extant sites. It is a protected species through west (Curtis and Harrington, 1987; the Flora Protection Order 1999 (Republic of Ireland) and the Wildlife Order Curtis and McGough, 1988) but has 1985 (Northern Ireland). in the mean time become extinct (Preston and Croft, 1997). On the (Sources: Curtis and McGough, 1988; Farrell and Randall, 1992) plus side within the same period, however, the soft natans)10 has been rediscovered (Rich Other species, such as the opposite- (Ceratophyllum submersum) has been et al., 1995); neither species is listed leaved pondweed (Groenlandia densa) added to the Irish flora after being in the Flora Protection Order (1999) and the slender naiad (Najas flexilis), first found in 1989 (Smith and but the latter is on Appendix I of the which is vulnerable to eutrophication Wolfe-Murphy, 1991) and the Bern Convention as well as Annexes (Preston and Croft, 1997), have been floating water-plantain (Luronium II and IV of the Habitats Directive. discovered at new localities. Two of these species, L. natans and N. flexilis, are protected under the Bern Convention (Appendix I) and the Habitats Directive (Annex II and IV); because they are listed in the Directive as Annex II species, a series of protected areas must be designated for their conservation. Another protected species, the triangular club- rush (Schoenoplectus triqueter), which is known from only two vice-comital divisions, Clare and Limerick, was recently confirmed living in the of the River Maigue (Reynolds, 1997a).

PAGE 14 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

Based on presence in 10 km squares and casual alien plants (Reynolds, Invertebrates do not have a high Giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) Introduced in the 19th century, as a garden 1997b). The alien aquatic fern profile when it comes to ornamental, it has become naturalized in many (Azolla filiculoides) is occasionally conservation. The Irish invertebrate places particularly along the banks of rivers. Because of its photoxicity it can be a health recorded in Ireland but any spread is species listed in the Habitats hazard and can also cause environmental usually checked by colder winters and Directive are: the freshwater pearl problems. Such is the cause for concern in some quarters that a nationally co-ordinated control, it is unlikely to become a pest species mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) and ultimate eradication, strategy has been unless, as is being predicted, a warming and the white-clawed crayfish recommended for this invasive alien. Sources: Wyse Jackson, 1989; Lucey, 1994; of the climate with concomitant (Austropotamobius pallipes); the Kerry Wade et al., 1997; Caffrey, 1999. increases in winter temperatures or spotted slug ( Fig 5 Distribution of Giant Hogweed occurred (Lucey, 1998). A minor maculosus) as well as three land snails Azolla bloom occurred on the River (Vertigo spp.); and one , the Among the aliens Japanese knotweed Barrow, at and upstream of marsh fritillary (Euphydryas aurinia). (Reynoutria japonica), Indian balsam Graiguenamanagh, in the autumn of (Impatiens glandulifera) and giant 1999 (Lucey, 1999a) and again in 2000 hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) indicating successful over-wintering. are, because of their large size and invasive habit, most easily recognised. Fauna (Animals) Many others, however, for a variety of reasons go largely unnoticed. Surveys Ireland’s entire fauna, from carried out at two major ports, protozoans and sponges to mammals, Dublin and Foynes, recorded 66 and has been estimated at 14,616 species 41 species respectively of established (Purcell, 1996). While this figure obviously falls a long way short of the true faunal diversity it has been Box 9 derived from the only way possible, The presence of this Lusitanian i.e. based on actual recordings.11 The species, which occurs elsewhere elements of the country’s fauna that only on the , is an remain to be discovered chiefly old biogeographical puzzle: comprise invertebrate animals which, whether Geomalacus maculosus is with the exception of perhaps four or a preglacial survival in an ice-free refugium, a natural postglacial five species, attract less attention. immigrant, or a relatively recent, accidental introduction has not been established although opinion is now veering towards the last of these hypotheses (Kerney, 1999). The species is common over a considerable area in the south- west where it lives among rocks, of Old Red Sandstone, in heather and rough pasture or more rarely in oak woods on moss- covered timber. There is no evidence that it is declining (Platts and Speight, 1988)

PAGE 15 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

Box 10 Freshwater Invertebrates Box 11 Marsh Fritillary Freshwater Crayfish and Pearl Mussel: The status of the marsh fritillary Pearl Mussel (Euphydryas aurinia), which is These two species, the pearl mussel (Margaritifera margaritifera) regarded as an internationally Margaritifera margaritifera and the threatened butterfly and is a white-clawed crayfish listed species (Annex II) in the Austropotamobius pallipes, are, with Habitats Directive, was re-assessed Anodonta cygnea the swan mussel in 1993 based on a comparison (Lucey, 1995), the largest freshwater between pre and post 1980 invertebrates occurring in Ireland. distribution data. It was Both are protected by Irish law concluded that while it could not (Wildlife Act, 1976) and are listed in be regarded as a threatened the EU ‘Habitats Directive’ as well as species in Ireland the man- in the Council of Europe's Bern induced habitat loss and habitat Convention. Apart from some Irish modification which have caused fluvial sites, these two species appear its decrease elsewhere in Europe not to share the same habitat; the were occurring in Ireland. The former is classed as , species is associated with certain preferring base-poor conditions, and types of old pasture in Ireland the latter as calciphile, generally and it has been recommended being restricted to calcareous waters. that consideration be given to Pre 1965 protection of the few Irish sites Post 1965 Owing to pollution, habitat supporting very large populations. destruction and overfishing for its Based on presence Dúchas has proposed five SACs for in 10 km squares Source: Kerney, 1999 pearls, the mussel is a declining the protection of this species. species and the hard-water form (Source: Lavery, 1993) which occurred in the main channels of the Suir and Barrow (Lucey, 1993) up until relatively recently is now restricted to a 10 km stretch of the Nore (Moorkens et al., 1992; Moorkens and Costello, 1994). The type found in the Nore and referred to as Margaritifera durrovensis but as a of M. margaritifera, has Unlike many other molluscs this mussel been included in Annex V in a requires clean, cool, well-oxygenated water modification to the Habitats free from mud and suspended matter. Also Directive (CEC, 1997a). unusual for a mollusc, especially one that builds two heavy shells, it is found chiefly in soft water. It is a declining species throughout Europe and has become extinct in some places in Ireland. The causes are various and include destruction by pearl fishers (photo), physical changes to the habitat and pollution. The species is particularly vulnerable because of its unusual longevity (one hundred years or more) and slow reproduction (Lucey, 1993; Kerney, 1999).

The crayfish, which is not native to Ireland (Lucey, 1999b), is relatively common and widely distributed in limestone rivers and lakes but is under threat from a lethal (Aphanomyces astaci) disease which has devastated stocks throughout Britain and Europe and which may have been responsible for the collapse of some Irish lake populations (Matthews and Reynolds, 1990). The Irish crayfish populations, however, probably constitute the largest reservoir of the species in Europe (Lucey and Nolan, 1996).

The crayfish, pearl mussel and Kerry Although Ireland’s insect fauna is slug are large invertebrates which are attenuated compared with that of Based on presence in 10 km squares protected in Ireland through national mainland Europe and Britain, it is a and international law. Of the three surprisingly rich one containing some species the mussel is most vulnerable. 16,000 species of which 1,499 are Large heath (Coenonympha tullia) Between 1995 and 1999 it was recorded from The spotted slug is restricted in its recorded as aquatic (Ashe et al., 1998). 27 of the 820 squares searched. It has distribution to the south-west corner suffered major habitat loss due to the exploitation of our raised and blanket bogs. while the introduced crayfish is still A survey of took place in Source: D. Nash, Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club expanding its range. the summer months between 1995 Fig 6 Distribution of Large Heath

