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Attitudes Toward Tetun Dili, a Language of East ATTITUDES TOWARD TETUN DILI, A LANGUAGE OF EAST TIMOR A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITYOF HAWAI‘I AT MĀNOA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR IN PHILOSOPHY IN LINGUISTICS FALL 2017 By Melody Ann Ross Dissertation Committee: Andrea Berez-Kroeker, chairperson Christina Higgins, chairperson Katie Drager Kamil Ud Deen Barbara Andaya Keywords: language attitudes, East Timor, Tetun Dili, ideologies, stance 1 Dedicated to the spirit and people of East Timor, hau nia rai doben husi huun to’o rohan. 2 Acknowledgments This work would not have been possible without the years of education I have received from the University of Hawaiʻi, but I must especially thank the members of my committee for their special dedication to my growth. To my amazing co-chairs, Andrea Berez-Kroeker and Christina Higgins, thank you for the revisions, the comments, the conversations, and most importantly, the patience. To the rest of my committee, Katie Drager, Kamil Ud Deen, and Barbara Andaya, thank you for your guidance, good humor, and willingness to prioritize me when I needed it. To the faculty and staff in the Department of Linguistics, thank you for teaching me, helping me, and encouraging me to cultivate my interests. My research has benefited hugely from the excellent mentors and academic examples I had around me every day. I am also hugely indebted to the Bilinski Educational Foundation, the College of Arts and Sciences, the Fulbright-Clinton Public Policy Fellowship program, and the Linguistics Endowment Fund for facilitating my research and travel. Sometimes I feel like the entire country of East Timor is looking out for me, but I need to thank a few people individually. To Pelagio Doutel, thank you for introducing me to your home, your language, and your culture. When I look back at how very afraid I was on that first trip I am deeply embarrassed, but I am also exceedingly grateful for your patience and openness. Felix da Silva, thank you (and your wife) for taking me into your home and not laughing at how terrible I was at eating fish- I’m much better at it now! Maun doben Leoneto Elizario, your friendship and availability have always been the core of my support in Timor- thank you for listening to me and constantly helping me learn and process so many things that my malae brain didn’t understand. Jonas Guterres, thank you for always taking the time to catch me up on politics that went over my head or under my radar. Felix Maia, thank you for the dancing, the singing, the jokes, and 3 (Saad’s) video games. Felismina, Lucia, and Eka, thank you for the lunch dates, the explanations, the translations, and just being girlfriends. To all the other people in Dili who kept me sane and safe, in no particular order; Susanna, Emily, Tracey, Terrence, Em, Shelley, Pip, Andrea, Tom, Yana, Presnert, Fitsun, Marion, Helen, Gaio, Jovi, Tricia, Uka, Oni, Niall, Prue, Ilona, Katherine, Christine, Saad, Rui, Sam, Shihui, Stacey, Glenda, Steve, Chase, Ines, David, Estela, Tamara, Philip, Marisa, Anders, Peter, Celeste, Geiza, Gil, Hatoi, Helder, Xian, Hiba, Barry, Joao, Judy, Lindsey, Leo, Maria, Matt, Nico, Siofra, Roger, and especially my housemates Galen, Fergus, and Diana, without whom everything would never be just, BAM; and of course, Kinsey, Jessee, and Ashley; you have each played an important role in improving and enriching my life and I am grateful to know each of you. To all the wonderful people I had the great fortune to work with at the Ministry of Education in Curriculum Reform and Cooperative Services, and at UNESCO with the Monitoring and Evaluation and Mother Tongue teams, especially Lucia, Ana, Kika, Karla, Jim, Lita, Lizia, Balta, Nunky, and Ameta; to everyone at the US Embassy, especially Katherine, Lena, Scott, Llewellyn, Leo, and Roselia; to all the staff at LELI and DIT, especially Catherina Williams-van Klinken; to the staff at UNTL and ETELP, especially Juliet and Elvis; to the English Conversation Course organizers and participants; and to the Dili Community Choir; thank you all for your patience and camaraderie, and for always making time to help me improve my research methods and tools. To everyone in Hawaiʻi who helped me survive the last however many years, in no particular order: Raina H, Stephanie W, Hannah R-J, Diane N, John vW, Josh Q, John W, Nancy vW, Davey Y, Jay P, Ryan S, Tyler S, Bryn H, Jarrett D, Casey T, Daniel S, Sam R, Hyunah A, 4 Chelsea P, Monique A, Kavon H, Russell B, Claire S, Brad R, Jonny K, Thomas K, Margaret R- G, Chae-eun K, Dave D, Mary W, Katie G, Joelle K, Mike C, Britney C, Courtney H, Prem P, Monica V, Emily K, Jim Y, Kent S, Angela F-R, Nozomi T, Colleen P, Colleen O, Ulricke S, Sandra E, Yvonne H, and anyone