1. The theory of biological evolution includes which 5. The changes in foot structure in a population over concepts? many generations are shown in the diagram below. A) species of found on Earth today have adaptations not always found in earlier species B) fossils are the remains of present-day species and were all formed at the same time C) individuals may acquire physical characteristics after birth and pass these acquired characteristics on to their offspring. These changes can best be explained by the concept D) the smallest organisms are always eliminated by of the larger organisms within the ecosystem A) evolution 2. Some behaviors such as mating and caring for young B) extinction are genetically determined in certain species of . The presence of these behaviors is most likely due to C) stable gene frequencies the fact that D) use and disuse A) birds do not have the ability to learn 6. The diversity of organisms present on Earth is the B) individual birds need to learn to survive and result of reproduce A) ecosystem stability B) homeostasis C) these behaviors helped birds to survive in the C) natural selection D) direct harvesting past 7. Most species on Earth have changed through time. D) within their lifetimes, birds developed these This change is known as behaviors A) isolation B) geology 3. In for a species to evolve, it must be able to C) ecology D) evolution A) consume a large quantity of food 8. A species of bird known as Bird of Paradise has been B) reproduce successfully observed in the jungles of New Guinea. The males C) maintain a constant body temperature shake their bodies and sometimes hang upside down D) be domesticated to show off their bright colors and long feathers to 4. Which statement concerning production of offspring attract females. Females usually mate with the is correct? "flashiest" males. These observations support the concept that A) Production of offspring is necessary for a species to survive, but it is not necessary for an A) unusual courtship behaviors lead to extinction individual to survive. B) some organisms are better adapted for asexual B) An can reproduce without performing any of the other processes. C) homeostasis in an organism is influenced by C) Production of offspring is necessary for an physical characteristics individual organism to survive, while the other D) behaviors that lead to reproductive success have life processes are important for a species to evolved survive. D) Reproduction is a process that requires gametes in all species. 9. Base your answer to the following question on the diagram below.

Which concept is best illustrated by the physical variations in the horse as its body size and structure change over time? A) acquired characteristics B) artificial selection C) intermediate inheritance D) organic evolution 10. The graph below represents the populations of two different species in an ecosystem over a period of several years.

Which statement is a possible explanation for the changes shown? A) Species A is better adapted to this environment. B) Species A is the predator of Species B. C) Species B is better adapted to this environment. D) Species B is a parasite that has benefited species A. 11. The graph below shows the results of an 12. After the Industrial Revolution, dark-colored moths investigation related to evolution. outnumbered light-colored moths in certain regions of England. Within the past 40 years, factories in these regions have added scrubbers and air purifiers to their smokestacks, and the relative number of light-colored moths has increased. The probable reason for this increase is that A) the allele for light color became dominant over the allele for dark color B) the environment favored the survival of light-colored moths over dark-colored moths C) dark-colored moths turned light because they needed to survive D) overpopulation occurred and most of the light-colored moths died, leaving only This graph was most likely developed from data dark-colored moths to reproduce involving a study of the A) transmission of acquired characteristics B) concept of punctuated equilibrium C) concept of gradualism D) variation within a species 13. A trait with low survival value to the members of a population will most likely A) undergo a series of mutations in succeeding generations B) cause the reproduction rate in individual organisms to increase C) decrease in frequency from one generation to the next D) remain unchanged in frequency through many generations 14. Which best defines the term natural selection? A) survival of the strongest organisms B) elimination of the smallest organisms by the C) survival of those organisms genetically best adapted to the environment D) survival and reproduction of those organisms that occupy the largest area in an environment 15. Which concept includes the other three? A) competition B) survival of the fittest C) natural selection D) overproduction 16. The diagram below represents the relationship between natural selection and variation. The arrow between them is labeled X.

Which phrase best indicates the meaning of the arrow labeled X? A) is dependent on B) increases the rate of C) decreases the rate of D) is independent of 17. The table below shows adaptations in two organisms.

The presence of these adaptations is most likely the result of A) reproductive technology B) natural selection C) asexual reproduction D) human interference 18. Base your answer to the following question on the information below and on your knowledge of .