PAGE 16 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

and 1999 with the findings recently each year. Of the resident species, six Pest invertebrate species recently published in the Millennium Atlas of may be considered vulnerable due to introduced include the New Zealand Butterflies in Britain and Ireland their very limited and fragmented flatworm (Artioposthia triangulata) (Asher et al., 2001). The survey was geographical distribution and/or which may pose a threat to Irish undertaken as a joint effort between dependence on restricted specialised agriculture. The source and Butterfly Conservation in Britain and habitats. The indications, from subsequent widespread distribution in the Dublin Naturalists’ Field Club. surveys carried out in 1998 and Ireland (Hogan and Dunne, 1996) of In order to get an accurate true 1999 by the Dublin Naturalists’ Field this predator of earthworms was representation of butterfly numbers, Club, are that the six species (the apparently the plant trade. Other monitoring needs to be carried out large heath Coenonympha tullia, the invertebrate pests, chiefly insect and for several years as some species are pearl bordered fritillary Bolaria mite species, have also gained entry in affected by weather conditions: lower euphrosyne, the marsh fritillary the same way (See Box 13). than normal numbers of the small Eurodryas aurina, the brown tortoiseshell (Aglais urticae) were hairstreak Thecla betulae, the dingy Over the last 10,000 years, the found in the summer of 1999. The skipper Erynnis tages and the small millennium just ended has seen the Atlas includes photographs of the 28 blue Cupido minimus) are, as is the largest increase in the diversity of species which occur in Ireland as well case elsewhere in Europe, under Ireland’s vertebrates with 30 new as information on their distribution threat from changes and trends in and status (See Box 11 and Fig 6). land use (B. Aldwell, pers. comm.). Box 13 Some recent insect and Loss of habitat and farming practices These changes include loss of mite introductions to Ireland are thought to be causing a decline in traditional meadows, major drainage It is not surprising that modern butterfly numbers in Ireland (D. of bogs and wetlands, intensive sheep world-wide plant material movement has resulted in the Nash, pers. comm.). grazing, loss of habitats such as sand introduction and establishment dunes to a variety of human uses, the of several exotic phytophagous As well as the known resident removal or severe cutting of field insect pests to Ireland. The butterfly species, three more migrant hedges and scrub and the use of movement of honeybees has also species usually arrive from abroad chemicals in agriculture. led to the establishment of the parasite Verroa jacobsoni. These pest species have mainly been Box 12 Land snails introduced from other EU Vertiginidae: Four species, Vertigo angustior, V. genesii, V. geyeri and V. countries, where they have moulinsiana, of this of tiny land snails, which show strong affinities become established, not from for wetlands or marshy ground, are listed in the Habitats Directive (Annex II). their native areas. Three of these occur in Ireland: V. genesii became extinct in Ireland in the late Harmful organisms and damaged Postglacial period and is only known as fossil occurrences. In Britain it has been plant material found on recorded at just three localities, one in England and the others in . imported produce are routinely identified at Teagasc’s Kinsealy The narrow-mouthed whorl snail V. angustior is a declining species and is Research Centre for the considered vulnerable in Ireland. It is restricted to moist places which are Department of Agriculture’s affected neither by periodic desiccation nor by flooding. It requires open Plant Health Service (Enforcing habitat conditions quickly warmed by the sun as in short vegetation of grasses, EU plant health directive mosses or low herbs and has been found in maritime turf. Its sites may easily 77/93/EEC of 21 December 1976). be destroyed by drainage, afforestation or other changes in land use. The following is a list of phytophagous insect and mite The rare V. moulinsiana is restricted to old calcareous wetlands usually introductions encountered in adjacent to lowland rivers and lakes. It is at the northern limit of its recent years: European range in the British Isles. Liriomyza trifolii – the serpentine V. geyeri The glacial relict has long been known from a few sites in central or Florida leafminer Ireland but has recently been found in the north-west. It is an endangered species and several of its sites have been lost by drainage in recent years. It Liriomyza huidobrensis – the has been cited in the controversy regarding Pollardstown Fen, a designated South American leafminer Special Area of Conservation, outside Kildare town in relation to a plan for Frankliniella occidentalis – the the construction of a bypass. Conservationists, including An Taisce, were western flower thrips concerned about the impact on the fen. Bemisia tabaci – the sweet V. lilljeborgi is quite a rare species in Ireland but is not listed in the Habitats potato whitefly Directive. Postglacial fossils show that it was formerly more widely distributed. – the Today the main threat to the species comes from agricultural drainage due to lupin its being restricted to sites with saturated decaying vegetation. Leptinotarsa decemlineata – the The Vertigo species, because they are restricted to fens and other wetlands, may Colorado beetle be more isolated than in the past due to drainage reducing the size of their Varroa jacobsoni – a honeybee habitat. Twenty three SACs are being proposed for these species by Dúchas. parasite (Sources: Kerney, 1976; Cawley, 1996; Kerney, 1999; O’Sullivan, 1999) (Source: R. Dunne, Teagasc)

PAGE 17 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

Box 14 Fishes

Arctic Charr: A declining species in Ireland and the rest of Europe, Salvelinus alpinus vanished from Lough Allua, in Arctic charr (Salvelinus alpinus) the catchment, as early as the 1830s due to Kindrum Fad Fad human and pike predation. In the same or following Sessiagh Glen Mentiaghs decade it disappeared from Lough Neagh in Northern Beagh Ireland and Lough Leven in Scotland. Most recently its Gartan Keel Greenan Finn loss from Lough Conn together with the collapse of Easke Nalughraman populations in Loughs Corrib and Leane appears to be Derg Neagh related to nutrient enrichment. Its current distribution is Erne shown opposite. The main threats to charr are Melvin eutrophication, acidification and over-fishing. Among the conservation measures that have been proposed for Talt Egish Conn charr are control of water pollution (primarily from Cornagall Bunaveela agriculture and forestry) as well as the possible banning Naback of smolt-rearing and cage-rearing of other salmonids in Gowna Doolough Glenawough their waters. This fish is an indigenous species which was Muck Fee Mask Nafooey formerly widespread and abundant but has become rare Kylemore Inagh Owel Ballynahinch Corrib Ennell in most places. It represents an arctic-alpine element in Shindilla Glenicmurrin the Irish fauna and is restricted to cool, stony, Glendollagh Oorid Tay oligotrophic lakes. Although considered to be Dan endangered in Europe it is not listed in the EU Habitats Shanakeela Lickeen { Glendalough Directive. The distribution map presented here is largely Derryneen Inchiquin the result of questionnaires sent to fishery authorities Gortglass Fin and others to gauge the current status of the charr. The Cloonsnaghta Irish Char Conservation Group is now in operation and information on this relict species can be obtained at Comeragh Lakes http://www.charr.org. Anascaul Acoose Caragh (Sources: Went, 1945; Whilde, 1993; Champ, 1998; McGarrigle and Coomasaharn Leane/Muckross Champ, 1999) Cloon Iskanamacteery Currane Allua Sources: Whilde, 1993; Quigley, 1997; Cloonee Lampreys are survivors of the most primitive group of Inchiquin G. Alexander, University of Glasgow; vertebrates which are classed among the jawless fish or R. Rosell, Department of Agriculture Northern Ireland; P. Fitzmaurice, Agnatha. Three species of lamprey occur in Irish waters: Central Fisheries Board; M. Kennedy, the sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus), the river lamprey Western Fisheries Board; J. Conneely, (Lampetra fluviatilis) and the brook lamprey (Lampetra North-Western Fisheries Board; B. Maguire, Northern Fisheries Board; A. planeri). All three species are known to still spawn in Irish Believed Extinct McGurdy, Eastern Fisheries Board; M. rivers or streams and are listed in the Habitats Directive Pre - 1930 Ó Cinnéide, Southern Fisheries Board; B. Purcell, South-Western Fisheries Post - 1930 / Pre 1990 while the river lamprey or lampern is listed in the Irish Board; E. Cusack, Shannon Fisheries Habitats Regulations. Lampreys were once widespread in Recent (Post 1990) Board Europe but stocks have declined in recent years although this has not been quantified for Irish populations. Water quality is implicated in the demise of populations as well as the impediment to upstream and downstream migration by weirs and dams. Nevertheless, Irish populations appear to be still widespread and like other protected aquatic species, such as the crayfish and pearl mussel, are in a position to make an important contribution to the conservation of European stocks. To conserve Irish lamprey populations, however, the known spawning grounds and larval (ammocoete) habitats need to be protected and maintained. Nine SACs have been proposed, by Dúchas, for these species. (Source: Kurz and Costello, 1999)

Basking Shark: This shark species Cetorhinus maximus, measuring from 11-12m and weighing up to 3.5 tonnes, is the second largest fish in the world. It has been exploited throughout its range (e.g. Portugal, Peru, Equador, China, Japan and New Zealand) but most intensively off Scotland, and California. It was hunted off the Irish coast for hundreds of years and its oil was used for public lighting in Dublin, Cork and Waterford as early as 1742. The fishery was an important subsistence industry for many communities on the western seaboard, e.g. in the period between 1947 and 1975 some 12,400 were killed in the basking shark fishery off and thousands (4,442 in 1984) were taken by Norwegian shark fishermen off the south-east coast during the 1980s. The Achill fishery closed in 1975 after annual catches had dropped to less than 100. A national survey, carried out in 1993, showed little sign of recovery of stocks in these heavily fished areas. The most recent shark sighting surveys show, from records of beached or stranded fish, that the basking shark occurs in Irish waters off the following coasts: Antrim, Dublin, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Galway, Mayo and Donegal. Since 1998 basking sharks in UK waters have been given full protection under the Wildlife and Countryside Act (1981). The recently established Irish Elasmobranch Group (IEG) is proposing to the Irish Government that similar protection should be afforded to the species in Irish territorial waters. (Sources: Berrow and Heardman, 1994; Berrow and Heardman, 1995; S. Berrow, pers. comm.)

PAGE 18 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

Box 15 Amphibians and Reptiles Box 16a Greenland White- The smooth newt (Triturus vulgaris) is the only urodele (tailed amphibian) fronted Goose found in Ireland and has received less attention in the past than the two anurans the common frog (Rana temporaria) and the natterjack toad (Bufo This bird breeds in the low arctic calamita). Unlike these other two amphibian species, whose origins in Ireland fringe of west Greenland and are unclear, the newt is considered an old native. migrates south through west and A detailed survey, carried out between 1993 and 1995 from the Department of south Iceland during September/ Zoology at Trinity College in Dublin, has, for the first time, given a good October to winter exclusively in overall impression of the distribution of this elusive amphibian. The results of Ireland and Britain. Much of its the study showed a widespread distribution although it was not found in winter range is associated with a Donegal, Fermanagh or Tyrone and except for a location near Bantry in Co. landscape characterised by Cork was apparently absent from the south-west. Newts appear to be widespread but uncommon in Ireland and require suitable ponds as well as peatlands and low intensity undisturbed terrestrial habitats for their continued survival. farmland. These wintering areas are often remote and the flocks (Sources: Wilson, 1986; Marnell, 1996; 1998a; 1998b) relatively small and difficult to The two reptile species, the common lizard (Lacerta vivipara) and slow-worm locate. Reported population (Anguis fragilis), occurring in Ireland have been little studied and details declines in the 1970s led to a regarding their status are lacking. From anecdotal evidence it would appear that hunting moratorium in Ireland the lizard is less common than previously. The slow-worm, which is a legless lizard, appears to have been introduced into the Burren in Co. Clare relatively and protection in Britain. recently where it was first recorded in the 1970s but it is not known if it has Synchronised counts throughout become established in other areas or how successfully it has become naturalised. the wintering range in Ireland Another species the green lizard (Lacerta viridis), which occurs naturally in and Britain were made from southern Europe and the Channel Islands, was introduced also to the Burren in 1983 onwards. These showed 1958; eight males and seven females were released and one was found in 1962. that the overall population It appears to have died out thereafter and has not been seen since. increased by five per cent per (Sources: Cabot, 1965; McCarthy, 1977; F. Marnell, pers. comm.) annum from 16,541 in spring 1983 to 33,106 in spring 1997. species becoming established in that (Salmo stomachius) and ferox (Salmo The Irish population was time (Hayden, 1999); examples ferox). Further genetic studies, using estimated in 1997 to be 13,539. include the rabbit brought by the mitochondrial DNA techniques The species is listed in the wild Normans and various fish species, which provide greater resolution than birds Directive and 35 SPAs have such as pike, introduced subsequently protein electrophoresis, might been designated to date on the (See Fig. 9). establish with more certainty if these basis of Greenland white-fronted are indeed separate species, goose use. The fish species listed in the Irish or just varieties of the brown trout (Source: J. Wilson, pers. comm.) ‘Habitats Regulations’ are: (Salmo trutta). In any event these

