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Influence of Age, Risk Factors, and Cardiovascular and Renal Disease on Arterial Stiffness: Clinical Applications

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Influence of Age, Risk Factors, and Cardiovascular and Renal Disease on Arterial Stiffness: Clinical Applications AJH 2002; 15:1101–1108 Reviews Influence of Age, Risk Factors, and Cardiovascular and Renal Disease on Arterial Stiffness: Clinical Applications Athanase Benetos, Bernard Waeber, Joseph Izzo, Gary Mitchell, Lawrence Resnick, Roland Asmar, and Michel Safar Age is the main clinical determinant of large artery stiff- Although large artery stiffness increases with age inde- ness. Central arteries stiffen progressively with age, pendently of the presence of cardiovascular risk factors or whereas peripheral muscular arteries change little with other associated conditions, the extent of this increase may age. A number of clinical studies have analyzed the effects depend on several environmental or genetic factors. Hy- of age on aortic stiffness. Increase of central artery stiff- pertension may increase arterial stiffness, especially in ness with age is responsible for earlier wave reflections older subjects. Among other cardiovascular risk factors, and changes in pressure wave contours. The stiffening of diabetes type 1 and 2 accelerates arterial stiffness, whereas aorta and other central arteries is a potential risk factor for the role of dyslipidemia and tobacco smoking is unclear. increased cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. Arterial Arterial stiffness is also present in several cardiovascular stiffening with aging is accompanied by an elevation in and renal diseases. Patients with heart failure, end stage systolic blood pressure (BP) and pulse pressure (PP). renal disease, and those with atherosclerotic lesions often Although arterial stiffening with age is a common situa- develop central artery stiffness. Decreased carotid disten- tion, it has now been confirmed that older subjects with sibility, increased arterial thickness, and presence of cal- increased arterial stiffness and elevated PP have higher cifications and plaques often coexist in the same subject. cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. However, relationships between these three alterations of Increase in aortic stiffness with age occurs gradually and continuously, similarly for men and women. Cross- the arterial wall remain to be explored. Am J Hypertens sectional studies have shown that aortic and carotid stiff- 2002;15:1101–1108 © 2002 American Journal of Hyper- ness (evaluated by the pulse wave velocity) increase with tension, Ltd. age by approximately 10% to 15% during a period of 10 years. Women always have 5% to 10% lower stiffness than Key Words: Arteriosclerosis, arterial aging, hyperten- men of the same age. sion, pulse pressure. Age and Arterial Stiffness clinical determinant of aortic stiffness, a finding confirmed in several populations in different countries.1,3,4 Using various assessment techniques, an age-dependent increase in arterial stiffness in both healthy and diseased The underlying basis for these age-dependent changes populations has been described. It has been shown that in is still incompletely understood. Pathologically, fracture vivo aortic stiffness decreases sharply with age in the first and fragmentation of the elastin fibers after repetitive decade of life, reaching a minimum at 10 years of age, and stress cycles, with consequent dilation and stiffening have 5–7 thereafter increasing with age in both genders.1 This age- been observed. A more dynamic, cellular ionic basis for dependent increase in central arterial stiffness is indepen- age-related changes in arterial compliance have also been dent of mean blood pressure (BP) or the presence of other described.8 Thus, 1) cytosolic-free calcium levels increase risk factors.2 Using multivariate models, age is the major and free magnesium levels reciprocally decrease with age Received July 10, 2002. First decision July 11, 2002. Accepted July 11, Hospital/Cornell University, New York, New York; Institut Cardio- 2002. vasculaire (RA), Paris, France; and Hoˆpital Broussais (MF), Paris, From the IPC Center and INSERM U258 (AB), Paris, France; CHUV France. Lausanne (BW), Lausanne, Switzerland; State University of New York Address correspondence and reprint requests to Dr. A. Benetos, IPC (JI), Buffalo, New York; Cardiovascular Engineering Center (GM), Center, 6/14 ruela Perouse, 75116 Paris, France; e-mail: benetos@ Dover Massachusetts; Hypertension Center, New York Presbyterian ccr.jussieu.fr © 2002 by the American Journalof Hypertension, Ltd. 0895-7061/02/$22.00 Published by Elsevier Science Inc. PII S0895-7061(02)03029-7 1102 DETERMINANTS OF ARTERIAL AGING AJH–December 2002–VOL. 15, NO. 12 in circulating red cells, platelets, skeletal muscle, and In the past, vascular stiffening and increase in systolic brain8–11; 2) direct magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)- and pulse pressure have been considered as a part of assessd aortic distensibility/stiffness is closely related to normal aging and no treatment for these alterations has steady-state intracellular free magnesium levels8; and 3) been proposed. However, although arterial stiffening is a furthermore, when intracellular free magnesium levels are common situation, it has now been confirmed that older incorporated into a multivariate model, the age depen- subjects with increased arterial stiffness and elevated sys- 8 dence of aortic stiffness is no longer significant. tolic and PP have higher cardiovascular morbidity and The effects of aging are different on proximal, predom- mortality.21–25 Therefore, large artery stiffening can be inantly elastic arteries, compared to distal, predominantly 5,12,13 considered as a marker of arterial age, and should be consid- muscular arteries. Central arteries stiffen progres- ered as a major risk factor for cardiovascular events. sively with age, whereas stiffness of muscular arteries changes little with age.5 A number of clinical studies have analyzed the effects of age on aortic stiffness, mainly with the method of pulse wave velocity (PWV). The increase of Hypertension and central artery stiffness with age is responsible for earlier Arterial Stiffness wave reflections and changes in pressure wave contours. In subjects with hypertension, the principal structural Kelly et al14 observed that wave reflections were respon- modification of the vessel wall is hypertrophy of the sible for an increase of about 25% in pulse pressure (PP) medial layer.12,26 In younger hypertensive subjects, the between age 30 and 60 years. The effects of age on alterations of the mechanical properties result mainly from peripheral artery stiffness are less pronounced; it has been the elevated BP itself, as reduced carotid compliance and shown that the peripheral PWV (carotid–radial or femo- 27 ral–tibial) changes with age are approximately two to three distensibility disappear in isobaric conditions. However, times less frequent than those of the central aorta.4,7 Sim- in some other territories such as the femoral artery or ilar results have been observed when local cross-sectional even the thoracic aorta, intrinsic changes in stiffness (ie, distensibility coefficients were evaluated at the sites of the increased stiffness in isobaric conditions) may be ob- 28 carotid and femoral arteries of the same subjects. Carotid served. In subjects with hypertension, active mecha- artery distensibility was strongly correlated with age, nisms within the arterial wall are certainly involved whereas no such correlation was observed at the site of the because, at the site of peripheral muscular arteries such as femoral artery.5,15 the radial artery, diameter is unchanged despite the ele- Increase in aortic stiffness with age occurs gradually vated BP, whereas in central arteries, the diameter is and continuously, similarly for men and women.15 Cross- increased in proportion with the level of BP.26 sectional studies have shown that aortic PWV increases Among the elderly hypertensives, medial hypertrophy with age by approximately 0.1 m/sec per year (about 1%).3 is associated with a considerable development of the ex- Similar changes were observed at the site of the carotid tracellular matrix of the media and even of the adventitia. artery.5 However, some studies have suggested that in- This histomorphometric pattern is associated with reduced crease in large artery stiffness follows a nonlinear qua- compliance and distensibility independent of BP level.29 dratic evolution, with a more pronounced increase after Again, these changes are observed at the site of central, 16,17 the age of 55 years. This result corroborates the but not peripheral, arteries. Finally, both with aging and well-known epidemiologic observation of an increasing hypertension, endothelium alterations are noted. Although prevalence of systolic hypertension, the main clinical man- endothelium alterations may differ markedly in the hyper- ifestation of large artery stiffness, after the age of 55 tensive and in the aging process according to the topog- years.18 raphy of the vessels,30,31 a major role is attributed to Although large artery stiffness increases with age inde- changes in nitric oxide (NO) production or release. The pendently of the presence of cardiovascular risk factors or NO release is of particular importance for peripheral mus- other associated conditions, the extent of this increase may cular arteries in which NO and vasoconstrictive com- depend on several environmental or genetic factors. Stud- pounds in relation with vascular smooth muscle cells are ies have shown that PWV increased less with age in 30,31 populations with low salt diet than in those with high in constant interaction. The renin-angiotensin-aldoste- sodium chloride consumption.19 The role of other
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