Yes, This Big Lizard is Pink

A new study from the University of Rome Tor Vergata shows that a rare strawberry-tinted land iguana [rosada iguana] in the Galapagos Islands is genetically distinct from other iguanas there, having diverged from them more than five million years ago as the archipelago [a group of islands] formed. The rosada iguana—which escaped Darwin's notice—was discovered only recently, largely because it on the desolate slopes of an active volcano. Source: Smithsonian, March 2009 Which diagram best represents the evolutionary pathway of the strawberry-tinted iguana?

A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 19. Which concept about variations is included in the modern theory of evolution? A) Variations occur in , but not in plants. B) Variations are acquired and will appear in the offspring. C) Variations are the result of overproduction. D) Variations influence the survival of the individual. 20. Characteristics that are harmful to a species tend to decrease in frequency from generation to generation because these characteristics usually A) have a high survival value for the species B) have a low survival value for the species C) are inherited by more individuals D) affect only the older members of the population 21. Darwin's theory of evolution is based on A) variation and natural selection B) use and disuse C) spontaneous genetic mutations D) transmission of acquired characteristics 22. The diagram below represents the same field of mice hunted by a hawk over a period of three months.

The overall changes in the population of mice can be explained best by A) natural selection B) succession C) reproduction D) mouse extinction 23. The concept that new varieties of organisms are still 27. Certain insects resemble the bark of the trees on evolving is best supported by the which they live. Which statement provides a possible biological explanation for this resemblance? A) increasing need for new antibiotics B) increasing number of individuals in the human A) The insects needed camouflage so they population developed protective coloration. C) decreasing number of new fossils discovered in B) Natural selection played a role in the undisturbed rock layers development of this protective coloration. D) decreasing activity of photosynthetic organisms C) The lack of mutations resulted in the protective due to warming of the atmosphere coloration. 24. The teeth of carnivores are pointed and are good for D) The trees caused mutations in the insects that puncturing and ripping flesh. The teeth of herbivores resulted in protective coloration. are flat and are good for grinding and chewing. 28. Certain antibacterial soaps kill 99% of the Which statement best explains these observations? present on hands. Constant use of these soaps could be harmful over time because A) Herbivores have evolved from carnivores. B) Carnivores have evolved from herbivores. A) more pathogens may be resistant to the soap C) The two types of teeth most likely evolved as a B) microbes prevent viral diseases result of natural selection. C) large populations of pathogens are beneficial to D) The two types of teeth most likely evolved as a the hands result of the needs of an organism. D) the soap stimulates skin division 25. Which statement is not part of the concept of natural 29. Base your answer to the following question on The selection? diagram below illustrates the change that occurred in the physical appearance of a rabbit population over a A) Individuals that possess the most favorable 10-year period. variations will have the best chance of reproducing. B) Variation occurs among individuals in a population. C) More individuals are produced than will survive. D) Genes of an individual adapt to a changing environment.

26. In a study of tree snails living on a peninsula, Which condition would explain this change over differences were seen in the radula, a tongue-like time? organ with a circular arrangement of teeth. In each species, the shape of the teeth was modified to allow A) a decrease in the mutation rate of the rabbits for the ingestion of different food materials. These with black fur differently shaped teeth are an example of B) a decrease in the advantage of having white fur A) transmission of acquired characteristics C) an increase in the advantage of having white fur B) adaptation to environmental factors D) an increase in the chromosome number of the rabbits with black fur C) overproduction D) geographic isolation 30. A key concept in the modern theory of evolution 33. Which situation results in a characteristic that is explains inheritable? A) how new organs arise according to the needs of A) A limb is lost when two marine organisms an organism fight. B) how variations occur within a species B) A puppy learns to beg for food by watching an C) the continued increase in the human population older dog perform tricks. D) the presence of asexual reproduction within a C) A gene is inserted into a bacterium, allowing species the organism to produce insulin. 31. What are the characteristics of a species that allows D) A random mutation causes the immediate death its members to better survive and reproduce in their of a microbe. environment known as? 34. A population of white moths lives in a forest near a factory. This factory burns coal and pollutes the air A) favorable adaptations with black dust. Over time, this dust has settled on B) homologous structures the trees in the area, making them darker in color. C) abiotic factors This could result in D) biotic factors A) an increase in the white moth population 32. The graph below shows the percent of variation for a B) a decrease in the white moth population given trait in four different populations of the same C) an increase in the number of trees in the area species. The populations inhabit similar environments. D) a decrease in the air pollution affecting the area

In which population will the greatest number of individuals most likely survive if a significant environmental change related to this trait occurs? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 35. The evolutionary pathways of several species are represented in the diagram below.