• Lampern or river lamprey salmonid fishes, because they have 20000 (Lampetra fluviatilis) been around for some 10,000 years, • Pollan (Coregonus autumnalis) are amongst the most native and 15000

• Allis shad (Alosa alosa) unique components of the Irish 10000

• Twaite shad (Alosa fallax) fauna. Number • Salmon (Salmo salar) in fresh water 5000 In a review of threatened Irish fish, Another fish species, the arctic charr Maitland (1996) concluded that 0 (Salvelinus alpinus) has become active conservation management was 1982/83 1983/84 1984/85 1985/86 1986/87 1987/88 1988/89 1989/90 1990/91 1991/92 1992/93 1993/94 1994/95 1995/96 1996/97 extinct in some lakes in Ireland since needed for Allis shad, twaite shad, Year the beginning of the 20th century arctic charr, pollan and smelt. Greenland White-fronted Goose with the most recent extirpation, numbers 1983-1997 from Lough Conn in Two amphibian species, the (See Box 14), confirmed in the last natterjack toad (Bufo calamita) and decade. the common frog (Rana temporaria), are listed in the Irish ‘Habitats Lough Melvin, which straddles the Regulations’ (1997). border counties of Leitrim and Fermanagh, is, according to some There are no bird species listed in the Irish ichthyologists, home to three Irish ‘Habitats Regulations’ (1997) unique ‘species’ of trout which have but all species are afforded protection been separated by their under the Wildlife Act. Certain Irish morphological and biochemical species are also protected under the characteristics (Ferguson, 1986): Birds Directive. Conservation sonaghen (Salmo nigripinnis), gillaroo projects, over the past decade and

PAGE 19 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

the area was again surveyed, a massive Box 16b Birds drop in lapwing numbers was Grey Partridge: The native grey partridge (Perdix perdix) is now an extremely recorded. This collapse, which it has rare species which has been recorded from eight counties (Galway, Kildare, been speculated may have been Longford, Louth, Offaly, Tipperary, Wexford and Wicklow) in recent times. The caused by four consecutive years of remaining birds, however, appear to be split between two populations, one at April flooding, has highlighted the Boora in Co. Offaly and the other at Lullymore in Co. Kildare. Since 1995 partridge have declined in most parts of their range in Europe and the 1998 need for annual monitoring of breeding season was one of the worst on record in the UK. The decline in Irish . Nonetheless, the populations is part of a world-wide trend the specific reasons for which are not chief factors implicated in overall exactly known. It is believed, however, that the removal of hedgerows together wader population declines are the loss with the use of insecticides and herbicides, which have reduced the abundance of insects and weed species, are responsible for lower chick survival. While the of wetlands and nest predation decline in mixed farming may be a factor it is also possible that climatic factors (D. Norriss, pers. comm.). could, directly or indirectly, be implicated as the grey partridge is at the edge of D’Arcy (1999) includes, as well as its range in Ireland. In its grey partridge project, which is partially funded by the waders, the following species among EU, Dúchas has introduced a conservation strategy which involves predator reduction in the core area, habitat improvement by the creation of suitable the threatened avifauna: corn bunting nesting and brood rearing cover as well as monitoring the species response to and corncrake; partridge, quail and the habitat measures. grouse; roseate and little terns; twite (Sources: Whilde, 1993; O’Gorman, 1998; B. Kavanagh, pers. comm.) and chough; barn owl and nightjar; merlin and hen harrier. Following a Corn Bunting: The corn bunting (Miliaria calandra) was classed, in the Red Data quantitative and qualitative review of Book of 1993, as a rare and endangered resident species breeding at only a handful of sites mostly on the west coast. Since then a survey of its status was all available information on the commissioned, by the Heritage Council, to determine the precise population distribution, abundance and numbers and to make recommendations for its conservation. No birds were population trends of regularly located during the survey and it has been concluded that the likelihood is that it occurring birds a series of criteria were became extinct, as a breeding species, during the early 1990s. A single specimen was seen in north Donegal in the summer of 1999. developed, by the Birds of Conservation Concern project in (Sources: Whilde, 1993; O. Merne, pers. comm.) Ireland (BoCCI),12 to identify species Corncrake: Corncrakes are now regarded as globally endangered chiefly due to of high (red list), medium (amber list) intensification of farmland management; in Ireland there had been a long-term and low (green list) conservation decline in the summering population. They require cover throughout the breeding season, from April to September, and not just from May to July when priority. The new Irish red list tall grass is plentiful. The Corncrake Grant Scheme (CGS), whereby landowners comprises 18 species: black-necked were paid to delay grass mowing and encouraged to centre-out cutting, was grebe, common scoter, hen harrier, red first introduced in 1992. The aim of the programme is to conserve corncrakes in grouse, grey partridge, quail, the Shannon (between and ), north-west Mayo and parts of the north Donegal coast and islands where mowing was already fairly corncrake, lapwing, curlew, red-necked late. The scheme has apparently arrested and reversed the long-term decline in phalarope, roseate tern, barn owl, numbers. The number of calling males has increased or stabilised in all the areas nightjar, ring ouzel, chough, twite, with Inishbofin and Tory Islands doing particularly well (See Table 5). yellowhammer and corn bunting. (Source: Dúchas) These species are typically breeding birds which have been in rapid decline which are continuing, have boosted have also shown a decrease in certain over the last 25 years or whose population numbers of rare species local populations of wetland species, populations are much reduced over such as the roseate tern (Sterna e.g. redshank, snipe and curlew but recent historical times (the past 100 dougalli) and stabilised numbers of most particularly, and unexpectedly, years). Conservation action plans are corncrake (Crex crex). In the west the the lapwing. When the Irish Wildbird being prepared for these species and, numbers of merlin (Falco Conservancy (now BirdWatch where feasible, action undertaken to columbarius) and hen harrier (Circus Ireland) surveyed the area along the cyaneus) are thought to have been Shannon and Brosna callows in 1987 adversely affected by overgrazing of it found a very large mixed breeding habitats by sheep. Recent surveys wader population. In 1997, when

Table 5 Corncrake Numbers in Certain Areas (Source: Dúchas) Area 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 Inishbofin Island 12 27 15 12 15-17 Tory Island 8 12 21 18-20 19 Donegal, Mayo, Shannon Callows 129* 174* 184* 148-150* 149-153* Total 149 213 220 178-182 183-189 Based on counts in 1994-98 period *Core area totals

PAGE 20 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

improve their status (Newton et al., 1999). The amber list of 77 species comprises those which have undergone moderate declines in the last 25 years, rare breeding species and those for which Ireland holds an important part of the European or flyway population, or significant concentrations especially of breeding seabirds or wintering wildfowl and waders. The most significant factor which the review, by BoCCI, has highlighted is the downward trend in a number of species associated with farmland. Based on presence in 50 km squares Ireland, including its inshore waters, is home to 42 mammals 31 of which are Pine marten (Martes martes) terrestrial species. Those included in the Believed to be an old native species this carnivore has suffered greatly at the hands of Irish Natural Habitats Regulations man: it was hunted for its pelt in the 16th and 17th centuries when the destruction of its (1997) are the otter (Lutra lutra), habitat, the natural forests, was also cetacean species, bat species, pine occurring. Its numbers are now increasing and its recent expansion in range has been such marten (Martes martes), Irish hare (Lepus that it is considered to be secure particularly timidus), grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) since the laying of the poison strychnine has and common seal (Phoca vitulina). See been banned. Appendix 1 for the mammalian species Sources: Whilde, 1993; Mitchell-Jones et al., 1999; T.J. Hayden, pers. comm. listed in the Habitats Directive. Ireland contains internationally Fig 7 Distribution of Pine Marten

Box 17 Mammals Lesser Horseshoe Bat: Ireland has nine bat species with the most recent addition to the chiropteran fauna, Nathusius’s pipistrelle (Pipistrellus nathusii), being first recorded in 1997. The rarest species is the lesser horseshoe (Rhinolophus Based on presence hipposideros) which is confined to an area along the west and south-west coasts. in 50 km squares The Irish population is estimated to be 12,000 bats which is thought to exceed the total known population from mainland Europe. It is already rare in much of Red deer (Cervus elaphus) One of three deer species occurring and the only Europe, reduced by disturbance, loss of habitat and chemical treatment of roof one present before the last Glacial maximum but timbers. The largest maternity roost in Europe (428 counted in August 1998) is it may have become extinct and also have been in an old building near Dromore Wood in Co. Clare which is a nature reserve in introduced by man. It was relatively abundant which the bats feed; when the disused building was about to come on the and widespread in the middle ages but was market it was bought by the Heritage Council in order to preserve the important hunted almost to extinction by the middle of the 19th century. Since then reintroduction to roost and to establish a bat study centre. The loss of suitable summer sites and Donegal, from Britain, and escapes from deer disturbance during hibernation are the major threats facing this species. Dúchas parks have led to a number of distinct has proposed 31 SACs for the protection of the lesser horseshoe bat. populations, which can be shown scientifically to differ from a Co. Kerry wild population. (Sources: Whilde, 1993; McAney, 1994; O’Sullivan, 1994; McGuire, 1998) Sources: Mitchell-Jones et al., 1999; T.J. Hayden, pers. comm. Irish Hare: The mountain hare (Lepus timidus) is considered to be threatened in parts of mainland Europe and is listed in the Habitats Directive (Annex V). Fig 8 Distribution of Red Deer Because of Ireland’s geological history and relative isolation from Britain and continental Europe the type occurring here and another species, the stoat (Mustela erminea), which have been isolated in this country, are considered to be sufficiently different to be accorded subspecific status. The Irish subspecies (Lepus timidus hibernicus) is apparently widespread and common. Hare coursing is a rural sport which is perceived by those involved as an integral part of the Irish greyhound indusry. (Source: Whilde, 1993; Hayden, 1995)