else who I’ve ever shared a coffee break or a happy hour with, I owe you all a great debt of gratitude. To my parents and siblings, who have always pretty much let me do my own thing and never get impatient with me when I forget to mention that I’m in some other country, thank you for shaping me into the tough, curious, stubborn, and independent creature I’ve become. James, you have been with me through this entire process- celebrating the smallest of victories, and commiserating with me through each of the many disappointments. You always knew how to lift me up again, and despite the many things that have conspired to convince me that this was not my path, you never wavered in your support, encouragement, and belief that I could do this. You talked me through earthquakes, panic attacks, funding letdowns, the loneliness of fieldwork, writing blocks, and anything else I needed via a discussion. This dissertation has been the most acute and prolonged misery I have ever experienced, and you kept me afloat through all of it. The completion of this document is as much a testament to your unending patience as my unyielding stubbornness. Nothing I could ever say or do would be enough to express my gratitude for your mentorship, friendship, and partnership through these years except this: hell’s bells, let’s never do PhDs again. 5 Abstract This dissertation is the first documentation of the attitudes of East Timorese people toward Tetun Dili. Despite having a large speaker population and co-official status within East Timor, is not an extensively documented language. There are few dictionaries, even fewer grammatical descriptions, and almost no sociolinguistic literature on the language. The aim of this dissertation is to contribute to this literature by describing the attitudes held by Timorese toward this language, and to situate those language attitudes within the larger framework of language ideologies. Language attitudes are the beliefs and stereotypes that individuals hold toward linguistic varieties which are informed by (or reactions against) dominant societal language ideologies. Language ideologies are the environment in which attitudes reside, and their relationship of influence is bidirectional. The data used for these two attitude studies come from language attitude surveys and sociolinguistic interviews. From this data emerged five general attitudinal themes. The most important and robust is the theme of Tetun as a social necessity in East Timor. It is highly ranked in nearly every social setting, and is viewed as vital for daily life in Timor. The second is the theme of Tetun as a marker of East Timorese identity. It is viewed as an important part of Timorese-ness, and Timorese have an emotional attachment to it. The third theme is that of Tetun as the target of critique. It is viewed as inappropriate in certain situations or domains, and has some negative stereotypes associated with it. The fourth theme is that of Tetun as “developing” or needing “development”. This was seen in the descriptive section especially, but also in views of Tetun utility. The fifth theme is that of Tetun as the locus of insecurity, either in personal use or more directly concerning the language itself. These five 6 trends will be explored in depth in both the interview and survey sections of this dissertation, with a special emphasis on their relationship to dominant language ideologies in East Timor. 7 Table of Contents List of Tables ............................................................................................................................... 14 List of Figures.............................................................................................................................. 15 1. Introduction............................................................................................................................. 17 1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 17 1.2 Research Questions......................................................................................................................... 18 1.3 Structure of the Dissertation.......................................................................................................... 18 1.4 Delimitation of the Study ............................................................................................................... 19 1.5 Nature of the Data and Researcher Positionality ........................................................................ 20 2. Review of the Literature......................................................................................................... 22 2.1 Defining Attitudes..........................................................................................................................
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