Which species was best adapted for survival in changing environmental conditions? A) A B) E C) K D) L 36. A species in a changing environment would have the 38. Scientists compared fossil remains of a species that best chance of survival as a result of a mutation that lived 5,000 years ago with members of the same has a species living today. Scientists concluded that this species had changed very little over the entire time A) high adaptive value and occurs in its skin cells period. Which statement best accounts for this lack B) low adaptive value and occurs in its skin cells of change? C) high adaptive value and occurs in its gametes D) low adaptive value and occurs in its gametes A) The environment changed significantly and those offspring without favorable 37. The illustration below shows an insect resting on characteristics died. some green leaves. B) The environment changed significantly, but the species had no natural enemies for a long period of time. C) The environment did not change significantly and those offspring expressing new characteristics survived their natural enemies. D) The environment did not change significantly and those offspring expressing new The size, shape, and green color of this insect are characteristics did not survive. adaptations that would most likely help the insect to 39. When a species includes organisms with a wide A) compete successfully with all birds variety of traits, it is most likely that this species will have B) make its own food C) hide from predators A) a high proportion of individuals immune to D) avoid toxic waste materials genetic diseases B) a greater chance to survive if environmental conditions suddenly change C) less success competing for resources D) limitless supplies of important resources, such as food and water 40. One possible explanation for the fact that some simple, one-celled organisms did not evolve into complex, multicellular organisms is that A) energy flow in an ecosystem requires simple autotrophic organisms B) the reproductive rate of single-celled organisms is too fast for change to occur C) these organisms possessed traits that enabled them to survive in a changing environment D) stability within an ecosystem requires the presence of a variety of different species 41. A photograph of a polar bear in its environment is shown below.

One possible reason why polar bears might not be able to survive if the environment they live in changes is because A) the species will experience decreased competition for mates B) the new environment will cause greater variation in the species C) there will be a larger variety of food sources available D) they are adapted to the specific environment in which they now live 42. Which statement would most likely be in agreement 43. A man lifts weights and develops large arm muscles. with Lamarck's theory of evolution? His son has larger muscles than his father had at the same age. According to Lamarck's theory, this A) Black moths have evolved in an area because situation is due to they were better adapted to the environment and had high rates of survival and reproduction. A) competition between father and son B) Geographic barriers may lead to reproductive B) survival of the fittest isolation and the production of new species. C) inheritance of acquired characteristics C) Giraffes have long necks because their D) mutagenic agents ancestors stretched their necks reaching for food, and this trait was passed on to their offspring. D) Most variations in animals and plants are due to random chromosomal and gene mutation. 44. Which statement would most likely have used by 48. Based on Lamarck's theory of evolution, the human Lamarck to explain the development of the long appendix decreased in size and lost its digestive trunk in elephants? function because A) Elephants stretched their trunks to reach food A) inherited mutations caused the appendix to supply and this longer trunk was passed on. become useless B) A mutation occurred and its frequently B) development of useless organs conserved increased in later generations. energy C) Elephants with longer trunks had a higher C) the appendix was not needed or used as a survival rate and the longer trunk was passed digestive organ on D) humans with a small appendix were better D) Elephants with short trunks were mostly sterile. adapted to survive in their environment 45. The concept that, due to a need, organisms acquired 49. Which statement is not included as a part of the the ability to move from an aquatic environment modern theory of evolution? onto the land is most closely associated with a theory A) Sexual reproduction and mutation provide proposed by variation among organisms. A) Weismann B) Lamarck B) Traits are transmitted by genes and C) Miller D) Mendel chromosomes. 46. Lamarck proposed that new organs evolved C) More offspring are produced than can possibly according to the survive. D) New organs arise when they are needed. A) needs of the organism B) process of natural selection 50. Which concept is not a part of the theory of evolution? C) role of mutation D) sorting out of genes A) Present-day species developed from earlier species. 47. In 1889, August Weismann, a German biologist, conducted an experiment attempting to produce B) Some species die out when environmental mice without tails. He cut the tails off adult mice and changes occur. then permitted them to mate. All offspring had long C) Complex organisms develop from simple tails. He repeated the experiment many times, organisms over time. always with the same results. This experiment D) Change occurs according to the needs of an helped to disprove the concept of individual organism to survive. A) overproduction in a species 51. A mouse has its tail completely cut off by a B) inheritance of acquired characteristics mousetrap. Which concept proposes that the offspring produced by this mouse will be born C) survival of the fittest without tails? D) struggle for existence A) gene linkage B) crossing-over between homologous chromosomes C) survival of the fittest D) inheritance of acquired characteristics Base your answers to questions 52 and 53 on the information and the data table below and on your knowledge of biology.