Otter: The otter (Lutra lutra) is also listed among the mammalian species in the Habitats Directive (Annex II). Ireland has the densest population of otters in western Europe and these occur in freshwater and coastal habitats. Otters are widespread throughout Ireland and appear to be thriving. Unlike in other countries they live within city limits and an increase in numbers since a previous survey, in 1980-81, is evident for the Greater Dublin area. Dúchas has proposed 37 SACs for the protection of otters. Hunting with hounds is still carried on along the River Blackwater and its tributaries in . (Sources: Whilde, 1993; Lunnon, 1996)

PAGE 21 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

Box 18 Cetaceans white-beaked dolphin, Risso’s strongly modified by human agency dolphin, killer whale, pilot whale and that the resulting landscape is a Harbour porpoise (Phocoena minke whale. synthesis of natural and cultural phocoena): The harbour porpoise elements. Thus, natural landscapes, is distributed throughout the Management of Ireland’s whale and north Atlantic to 10°N and the the product of geological, climatic north Pacific to 30°N. It is by far dolphin sanctuary requires the and biological processes unaffected by the most common cetacean monitoring of cetaceans within it and humans, are already rare, perhaps species in Irish waters and is research into potential threats. A non-existent (Aalen, 1997). The usually found close inshore. national cetacean stranding and exceptions, might include some Observed throughout the year, sighting scheme was established in remnants of intact peatland, the tops sightings peak in August-October 1990 and is expanding annually. and this is thought to be due to of some of the mountains as well as feeding movements. They feed With the realisation that whales, some of the wilder stretches of mainly on pelagic fish, usually dolphins and porpoises are found in coastline but almost everywhere the herring and whiting but also Irish waters a whale-watching land is man-modified or man- sprat, sandeels, mackerel and cod. industry is now being actively managed and has been so for a very Porpoise breed in May/June when developed with an estimated 150,000 long time (Rochford, 1995). Thus females move offshore to calve; people visiting Dingle, Co. Kerry south-west Ireland is considered our natural heritage is made up to be a breeding ground. annually to see and swim with a wild, largely of what may be termed semi- sociable bottle-nosed dolphin. Whale natural habitats. Minke whale (Balaenoptera watching trips are now available at acutorostrata): Widely other locations, mainly around the Of the total land area of distributed along the Atlantic south-west coast and in the Shannon approximately seven million hectares seaboard of Ireland it is the estuary where there is a resident whale species most likely to be in the Republic of Ireland, almost five population of bottle-nosed dolphins. observed from the land. It is million are used for agricultural This population is of international frequently recorded stranded on purposes, including forestry (Lafferty, importance, as there are only five the Irish coast, mainly along the Commins and Walsh, 1999). Thus, west but also on the east coast. known resident populations in it would follow, a priori, that these All sightings are made in June- Europe. Whale watching was worth would have the greatest influences on October which suggest that they an estimated IR£1.25 million to probably migrate northwards the natural heritage including the Ireland in 1998. towards the Norwegian coast in flora and fauna. With few exceptions, the summer before returning the bulk of the native terrestrial fauna DISCUSSION south in October. has suffered range contraction and (Sources: Berrow, 1990; Rogan and Having given a brief overview of fragmentation due, in large measure, Berrow, 1995) Ireland’s natural habitats and species, to habitat loss and to the impacts of a discussion of the chief factors an increasingly mechanised important populations of certain agricultural system (Purcell, 1996). mammals such as the otter (See Box affecting or threatening these will 17) and badger. The latter species follow. Since arriving in Ireland man (Meles meles) with an estimated count has played a large part in the Only about nine per cent of Ireland is of 250,000 individuals represents extermination of some species directly presently under forestry, but the about 40 per cent of the European as well as indirectly through habitat Government plans to increase this to population (Smal, 1993). alteration or destruction. He has also 17 per cent in the next 35 years. been responsible for the introduction Almost 78 per cent of Irish forests are To date, 23 species of cetaceans have of many more and examples are given made up of coniferous species. The been recorded in Irish waters, 11 of in Fig. 9. No terrestrial landscape has policy of largely monoculture which are regularly sighted. These remained unaltered or unaffected plantations with non-native sitka include harbour porpoise, common since the arrival of man in Ireland spruce has given rise to concerns dolphin, striped dolphin, bottle- almost ten millenniums ago. The about impacts on landscapes and nosed dolphin, white-sided dolphin, physical and biotic world has been so water quality.

PAGE 22 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

Box 19 Animal extinctions and Introductions Extinctions introductions during the past millennium. Rainbow Trout, Grey Squirrel Woodlark (1900), Marsh Harrier, (1911), Muskrat (1929), Slow 1900 Small Mountain Ringlet Butterfly, Extinctions can occur as a result Worm, Bank Vole (1940/50s), White Tailed Eagle (1910/12), Mink (1950s), Green Lizard of changes in climatic conditions. Golden Eagle** (1910/12), (1958), Zebra Mussel (1990s) Muskrat (1935) For example, lemmings survived in Ireland until about 10,000 years ago while the giant Irish deer (Megaloceros giganteus) Red Squirrel (reintroduction), Bittern, Great Auk, and the reindeer (Rangifer Sika Deer (1860), Minnow, Dace (1889), Roach, Bream 1800 Medicinal Leech tarandus) had died out by about 10,500 years ago when the woolly mammoth and brown bear were long extinct. In the recent past, however, the hand Hedgehog ?, Common Rat, of man, directly or indirectly, can Scots Pine*(reintroduction), Wolf (1786), European Larch, 1700 be cited as the cause of Capercaillie Rhododendron (reintroduction) extirpations of species in most cases. Some examples of extinctions in the last millennium are given in Fig. 9. Carp, Tench, 1600 Red Squirrel The magpie is an example of a Medicinal Leech relatively recent arrival by natural means, in 1684 when a Pheasant, small flock landed in Co. 1500 Wexford, which quickly became Freshwater Crayfish established throughout the country. It is generally believed Pike 1400 that frogs were introduced sometime since the 12th century although the exact date is not Fallow Deer 1300 known. The approximate date for the introduction, by artificial means, of other species, including plants, in the past Rabbit 1200 millennium is chronicled in Fig. 9. Frog ? 1100 In an aesthetic context, the argument against the planting of sitka spruce in a 1000 Wild Boar ? *It is disputed whether Scots Pine died **The Golden Eagle has been very recently cash crop manner in Ireland has been out or not but it was introduced in the introduced to Co. Donegal some 90 years put by Feehan and O’Donovan (1996): 18th century for tree planting. after its extinction Fig 9 Some Examples of Introductions and Extinctions of Species Sitka spruce may well be “one of the most beautiful of living objects” in nature, but in the regimented short- rotation plantations to which it is confined in Ireland it is never allowed to develop this majesty. Moreover, the failure to plant in a way which shows sensitivity to contour, landform and local ecological variation, or to scenic or aesthetic considerations, means that the woods themselves are not allowed to develop any kind of organic relationship with the landscapes in which they are planted.

Unlike modern forests the tree cover in former times was largely in lowland areas, notably along the great river valleys. By the beginning of the 17th century, when destruction of

