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Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies Herd No More: Livestock Husbandry Policies and the Environment in Present Day Israel from 1900 until Today Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of “Master of Arts” By: Elizabeth Wuerker January, 2008 Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies Herd No More: Livestock Husbandry Policies and the Environment in Present Day Israel from 1900 until Today Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of “Master of Arts” By Elizabeth Wuerker Under the Supervision of Prof. Alon Tal Department of Man in Drylands Author's Signature …………….……………………….. Date ……………. Approved by the Supervisor…………….……………… Date ……………. Approved by the Director of the School ………………. Date ……………. i Herd No More: Livestock Husbandry Policies and the Environment in Present Day Israel from 1900 until Today By Elizabeth Wuerker Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of “Master of Arts” Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Jacob Blaustein Institute for Desert Research Albert Katz International School for Desert Studies 2008 Abstract Livestock production has been cited as a key contributor to the most important environmental problems around the globe. This refers to both industrial systems, where livestock are packed tightly together and slaughtered en masse, and to highly traditional systems, where a shepherd follows her herd. Israel is one of the few countries where both of these systems exist, with little contact between them. Interviews and site visits were conducted with livestock growers in both the Jewish and Arab sectors of Israel, as well as with policy makers. The environmental impact of the sectors was examined by an analysis of available published data. Policies were examined from a review of primary and secondary sources, as well as interviews. The research shows that while much attention has been placed on the contribution of the Bedouin pastoralists to desertification and erosion, this has been largely due to political motivations, and does not reflect their true contribution, which has been minor. A far more critical concern is water pollution caused by the industrial sector of livestock production. The Dairy Farm Reform, implemented from 1999-2006, has ensured that the wastewater from Israel’s dairy farms, equivalent to the wastewater from all human inhabitants, will enter Israel’s sewer systems for treatment. Overall it has been a significant step in the mitigation of adverse environmental effects from the Israeli dairy sector. The Dairy Farm Reform may have unintended effects, such as the southward movement of dairy producers. A potential weakness of the Dairy Farm Reform is its failure to differentiate between climatic regions in its guidelines for producers. It falls short in not addressing the water pollution from beef production. ii Policies regarding access to land have been influenced by nationalistic and security motivations. The divisions between governmental supports for the Jewish and Arab sectors of livestock management are detrimental to efficient environmental management. Current policies provide a strong discouragement to Bedouin to continue their traditional livestock husbandry practices, which may provide a cultural loss to Israel and to the world. iii Acknowledgments To Juan Pablo Wachs, who provided constant support, encouragement, some translation, company, and married me while I was writing this, thank you. Thanks to Prof. Alon Tal, who supervised me in the writing of this thesis, for the energy, enthusiasm and confidence you brought, and for much thoughtful editing. Thanks to the Man in Drylands Department, especially Prof. I. Meir, for providing support, flexibility and food for thought during the research process. To the administrative staff of the Blaustein Institute, particularly Ms. Dorit Levin, for helping with every type of crisis and even just minor problems effectively and with a smile. Thanks to my family for not protesting too much when I decided to travel so far away to study. Thanks to the many farmers, herders, and officials who spent time with me and talked to me so openly about your experiences. This work was supported through a scholarship of the Bona Terra Foundation and the Albert Katz International School Foundation. Many thanks for the financial support that allowed me to focus on this research and learn so much about drylands and the environment during these two years. iv Table of Contents 1. Introduction _________________________________________________________ 1 Literature Review ____________________________________________________________ 2 Research Questions ___________________________________________________________ 3 Background _________________________________________________________________ 4 Livestock and the Environment ________________________________________________________4 Environmental Disasters______________________________________________________________5 Arid Zones ________________________________________________________________________6 Semi-arid and Dry Subhumid Land _____________________________________________________7 Sustainable Development and Growing Consciousness of Environmental Issues __________________9 Israel’s Political Structure____________________________________________________________10 Geography of Israel ________________________________________________________________11 Types of Livestock Production Systems: Intensive vs. Extensive _____________________________12 History and the Land _______________________________________________________________14 Scope ______________________________________________________________________ 14 Framework_________________________________________________________________ 15 Methodology________________________________________________________________ 15 2. The Jewish Livestock Economy, Past and Present __________________________ 16 Introduction ________________________________________________________________ 16 Under Ottoman Rule_________________________________________________________ 16 Agriculture _______________________________________________________________________17 Early Attempts at Livestock Husbandry_________________________________________________20 Changes in Palestinian Rule __________________________________________________________21 British Mandate _____________________________________________________________ 21 The Development of a Modern Dairy Industry____________________________________________21 Sheep and Goats ___________________________________________________________________22 Planning _________________________________________________________________________23 Livestock Policy After the Establishment of the State of Israel ______________________ 25 Jewish Dairy Farming_______________________________________________________________25 The Jewish Livestock Sector Today ____________________________________________________27 Milk Consumption _________________________________________________________________30 Meat ____________________________________________________________________________31 Sheep and Goats ___________________________________________________________________32 Risks ____________________________________________________________________________33 Summary __________________________________________________________________ 34 3. The Arab Sector _____________________________________________________ 36 Introduction ________________________________________________________________ 36 In Ottoman Times and Before _________________________________________________ 37 The British Mandate Period ___________________________________________________ 38 v The Establishment of the State of Israel and Beyond_______________________________ 41 Semi-Extensive Grazing Among the Bedouin ____________________________________________43 General Grazing Regulations _________________________________________________________46 Obtaining Grazing Land _____________________________________________________________48 Trends___________________________________________________________________________53 Summary __________________________________________________________________ 54 4. The Environmental Effects of Livestock Husbandry in Israel_________________ 56 Introduction ________________________________________________________________ 56 Desertification ______________________________________________________________ 56 Land Degradation in Israel due to Livestock _____________________________________________56 Defining Overgrazing _______________________________________________________________57 Overgrazing ______________________________________________________________________58 Desertification ____________________________________________________________________60 Land Use and Livestock in Israel_______________________________________________ 61 Climate Change and Livestock in Israel _________________________________________ 63 Water Use in Israel __________________________________________________________ 65 Water Pollution _____________________________________________________________ 67 The Biodiversity Cost of Industrial Livestock Production __________________________ 73 Off the Farm—Processing, Packaging and Transport______________________________ 76 Conclusion _________________________________________________________________

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