An investigation was carried out over a five-year period to measure the effect of color on the survival of trout in a stream. The stream contained many brightly colored stones and food was plentiful. At the start of the investigation (year 0), 100 bright-colored trout and 100 drab-colored trout were placed into a section of the stream that had been blocked with netting. Investigators monitored the trout populations for five years and recorded the water condition each time a count was done. The data collected are shown in the table below. 52. Mark an appropriate scale on each labeled axis.

53. Plot the data for the bright-colored trout on the grid. Surround each point with a small circle and connect the points. 54. The data table below shows the number of amino acid differences in the hemoglobin molecules of several species compared with amino acids in the hemoglobin of humans.

Based on the information in the data table, write the names of the organisms from the table in their correct positions on the evolutionary tree below. 55. Information related to the organisms found on Earth during various geological time periods is represented in the chart below.

Which statement concerning the first appearance of the organisms over the time period represented in this chart is most likely correct? A) Life on Earth has remained the same. B) Life on Earth has changed from primitive organisms to more complex organisms. C) Life on Earth began with complex organisms and changed to more complex organisms. D) Life on Earth has changed rapidly. Base your answers to questions 56 and 57 on the information provided and on your knowledge of biology.

A student observed the physical characteristics of seven organisms and prepared the data table below. One of the student's classmates sorted the seven organisms into two groups as shown below.

56. Fish and snakes are very different organisms, yet they have many similarities. Provide a biological explanation for the fact that fish and snakes have so many characteristics in common.

57. Another classmate suggested that the earthworm is more closely related to the jellyfish than to any other organism observed. State the evidence from the data table that the student most likely used for this suggested relationship.

58. R, S, and T are three species of birds. Species S and T show similar coloration. The enzymes found in species R and T show similarities. Species R and T also exhibit many of the same behavioral patterns.

Show the relationship between species R, S, and T by placing the letter representing each species at the top of the appropriate branch on the diagram above. Base your answers to questions 59 and 60 on the graph below and on your knowledge of biology. The graph shows the number of species that became extinct from 1800 to 2000. It also shows estimates of the number of species that will become extinct between 2000 and 2020.

59. The number of species that became extinct between the years 1950 and 2000 is approximately A) 5,000 B) 12,000 C) 22,000 D) 37,000 60. State one possible reason for the change in the number of species extinctions between 1890 and 1990.

61. Base your answer to the following question on the information below.

An investigation was performed to determine the resistance of two species of Anopheles mosquito to the insecticides malathion and dieldrin. In May, two groups of 10,000 insects of each species were sprayed with insecticide. One group was sprayed with malathion, the second group with dieldrin. The number of surviving insects was recorded after the first spraying. The surviving insects were then allowed to reproduce. Several generations of new offspring were produced over the following three months. On the first day of each month they were sprayed, and the number of survivors was recorded in the table below.

State one negative impact that the use of these two insecticides might have on the environment. 62. Base your answer to the following question on the passage below and on your knowledge of biology.

Dandelions are weeds that are very common in many grassy areas of New York State. Dandelion flowers first open up in a bright-yellow stage, and later turn a fluffy white when they are ready to release their seeds. The seeds are carried by the wind, and can sometimes travel great distances before landing and growing into new plants. The stems of dandelions are usually very long, typically about 20–30 centimeters (cm), and stand high above the surrounding grass. A science teacher in Niagara County discovered an area in her lawn where nearly every dandelion had a stem less than 1 cm long. These short dandelions were replacing large amounts of grass in the lawn surrounding her house. They were growing much more thickly than the taller dandelions in other nearby areas. The short dandelions appeared to be growing very successfully in one area of her lawn, but did not appear to have spread to other areas of her lawn. The science teacher noticed that every time she mowed her lawn, the short dandelions were left untouched by the mower blades, and that their numbers were steadily increasing. State one possible cause of the genetic variation in dandelion height.