PAGE 23 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

woodland was continuing and the responsible for creating one of the combined with the introduction of proportion of Ireland covered by trees jewels in the Irish landscape, the the SAC programme, initiated in was down to about 12 per cent, the Burren in Co. Clare, which would March 1997, and the introduction of chief constituent was oak, with some revert to scrub if, in this case, the further cross-compliance controls in ash, a little elm and much hazel scrub ‘benign’ pressure of winter grazing by 1998 should greatly assist in on drier ground. At higher elevations cattle of the pavements ceased alleviating the serious overgrazing the forests were mainly of oak and (Nelson, 1991). problem (Department of Arts, birch (O’Carroll, 1984). Nowadays Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, riparian trees are regularly removed Not all grazing effects, however, have 1999). by angling interests thus benefited the Irish landscape and compromising the habitat of species, those caused by sheep in some areas The European Commission has such as freshwater sponges and the can be numbered among the most decided to make an application to the pearl mussel, which show a preference serious threats and actual impacts in European Court of Justice against for shaded sites (e.g. Lucey, 1993; recent times. Overgrazing, caused by Ireland for non-respect of the Gittings et al., 1998). Under the the gross overstocking of sheep, has European Union's Wild Birds Rural Environment Protection been identified as one of the most Directive. The decision concerns the Scheme (REPS) planting of trees such important threats to habitats and failure to curb sheep overgrazing, as oak, beech, willow, birch, ash, hence biodiversity in Ireland. The particularly in the west of Ireland, whitethorn, blackthorn and elder is effects of overgrazing have been most recommended for riparian zones but marked along the western seaboard, Box 20 Overgrazing the planting of conifers is prohibited but no upland area has escaped. (Department of Agriculture and Sheep are inappropriate on the dwarf The total number of sheep in the Food, 1999). shrub communities in nearly all State almost trebled (overall upland areas (R. Harrington, pers. increase of 170 per cent) between 1980 and 1991. The comm.). The problem has arisen as a The new Planning and Development problem of overgrazing by sheep Act (2000) will simplify the direct result of EU-funded livestock in the upland regions of the west implementation of a number of EU ‘headage’ and ewe premium of Ireland was first highlighted directives and planning codes payments, paid on the basis of by the Salmon Research Agency particularly in respect of the Directive numbers carried, and serves to in 1990 when it reported damage on Environmental Impact Assessment illustrate how well-meaning initiatives to important game fisheries due to excessive amounts of peat silt aimed at improving living standards (EIA). Developments above a certain from eroding peatlands. It was threshold will, under the new in rural areas can have a devastating found that there was little legislation, require an EIA; forestry effect on the landscape if not thought remaining heather moorland in developments up to 70 hectares had through properly. Sheep numbers had Connemara and the conclusion been exempt from the planning process. increased from 3.3 million to 8.9 was drawn that this, at least in million between 1980 and 1992. part, was due to the high grazing pressure in the region. While the deforestation of Ireland has Since then sheep numbers have affected the natural environment and declined slightly, probably through Although overgrazing can consequently the flora and fauna, market forces, and stood at 7.7 negatively affect a number of other human influences, such as fire million in 1996. The original REPS vegetation types most attention and grazing by livestock, have was not successful in redressing the has focused on the damage done helped to shape the landscape. overgrazing problem. It is anticipated to blanket bog and wet heath communities. Paradoxically this has been in part that the modifications to REPS On heathlands overgrazing reduces the cover of heather and leads to increases in grass species such as purple moorgrass (Molina caerulea) and mat grass ( stricta). Severe cases of overgrazing lead to soil erosion, particularly in the winter months.

Overgrazing has had the greatest impact on uplands, peatlands, heaths and coastal habitats and their flora and fauna particularly in Counties Mayo, Galway, Donegal and Kerry.

(Sources: Lafferty, Commins and Walsh, 1999; Heritage Council, 1999a)

PAGE 24 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

leading to serious damage to Ireland's largest Special Protection Area, the Owenduff- Beg Complex in County Mayo, as well as wider loss of habitat of the red grouse (Lagopus lagopus hibernicus).

The wintering of cattle and the need to conserve fodder, particularly silage, and the change from hay to silage making has led to a loss of both plant and animal diversity from meadows. It has also led to water pollution problems. In the period between 1960 and 1990, the production of silage had increased from 0.3 tonnes the fragmentation of European aspects of Ireland’s heritage to more than 20 million tonnes per habitats and their potential for particularly with reference to the year (Heritage Council, 1999a). habitat conservation in Ireland has natural heritage. The draft report been reviewed (Good, 1998). was completed in February 1998, The most potent transforming force Examples of man-made ecological prior to the announcement of the in farm landscapes in the past 30 corridors are the canals and railways detailed Agenda 2000 proposals for years, has been agricultural which were completed in the 19th further reform of the Common intensification through advanced century. Another man-made Agricultural Policy (CAP), and technology which was vigorously development which, it has been updated in May of the same year in promoted by national and EU argued, can benefit wildlife is the golf the light of those detailed proposals policies to increase efficiency and course. In general golf courses will be (Heritage Council, 1999a). The production. As a result, biological excluded from SACs but retained in main recommendations made in the diversity and the long-term viability NHAs (C. Ó Críodáin, pers. report were under the following of small holdings have declined comm.). New course developments, headings: measures to harmonise (Aalen et al., 1997). where they involve protected species’ agricultural schemes and payments habitats, will be required to adhere to with the natural environment; sheep Existing conservation policies are certain criteria with regard to fertiliser payments; beef payments; arable heavily concerned with the protection and pesticide application. payments; rural environment of individual features, not with the protection scheme (REPS); early landscape as a unified whole. This has The Heritage Council commissioned retirement from farming scheme; been attributed to the emphasis of a report to examine the impact of afforestation and premium scheme; EU directives and has been termed agriculture schemes and payments on a proposed new farm habitat negative protection as opposed to protective management (Aalen and Bohnsack, 1997). The exceptions are to be found in the marine environment with regard to reefs, large shallow bays and inlets (E. Sides, pers. comm.).

The 1990s have seen landscape conservation move to the mainstream of the conservation movement (Heritage Council, 1999b) with the formulation of a draft European Convention on Landscape which requires a consistent strategic approach to landscape protection, management and planning.

Ecological corridors (which can vary from a five metre-wide roadside strip to a kilometre-wide landscape) have been recommended as a solution to

PAGE 25 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

management scheme; measures to • To protect wildlife habitats and • ploughing and re-seeding reduce water pollution from endangered species of flora and • interference with the free-flow of agriculture; the Burren; Erne fauna. waters to “swallow holes” in turloughs catchment nutrient management • To produce quality food in an • removal of sand and gravel from scheme; corncrake conservation extensive and environmentally foreshore and sea-shore scheme; proposed changes under friendly manner. • commercial turf cutting on Agenda 2000. unexploited bog The objective of the measure in • burning of growing vegetation on Dúchas has initiated an inter-sectoral REPS covering the natural heritage land between April 1st and resource management project in which (Measure 4 - Retain Wildlife August 30th. the various agencies, including Habitats) is to retain certain listed Agriculture, Forestry, Fisheries and habitats and to curtail commercial Despite the loss of peatlands, Ireland Tourism among others, are encouraged farming practices on these areas in remains unique in western Europe in to demonstrate how they might best the interests of wildlife (flora and having a complete range of bog types optimise their activities. Restoration fauna) and conservation generally. which are of international importance and the reinstatement of The habitats to be retained are (Aalen et al., 1997). Six of Ireland’s habitats are important components of (Department of Agriculture and leading NGOs (non governmental this initiative. Restoration ecology Food, 1999; Department of organisations) have called on the projects are underway to develop Agriculture, Food and Rural Government to stop the continuing economic alternatives to existing Development, 2000): callows; damage to some of Ireland’s prime upland use and grazing problems turloughs and other seasonally ecological sites. They claim that 23 through the use of ancient cattle breeds flooded areas; and ; such sites are either damaged or face and reinstatement of native woodlands. peatlands (including raised bog, cut- immediate development including Extensive cattle grazing in particular the over bog, blanket bog or moors and sand dune systems, upland bogs and overwintering of cattle on standing fens); sand-dunes, foreshore and sea- estuaries (IPCC, 1998). crop vegetation are part of this initiative shore; machairs; eskers; natural or (R. Harrington, pers. comm.). semi-natural vegetation; woodlands; scrubland; lakes, ponds, rivers and In preparation for the enacting of the The Rural Environment Protection streams; field boundaries/margins, long awaited amendment to the Scheme (REPS) has provision for 13 hedgerows and stonewalls (subject to Wildlife Act , Dúchas, the Heritage payments to farmers and landowners conditions set out in Measure 5); old Service of the Department of Arts, where areas fall within NHAs, SACs buildings inhabited by protected Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands or Commonages (Department of species such as barn owls and bats; has selected some 1,100 sites of Agriculture and Food, 1999). disused quarries and such workings ecological importance and proposed which have become habitats. these for designation as Natural The objectives of REPS are Heritage Areas (pNHAs). These sites (Department of Agriculture and Under the scheme the following cover the majority of areas of Food, 1999): importance to native wildlife fauna • To establish farming practices and practices cannot be carried out in such areas: and flora species identified to date. production methods which reflect Maps indicating the location of all the increasing concern for • afforestation the pNHAs have been supplied to the conservation, landscape protection • land improvement works local authorities who have been and wider environmental problems. including drainage requested to provide Dúchas with the opportunity to submit reports and/or make recommendations in respect of developments likely to have a significant adverse impact on the ecology of these sites.

There is a good case for at least one natural World Heritage Site14 designation in the Republic of Ireland. Two prospective candidates, and possibly the only ones to have any chance of attaining the status, are the Burren in Co. Clare and Valentia Island in Co. Kerry. The Giant’s Causeway, in Northern Ireland has achieved this international accolade.

PAGE 26 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

nosed dolphin numbers have declined considerably in the last few years and studies have suggested that calves are being born infertile in the due to contamination with organochlorines (Berrow, 1990; Rogan and Berrow, 1995).