Base your answers to questions 63 and 64 on the passage below and on your knowledge of biology.

Better Rice The production of new types of food crops will help raise the quantity of food grown by farmers. Research papers released by the National Academy of Sciences announced the development of two new superior varieties of rice¾one produced by selective breeding and the other by biotechnology. One variety of rice, called Nerica (New Rice for Africa), is already helping farmers in Africa. Nerica combines the hardiness and weed resistance of rare African rice varieties with the productivity and faster maturity of common Asian varieties. Another variety, called Stress-Tolerant Rice, was produced by inserting a pair of bacterial genes into rice plants for the production of trehalose (a sugar). Trehalose helps plants maintain, healthy cell membranes, proteins, and enzymes during environmental stress. The resulting plants survive drought, low temperatures, salty soils, and other stresses better than standard rice varieties. 63. Which substance from bacteria was most likely inserted into rice plants in the development of the trehalose-producing rice? A) sugar B) enzymes C) DNA D) trehalose 64. State one reason that further testing must be done before rice plants that produce trehalose are approved for human consumption. 65. Base your answer to the following question on the passage below and on your knowledge of biology.

When Whales Walked the Earth

A newly unearthed fossil is the missing link between land and marine

Standing two to three feet tall on legs adapted to wade through shallow water, the 48-million-year-old Indohyus is the missing link between modern day whales and their land-lubbing ancestors. Hans Thewissen of the Northeastern Ohio Universities Colleges of Medicine and Pharmacy recovered the skeleton in rocks from Kashmir, a disputed region between India and Pakistan, where the deer-like herbivore lived during the Eocene epoch, 56 to 34 million years ago. The extreme thickness of its bones is a trait seen often in animals that are aquatic waders (thick, heavy bones counteract buoyancy and allow the to stay underwater more easily), and chemical traces in its teeth indicate that the animal ate plants in a freshwater environment. Scientists know that Indohyus belongs in the evolutionary path with whales because it has skeletal similarities to both modern whales and known primordial whale ancestors. Source: Day Greenberg, "When Whales Walked the Earth," Popular Science, May 2008 Identify one characteristic of Indohyus that led some scientists to conclude that it was an ancestor of modern whales.

66. The diagram below represents the apparatus used by 67. The first life-forms to appear on Earth were most Stanley Miller to provide experimental evidence to likely support the heterotroph hypothesis. A) complex single-celled organisms B) complex multicellular organisms C) simple single-celled organisms D) simple multicellular organisms 68. According to the heterotroph hypothesis, which gas given off by autotrophic activity made the evolution of aerobes possible? A) oxygen B) hydrogen C) carbon dioxide D) nitrogen

In which parts of the setup did he attempt to duplicate the energy sources of the primitive Earth? A) A and D B) B and C C) C and A D) D and B 69. According to some scientists, what resulted from the environmental conditions existing on primitive Earth illustrated below?

A) evolution of the first heterotrophs from aggregates of organic molecules B) development of heterotrophic forms of life from plants C) migration of to cooler portions of Earth D) decrease in asexual reproduction in primitive organisms 70. According to the heterotroph hypothesis, aerobic activity in organisms could not evolve until A) anaerobes added alcohol to the environment. B) autotrophs added carbon dioxide to the environment. C) autotrophs released free oxygen into the environment. D) anaerobes released ammonia into the environment. 71. A sequence of events associated with ecosystem stability is represented below.

The arrows in this sequence should be read as A) leads to B) reduces C) prevents D) simplifies 72. One explanation for the variety of organisms present on Earth today is that over time A) new species have adapted to fill available niches in the environment B) evolution has caused the appearance of organisms that are similar to each other C) each niche has changed to support a certain variety of organism D) the environment has remained unchanged, causing rapid evolution 73. Base your answer to the following question on the information and graph below and on your knowledge of biology.

A small community that is heavily infested with mosquitoes was sprayed weekly with the insecticide DDT for several months. Daily counts providing information on mosquito population size are represented in the graph below.