A study of coastal sites, carried out on behalf of the Heritage Council (Neff, in press), showed that not only were many non-designated areas virtually beyond recovery but also that many of the proposed designated areas showed significant effects of impact. Table 6 shows the percentage of sites subject to the 15 most common damaging activities in coastal NHAs, SACs and SPAs as a whole. The study found that agricultural practices account for the most significant impacts with grazing effects the most significant on all three site categories. Almost one-half of all NHAs are subject to grazing on a level that is deemed detrimental to the habitat, while almost three- quarters of coastal SACs are at risk. Other significant agricultural impacts are land ‘improvement’, and the use Ireland’s booming tourism industry stock status, by-catches of marine of agri-chemicals, either directly on poses a threat to the island’s natural mammals and birds and the effects the site or on adjacent lands (drift). heritage and biodiversity. In 1999 on the benthos and seabed have been Next to agriculture comes illegal the number of visitors was 6 million reviewed by Boelens et al. (1999). A dumping which covers a wide range which is some 1.6 times the resident number of projects are focusing on including domestic rubbish, domestic population of the Republic. What interactions between seals and appliances, cars, farm machinery, were regarded as remote places have fisheries in Irish coastal waters which farm refuse – old hay and silage bags. become accessible, to the tourist and are attempting to quantify the Littering is also a serious problem. tripper, in the past 50 years. amount and composition of fish Three of the top 15 impacts are taken by seals. recreation or leisure related, e.g. Matters of considerable concern are caravanning/camping is listed as a the amount of litter15 and rubbish in The impact of the fishing industry damaging operation in 28 NHAs, 22 public places and the habit of on cetacean populations, both SACs and three SPAs; the overall dumping household items, such as directly through entanglement and percentages as a damaging operation old fridges and cookers, and even from competition for resources, is are 16.5, 34 and 6.6 respectively for abandoning cars in the countryside. one of the most sensitive issues each site category. However, if they affecting the management of a are taken as a percentage of the sites Poaching of fish and game has, it cetacean sanctuary. Studies on by- in which they actually occur as a land would seem, always been a problem catch are carried out with the full co- use, i.e. 31, 22 and 7 sites and is likely to be a legacy of our operation of the fishing industry. respectively, then their level of impact colonial past. Because of the wretched Observers working on bottom-set gill escalates to 90.3 per cent for NHAs, conditions endured by the peasantry nets in the (target species 100 per cent in SACs and 42.8 per in past centuries poaching was for this fishery is hake) observed a cent in SPAs. Water polluting probably a necessity for survival in total of 43 harbour porpoises and activities may be due to a number of some cases. four common dolphins caught over a sources which could include period of 328 days at sea; the number agriculture, fishing, industry, sewage The impacts of commercial fishing caught per trip ranged from 0 to 8 – domestic or visitor related. The on the Irish marine environment in with an average of 0.6. There is collection of shellfish, which is terms of target fish mortalities and concern within Europe that bottle- included under aquaculture for some

PAGE 27 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

Table 6 Damaging Activities in Coastal Protected Areas (Neff, in press) This short overview of Ireland’s Activity Impact (per cent)* natural heritage and biodiversity has, NHA SAC SPA so far, not included one important Grazing 46.0 73.0 35.5 component in the latter’s definition, Dumping 40.2 56.2 35.5 genetic diversity, which is the Water polluting activities 28.9 37.5 42.0 biological variation, or capacity for Littering 26.6 35.9 63.0 variation, within each species. Little is known about genetic variation in the Agricultural improvement 26.0 39.0 26.6 wild in Ireland. Thus, as is the case Natural spread of unwanted species 25.4 32.8 42.2 elsewhere, genetic diversity below the Building/Civil engineering 21.8 37.5 26.6 species level has received little Drainage 18.9 31.0 24.4 attention (See Box 21). The Infill/Reclamation 18.3 21.8 44.4 exceptions, of course, are in the plant Fertiliser application/drift 17.0 29.0 11.1 and animal husbandry situations. Camping/caravanning 16.5 34.0 6.6 Here species and varieties have been Other Recreation 16.5 29.0 15.5 changed over the years to stimulate Removal of beach material 15.9 23.4 15.5 yield. This should not be confused Aquaculture 13.6 14.0 20.0 with DNA manipulation.16 The Golf 13.0 29.0 17.7 question of the effect of transgenic No observable impacts 5.9 1.5 0.0 Atlantic salmon on ‘Irish wild stocks’ *Percentage of proposed designated coastal sites subject to impacts has been reviewed by Cross and Galvin (1997). There is much sites, is a particularly harmful impact many of the other impacts on coastal concern among the public regarding in those areas which are feeding sites which might be quite localised, Genetically Modified Organisms grounds for wading birds. Golf is golf courses cover large areas and (GMOs). The side-effects of this latest relatively low in the list of most often a whole coastal system is technological revolution are largely, as significant impacts in national terms affected (Neff, in press). yet, unknown and could have far- but taken prima facie is rather reaching consequences for wild flora misleading. As a damaging operation There can be no doubt that coastal and fauna. it is restricted to relatively few coastal habitats in the (proposed) designated sites on a national scale, i.e. as a land conservation areas are subject not use in 33 NHAs, 21 SACs and 10 only to current damaging practices Box 21 Genetic Resources SPAs. Within these sites it is regarded but are also under threat from both as a damaging operation in 22 continuing – ongoing – impacts and In March 1994 an Irish Genetic NHAs, 19 SACs and eight SPAs new ones. Resources Conservation Trust (66%, 90% and 80% respectively). (ICRCT) was established to promote the conservation of rare The threat level is also high; this is There have been biodiversity success and threatened plant and animal particularly alarming because, unlike stories in the last decade such as, species, breeds and varieties. It inter alia, the preservation of seeks to achieve these aims by peatlands and the stabilisation of promoting specific practical corncrake numbers. Yet in both of conservation projects. these examples of initiatives to save a One project, which received habitat and species respectively some, funding from the then National or all, of the monies had to come Heritage Council, was to establish from outside of the Republic of a seedbank of ecotypes of rare Ireland. and threatened native wild plant species. Ongoing Dúchas projects and programmes include genetic research Other projects underway include the promotion of the to establish long-term conservation establishment of a reference strategies, restoration ecology, collection of Irish apple varieties aquaculture in SPAs, deer, in conjunction with the Irish Seed invertebrates, seabirds and a number Savers Association as well as a of individual species (Department of conservation strategy for a native Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the breed of sheep, Galway sheep, which are currently in danger of Islands, 1999). One of the extinction. Government’s millennium projects has included the planting of a million (Source: Spillane, 1995) oak trees throughout the country.

PAGE 28 BIODIVERSITY IN IRELAND

CONCLUSIONS Box 22 Threats to Biodiversity - Summary It has not, save in general terms, been The natural heritage has probably been rescued from substantial decline by Ireland’s commitments as a member of the European Union (EU). Nature possible to assess Ireland’s biodiversity. conservation in Ireland has in the past received a low profile for a variety of This is largely because, even as we reasons including the fact that the landscape was largely unspoilt up to some arrive in the third millennium of the 25 years ago. Since that time, however, substantial loss and degradation has Christian era, we do not know occurred due mainly, somewhat ironically, to the largescale intensification of agriculture under the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP). Nowhere is this precisely what it entails. In the more readily illustrated than in the case of the State's freshwater ecosystem Republic of Ireland, unlike in where a loss in unpolluted status of some 20 per cent in the river system has Northern Ireland where the Centre been recorded in that time with a concomitant degradation of lake quality for Environmental Data and (Lucey et al., 1999). Recording (CEDaR), located at the The major threats to biodiversity in Ireland are from modern agricultural Department of Botany of the Ulster practices, mechanised peat exploitation and eutrophication of rivers and lakes. Museum, acts as a biological Paradoxically the initial enrichment of Irish rivers can lead to an increase in recording centre for all data species richness and a biotic index rather than a diversity index is employed in (including terrestrial, marine and the national river water quality monitoring programme. Landscapes have been seriously affected by developments such as urban sprawl, inappropriate rural freshwater material), there is no housing development, road construction and the growth of industry. Biological Records Centre. Up until its abolition in 1987, An Foras Land clearance and reclamation for agricultural purposes are becoming Forbartha acted as such a centre. increasingly widespread. Overgrazing, caused by the gross overstocking of Dúchas, however, does act as a sheep, has been identified as one of the most important threats to habitats and hence biodiversity in Ireland. The effects of overgrazing have been most repository for records of certain marked along the western seaboard. The problem arose as a direct result of EU- species and the Natural History funded livestock headage payments, paid on the basis of numbers carried, and Museum (National Museum of serves to illustrates how well-meaning initiatives aimed at improving living Ireland) holds voucher specimens as standards in rural areas can have a devastating effect on such areas if not thought through properly. well as older recordings. The National Botanic Gardens, which comes within Policy in the commercial forestry field while improved of late is far from the ambit of Dúchas, maintains a satisfactory with the share of broadleaf species in new plantations at just 20 per living collection of some 20,000 plant cent up until recently (present target is 30 per cent). Although coniferous trees species and cultivars representing a are generally antagonistic to biological diversity, such stands are essential for survival of some species. Apart from obvious problems caused by afforestation huge genetic reservoir. There is a in the pre-planting and growing stages, the clear felling of the mature trees strong case for a centrally co- also causes, as well as being aesthetically displeasing, problems for wildlife; ordinated approach to the collection fertiliser and pesticide application can also cause further damage to biota, and collation of species records in particularly aquatic species. Scarification after felling and prior to new planting is damaging to flora and fauna but probably no more so than ploughing a Ireland. This is particularly so for field. lower plant groups such as fungi and algae (Neff, 1996). A properly The Irish authorities have always operated an import policy that excludes all resourced central records database for non-native species and which has been relatively successful. This has, however, all plant and animal taxonomic been undermined with the opening of the single market within the EU region, e.g. the free movement in trade of shellfish has already resulted in the groups is essential if species diversity is introduction of exotic pest species as well as diseases (e.g. Holmes and Minchin, to be properly monitored. 1995). Thus, while this has led to an increase in biological diversity it does so at the expense of native species. The Department of Arts, Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands prepared a Lack of resources, particularly inadequate staff numbers, has traditionally been a major problem in most Irish public institutions and nature conservation has in the National Report on the past been under funded. There is little point in producing any national plan or Implementation of the Convention strategy unless it is going to be implemented. An adequate budget to enable on Biological Diversity in 1998 remedial work to take place is essential to practical nature conservation policy. (Department of Arts, Heritage, Compensation payments do appear to work as the example of the corncrake (Crex crex) would attest. This species has been brought back from the brink of Gaeltacht and the Islands, 1999). A extinction by payments to farmers to delay the mowing of meadows, as well as draft National Biodiversity Plan has other measures, until after nesting. The cost of the measures in grant payment been prepared which reviews the state was £100,000 in one year. It is sad but true that in some cases the saving of of biological diversity in Ireland species has to be achieved through monetary inducement and is completely (habitat, species and genetic diversity) justified in some cases. Farmers are being paid not to produce commodities which are already in oversupply. By extension it is justifiable to compensate those whose and outlines measures that are livelihoods are affected by conservation of a species or its habitat. The budget currently in place for the alone for land acquisition to meet the requirements of the EU Habitats Directive conservation and sustainable use of will be substantial. To supplement the State's funding the recommendation that a biological diversity. A report on levy on the tourism and agri-food industries, the key sectors which exploit Ireland's 'green image', should be investigated (Hickie, 1996). Ireland’s biodiversity, commissioned by the Department, concluded that

PAGE 29 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

The linkage between species and their habitats is vital: changing a habitat will usually affect the diversity of species contained within it, while conversely a change in species number and composition may well affect the nature of the habitat. Biological diversity is one of the major challenges that human beings have to deal with in the new millennium (Catizzone et al., 1998). Among the main problems faced by researchers is how to measure biological diversity. There is an urgent need to define a common methodology to valuate and evaluate the various forms of biodiversity.

The Heritage Council has been endeavouring to develop a standard approach to habitat classification in the following general threats affect all members of the fauna either directly Box 23 Climate Change and Biodiversity or indirectly: habitat loss, pollution, , disturbance and Global warming, or the greenhouse effect, is considered to be the result of noise (Purcell, 1996). human activities, such as the burning of fossil fuels and the intensification of agriculture, increasing the concentrations of the naturally occurring In the Irish countryside, landscapes greenhouse gases. have been seriously affected by developments such as urban sprawl, In an assessment of impacts and adaptations to climate change, carried out for the European Union, it has been projected that winters currently inappropriate rural housing classified as cold (occurring 1 year in 10 during 1960-1990) will become development, road construction and much rarer by the 2020s and disappear almost entirely by the 2080s. The last the growth of industry. The decade (1990-99) has been the warmest in the instrumental record, both ‘Environmental Impact Assessment’ annually and for the winter and summer seasons. Most of Europe has Directive (CEC, 1997b) imposes a experienced increases in surface air temperature during the 20th century, legal requirement for developers which averaged across the continent, amounts to about 0.80°C in annual engaged in major projects, such as the temperature. Similarly the 20th century has seen a warming of surface construction of motorways, to waters of several tenths of a degree Celsius around much of Europe. commission and publish statements Increases in growing season length have also been observed in the colder concerning the environmental impacts parts of Europe with the evidence pointing to increases of about 10 days in the average growing season length since the early 1960s. of the proposed work. The statement must, inter alia, evaluate the potential Climate change is likely to result in faunal shifts affecting freshwater and effects on biodiversity, as well as wider marine fish and shellfish biodiversity. Increasing temperature and carbon impacts on landscapes, water quality dioxide (CO2) is expected to result in changing natural ecosystems, and other physico-chemical increasing the encroachment of trees and shrubs in northern tundra, and components of the environment. broad-leaved trees in parts of northern European coniferous forests. Net productivity in ecosystems will likely increase (also due to nitrogen

In a global context the most deposition and increased CO2), but carbon storage may not. Diversity of important initiative in the realm of vegetation in some nature reserves is under threat from rapid change. Loss nature conservation is the United of some critical habitats (e.g. wetlands and tundra) would threaten some Nations Convention on Biological species (e.g. migratory birds). There is uncertainty concerning the likely Diversity of 1992 (Anderson et al., impacts on Ireland of the enhanced greenhouse effect but the drying out of 1997) which was ratified by Ireland peatlands has been included among the possible scenarios. in 1996 (See Table 1). The Habitats The EPA has commissioned a large-scale research project titled ‘Greenhouse Directive has been the single most Gas Emissions and Climate Change’ which includes sub-projects on the important development in the EU ‘Assessment of the impacts of climate change in Ireland’ and the region of recent times. The national ‘Establishment of indicators of climate change in Ireland’. regulations implementing it in Ireland are also of much significance. (Sources: McGettigan, 2000; Parry, 2000)

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Ireland. The absence of a standard Environmental Sciences Association public is being better informed, approach to habitat classification has of Ireland (ESAI), held in Dublin in seems to have come into place. It been identified as a key area for November 2000, delegates identified could therefore be tentatively concern in relation to co-ordination of the need for a National Biodiversity concluded that the natural heritage is, data collection on wildlife and the Forum as one of the key issues to be at the beginning of this new natural environment. Thus, the addressed in relation to biodiversity in millennium, being better resourced Council has set out to provide standard Ireland (Ledwidge, 2000/2001). and thence, ipso facto, better served guidelines for recording, classifying and than hitherto. The non-governmental describing wildlife habitats in an Irish The question as to how well Ireland’s organisations (NGOs) have played context (Fossitt, 2000). natural environment is being managed their part in bringing biodiversity has to be broached. The protection of issues to the fore in Ireland. Through Possibly one of the greatest challenges the natural heritage and biodiversity in the ‘war-of-position’ waged they have is to devise indicators of sustainability Ireland has been slow to progress and raised societal learning to a stage for our vestiges of natural habitats. at times has seemed to be advanced where governments are listening to The problem is that the changes are under duress, particularly under pain public opinion. The European often very slow and the early stages of sanction from the European Commission takes heed of NGOs can be difficult to detect by which Commission. While it is easy to and involves them in discussions time it may be too late to take criticise the authorities it is well to when formulating policy and law remedial action. It is only when we remember that what has been achieved within the European Union. There is have a fuller understanding of the in Ireland in the past has been done no reason why this should not also be desired status quo and the impacts of with much less resources, pro rata, the case at national level. The pressure can we begin to look for than in most other member states. proposed National Biodiversity indicators of sustainability (Rochford, Although it should have been Forum could be one way of 1995). One area where biological anticipated, an additional factor incorporationg NGOs more fully indicators have been successful in leading to delays, in for example the into the decision-making process. chronicling the degradation of our notification of SACs to the European natural endowment is that of the Commission, is the due process of Irish freshwater environment. This is appeals. Thus any criticism levelled POSTSCRIPT particularly so in the case of the rivers should be tempered with this in mind. and streams where a biotic index Perhaps the best barometer by which “We see in many cases in the devised by Toner in 1970 (Flanagan to judge something is by the amount more recent tertiary formations, and Toner, 1972) has been employed of monies expended. That a ‘sea that rarity precedes extinction; since its inception, with only slight change’ in attitude to nature and we know that this has been modifications, in all national surveys conservation has occurred in Ireland the progress of events with of river quality. The use of that within the past decade is obvious from scheme of river quality classification the simple observation that direct those animals which have been has shown, since then, a decline of spending, by Dúchas, on nature exterminated, either locally or more than 30 per cent in unpolluted conservation was under Ir£7m in wholly, through man’s river channel of a baseline length in 1993 but by 1998 was estimated at agency…..…to admit that the State (Lucey et al., 1999). almost Ir£25m (Department of Arts, species generally become rare Heritage, Gaeltacht and the Islands, Two conferences on biodiversity in 1999). While a large proportion of the before they become extinct – to Ireland have been held in the past budget is currently used to feel no surprise at the rarity of a three years. Opening ‘Biodiversity: the compensate landowners the increase in species, and yet to marvel Irish Dimension’ in March 1998, the spending does reflect the seriousness greatly when the species ceases Minister for the Environment and with which the natural heritage and to exist, is much the same as to Local Government Mr Noel Dempsey biodiversity are now regarded. T.D., concluded his address by admit that sickness in the saying: ‘Much remains to be done. I Equally to be welcomed is the more individual is the forerunner of am conscious that the EPA’s first State transparent approach of late being death – to feel no surprise at of the Environment Report judged taken by the official guardians of the sickness, but, when the sick man our record in protecting our natural countryside. There was a perception, dies, to wonder and to suspect heritage over the past decade as and some would put it stronger, that that he died by some deed of satisfactory but with room for the authorities had a very secretive improvement. We need to deliver that approach to nature protection and violence.” improvement’ (Rushton, 2000). At were reluctant to give information to the conference and workshop the general public. That attitude, it : The Origin of ‘Biodiversity – a Natural National would appear, has now changed and a Species (1859). Resource’, organised by the more open approach, in which the

PAGE 31 A REVIEW OF HABITATS & SPECIES

7 Coillte Teoranta is the State-owned Protection of Birds (RSPB) in Northern NOTES forestry company which was established in Ireland. 1989 when it was given ownership and 13 The Wildlife (Amendment) Act was 1 World Heritage Sites, which can be stewardship of the public forests with a clear signed into law on 18 December 2000. natural or cultural, are designated under a commercial mandate by government. UNESCO (United Nations Educational, 14 in Co. Meath and Skellig 8 The Heritage Council is an independent Scientific and Cultural Organisation) Michael in Co. Kerry were designated as body, established under the Heritage Act convention known as the ‘World Heritage cultural sites, in the UNESCO World 1995, which has a statutory responsibility Convention’ which was ratified by Ireland Heritage List, respectively in 1993 and to propose policies and priorities for the in 1992. 1996. identification, protection, preservation and 2 Scientific opinion is divided as to whether enhancement of the national heritage 15 As well as being aesthetically displeasing the entire flora and fauna was obliterated in including flora, fauna, wildlife habitats and litter can affect both wild and domestic the last glaciations some 10-12,000 years landscapes. animals. Plastic bags block the windpipes of ago or if some elements represent relict small animals and stick in the gut of larger 9 The known bryophytes occurring in populations which survived in unglaciated ones while a yoghurt pot can kill anything Britain and Ireland have been listed by Hill areas or other refugia. from a hedgehog to a sheep. et al. (1992) and their distribution documented in Blockeel and Long (1998). 16 3 As defined by the ‘Convention on Genetic engineering may be defined as the modification of a species by human Biological Diversity (1992)’. The 10 Although first recorded in Ireland in 1801 intervention by the insertion of genetic Convention’s objectives are the conservation there is some doubt, among some Irish of biological diversity, the sustainable use of material from another species. Genetic botanists, regarding its status as a native engineering has been used to produce ‘new’ its components and the fair and equitable species. However, a recent review of British sharing of the benefits arising out of the genetically modified species, such as and Irish populations of this endemic tomatoes and potatoes. Its use, however, is utilization of genetic resources. European species, which is now rare and 4 highly contentious. Critics allege that EU nature conservation policy is based on threatened across most of its extant range, three main pieces of legislation: the Birds genetic engineering interferes with the does not substantiate that view. Some of the ‘natural order’ and that genetically Directive, the Habitats Directive and the older records were regarded as probable CITES Regulation. engineered food may be unsafe for human errors but it now seems likely that consumption. To date, ten field trials have L. natans, although scarce, may be fairly 5 been carried out in Ireland with genetically Dúchas has transmitted 363 candidate widely distributed in western Ireland, at Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) to the modified herbicide tolerant sugar-beet least from Killarney (where it was last seen which were regulated by the Environmental European Commission as required under in 1886) through Clare to Galway (Kay et the Habitats Directive. Protection Agency (EPA) under the al., 1999). Genetically Modified Organisms