What is the most probable reason for the decreased effectiveness of the DDT? A) DDT caused mutations in B) DDT was only sprayed once. C) Mosquitoes resistant to DDT lived and produced offspring. D) DDT chemically reacted with the DNA of the mosquitoes. 74. If an ecosystem is changed through a natural 76. Variations within a species are most likely the result disaster, organisms will have the best chance of of survival if A) mutations and sexual reproduction A) their environment has few abiotic factors B) synapsis and disjunction B) the organisms are large C) mitosis and asexual reproduction C) the population size is small D) overpopulation and recombination D) their species exhibits genetic variation 77. If a species of bear in Russia and the brown bear in 75. Differences between the members of a population the United States have a common ancestor, the will most likely be passed to future generations if differences between these two species most likely they are resulted from A) due to genetic changes and result in A) mutations and genetic recombination unfavorable variations B) mutations and asexual reproduction B) due to genetic changes and result in favorable C) the inheritance of acquired traits variations D) the development of structures for climbing trees C) not due to genetic changes and result in unfavorable variations D) not due to genetic changes and result in favorable variations 78. Base your answer to the following question on According to some scientists, patterns of evolution can be illustrated by the diagrams below.

Which statement best explains the patterns seen in these diagrams? A) The organisms at the end of each branch can be found in the environment today. B) The organisms that are living today have all evolved at the same rate and have undergone the same kinds of changes. C) Evolution involves changes that give rise to a variety of organisms, some of which continue to change through time while others die out. D) These patterns cannot be used to illustrate the evolution of extinct organisms. 79. Woolly mammoths became extinct thousands of years ago, while other species of mammals that existed at that time still exist today. These other species of mammals most likely exist today because, unlike the mammoths, they A) produced offspring that all had identical inheritable characteristics B) did not face a struggle for survival C) learned to migrate to new environments D) had certain inheritable traits that enabled them to survive 80. One possible pathway for the evolution of elephants is represented in the diagram below.

Which statement concerning this pattern of evolution is correct? A) Evolution always results in favorable traits. B) Evolution does not always result in a species that will survive to present time. C) Evolution leads to less complex organisms. D) Evolution results in the same changes in all species. 81. Which factor could be the cause of the other three in an animal species? A) the inability of the species to adapt to changes B) a lack of genetic variability in the species C) extinction of the species D) a decrease in the survival rate of the species 82. Base your answer to the following question on the diagram below and on your knowledge of biology. The diagram represents possible evolutionary pathways of certain organisms.

Which statement can best be inferred based on the information in the diagram? A) Natural selection occurs only as a result of mutations. B) Natural selection requires a minimum of 5 million years to occur. C) Each new species that develops continues to exist through present time. D) Some species that are no longer successful in their environment may become extinct. 83. When is extinction of a species most likely to occur? A) when environmental conditions remain the same and the proportion of individuals within the species that lack adaptive traits increases B) when environmental conditions remain the same and the proportion of individuals within the species that possess adaptive traits increases C) when environmental conditions change and the adaptive traits of the species favor the survival and reproduction of some of its members D) when environmental conditions change and the members of the species lack adaptive traits to survive and reproduce 84. Which factor contributed most to the extinction of many species? A) changes in the environment B) lethal mutations C) inability to evolve into simple organisms D) changes in migration patterns Base your answers to questions 85 and 86 on the information below and on your knowledge of biology.

The Galapagos pink land iguana, Conolophus marthae (C. marthae), is native to only one of the Galapagos Islands. Its entire range is currently limited to Wolf Volcano on Isabella Island. The iguana was first discovered on this island in 1986. Genetic studies of the animal began sometime later, and it was identified as a species separate from other iguana populations on the Galapoagos in 2009. Its population might have been as high as 100 in 1986, but now there might be as few as 10 of the animals left alive. Other evidence indicates that this species could have diverged from another line of iguanas about 5.7 million years ago. After that, the other line of iguanas diverged into two other species, C. pallidus and C. subcristatus. 85. Which evolutionary tree best represents the information about the pink land iguana provided in the passage? A) B)

C) D)

86. The testing that revealed that these iguanas are a separate species from the other iguanas present in the Galapagos most likely included A) genetic engineering B) cloning studies C) DNA analysis D) the use of paper chromatography

87. When the adaptive characteristics of a species are insufficient to allow its survival, that species is likely to A) mate with other species B) produce a beneficial mutation C) form a fossil D) become extinct