6 Regulations, 1994. For information on NATURA 2000 and 11 The insect component alone is thought to the barometer showing member states’ comprise some 16,000 species (Ashe et al., progress, see the European Commission 1998). web site: http://europa.eu.int/comm/environment/ 12 BirdWatch Ireland (BWI) in the Republic nature/barometer/barometernb.htm. of Ireland and the Royal Society for the

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McGettigan, M. 2000. Emissions to air. Ó Críodáin, C and Doyle, G. 1997. Lough Anascaul, Co. Kerry; further records In: L. Stapleton, M. Lehane and P. Toner Schoenetum nigricantis, the Schoenus fen and from Loughs Bunaveela, Kindrum and (eds.) Ireland’s environment: a millennium flush vegetation of Ireland. Proceedings of Coomsaharn; and notice of an introduction report. Environmental Protection Agency, the Royal Irish Academy. 97B, pp. 203-218. to Lough Owel, Co. Westmeath. Irish Wexford. Naturalists’ Journal. 25, pp. 435-438 O’Gorman, C. 1998. Home range and McGuire, C. 1998. Survey of lesser habitat use by the endangered Grey Partridge Reynolds, J.D. 1996. Turloughs, their horseshoe bats Rhinolophus hipposideros (Perdix perdix) in the Irish Midlands. A significance and possibilities for (Bechstein) and other bat species in north report submitted to the University of conservation. In: J.D. Reynolds (ed.) The Co Clare, Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. Dublin in partial fulfillment of the conservation of aquatic systems, pp. 38-46. 26, pp. 43-50. requirement to transfer to a Doctoral degree Royal Irish Academy, Dublin. in Zoology. Royal College of Surgeons in Merryweather, J. and Hill, M. 1992. The Ireland, Dublin. Reynolds, S. 1997a. Report for Co. fern guide: an introductory guide to the Limerick (v.c. H8), 1996. Irish Botanical ferns, clubmosses, quillworts and horsetails O’Mahony, T. 2000. Some comments on News. 7, pp. 39-42. of the British Isles. Field Studies. 8, pp. 101- the Flora (Protection) Order, 1999: 188. Republic of Ireland. Irish Botanical News. Reynolds, S. 1997b. Alien plants at Foynes 10, pp. 11-24. Port, Co. Limerick (v.c. H8), 1988-1994. Mitchell-Jones, A.J., Amori, G., Watsonia. 21, pp. 283-285. Bogdanowicz, W., Krystlek,v B., Reijunders, O’Sullivan, A. 1999. Ireland. In: J. P.J.H., Spitzenberger, F., Stubbe, M., Parviainen, D. Little, M. Doyle, A. Rich, T.C.G., Kay, G.M. and Kirschner, J. Thissen, J.B.M., Vohralik, V. and Zima, J. O’Sullivan, M. Kettunen and M. Korhonen 1995. Floating water-plantain Luronium 1999. The Atlas of European Mammals. T. (eds.). Research in forest reserves and natural natans (L.) Raf. (Alismataceae) present in & A.D. Poyser, London. forests in European countries – country reports Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. 25, for the COST Action E4: Forest Reserves pp. 140-145. Moorkens, E.A., Costello, M.J. and Research Network, pp. 145-161. Speight, M.C.D. 1992. Status of the Proceedings No. 16. European Forest Rochford, J.M. 1995. Impacts on semi- freshwater pearl mussels Margaritifera Institute, Torikatu. natural habitats. In: F. Convery and J. margaritifera and M. m. durrovensis in the Feehan (eds.) Assessing sustainability in Nore, Barrow and Suir river tributaries, O'Sullivan, P. 1994. Bats in Ireland. Irish Ireland. pp. 122-123. Proceedings of a south-east Ireland. Irish Naturalists' Journal. Naturalists' Journal. Special Zoological Conference held at University College 24, pp. 127-131. Supplement, 1-21. Dublin, 18 and 19 April, 1995. The Environmental Institute, University College Moorkens, E.A. and Costello, M.J. 1994. Parkes, M. and Morris, J. 1999. Protecting Dublin. Imminent extinction of the Nore freshwater our geological heritage. Irish Scientist Year pearl mussel Margaritifera durrovensis Book. 7, p. 76. Roden, C. 2000. A survey of coastal lakes in Phillips: a species unique to Ireland. Aquatic Cos. Galway, Mayo, Sligo and Donegal. Conservation: Marine and Freshwater Parry. M.L. (ed.) 2000. Assessment of Report to the Heritage Council, Kilkenny. Ecosystems. 5, 363-365. potential effects and adaptations for climate change in Europe: summary and conclusions. Rogan, E. and Berrow, D. 1995. The Muskett, A.E. and Malone, J.P. 1985. Jackson Environment Institute, Norwich. management of Irish waters as a whale and Catalogue of Irish Fungi - VI dolphin sanctuary. In: A.S. Blix, L. 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APPENDIX 1 Degraded raised bogs still capable of natural regeneration Habitats and fauna/flora species occurring Non-active blanket bogs in Ireland which are listed in the Council Transition and quaking bogs Directive 92/431/EEC of 21 May 1992 on Depressions on peat substrates the Conservation of Natural Habitats and Alkaline fens of Wild Fauna and Flora (CEC, 1992), Siliceous scree Annex I and Annex II, and which require Calcareous scree the designation of Special Areas of Vegetation of dry calcareous rocky slopes Conservation (SACs). Vegetation of dry siliceous rocky slopes Pioneer vegetation of rock surfaces Habitats - Priority Caves not open to the public Lagoons Submerged or partly submerged sea caves Fixed "grey" dunes Old oak woods in the British Isles Decalcified fixed dunes with Empetrum nigrum EU - Atlantic decalcified fixed dunes Fauna and Flora - Mammals Machairs Rhinolophus hipposideros (Lesser horseshoe bat) Turloughs Halichoerus grypus (Grey seal) Semi-natural dry calcareous grasslands rich Phoco vitulina (Common seal) in orchids Tursiops truncatus (Bottle-nosed dolphins) Species-rich siliceous Nardus Phocoena phocoena (Porpoise) grasslands in mountain areas *Lutra lutra (Otter) Active raised bogs Active blanket bogs Fauna and Flora - Fish Cladium fens Lampetra fluviatilis (River lamprey) Petrifying springs with tufa formation Lampetra planeri (Brook lamprey) Limestone pavements Petromyzon marinus (Sea lamprey) Bog Woodland Salmo salar (Salmon) - only in freshwater Yew Woodland Alosa spp. (Shad, including Killarney Shad) Residual alluvial forests Acipenser sturio (Sturgeon)

Habitats - Non-Priority Fauna and Flora - Crustaceans Submerged sandbanks Austropotamobius pallipes (White-clawed crayfish) Estuaries Tidal and sandflats Fauna and Flora - Insects Reefs Euphydryas aurinia (Marsh fritillary) Large shallow inlets and bays Annual vegetation of coastal shingle drift lines Fauna and Flora - Molluscs Perennial vegetation of stony coastal banks *Geamalacus maculosus (Kerry slug) Vegetated sea cliffs Vertigo angustior (Narrow-mouthed whorl snail) Salicornia swards Vertigo geyeri (Unnamed whorl snail) Spartina swards Vertigo moulinsiano (Des Moulins’ whorl snail) Atlantic salt meadows Margaritifera margaritifera (Freshwater pearl mussel) Mediterranean salt meadows Embryonic shifting dunes Fauna and Flora - Vascular Plants Marram white dunes Najas flexilis (Slender naiad) Dunes with creeping willow Saxifraga hirculus (Marsh saxifrage) Dunes with sea-buckthorn Trichomanes speciosum (Killarney fern) Humid dune slacks Lowland oligotrophic lakes Upland oligotrophic lakes Fauna and Flora - Bryophytes Hard oligo-mesotrophic lakes rich in stoneworts Drepanocladus vernicosus (Shining sicklemoss) Naturally eutrophic lakes Petalophyllum ralfsii (Petalwort) Dystrophic (peat-stained) lakes Lowland rivers rich in water crowfoot *The otter and the Kerry slug are also listed, Pioneer river vegetation rich in annuals in Annex IV of the Directive, as species in Wet heaths need of strict protection as is the natterjack Dry heaths toad (Bufo calamita); the pine marten Alpine and sub-alpine heaths (Martes martes) and the Irish hare (Lepus Juniper scrub timidus), as well as some of the above fauna Grasslands on soils with a high heavy metal content are listed, in Annex V, as species whose Semi-natural dry calcareous taking in the wild and exploitation may be grasslands other than those rich in orchids subject to management measures. Molinia meadows Eutrophic tall herbs Lowland hay meadows

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